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MDCCLXXXI.
^ ^
ANEW
Di&ionary of Arts, Sciences, &c.
OPTICS
Of die Sect. I. The Application of the foregoing
fuinbow. Theory to feveral natural Phenomena.
§ l. Of the Rainlo'w.
f-pHIS beautiful phenomenon hath engaged the at-
tention of all ages. By fome nations it hath been
deified; though the more fenfible part always looked
upon it as a natural appearance, and endeavoured,
however imperfeftly, to account for it. The obfer-
vations of the ancients and philofophers of the mid¬
dle ages concerning the rainbow were fuch as could
not have efcaped the notice of the moft illiterate huf-
bandmen who gazed at the iky; and their hypothe-
fes were fuch as deferve no notice. Tt was a confi-
derable time even after the dawn of true philofophy
in this weftern part of the world, before we find any
difcovery of importance on this fubjeft. Maurolycus
was the firft who pretended to have meafured the dia¬
meters of the two rainbows with much exaftnefs; and
he reports, that he found that of the inner bow to be 45
degrees, and that of the outer bow 56; from which
Des Cartes takes occafion to obfcrve, how little we
can depend upon the obfervations of thofe who were
not acquainted with the caufes of appearances.
One Clichtcyxus (the fame, it is probable, who di-
ftinguiihed. himfelf by his oppofition to Luther, and
who died in 1543) had maintained, that the fecond
bow is the image of the firft, as he thought was evi-
dent from the inverted order of the colours. For,
faid he, when we look into the water, all the images
that we fee refle&ed by it are inverted with refped to
the obje&s themfelves; the tops of the trees, for in-
Jtance, that itand near the brink, appearing lower than
the roots.
That the rainbow is oppofite to the fun, had al¬
ways been obferved. It was, therefore, natural to
imagine, that the colours of it were produced by fome
kind of reflexion of the rays of light from drops of
rain, or vapour. The regular order of the colours
was another circumftance that could not have efcaped
the notice of any perfon. But, notwithftanding mere
refiedlion had in no other cafe been obferved to pro¬
duce colours, and it could not but have been obferved
2
. Part III.
that refra&ion is frequently attended with that phe- r
nomenon, yet no perfon feems to have thought of ha-
ving recourfe ts a proper refra&ion in this cafe, be- - ^ °"
fore one Fletcher of Breflau, who, in a treatife which
he publiihed in 1571, endeavoured to account for the
colours of the rainbow by means of a double refrac¬
tion and one refleflion. But he imagined that a ray
of light, after entering a drop of rain, and fuffering a
refraftion both at its entrance and exit, was after¬
wards reflefled from another drop, before it reached
the eye of the fpedlator. He feems to have ovei-
looked the refleftion at the farther fide of the drop,
or to have imagined that all the bendings of the light
within the drop would not make a fufficient curvature
to bring the ray of the fun to the eye of the fpe&ator.
That he fiiould think of two refra&ions, was the ne-
ceflary confequence of his fuppofing that the ray en¬
tered the drop at all. This fuppofition, therefore,
was all the light that he threw upon the fubjecl. B..
Porta fuppofed that the rainbow is produced by the
refraftion of light in the whole body of rain or vapour,
but not in the feparate drops.
After all, it was a man whom no writers allow to
have had any pretenfions to philofophy, that hit upon
this curious difcovery. This was Antonio De Do-
minis, bifhop of Spalatro, whofe treatife De Radtis Vi-
fus et Lucis, was publifhed by J. Bartolus in 1611.
He firft advanced, that the double refraftion of Flet¬
cher, with an intervening reflexion, was fufficient to
produce the colours of thi. bow, and alfo to bring the
rays that formed them to the eye of the fpe&ator,
without any fubfequent refle&ion. He diftindly dc-
feribes the progrefs of a ray of light entering the up¬
per part of the drop, where it fuffers one refra&ion,
and after being thereby thrown upon the back part of
the inner furface, is from thence refleded to the lower
part of the drop; at which place undergoing a fecond
refraftion, it is thereby bent, fo as to come dire&ly to
the eye. To verify this hypothefis, this perfon (no
philofopher as he was) proceeded in a very fenfible
and philofophical manner. For he procured a fmall
globe of folid glafs, and viewing it when it was expo-
fed to the rays of the fun, in the fame manner in which
he had fuppoied that the drops of rain w*re fituated
31 K 2 with
5562
Of the
Rainbow,
OPT
with refpeft to them, he aftually obferved the fame co¬
lours which he had feen in the true rainbow, and in
the fame order.
Thus the circumflances in which the colours of the
rainbow were formed, and the progrefs of a ray of
light through a drop of water, were clearly under-
flood ; but philofophers were a long time at a lofs when
they endeavoured to aflign reafons for all the particu¬
lar colours, and for the order of them. Indeed no¬
thing but the do&rine of the different refrangibility
of the rays of light, which was a difcovery referved for
the great Sir Ifaae Newton, could furnifn a complete
folution of this difficulty. De Dominis fuppofed that
the red rays were thofe which had traverfed the lead
fpace in the infide of a drop of water, and therefore
retained more of their native force, and confequently,
linking the eye more brilkly, gave it a ftfonger fen-
fation; that the green and blue colours were pro¬
duced by thofe rays, the force of which had been, in
fome meafure, obtunded in pafiing through a greater
body of water; and that all the intermediate colpurs
were comppfed (according to the hypothefis which ge¬
nerally prevailed at that time) of a mixture of thefe
three primary ones. That the different colours were
caufed by fome difference in the impulfe of light upon
the eye, and the greater or lefs impreflion that was
thereby made upon it, was an opinion which had been
adopted by many perfons, who had ventured to depart
from the authority of Ariftotle.
Afterwards the fame De Dominis obferved, that all
the rays of the fame colour muft leave the drop of wa¬
ter in a part fimilarly fituated with refpeft to the eye,
in order that each of the colours may appear in a circle,
the centre of which is a point of the heavens, in a line
drawn from the fun through the eye of the fpe&ator.
The red rays, he obferved, muft iflue from the drop
neareft to the bottom of it, in order that the circle of
red may be the outermoft, and therefore the moft ele¬
vated in the bow.
Notwithftanding De Dominis conceived fo juftly of
the manner in which the inner rainbow is formed, he
was far from having as juft an idea of the caufe of
the exterior bow. This he endeavoured to explain in
the very fame manner in which he had done the inte¬
rior, viz. by one refle&ion of the light within the
drop, preceded and followed by a refraction ; fuppo-
fing only that the rays which formed the exterior
bow, were returned to the eye by a part of the drop
lower than that which tranfmitted the red of the inte¬
rior bow. He alfo fuppofed that the rays which form¬
ed oneT)f the bows came from the fuperior part of the
fun’s diik, and thofe which formed the other from the
inferior part of it. He did not confider, that upon
thofe principles, the two bows ought to have been
contiguous; or rather, that an indefinite number of
bows would have had their colours all intermixed;
which would have been no bow at all.
When Sir Ifaac Newton difeovered the different re¬
frangibility of the rays of light, he immediately ap¬
plied his new theory of light and colours to the phe¬
nomena of the rainbow, taking this remarkable objeft
cf philofophical inquiry where De Dominis and Del-
cartes, for want of this knowledge, were obliged to
leave their inveftigations imperfeft. For they could
give no good reafon why the bow fliould be coloured,
ICS. Partlll.
and much lefs could they give any fatisfa&ory account Of the
of the order in which the colours appear. Rainbow
If different particles of light had not different de-
grees of refrangibility, on which the colours depend,
the rainbow, befides being much narrower than it is,
would be colourlefs; but the different refrangibility of
differently coloured rays being admitted, the reafon is
obvious, both why the bow fhould be coloured, and
alio why the colours fliould appear in the order in
which they are obferved. Let A, (fig. 2.) be a Hate
drop of water, and S a pencil of light; which, on itsct‘XIV*
leaving the drop of water, reaches the eye of the
fpe&ator. This ray, at its entrqpce into the drop,
begins to be decompofed into its proper colours; and
upon leaving the drop, after one reflexion and a fe-
cond refraflion, it is farther decompofed into as many
fmall differently-coloured pencils, as there are primi¬
tive colours in the light. Three of them oply are
drawn in this figure, of which the blue is the moft,
and the red the leaft refrafted.
The doctrine of the different refrangibility of light
enables us to give a reafon for the fize of a bow of
each particular colour. Newton, having found that
the fines of refraftion of the moft refrangible and leaft
refrangible rays, in paffing from rain-water into air,
are in the proportion of 185 to 182, when the fine of
incidence is 138, calculated the fize of the bow; and
he found, that if the fun was only a phyfical point,
without fenfible magnitude, the breadth of the inner
bow would be 2 degrees ; and if to this 30’ was ad¬
ded, for the apparent diameter of the fun, the whole
breadth would be 2^- degrees. But as the outermoft
colours, efpecrally the violet, are extremely faint, the
breadth of the bow will not, in reality, appear to ex¬
ceed two degrees. He finds, by the fame principles, that
the breadth of the exterior bow, if it was every where
equally vivid, would be 40 20'. But in this cafe there
is a greater deduflion to be made, on account of the
faintnefs of the light of the exterior bow; fo that,
in faft, it will not appear to be more than 3 degrees
broad.
The principal phenomena of the rainbow are all
explained on Sir Ifaac Newton’s principles in the fol¬
lowing propofnions.
When the rays of the fun fall upon a drop of rain and
enter into it, fome of them, after one reflection and
two refractions, may come to the eye of a fpeClator
who has his back towards the fun and his face toward
the drop.
If XY (fig. 6 ) is a drop of rain/* and the funpjate
fhines upon it in any lines//j s d, s a. See. moft ofccxiir.
the rays will enter into the drop; fome few of them
only will-be reflected from the firft furface ; thofe rays,
which are refle&ed from thence, do not Come under
our prefent confideration, becaufe they are never re-
frafted at all. The greateft part of the rays then en¬
ter the drop, and thofe paffing on to the fecond fur-
face, will moft of them be tranfmitted through the
drop; but neither do thofe rays which are thus tranf¬
mitted fall under our prefent confideration, fince they
are not refle&ed. For the rays, which are deferibed
in the propofition, are fuch as are twice refrafted and
once reflected. However, at the fecond furface, or
hinder part of the drop, at pg, fome few rays will be
re.*
Tlafe COXm.
PartHI. OPT
of the refie&ed, whilft the rays are tranfmitted : thofe rays
R=,inho«'. proceed ;n fome fuch lines as nr, nq\ and coming
out of the drop in the lines rv, qt, may fall upon the
eye of a fpedtatof, who is placed any where in thofe
lines, with his face towards the drop, and coniequent-
ly with his back towards the fun, which is fuppofed
to fhine upon the drop in the lines s f, s d, s a, &c.
Thefe rays are twice refracted, and once reflected:
they are refrafted when they pafs out of the air into
the drop; they are refle&ed from the fecond furface,
and are refra&ed again when they pafs out of the drop
into the air.
I When rays of light rejletted from a drop of rain come
to the eye, thofe are called effeftuai ‘which are able to
excite a fenfation.
When rays of light come out of a drop of rain, they ‘will
not be effettual, unlefs they are parallel and conti¬
guous.
There are but few rays that can come to the eye at
all: for the greateft part of thofe rays which enter the
drop XY (fig. 6.) between X and a, pafs out of the
drop thro’ the hinder furface pg ; only few are reflec¬
ted from thence, and come out through the nearer fur¬
face between a and^. Now, fuch rays as emerge, or
come out of the drop, between a and Y, will be inef-
feftual, unlefs they are parallel to one another, as r t;
and qt are ; becaufe fuch rays as come out diverging
from one another, will be fo far afunder when they
come to the eye, that all of them cannot enter the pu¬
pil ; and the very few that can enter it will not be
fufficient to excite any fenfation. But even rays,
which are parallel, as rv, qt, will not be effe&ual,
unlefs there are feveral of them contiguous or very
near to one another. The two rays rv and qt alone
will not be perceived, though both of them enter the
eye ; for fo very few rays are not fufficient to excite a
fenfation.
When rays of light come out of a drop of rain after one
refieftion, thofe ‘will be effectual •which are refieded
from the fame point, and ‘which entered the drop near
to one another.
Any rays, as and c d, (fig. 7.) when they have
pafled out of the air into a drop of water, will be re-
frafted towards the perpendiculars hi, dl; and as the
ray sb falls farther from the axis av than the ray cd,
s b will be more refrafted than cd\ ia that thefe rays,
though parallel to one another at their incidence, may
defcribe the lines be and de after refra&ion, and be
both of them reflefled from one and the fame point e.
Now all rays which are thus refle&ed from one and
the fame point, when they have defcribed the lines e/i
eg, and after reflexion emerge at f and g, will be fo
refracted, when they pafs out of the drop into the air,
as todefcribe the lines/^, gi, parallel to one another.
' If thefe rays were to return from e in the lines eb, ed:,
and were to emerge at b and d, they would be refrac¬
ted into the lines of their incidence b s, dc. But if
thefe rays, inflead of being returned in the lines eb,
e d, are refle&ed from the fame point e in the lines eg,
ef the lines of refledfion ej1, and e/^will be inclined
both to one another, and to the furface of the drop :
juft as much as the lines eb and ed are. Firft eb and
eg make juft the fame angle with the furface of the
I c s.
drop: forthe angle hex, which el makes with the
furface of the drop, is the complement of incidence,
and the angle gey, which eg makes with the furface,'
is the complement of refle&ion ; and thefe two
are equal to one another. In the fame manner we
might prove, that ed and ef make equal angles
with the furface of the drop. Secondly, The angle
led is equal to the angle feg} or the refleded
rays eg, ef, and the incident rays be, de, are equal¬
ly inclined to each other. For the angle of incidence
b el \s equal to the angle of refledlion gel, and the
angle of incidence de l \s equal to the angle of reflec¬
tion f e l; confequently the difference between the
angles of incidence is equal to the difference between
the angles of refle&ion, oxbel—del—gel—fel, or
bed—gef. — Since therefore either the lines eg,ef, or
the lines eb, e d, are equally inclined both to one an¬
other and to the furface of the drop ; the rays will be
refradted in the fame manner, whether they were to
return in the lines eb, ed, or are refledted in the lings*
eg, ef. But if they were to return in the lines eb,
the refradtion, when they emerge at b and d, would
make them parallel. Therefore, if they are refledfed
from one and the fame point e in the lines eg, ef, the
refradtion, when they emerge at g and f, will likevvife
make them parallel.
But though fuch rays as are refledted from the fame
point in the hinder part of a drop of rain, are parallel
to one another when they emerge, and fo have one
condition that is requifite towards making them effec¬
tual, yet there is another condition neceffary; for rays,
that are effedtual, muft be contiguous, as well as paral¬
lel. And though rays, which enter the drop in diffe¬
rent places, may be parallel when they emerge, thofe
only will be contiguous which enter it nearly at the
fame place.
Let XY, (fig. 6.) be a drop of rain, ag the axis or
diameter of the drop, and / r? a ray of light that comes
from the fun and enters the drop at the point a. This
ray s a, becaufe it is perpendicular to both the furfa-
ces, will pafs ftraight through the drop in the line
agh without being refradted ; but any collateral rays
that fall about s b, as they pafs through the drop, will
be made to converge to their axis, and palling out at
n will meet the axis at h-. rays which fall farther from
the axis than s b, fuch as thofe which fall about sc,
will likewife be made to converge; but then their fo¬
cus will be nearer to the drop than h. Suppofe there¬
fore i to be the focus to which the rays that fall about
s c will converge, any ray s c, when it has deferihed
the line co within the drop, and is tending to the fo¬
cus i, will pafs out of the drop at the point o. The '
rays that fall upon the drop about s d, more remote,
ftill from the axis, will converge to a focus dill nearer
than i, as fuppofe at k. Thefe rays therefore go out
of the drop at p. The rays, that fall ftill more remote
from the axis, as s e, will converge to a focus nearer
than k, as fuppofe at l; and the ray s e, when it has
defcribed the line eo within the drop, and is tending
to /, will pafs out at the point 0. The rays, that fall ftill
more remote from the axis, will converge to a focus
ftill nearer. Thus the ray /f will after refradtion con¬
verge to a focus at m, which is nearer than l; and ha¬
ving defcribed the line fn within the drop, it will pafs
out at the point n. Now here we may obferve, that
5563
Of the
Rainbow.
5564
Of the
Rainbow.
OPT
as any rays sb or / c, fall farther above the axis / a,
the points or 0, where they pafs out behind the
drop, will be farther above g; or that, as the inci¬
dent ray rifes from the axis 1 a, the zrcg no increafes,
till we come to. fome ray / d, which paffes out of the
drop at p : and this is the higheft point where any ray
that falls upon the quadrant or quarter a x can pafs
out: for any rays s e, or sf that fall higher than/*/,
will not pafs out in any point above />, but at the
points 0 or /r, which are below it. Confequently, tho*
the arc gnop increafes, whilft the diftance of the in¬
cident ray from the axis s a increafed, till we come to
the ray / d; yet afterwards, the higher the ray falls
above the axis s a, this arc pong will decreafe.
We have hitherto fpoken of the points on the hin¬
der part of the drop, where the rays pafs out of it?
but this was for the fake of determining the points
from whence thofe rays are refle&ed, which do not
pafs out behind the drop. For, in explaining the rain¬
bow, we have no farther reafon to confider thofe rays
which go through the drop j fince they can never come
to the eye of a fpeflator placed any where in the lines
rv or qt with his face towards the drop. Now, as
there are many rays which pafs out of the drop be¬
tween g and p, fo fome few rays will be reflected from
thence; and confequently the feveral points between £
and p, which are the points where fome of the rays
pafs out of the drop, are likewife the points of reflec¬
tion for the reft which do not pafs out. Therefore, in
refpeft of thofe rays which are reflefted, we may call
gp the arc of refledlion; and many fay, that this arc
of refle&ion increafes, as the diftance of the incident
ray from the axis / a increafes, till we come to the ray
sd\ the arc of refledtion is gn for the ray sb, it
isj-0 for the ray sc, and gp for the ray s d. But
after this, as the diftance of the incident ray from
the axis sa increafes, the arc of refledlion decrea-
fes; for 0g lefs than />£ is the arc of refledtion for
the ray s e, and is the are of refledtion for the
■ vay sf.
From hence it is obvious, that fome one ray, which
falls above r d, may be refledted from the fame point
with fome other ray which falls below s d. Thus, for
inftance, the ray s b will be refledted from the point n,
and the ray sf will be refledted from the fame point;
and confequently, when the refledted rzyznr, n q, are
refracted as they pafs out of the drop at r and q, they
will be parallel, by what has been {hewn in the for¬
mer part of this propofition. But fine* the interme¬
diate rays, which enter the drop between sf and sb,
are not refledted from the fame point n, thefe two rays
alone will be the parallel to one another when they
come ont of the drop, and the intermediate rays will
not be parallel to them. And confequently thefe rays
rv, qt, though they are parallel after they emerge at
r and q^ will rot be contiguous, and for that reafon
wilt not be effedtual ; the ray s d \$ refledted from />,
which has been (hewn to be the limit of the arc of re-
ffedtion ; fuch rays as fall juft above s d, and juft be¬
low s d, will be refledted from nearly the fame point
/>,~as appears from what has been already {hewn. Thefe
rays therefore will be parallel, becaufe they are reflec¬
ted from the fame point />: and they will likewife be
contiguous, becaufe they all of them enter the drop
at one and the fame place very near to d. Confe-
I C S. Partin
quently, fuch rays as enter the drop at d, and are re- Of th<
fledted from p the limit of the arc of refledtion, will Ra>nbo\
be effedtual; fince, when they emerge at the fore part '
of the drop between a and j’, they will be both parallel
and contiguous.
If we can make out hereafter that the rainbow is
produced by the rays of the fun which are thus reflec¬
ted from drops of rain as they fall whilft the fun (hines
upon them, this propofition may ferve to fhew us, that
this appearance is not produced by any rays that fall
upon any part, and are refledted from any part of thofe
drops: fince this appearance cannot be produced by
any rays but thofe which are effedtual; and effedtual
rays muft always enter each drop at one certain place
in the fore-part of it, and muft likewife be refledted
from one certain place in the hinder furface.
When rays that are effectual emerge from a drop of j
rain after one reflection and two refractions, thofe
which are mojl refrangible, will, at their emerfion,
make a lefs angle with the incident rays than thofe
do which are leaji refrangible ; and by this means the
rays of different colours will be feparated from one
another.
Let fh and gi, (fig. 7.) be effedtual violet rays Plate
emerging from the drop *tfg\ and f n, gp, effedtualCCXIH.
red rays emerging from the fame drop at the fame
place. Now, though all the violet rays are parallel
to one another, becaufe they are fuppofed effedtual,
and though all the red rays are likewife parallel to
one another for the fame reafon ; yet the violet rays
will not be parallel to the red rays. Thefe rays, as
they have different colours, and different degrees of re-
frangibility, will diverge from one another ; any vio¬
lent ray g i, which emerges at g, will diverge from
any red ray gp, which emerges at the fame place.
Now, both the violet ray gi, and the red ray gp, as
they pafs out of the drop of water into the air, will be
refradied from the perpendicular lo. But the violet
ray is more refrangible than the red one; and for that
rcafon g i, or the refradled violet ray, will make a
greater angle with the perpendicular than gp the re-
fradted red ray; or the angle igo will be greater than
the angle pgo. Suppofe the incident ray / £ to be
continued in the diredfion s k, and the violet ray ig
to be continued backward in the dire&ion i k, till it
meets the incident ray at k. Suppofe likewife the
red ray pg to be continued backwards in the fame
manner, till it meets the incident ray at w. The angle
i k s is that which the violet ray, or moft refrangible
ray at its emerfion, makes with the incident ray ; and
the angle pws is that which the red ray, or leaft re¬
frangible ray at its emerfion, makes with the incident
ray. The angle.//fa is lefs than the angle pws. For,
in the triangle, g w k, g ws, or p w s, is the external
angle at the bale, zn& g k 10 or iks is one of the in¬
ternal oppofite angles; and either internal oppofite
angle is lefs than the external angle at the bafe. (Euc.
b. I. prop. 16.) What has been (hewn to be true of
the rays g i zn& gp might be (hewn in the fame man¬
ner of the rays fh and fn, or of any other rays that
emerge refpedlively parallel to gi and gp. But all
the effedtual violet rays are parallel to gi, and all the
effedtual reel rays are parallel to gp. Therefore the
effedtual violet rays at their emerfion make a leis
angle
PartHI. OPT
' Of the angle with the incident ones than the effe&ual red ones.
f Rainbow. An(j for the fame reafon, in all the other forts of rays,
thofe which are moft refrangible, at their emerfion from
a drop of rain after one reflexion, will make a lefs
angle with the incident rays, than thofe do which are
lefs refrangible.
Or otherwife : When the rays gi and gp emerge at
the fame point gt as they both come out of water into
air, and confequently are refra&ed from a perpendi¬
cular, inftead of going ftraight forwards in the line
eg continued, they will both be turned round upon the
point g from the perpendicular £<?. Now it is eafy to
conceive, that either of thefe lines might be turned in
this manner upon the point g as upon a centre, till they
become parallel parallel \.o sb the incident ray. But if
either of thefe lines or rays were refrafted fo much
from^o as to become parallel-to sbt the ray fo much
refrafted, would, after emerfion, make no angle with
/ ky becaufe it would be parallel to it. And confe¬
quently that ray which is moft turned round upon the
pointy, or that ray which is moft refrangible, will af¬
ter emerfion be neareft parallel to the incident ray, or
will make the leaft angle with it. The fame may be
proved of all other rays emerging parallel to gi and
gp refpeftively, or of all effeftual rays; thofe which
are moft refrangible will after emerfion make a lefs
angle with the incident rays, than thofe do which are
leaft refrangible.
But fince the effeftual rays of different colours make
different angles with S'k at their emerfion, they will be
feparated from one another: fo that if the eye was
placed in the beam/j^/, it would receive only rays of
one colour from the drop x agy‘, and if it was placed
in the beam fgnp, it would receive only rays of feme
other colour.
The angle snvp, which the leaft refrangible or red
rays make with the incident ones when they emerge
fo as to he effeftual, is found by calculation to be 42
degrees 2 minutes. And the angle ski, which the
moft] refrangible rays make with the incident ones
when they emerge fo as to be effeftual, is found to be
40 degrees 17 minutes. The rays which have the in¬
termediate degrees of refrangibility, make with the in¬
cident ones intermediate angles between 42 degrees
2 minutes, and 40 degrees 17 minutes.
7f a line is fuppofed to be drawn from the centre 'of the
fun thro1 the eye of the fpeftator, the angle which any
effeflual ray, after two refractions and one reflection,
makes with the incident ray, will be equal to the angle
which it makes with that line.
Plate Let the eye of the fpeftator be at i, (fig. 7.) and
CCXIIL Jet y * be the line fuppofed to be drawn from the centre
of the fun through the eye of the fpeftator; the angle
g i t, which any effeftual ray makes with this line, will
be equal to the angle i k s, which the fame ray makes
with the incident ray sb or s k. If j i is a ray coming
from the centre of the fun, then fince qt h fuppofed
to be drawn from the fame point, thefe two lines, up¬
on account of the remotenefs of the point from whence
they are drawn, may be looked upon as parallel to
one another. But the right line k i croffing thefe
two parallel lines will make the alternate angles equal.
Euc. b. I. prop. 29. Therefore kit or git equal
Xo ski. ~
1 C S* 5565
tin 1 r n ■ Of ehe
When the fun jhmes upon the drops of rain as they are Rainbow.
falling; the rays that come from thofe drops to the 
eye of a fpeCiator, after one reflection and two refracr
tions, produce the primary rainbow.
If the fun fhines upon the rain as it falls, there are
commonly feen two bows, as AFB, CHD, (fig. 9.);
or if the cloud and rain does not reach over that whole
fide of the flcy where the bows appear, then only a
part of one or of both bows is feen in that plate
where the rain falls. Of thefe two bows, the innermoft
AFB is the more vivid of the two, and this is called
the primary bow. The outer part TFY of the pri¬
mary bow is red, the inner part VEX is violet; the
intermediate parts, reckoning from the red to the vio¬
let, are orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo. Sup-
pofe the fpeftator’s eye to be at O, and let LOP be
an imaginary line drawn from the centre of the fun
through the eye of the fpeftator: if a beam of light S
coming from the fun falls upon any drop F; and the
rays that emerge at F in the line FO, fo as to be ef¬
feftual, make an angle FOP of 420 2' with the line
LP; then thefe effeftual rays make an angle of 42°-2'
with the incident rays, by the preceding propofition,
and confequently thefe rays will be red, fo that the
drop F will appear red. All the other rays, which
emerge at F, and would be effeftual if they fell upon
the eye,are refrafted more than the red ones, and con¬
fequently will pafs above the eye. If a beam of light
S falls upon the drop E; and the rays that emerge at
E in the line EO, fo as to be effeftual, make an angle
EOP of 40° 17' with the line LP; then thefe effec¬
tual rays make likewife an angle of 40° 17' with the
incident rays, and the drop E will appear of a violet
colour. All the other rays, which emerge at E, and
would be effeftual if they came to the eye, are refrac¬
ted lefs than the violet ones, and therefore pafs below
the eye. The intermediate drops between F and E
will for the fame reafons be of the intermediate co¬
lours.
Thus we have fhewn why a fet of drops from F to
E, as they are falling, fhould appear of the primary
colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet. It is not neceffary that the feveral drops, which
produce thefe colours, fhould all of them fall at exaftly
the fame diftancc from the eye. The angle FOP, for
inftance, is the fame whether the diftance of the drop
from the eye is OF, or whether it is in any other part
of the line OF fomething nearer to the eye. And
whilft the angle FOP is the fame, the angle made by
the emerging and incident rays, and confequently the
colour of the drop, will be the fame. This is equally
true of any other drop. So that although in the fi¬
gure the drops F and E are reprefented as falling per¬
pendicularly one under the other, yet this is not necef¬
fary in order to produce the bow.
But the coloured line FE, which we have already
accounted for, is only the breadth of the bow. It ftill
remains to be fhewn, why not only the drop F fhouid
appear red, but why all the other drops quite from A
to B in the arc ATFYB fhould appear of the fame co¬
lour. Now it is evident, that wherever a drop of rain
is placed, if the angle which the effeftual rays make
with the line LP is equal to the angle FOP, that is,
if the angle which the effcftual rays make with the in¬
cident
5566
Of the
.Rainbow.
I C S, Partin
quently that arc of the circle which is above the hori- Of the
zon, or the bow, will be lefs than a femicircle. If the Rainbo'
fun is in the horizon, then P, the centre of the bow,
will be in the oppofite part of the horizon; F, the top
of the bow, will be 42° 2' above the horizon; and the
bow itfelf, becaufe the horizon paffes through the
centre of it, will be a femicircle. More than a femi¬
circle can never appear; becaufe if the bow was more
than a femicircle, P the centre of it muft be above the
horizon; but P is always oppofite to the fun, there¬
fore P cannot be above the horizon, unlefs the fun is
below it; and when the fun is fet, or is below the ho¬
rizon, it cannot (hine upon the drops of rain as they
fall; and confequently, when the fun is below the ho¬
rizon, no bow at all can be feen.
OPT
cident rays is 420 2', any of thofe drops will be red,
_for the fame reafon that the drop F is of this colour.
If FOP was to turn round upon the line OP, fo that
one end of this line Ihould always be at the eye, and
the other be at P oppofite to the fun ; fuch a motion
of this figure would be like that of a pair of compaffes
turning round upon one of the legs OP with the open¬
ing FOP. In this revolution the drop F would de-
feribe a circle, P would be the centre, and ATFYB
would be an arc in this circle. Now fince, in this mo¬
tion of the line and drop OF, the angle made by FO
with OP, that is, the angle FOP, continues the fame;
if the fun was to (hine upon this drop as it revolves,
the effe&ual rays would make the fame angle with the
incident rays, in whatever part of the arc ATFYB the
drop was to be. Therefore, whether the drop is at
A, or at T, or at Y, or at B, or wherever elfe it is in
this whole arc, it would appear red, as it does at F.
The drops of rain, as they fall, are not indeed turned
round in this manner: but then, as innumerable of
them are falling at once in right lines from the cloud,
whilft one drop is at F, there will be others at Y, at
T, at B, at A, and in every other part of the arc
ATFYB: and all thefe drops will be red for the fame
reafon that the drop F would have been red, if it had
been in the fame place. Therefore, when the fun (hines
upon the rain as it falls, there wiil be a red arc ATFYB
oppofite to the fun. In the fame manner, becaufe the
drop E is violet, we might prove that any other drop,
which, whilft it is falling, is in any part of the arc
AVEXB, will be violet; and confequently, at the fame
time that the red arc ATFYB appears, there will like-
wife be a violet arc AVEXB below or within it. FE
is the diftance between thefe two coloured arcs; and
from what has been faid, it follows, that the interme¬
diate fpace between thefe two arcs will be filled up
with arcs of the intermediate colours, orange, yellow,
blue, green, and indigo. All thefe coloured arcs to¬
gether make up the primary rainbow.
7he primary rainlcnu is never a greater arc than a
femicircle.
Since the line LOP is drawn from the fun through
the eye of the fpe&ator, and fince P (fig. 9.) is the
centre of the rainbow ; it follows, that the centre of
the rainbow is always oppofite to the fun. The angle
FOP is an angle of 420 2', as was obferved, or F the
higheft part of the bow is 420 2' from P the centre of
it. If the fun is more than 420 2' high, P the centre
of the rainbow', which is oppofite to the fun, will be
more than42° 2' minutes below the horizon; and con¬
fequently F the top of the bow, which is only 420 2'
from P, will be below the horizon; that is, when the
fun is more than 42° 2' minutes high, no primary rain¬
bow will be feen. If the fun is fomething lefs than
420 2' high, then P will be fomething lefs than 420 2'
below the horizon ; and confequently F, which is only
420 %' from P, will be juft above the horizon ; that
is, a fmall part of the bow at this height of the fun
will appear clofe to the ground oppofite to the fun. If
the fun is 20° high, then P will be 20<? below the ho¬
rizon ; and F the top of the bow, being 420 2' from
P, will be 220 2' above the horizon ; therefore, at
this height of the fun, the bow will be an arc of a
circle whofe centre is below the horizon ; and confe-
When the rays of the fun fall upon a drdp of rain, fame
of them, after two reflexions and two refraXions,
may come to the eye of a fpeXator, who has his back
towards the fun and his face towards the drop.
If HGW(fig. 8.) is a drop of rain, and parallel rays
coming from the fun, as zv,yw, fall upon the lower part
of it, they will be refra&ed towards the perpendiculars
vl, wl, as they enter into it, and will deferibe fome fuch
lines as v h, wi. At h and i great part of thefe rays
will pafs oat of the drop; but fome of them will be
refleded from thence in the lines hf, ig. At f and g
again, great part of the rays, that were refle&ed thi¬
ther, will pafs out of the drop. But thefe rays will
not come to the eye of a fpeftator at 0. However,
here again all the rays will not pafs out; but fome few
will be refle&ed from f and g, in fome fuch lines as fd,
gb; and thefe, when they emerge out of the drop of
water into the air at b and d, will be refra&ed from the
perpendiculars, and, deferibingthe lines bo, may
come to the eye of the fpeftator who has his back to¬
wards the fun and his face towards the drop.
Thofe rays, which are parallel Sc one another after they
have been once refraXed and once refleXed in a drop of
rain, will be effeXual when they emerge after two re-
fraXions and two reflexions.
No rays can be effeaual, unlefs they are contigu¬
ous, and parallel. From what was faid, it appears, that
when rays come out of a drop of rain contiguous to
one another, either after one or after two reflexions,
they muft enter the drop nearly at one and the fame
place. And if fuch rays as are contiguous are paral¬
lel after the firft refleXion, they will emerge parallel,
and therefore will be effeXual. Let 2 wand yw be
contiguous rays which come from the fun, and are pa¬
rallel to one another when they fall upon the lower
part of the drop, fuppofe thefe rays to be refraXed
at v and w, and to be refleXed at h and i; if they
are parallel to one another, as hf, gi, after this firll
refleXion, then, after they are refleXed a fecond time
from f and g, and refraXed a fecond time as they e-
merge at d and they will go out of the drop paral¬
lel to one another in the lines dt and bo, and will there¬
fore be effeXual.
The rays zv,yw, are refraXed towards the perpen¬
diculars vl, wl, when they enter the drop, and will be
made to converge. As thefe rays are very oblique,
their focus will not be far from the furface vw. If this
focus is at k, the rays, after they have palled the focus,
will
Partlll. OPT
Rainbow, will diverge from thence in the direflions kh, k i; and
" "if ki is the principal focal diftance of the concave
refle&ing furface h i, the reflefted rays hf, ig, will be
parallel. Thefe rays ef, ig, are refle&ed again from
the concave furface fg> and will meet in a focus at e,
fo that ge will be the principal focal diftance of this
refle&ing furface fg. And becatife hi and/^ are parts
of the fame fphere, the principal focal diftances^e and
k i will be equal to one another. When the rays have
pafled the focus e, they will diverge from thence in the
lines ed, eb: and we are to (hew, that when they emerge
at d and b, and are refra&ed there, they will become
parallel.
Now if the rays vk, wi, when they have met at k,
were to be turned back again in the dire&ions tv, k<w,
and were to emerge at v and w, they would be refrac¬
ted into the lines.of their incidence, vz, wy, and there¬
fore Would be parallel. But fincej'i? is equal to ik, as
has already been (hewn, the rays ed, eb, that diverge
from e, fall in the fame manner upon the drop at d and
b, as the rays kv, kw, would fall upon it at v and w;
and ed, eb, arc juft as much inclined to the refradling
furface db, as kv, kw, would be to the furface v-vi.
From hence it follows, that the rays ed, eb, emerging
at d and b, will be refra&ed in the fame manner, and
will have the fame dire&ion in refpeft of one another,
as kv, kw, would have. But kv and kw would be pa¬
rallel after refra&ion. Therefore ed and eb will emerge
in lines dp, bo, fo as to be parallel to one another, and
confequently fo as to be effedlual.
When rays that are effectual emerge from a drop of rain
’ after two reflexions and two refraftions, thofe which
are moft refrangible will at tbeir omerfon make a
greater angle with the incident rays than thefe do
which are leaf refrangible; and by this means the
rays of different colours will be feparated from one an¬
other.
j>]ate If rays of different colours, which are differently re-
CCXIII. frangible, emerge at any point b, (fig. 8.) thefe rays
will not be all of them equally refrafted from the per¬
pendicular. Thus, \ib o is a red ray, which is of all
others the lead refrangible, and b m is a violet ray,
which is of all others the moft refrangible; when thefe
two rays emerge at b, the violet ray will be refradted
more from the perpendicular b x than the red ray, and
the refradled angle xbm will be greater than the refrac¬
ted angle xbo. From hence it follows, that thefe two
rays, after emerfion, will diverge from one another.
In like ma.fner, the rays that emerge at d will diverge
frome one another; a red ray will emerge in the line
dp, a violet ray in the line dt. So that though all the
effedfual red rays of the beam bdmt are parallel to one
another, and all the effedlual red rays of the beam bdop
are likewife parallel to one another, yet the violet rays
will not be parallel to the red ones, but the violet beam
will diverge from the red beam. Thus the rays of dif¬
ferent colours will be feparated from one another.
This will appear farther, if we confider what the pro-
pofition affirms, That any violet or moft refrangible
ray will make a greater angle with the incident rays,
than any red or lead refrangible ray makes with the
fame incident rays. Thus ifj w is an incident ray, b m
a violet ray emerging from the point b, and boz red
ray emerging from the fame point; the angle which
Vol. VIII. a
I C S.
the violet ray makes with the incident one yrm, and
that which the red ray makes with it isyso. NnWyrm
is a greater angle than y so. For in the triangle brs
the internal angle brs is lefs than bsy the externa! angle
at the bafe. Euc. B. I. prop. 16. But yrm is the
complement of irr or of bry to two right ones, andyso
is the complement of bsy to two right ones. Therefore,
fince bry is lefs than bsy, the complement of bry to two
right angles will be greater than the complement of
bsy to two right angles; or yrm will be greater than
yso.
Orotherwife: Both the rays bo and bm, when they
are refra&ed in palling out of the drop at b, are turned
round upon the point b from the perpendicular b x.
Now either of thefe lines b o or bm might be turned
round in thi» manner, till it made a right angle with
yw. Confequently, that ray which is moft turned round
upon b, or which is moft refrafted, will make an angle
with yw that will be nearer to a right one than that
ray makes with it which is leaft turned round upon b,
or which is leaft refra&ed. Therefore that ray which
is moft refrafted will make a greater angle with the in¬
cident ray than that which is leaft: refraded.
But fince the emerging rays, as they are differently
refrangible, make different angles with the fame inci¬
dent ray^w, the refradion which they fuffer at emer¬
fion will feparate them from one'another.
The angle jrw, which the moft refrangible or vio¬
let rays make with the incident ones, is found by cal¬
culation to be 54° 7'; and the angle yso, which the
leaft refrangible or red rays make with the incident
ones, is found to be 50° 57': the angles, which the
rays of the intermediate colours, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, and orange, make with the incidents rays, are
intermediate angles between 540 7' and 50° 57'.
If a line is fuppofed to be drawn from the centre of the
fun through the eye of the fpeftator; the angle, which,
after two refraXions and two reflexions, any effeXual
ray makes with the incident ray, will be equal to the
the angle which it makes with that line.
If yw (fig. 8.) is an incident ray, bo an effedual
ray, and qti a line drawn from the centre of the fun
through 0 the eye of the fpedator; the angle yso,
which the effedual ray makes with the incident ray,
is equal to son the angle which the fame effedual ray
makes with the line qn. Forj/w and qn, confidered
as drawn from the centre of the fun, are parallel; bo
croffes them, and confequently makes the alternate
angles yso, son, equal to one another. Euc. B. I.
Prop. 29.
When the fun fhines upon the drops of rain as they, are
falling; the rays that come from thefe drops to the eye
of a fpeXator, after two refleXions and two refrac¬
tions, produce the fecondary rainbow.
The fecondary rainbow is the outermoft CHD,
fig. 9. When the fun (bines upon a drop of rain H;
and the rays HO, which emerge at H fo as to be ef¬
fedual, make an angle HOP of 540 7 with LOP a
line drawn from the fun through the eye of the fpec-
tator; the fame effedual rays will make likewife an
angle of 54° 7' with the incident rays S, and the rays
which emerge at this angle are violet ones, by what
was obferv-d above. Therefore, if the fpedator’s ey e
5567
Rainbow.
5568
Of the
Rainbow.
OPT
is at O, none but violet rays will enter it: for as all
the other rays make a lefs angle with OP, they will fall
above the fpe&ator’s eye. In like manner, if the ef¬
fectual rays that emerge frorn the drop G make an
angle of 50° 57' with the line OP, they will likewife
make the fame angle with the incident rays S; and
confequently, from the drop. G to the fpeCtator’s eye
at O, no rays will come but red ones; for all the other
rays, making a greater angle with the line OP, will
fall below the eye at O. For the fame reafon, the rays
emerging from the intermediate drops between H and
G, and coming to the fpeftator’s eye at O, will emerge
at intermediate angles, and therefore will have the in¬
termediate colours. Thus, if there are feyen drops from
H to G inchifively* their colours will be violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. This coloured
line is the breadth of the fequndary rainbow.
Now, if HOP was to turn round upon the line OP,
like a pair of compafles upon one of the legs OP with
the opening HOP, it is plain from the fuppofition,
that, in fuch a revolution of the drop H, the angle
HOP would be the fame, and confequently the emer¬
ging rays would make the fame angle with the inci¬
dent ones. But in fuch a revolution the drop would
defcribe a circle of which P would be the centre, and
CNHRD an arc. Confequently, fince, when the drop
is at N, or at R, or any where elfe in that arc, the
emerging rays make the fame angle with the incident
ones as when the drop is at H, the colour of the drop
will be the fame to an eye placed at O, whether the
drop is at N, or at H, or at R, or any where elfe in
that arc. Now, though the drop does not thus turn
round as it falls, and does not pafs through the feveral
parts of this arc, yet, fince there are drops of ruin fall¬
ing every where at the fame time, when one drop is at
H, there will be another at R, another at N, and others
in all parts of the arc; and thefe drops will all of them
be violet-coloured, for the fame reafon that the drop
H would have been of this colour if it had been in any
of thofe places. In like manner, as the drop G is red
when it is at G, it would likewife be red in any part
of the arc CWGQD; and fo will any other drop,
when, as it is falling, it comes to any part of that arc.
Thus as the fun (bines upon the rain, whilft it falls,
there will be two arcs produced, a violet coloured one
CNHRD, and a red one CWGQD; and for the fame
reafons the intermediate fpace between thefe two arcs
will be filled up with arcs of the intermediate colours.
All thefe arcs together make up the fecondary rain¬
bow.
The colours of the fecondary ralnbonu are fainter than
thofe of the primary rainboiu ; and are ranged in the
contrary order.
The primary rainbow is produced by fuch rays as
have been only once reflefted; the fecondary rainbow
is produced by fuch rays as have been twice refle&ed.
But at every reflexion fome rays pafs out of the drop
of rain without being refle&ed; fo that the oftener the
rays are tefle&ed, the fewer of them are left. There¬
fore the colours of the fecondary bow are produced by
fewer rays, and confequently will be fainter, than the
colours of the primary bow.
In the primary .bow, reckoning from the outfide of
it, the colours are ranged in this order; red, orange,
ICS. Part ill.
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. In the feeondary Apparent
bow, reckoning from the outfide, the colours are vio- Plare, &e.
let, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. So that of ot>jefts.
the red, which is the outermoft or higheft colour in
the primary bow, is the innermoft or lowed colour in
the fecondary one.
Now the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be
effe&ual after one refleftion, make a lefs angle with
the incident rays than the red ones; confeqnently the
violet rays make a lefs angle with the lines OP (fig. 9.) Plate
than the red ones. But, in the primary rainbow, the CCXIii,
rays are only once refledted, and the angle which the
effe&ual rays make with OP is the diftance of the co¬
loured drop from P the centre of the bow. Therefore
the violet drops,or violet arc, in the primary bow, will
be nearer to the centre of the bow, than the red drops
or red arc; that is, the innerajoft colour in the primary
bow wifi be violet, and the outermoit colour will be
red. And, for the fame reafon, through the whole pri¬
mary bow, every colour will be nearer to the centre P,
as the rays of that colour are more refrangible,
But the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be
effectual after two refle&ions^ make a greater angle
with the incident rays than the red ones; confequently
the violet rays will make a greater angle with the line
OP, than the red ones. But in the fecondary rain¬
bow the rays are twice reflefted, and the angle which
effeftual rays make with OP is the diftance of the co¬
loured drop from P the centre of the bow. Therefore
the violet drops or violet arc in the fecondary bow will
be farther from the centre of the bow than the red
drops or red arc; that is, the outermoft colour in the
fecondary bow will be violet, and the innermoft co¬
lour will be red. And, for the fame reafon, through
the whole fecondary bow, every colour will be further
from the centre P, as the rays of that colour are more
refrangible.
§ 2. Of Coronas, Parhelia, &c.
Under the articles Corona and Parhelion a
pretty full account is given of the different hypothefes
concerning thefe phenomena, and likewife of the me¬
thod by which thefe hypothefes are fupported, from
the known laws of refraaion and reflexion ; to which
therefore, in order to avoid repetition, we muft refer.
$ 3* Of the Apparent Place, Di/lance, Magnitude, and
Motion of Objetts.
Philosophers in general had taken for granted,
that the place to which the eye refers any vifible ob-,
jedk feen by refleftion or refraiftion, is that in which
the vifual ray meets a perpendicular from the objeft
upon the refle&ing or refrading plane. But this me¬
thod of judging of the place of objtds was called in
queftion by Dr Barrow, who contended that the ar¬
guments brought in favour of the opinion were not
conclufive. Thefe arguments are, that the images of
objeds appear ftraight in a plane mirror, but curved in a
convex or concave one: that a ftraight thread, when
partly immerfed perpendicularly in water, does not
appear crooked as when it is obliquely plunged into
the fluid ; but that which is within the water feems to
be a continuation of that which is without. With re-
fped to the refleded image, however, of a perpen¬
dicular right line from a convex, or concave mirror,
he
PartHI. OPT
Apparent he fays, that it is not eafy for the eye to diftinguifti
P|ac®! ^c* the curve that it really makes; and that, if the ap-
° 0 J£ s* pearance of a perpendicular thread, part of which is
plunged in water, be clofely attended to, it will not
favour the common hypothefis. If the thread is of any
fhining metal, as filver, and viewed obliquely, the
image of the part immerfed will appear to detach
itfelf feniibly from that part which is without the
water, fo that it cannot be true that every objeft ap¬
pears to be in the fame place where the refracted ray
meets the perpendicular; and the fame obfervation he
thinks may be extended to the cafe of refledtion. Ac¬
cording to this writer, we refer every point of an ob-
je6t to the place from which the pencils of light, that
give us the image of it, iflue, or from which they
would have ifiued if no refledling or refradting fub-
ftance intervened. Purfuing this principle, he pro¬
ceeds to inveftigate the place, in which the rays iffuing
from each of the points of an objedt, and which reach
the eye after one refle&ion or refradfion, meet; and
he found, that, if the refradling furface was plane,
and the refradtion was made from a denfer medium
into a rarer, thofe rays would always meet in a place
between the eye and a perpendicular to the point of
incidence. If a convex mirror be ufed, the cafe will
be the fame ; but if the mirror be plane, the rays will
meet in the perpendicular, and beyond it if it be con¬
cave. He alfo determined, according to thefe prin¬
ciples, what form the image of a right line will take,
when it is prefented in different manners to a fpheri-
cal mirror, or when it is feen through a refradling
medium.
Probable as Dr Barrow thought the maxim which
he endeavoured to eftabliih, concerning the fuppofed
place of vifible objedts, he has the candour to mention
an objedlion to it, and to acknowledge that he was
not able to give a fatisfadtory folution of it. It is this.
Let an objedt be placed beyond the focus of a convex
lens; and if the eye be clofe to the lens, it will appear
confufed, but very near to its true place. If the eye
be a little withdrawn, the confufion will increafe, and
the objedl will feetn to come nearer; and when the
eye is very near the focus, the confufion will be ex¬
ceedingly great, and the objedt will feem to be clofe
to the eye. But in this experiment the eye receives
no rays but thofe that are converging; and the point
from which they iffue is fo far from being nearer than
the objedt, that it is beyond it; notwithftanding
which, the objedt is conceived to be much nearer than
it is, though no very diftindt idea can be formed of
its precife diftance. It may be obferved, that, in
reality, the rays falling upon the eye in this cafe in
a manner quite different from that in which they fall
upon it in other circumftances, we can form no judge¬
ment about the place from which they iffue. This
fubjedt was afterwards taken up by Berkley, Smith,
Montucla, and others.
M. De la Hire made feveral valuable obfervations
concerning the diftance of vifible objedls, and various
Other phenomena of vifion, which are well worth our
notice. He alfo took particular pains to afeertain the
manner in which the eye conforms itfelf to the view of
objedts placed at different diftances. He enumerates
five circumftances, which afiift us in judging of the
diftance of objedts, namely, their apparent magnitude,
ICS. | 5565
the ftrength of the colouring, the direAion of the two Apparent
eyes, the parallax of the objedts, and the diftindtnefs
of their fmall parts. Painters, he fays, can only take 0 ^ ‘
advantage of the two firft mentioned circumftances,
and therefore pidtures can never perfedtly deceive the
eye ; but in the decorations of theatres, they, in fome
meafure, make ufe of them all. The fize of objedts,
and the ftrength of their colouring, are diminiftied in
proportion to the diftance at which they are intended
to appear. Parts of the fame objedt which are to ap¬
pear at different diftances, as columns in an order of
architcdture, are drawn upon different planes, a little
removed from one another, that the two eyes may be
obliged to change their diredtion, in order to diftin¬
guifti the parts of the nearer plane from thofe of the more
remote. The fmall diftance of the planes ferves to
make a fmall parallax, by changing the pofition of the
eye ; and as we do not preferve a diftindt idea of the
quantity of parallax, correfponding to the different
diftances of objedts, it is fufficient that we perceive
there is a parallax, to be convinced tha^ thefe planes
are diftant from one another, without determining
what that diftance is; and as to the laft circumftance,
viz. the diftindtnefs of the fmall parts of objedts, it is
of no ufe in difeovering the deception, on account of
the falfe light that is thrown upon thefe decorations.
To thefe obfervations concerning deceptions of
Fight, we fhall add a fimilar one of M. Le Cat, who
took notice that the reafon why we imagine objedts to
be larger when they are feen through a mift, is the
dimnefs or obfeurity with which they are then feen ;
this circumftancc being affociated with the idea of
great diftance. This he fays is confirmed by our be¬
ing furprifed to find, upon approaching fuch objedts,
that they are fo much nearer to us, as well as fo much
fmaller, than we had imagined.
Among other cafes concerning vifion, which fell
under the confideration of M. De la Hire, he men¬
tions one which is of difficult folution. It is when a
candle, in a dark place, and fituated beyond the
limits of diftindt vifion, is viewed through a very nar¬
row chink in a card ; in which cafe a confiderable
number of candles, fometimes fo many as fix, will be
feen along the chink. This appearance he aferibes to
ftnall irregularities in the furface of the humours of
the eye, the effedt of which is not fenfible when rays
are admitted into the eye through the whole extent of
the pupil, and confequently one principal image effaces
a number of fmall ones; whereas, in this cafe, each
of them is formed feparately, and no one of them is fo
confiderable as to prevent the others from being per¬
ceived at the fame time.
There are few perfons, M. De la Hire obferves,
who have both their eyes perfedtly equal, not only
with refpedt to the limits of diftindt vifion, but alfo
with refpedt to the colour with which objedts appear
tinged when they are viewed by them, efpecially if
one of the eyes has been expofed to the impreffion of
a ftrong light. To compare them together in this re¬
fpedt, he diredts us to take two thin cards, and to
make in each of them a round hole of a third or a
fourth of a line in diameter, and, applying one of them
to each of the eyes, to look through the holes on a
white paper, equally illuminated ; when a circle of
the paper will appear to each of the eyes, and, placing
31 L z the
557° OPT
Apparent the cards properly, thefe two circles may be made to
Pfob'efts' touc^ one anotl)er> an<^ thereby the appearance of the
0 J Sl fame objeft to each of the eyes may be compared to
the greateft advantage. To make this experiment
with the greateft exa&nefs, it is neceflary, he fays,
that the eyes be kept (hut fome time before the cards
be applied to them.
M. De la Hire firft endeavoured to explain the caufe
of thofe dark fpots which feem to float before the eyes,
cfpecially thofe of old people. They are moft vifible
when the eyes are turned towards an uniform white
objeft, as the fnow in the open fields. If they be
fixed when the eye is fo, this philofopher fuppofed
that they were occafioned by extravafated blood upon
the retina. But he thought that the movable fpots
were occafioned by opaque matter floating in the
aqueous humour of the eye. He thought the vitreous
humour was not fufficiently limpid for this purpofe.
By the following calculation M. De la Hire gives
us an idea of the extreme fenfibility of the optic nerves.
One may fee very eafily, at the diftance of 4000 tojfes,
the fail of a wind-mill, 6 feet in diameter; and the
eye being fuppofed tobe an inch in diameter, thepidure
of this fail, at the bottom of the eye, will be of
an inch, which is lefs than the 666th part of a line, and
is about the 66th part of a common hair, or the 8th
part of a fingle thread of filk. So fmall, therefore,
muft one of the fibres of the optic nerve be, which he
fays is almoft inconceivable, fince each of thefe fibres
is a tube that contains fpirits. If birds perceive di-
ftant objefts as well as men, which he thought very
probable, he obferves that the fibres of their optic
nerves muft be much finer than ours.
The perfon who firft took much notice of Dr Bar¬
row’s hypothefis was the ingenious Dr Berkley, biftiop
of Cloyne, who diftinguiflied himfelf fo much by the
objedions which he darted to the reality of a material
world, and by his oppofition to the Newtonian doc¬
trine of fluxions. In his effay on a new theory of
viison, he obferves, that the circle formed upon the
retina, by the rays which do not come to a focus,
produce the fame confufion in the eye, whether they
crofs one another before they reach the retina, or
tend to do it afterwards; and therefore that the
judgment concerning diftance will be the fame in both
the cafes, without any regard to the place from which
the rays originally ifiued ; fo that in this cafe, as, by
receding from the lens, the confufion, which always
, accompanies the nearnefs of an objed, increafes, the
mind will judge that the objed comes nearer.
But, fay Dr Smith, if this be true, the objed
ought always to appear at a lefs diftance from the eye
than that at which objeds are feen diftindly, which
is not the cafe : and to explain this appearance, as
well as every other in which a judgment is formed
concerning diftance, he maintains, that we judge of it
by the apparent magnitude of objeds only, or chiefly;
fo that, fince the image grows lager as we recede from
the lens through which it is viewed, we conceive the
objed to come nearer. He alfo endeavours to (hew,
that, in all cafes in which glades are ufed, we judge
of diftance by the fame Ample rule; from which he
concludes univerfaily, that the apparent diftance of
an objtd feen in a glafs, is to its apparent diftance
ieen by the naked eye, as ;he apparent magnitude to
I C S. Part III.
the raked eye is to its apparent magnitude in the glafs. Apparent
But that we do not judge of diftance merely by the
angle under which objeds are feen, is an nhfervation 0 °>je s‘
as old as Alhazen, who mentions feveral inftances, in
which, though the angles under which objeds appear
be different, the magnitudes are univerfaily and in-
ftantaneoufly deemed not to be fo. And Mr Robins
clearly (hews the hypothefis of Dr Smith to be con¬
trary to fad in the moft common and fimple cafes.
In microfcopes, he fays, it is impoffible that the eye
(hould judge the objed to be nearer than the dittance
at which it has viewed the objed itfelf, in proportion
to the degree of magnifying. For when the micro-
fcope magnifies much, this rule would place the image
at a diftance, of which the fight cannot poffibly form
any opinion, as being an interval from the eye at
which no objed can be feen. In general, he fays, he
believes, that whoever looks at an objed through a
convex glafs, and then at the objed itfelf, without
the glafs, will find it to appear nearer in the latter
cafe, though it be magnified in the glafs; and in the
fame trial with the concave glafs, though by the glafs
the objed be diminiflied, it will appear nearer through
the glafs than without it.
But the moft convincing proof that the apparent
diftance of the image is not determined by its apparent
magnitude is the following experiment. If a double
convex glafs be held upright before fome luminous
objed, as a candle, there will be feen two images,
one ered, and the other inverted. The firft is made
Amply by refledion from the neareft furface, the
fecond by refledion from the farther furface, the rays
undergoing a refradion from the firft furface both be¬
fore and after the refledion. If this glafs has not too
(hort a focal diftance, when it is held near the objed,
the inverted image will appear larger than the other,
and alfo nearer; but if the glafs be carried off from
the objed, though the eye remain as near to it as be¬
fore, the inverted image will diminifti fo much fafter
than the other, that, at length, it will appear very
much lefs than it, but ftill nearer. Here, fays Mr
Robins, two images of the fame objed are feen under
one view, and their apparent diftances immediately
compared ; and here it is evident, that thofe diftances
have no neceffary connedion with the apparent mag¬
nitude. He alfo (hews how this experiment may be
made ftill more convincing, by (licking a piece of
paper on the middle of the lens, and viewing it thro'
a (hort tube.
M. Bouguer adopts the general maxim of Dr Bar-
row, in fuppofing that we refer objeds to the place
from which the pencils of rays feemingly converge at
their entrance into the pupil. But when rays iffue
from below the furface of a veffel of water, or any
other refrading medium, he finds that there are always
two different places of this feeming convergence ; one
of them of the rays that iffue from it in the fame ver¬
tical circle, and therefore fall with different degrees of
obliquity upon the furface of the refrading medium ;
and another, of thofe that fall upon the furface with
the fame degreeof obliquity, entering the eye laterally
with refped to one another. Sometimes, he fays,
one of thefe images is attended to by the mind, and
fometimes the other, and different images may be ob-
ferved by different perfgns. An objed plunged in
water
Partlll. OPT
Apparent water affords an example^ he fays, of this duplicity of
piac!’ ^c' images.
0 0 Je s‘ If BA b, fig. 1. be part of the furface of water,
Plate and the objeA be at O, there will be two images of
CCXIII. it, in two different places ; one at G, on the cauftic
by refra&ion, and the other at E, in the perpendicu¬
lar AO, which is as much a cauftic as the other line.
The former image is vifible by the rays ODM, O dm,
which are one higher than the other, in their progrefs
to the eye ; whereas the image at E is made by the
rays 0DM,0 ef, which enter the eye laterally. This,
fays he, may ferve fo explain the difficulty of Father
Tacquct, Barrow, Smith, and many other authors,
and which Newton himfelf confidered as a very diffi¬
cult problem, though it might not be abiolutely info-
luble.
G. W. Krafft has ably fupported the opinion of Dr
Barrow, that the place of any point, feen by reflec¬
tion from the furface of any medium, is that in which
rays iffuing from it, infinitely near to one another,
would meet; and confidering the cafe of a diftant ob-
jedi, viewed in a concave mirror, by an eye very near
to it, when the image, according to Euclid and other
writers, would be between the eye and the objedt, and
the rule of Dr Barrow cannot be applied, he fays
that in this cafe the fpeculum may be confidered as
a plane, the effedl being the fame, only the image is
more obfcure.
Dr Porterfield gives a diftindl and comprehenfive
view of the natural methods of judging concerning the
diftance of objedls.
The conformation of the eye, he obferves, can be
of no ufe to us with refpedf to objefts that are placed
without the limits of diftinft vifion. As the objedt,
however, does then appear more or lefs confufed, ac¬
cording as it is more or lefs removed from thofe li¬
mits, this confufion affifts the mind in judging of the
diftance of the objedf; it being always efteemed fo
much the nearer, or the farther off, by how much the
confufion is greater. But this confufion hath its li¬
mits alfo, beyond which it can never extend; for
when an objedtis placed at a certain diftance from the
eye, to which the breadth of the pupil bears no fen-
fible proportion, the rays of light that come from a
point in theobjedf, and pafs the pupil, are fo little di-
verging, that they may be confidered as parallel. For
a pidture on the retina will not be fenfibly more con-
^ £ufed, tho’ the objsdfc be removed to a much greater
diftance.
The moft univerfal, and frequently the mod fure
means of judging of the diftance of objedls is, he fays,
the angle made by the optic axis. For our two eyes
are like two different ftations, by the affiftance of
which diftanees are taken ; and this is the feafon why
thofe perfons who are blind of one eye, fo frequently
mifs their mark in pouring liquor into a glafs, bluf¬
fing a candle, and fuch other adlions as require that
the diftanct be exadly diftinguiftied. To convince
ourfelves of the ufefulnefs of this method ofjudging of
the diftance of objedls, he diredls us to fufpend a ring
in a thread, fo that its fide may be towards us, and
the hole in it to the right and left hand ; and taking
a fmall rod, crooked at the end, retire from the ring
two or three paces, and having with one hand cover¬
ed one of our eyes} to endeavour with the other to
ICS. ...
pafs the crooked end of the rod thro’ the ring. This, Apparent
fays he, appears very eafy ; and yet, upon trial, per-
haps once in 100 times we fhall not fucceed, efpe- J
cially if we move the rod a little quickly.
Our author obferves, that by perfons recolle&ing
the time when they began to be fubjeft to the mi-
flakes above-mentioned, they may tell when it was
that they loft the ufe of -one of their eyes; which,
many perfons are long ignorant of, and which may be
a circumftance of fome confequence to a phyfician f. f See
The ufe of this fecond method of judging of diftances Mediant,
De Chales limited to 120 feet; beyond which, he fays,n 4Ji
we are not fenfible of any difference in the angle of
the optic axis,
A third method ofjudging of the diftance of ob-
je£ls, confifts in their apparent magnitudes, on which
fo much ftrefs was laid by Dr Smith. From this
change in the magnitude of the image upon the reti¬
na, we eafily judge of the diftance of objedls, as often
as we are otherwife acquainted with the magnitude of
the objedls themfeives ; but as often as we are igno¬
rant of the real magnitude of bodies, we can never,
from their apparent magnitude, form any judgment of
their diftance.
From this we may fee why we are fo frequently de¬
ceived in our eftimates of diftance, by any extraordi¬
nary magnitudes of objedls feen at the end of it; as,
in travelling towards a large city, or a caftie, or a ca¬
thedral church, or a mountain larger than ordinary,
we fancy them to be nearer than we find them to be.
This alfo is the reafon why animals, and all fmall ob¬
jedls, feen in valleys, contiguous to large mountains,
appear exceedingly fmall. For we think the moun¬
tain nearer to us than if it were fmaller ; and we
fiiould not be furprifed at the fmallnefs of the neigh¬
bouring animals, if we thought them farther off.
For the fame reafon, we think them exceedingly
fmall when they are placed upon the top of a moun¬
tain, or a large building ; which appear nearer to
us than they really are, on account of their extraor¬
dinary fize.
Dr Jurin clearly accounts for our imagining objedls,
when fien from a high building, to be fmaller than
they are, and fmaller than we fancy them to be when
we view them at the fame diftance on level ground. It
is, fays he, becSufe we have no diftindl idea of di¬
ftance in that direction, and therefore judge of things
by their pidlures upon the eye only; but cuftom will
enable us to judge rightly even in this cafe.
Let a boy, fays he, who has never been upon any
high building, go to the top of the monument, and
look down into the fires.t; the objedls feen there, as
men and horfes, will appear fo fmall as greatly to fur-
prife him. But 10 or 20 years after, if in the mean
time he has ufed himfelf now and then to look
down from that and other great heights, he will no
longer find the fame objedls to appear fo fmall. And
if he was to view the fame objedts from fuch heights
as frequently as he fees them upon the fame level with,
himfelf in the ftreets, he fuppofes that they would ap¬
pear to him juft of the fame magnitude from the top
of the monument, as they do from a window one
ftory high. For tliis reafon it is, that flatues placed
upon very high buildings ought to be made of a
larger fize than thofe which are feen at a nearer di¬
ftance 3,
5572
Apparent
place, &c,
of objefls.
OPT
fiance ; becaufe all perfons, except architedls, are apt
to imagine the height of fuch buildings to be, much
lefs than it really is.
The fourth method by which Dr Porterfield fays
that we judge of the diftance of obje&s, is, the force
with which their colour ftrikes upon our eyes. For if
we be affured that two objefts are of a fimilar and like
colour, and that one appears more bright and lively
than the other, we judge that the brighter objedt is
the nearer of the two.
The fifth method confiils in the different appearance
of the fmall parts of objefts. When thefe parts appear
diftindt, we judge that the objedi is near; but when
they appear confufed, or when they do not appear at
all, we judge that it is at a greater diftance. For the
image of any objedt, or part of an objedt, diminifhes
as the diftance of it increafes.
The fixth and laft method by which we judge of
the diftance of obje&s'is, that the eye does not repre-
fent to our mind one objedt alone, but at the fame
time all thofe that are placed betwixt us and the prin¬
cipal objedt, whofe diftance we are confidering; and
the more this diftance is divided into feparate and di-
ftindt parts, the greater it appears to be. For this
reafon, diltances upon Uneven furfaces appear lefs than
upon a plane; for the inequalities of the furfaces,
fuch as hills, and holes, and rivers, that lie low and
out of fight, either do not appear, or hinder the parts
that lie behind them from appearing; and fo the whole
apparent diftance is diminifhed by the parts that do
not appear in it. This is the reafon that the banks of
a river appear contiguous to a diftant eye, when the
river is low and not feen.
Dr Porterfield very well explains feveral fallacies in
-vifion depending upon our miftaking the diftances of
objedfs. Of this kind, be fays, is the appearance of
parallel lines, and long viftas confiding of parallel
rows of trees; for they feem to converge more and
more, as they are farther extended from the eye. The
reafon of this, he fays, is becaufe the apparent mag¬
nitudes of their perpendicular intervals are perpetual¬
ly diminifhing, while, at the fame time, we miftake
their diftance, Hence we may fee why, when the two
parallel rows of trees ftand upon an afcent, whereby
the more remote parts appear farther off than they
really are, becaufe the line that meafures the length of
the viftas now appears under a greater angle than when
it was horizontal, the trees, in fuch a cafe, will feem
to converge lefs, and fometimes, inftead of conver¬
ging, they will be thought to diverge. >>
For the fame reafon that a long villa appears to
converge more and rtiore the farther it is extended
from the eye, the remoter parts of a horizontal walk
or a long floor will appear to afcend gradually; and
objedls placed upon it, the more remote they are, the
higher they will appear, till the laft be fee a on a level
with the eye ; whereas the Ceiling of a long gallery
appears to defcend towards a horizontal line, drawn
from the eye of the fpedlator. For this reafon, alfo,
the furface of the fea, feen from an eminence, feems
to rife higher and higher the farther we look; and the
upper parts of high buildings feem to (loop, or in¬
cline forvvards over the eye below, becaufe they feem
to approach towards a vertical line proceeding from
the fpe&ator’a eye; fo that llatues on the top of fuch
ICS. Part III,
buildings, in order to appear upright, muft recline, Apparent
or bend backwards.
Our author alfo (hews the reafon why a windmill,. 0 ° }
feen from a great diftance, is fometimes imagined to
move the contrary way from what it really does, by
our taking the nearer end of the fail for the more re¬
mote. The uncertainty we fometimes find in the
courfe of the motion of a branch of lighted candles,
turned round at a diftance, is owing, he fays, to the
fame caufe ; as alfo our fometimes miftaking a convex
fora concave furface, more efpecially in viewingfeals,
and impreffions, with a convex glafs or a double mi-
crofcope; and laftly, that, upon coming in a dark
night into a ftreet, in which there is but one row
of lamps, we often miftake the fide of the ftreet they
are on.
Far more light was thrown upon this curious fub-
jeft by M. Bouguer.
The proper method of drawing the appearance of
two rows of trees that (hall appear parallel to the eye,
is a problem which has exercifed the ingenuity of fe¬
veral philofophers and mathematicians. That the ap¬
parent magnitude of obje&s decreafes with the angle
under which they are feen, has always been acknow¬
ledged. it is alfo acknowledged, that it is only by
cuftom and experience that we learn to form a judg¬
ment both of magnitudes and diftances. But in the
application of thefe maxims to the above-mentioned
problem, all perfons, before M. Bouguer, made ufc
of the real diftance inftead of the apparent one; by
which only the mind can form its judgment. And it
is manifeft, that, if any circumdances contribute to
make the diftance appear otherwife than it is in rea¬
lity, the apparent magnitude of the object will be
affe&ed by it ; for the fame reafon, that, if the mag¬
nitude be mifapprehended, the idea of the diftance
will vary.
For want of attending to this diftinftion, Tacquet
pretended to demonftrate, that nothing can give the
idea of two parallel lines (rows of trees for inftance)
to an eye fituated at one of their extremities, but two
hyperbolical curves, turned the contrary way ; and
M. Varignon maintained, that in order to make a
vifta appear of the fame width, it muft be made nar¬
rower, inftead of wider, as it recedes from the eye.
M. Bouguer obferves, that very great diftances, and
thofe that are confiderably lefs than them, make near¬
ly the fame impreffion upon the eye. We, therefore,
always imagine great diftances to be lefs than they are,
and for this reafon the ground-plan of a long villa al¬
ways appears to rife. The vifual rays come in a de¬
terminate direction; but as we imagine that they ter¬
minate fooner than they do, we neceffarily conceive
that the place from which they iffue is elevated. E-
very large plane, therefore, as AB, fig. 4. viewed Plate
by an eye at O, will feem to lie in fuch a dire&ion as CCXIU,
A b; and confequently lines, in order to appear truly
parallel on the plane AB, mull be drawn fo as that
they would appear parallel on the plane Ab, and be
from thence proje&ed to the plane AB.
Todetermine the inclinationof the apparent ground-
plane A 3 to the true ground-plane AB, our ingeni¬
ous author dire&s us to draw upon a piece of level
ground, two ftraight lines of a fuffieient length, (for
which purpofe lines fattened to iinall flicks are very
con-
fart III. OPT
Apparent convenient), making an angle of 3 or 4 degrees with
place, &<*, one another. Then a perfon, placing himfelf within
of objects. t^g with his back towards the angular point,
muft walk backwards and forwards till be can fancy
the lines to be parallel. In this fituation, a line drawn
from the point of the angle thro’ the place of his eye,
will contain the fame angle with the true grpund-
plane which this does with the apparent one.
M. Bouguer then (hews other more geometrical
methods of determining this inclination ; and fays,
that by thefe means he has often found it to be 4 or 5
degrees, though fometimes only 2 or degrees. The
determination of this angle, he obferves, is variable ;
depending upon the manner in which the ground is il¬
luminated, and the intenfity of the light. The colour
of the foil is alfo not without its influence, as well as
the particular conformation of the eye, by which it is
more or lefs affeded by the fame degree of light, and
alfo the part of the eye on which the objeft is paint¬
ed. When, by a flight motion of his head, he con¬
trived, that certain parts of the foil, the image of
which fell towards the bottom of his eye, fhould fall
towards the top of the retina, he always thought that
this apparent inclination became a little greater.
But what is very remarkable, and what he fays he
can aflure his reader may be depended upon, is, that,
if he look towards a rifing ground, the difference be¬
tween the apparent ground-plan and the trite one, will
be much more confiderable, fo that they will fome¬
times make an angle of 25 or 30 degrees. Of this he
had made frequent obfervations. Mountains, he fays,
begin to be inaccelBble when their fides made an angle
from 35 to 37 degrees with the horizon, as then it is
not poflible to climb them but by means of ftones or
fhrubs, to ferve as fteps to fix the feet on. In thefe
cafes, both he and his companions always agreed that
the apparent inclination of the fide of the mountain
was 60 or 70 degrees.
Plate Thefe deceptions are reprefented in fig. 3. in which,
CCXIII. when the ground plan, AM, or AN, are much incli¬
ned, the apparent ground plan Km, or Atz, makes a
very large angle with it. On the contrary, if the
ground dips below the level, the inclination of the ap¬
parent to the true ground-plan diminilhes, till, at a
certain degree of the flope, it becomes nothing at all;
the two plans AP and Kp being the fame, fo that pa¬
rallel lines drawn upon them would always appear fo..
If the inclination below the horizon is carried beyond
the fituation AP, the error will increafe; and what is
very remarkable, it will be on the contrary fide; the
apparent plan A r being always below the true plan
AR, fo that if a perfon would draw upon the plan AR
lines that fhall appear parallel to the eye, they muft
be drawn converging, and not diverging, as is ufual on
the level ground, becaufe they muft be the projections
of two lines imagined to be parallel, on the plan A r,
which is more inclined to the horizon than AR.
Thefe remarks, he obferves, are applicable to differ¬
ent planes expofed to the eye at the fame time. For
if BH, fig. 2. be the front of a building, at the di-
ftance of AB from the eye, it will be reduced in ap¬
pearance to the diftance Kb; and the front of the
building will be bb> rather inclined towards the fpec-
Jator, unlefs the diftance be inconfiderable.
After making a great number of obfervationa upon
1 c s. 5573
this fubjed, our author concludes, that when a man Apparent
Hands upon a level plane, it does not feem to rife fen- p|.acf’-fl*"’
fibly but at fome diftance from him. The apparent 0 0 je. s\
plane, therefore, has a curvature in it, at that diftance,
the form of which is not very eafy to determine; fo
that a man ftanding upon a level plane, of infinite ex¬
tent, will imagine that he Hands in the centre of a ba-
fon. This is alfo, in fome meafure, the cafe with a
perfpn Handing upon the level of the fea.
He concludes with obferving that there is no di-
ficulty in drawing lines according to thefe rules, fo as
to have any given tffeCl upon the eye, except when
fome parts of the profped are very near the fpedator,
and others very diftant from him; becaufe, in this cafe,
regard muH be had to the conical or conoid®! figure of
a furface. A right line palling at a fmall diHance from
the obferver, and below the level of his eye, in that
cafe almott always appears fenfibly curved at a certain
diHance from the eye; and almolt all figures, in this
cafe, are fubjed to fome complicated optical alteration
to which the rules of perfpedive have not as yet been
extended. If a circle be drawn near our feet, and
within that part of the ground which always appears
level to us, it will always appear to be a circle, and
at a very confiderable diHance it will appear an el-
lipfe; but between thofe two fituations, it will not ap¬
pear to be either the one or the other, but will be like
one of thofe ovals of Defcartes, which is more curved
on one of its fides than the other.
On thefe principles a parterre, which appears di-
Horted when it is feen in a low fituation, appears per-
fedly regular when it is viewed from a balcony oc
any other eminence. Still, however, the apparent ir¬
regularity takes place at a greater diHance, while the
part that is near the fpedator is exempt from it. If
AB, fig. 5. be the ground plane, and Ka be a per¬
pendicular, under the eye, the higher it is fituated, at
O, to the greater diHance will T, the place at which
the plane begins to have an apparent afeent along T^,
be removed.
All the varieties that can occur with refped to the
vifible motion of objeds, are fuccindly fiimmed up
by Dr Porterfield under 11 heads, with which we lhall
prefent our readers.
1. An objed moving very fwiftly is not feen, unlefs
it be very luminous. Thus a cannon-ball is not feen if
it is viewed tranfverfely : but if it be viewed accord¬
ing to the line it deferihes, it may be feen, becaufe its
pidure continues long pn the fame place of the retina;
which, therefore, receives a more fenfible imprefiion
from the objed.
2. A live coal fwung brifkly round in a circle ap¬
pears a continued circle of fire, becaufe the impreffions
made on the retina by light, being of a vibrating, and
confeqnently of a lading nature, do not prefently pe-
rifh, but continue till the coal performs its whole cir¬
cuit, and returns again to its former place.
3. If two objeds, unequally diflant from the eye,
move with equal velocity, the more remote one will
appear the flower; or, if their celerities be propor¬
tional to their dillances, they will appear - qually fwift,
4. If two objeds, unequally diflant from the eye,
move with unequal velocities in the fame diredion,
their apparent velocities are in a ratio compounded of
the dired ratio of their true velocities, and the reci-
' procal
5574
Apparent
place, &c.
of objefts.
OPT
procal one of their diflances from the eye.
5. A vilible objeft moving with any velocity appears
to be at reft, if the fpace defcribed in the interval of
one fecond be imperceptible at the diftance of the eye.
Hence it is that a near objedt moving very flowly, as
the index of a clock, or a remote one very fwiftly, as
a planet, feems to be at reft.
6. An objed moving with any degree of velocity
will appear at reft, if the fpace it runs over in a fe¬
cond of time be to its diftance from the eye as 1 to
1400.
7. The eye proceeding ftraight from one place to
another, a lateral objeft, not too far off, whether on
the right or left, will feem to move the contrary way.
8. The eye proceeding ftraight from one place to ano¬
ther, and being fenlible of its motion, diftant objeds
will feem to move the fame way, and with the fame
velocity. Thus, to a perfon running caftwards, the
moon on his right hand appears to move the fame
way, and with equal fwiftnefs; for, by reafon of its
diftance, its image continues fixed upon the fame place
of the retina, from whence we imagine that the objed
moves along with the eye.
9. If the eye and the objed move both the fame way,
only the eye much fwifter than the objed> the laft will
appear to go backwards.
10. If two or more objeds move with the fame velo¬
city, and a third remain at reft, the moveable ones
will appear fixed, and the quiefeent in motion, the
contrary way. Thus clouds moving very fwiftly, their
parts feem topreferve their fituation, and the moon to
move the contrary way.
x 1. If the eye be moved with great velocity, lateral
objeds at reft appear to move the contrary way.
Thus to a perfon fitting in a coach, and riding brifkly
through a wood, the trees feem to retire the contrary
way; and to people in a (hip, &c. the fhores feem to
recede.
At the conclufion of thefe obfervations, our author
endeavours to explain another phenomenon of motion,
which, though very common and well known, had
not, as far as he knew, been explained in a fatisfac-
tory m-’nner. It is this: If a perfon turns fwiftly
round, without changing his place, all objeds about
will feem to move round in a circle the contrary way;
and this deception continues not only while the perfon
himfelf moves round, hut, which is more furprifing,
h alfo continues for fome time after he ceafes to
move, when the eye, as well as the objed, is at abfo-
lute reft.
The reafon why objeds appear to move round the
contrary way, when the eye turns round, is not fo dif¬
ficult to explain: for though, properly fpeaking, mo¬
tion is not feen, as not being in itfelf the immediate
objed of fight; yet by the fight we eafily know when
the image changes its place on the retina, and thence
conclude that either the objed, the eye, or both, are
moved. But by the fight alone we can never deter¬
mine how far this motion belongs to the objed, how
far to the eye, or how far to both. If we imagine
the eye at reft, we aferibe the whole motion to the
objed, though it be truly at reft. If we imagine the
objed at reft, we aferibe the whole motion to the eye,
though it belongs entirely to the objed; and when
ihe eye is in motion, though we are fenfible of its
I C S. Part III.
motion, yet, if we do not imagine that it moves fo Apparent
fwiftly as it really does, we aferibe only a part of the place, &c.
motion to the eye, and the reft of it we aferibe to the ofobje^s>
objed, though it be truly at reft. This laft, he fays,
is what happens in the prefent cafe, when the eye
turns round; for though we are fenfible of the motion
of the eye, yet we do not apprehend that it moves fo
fall as it really does; and therefore the bodies about
appear to move the contrary way, as is agreeable to
experience.
But the great difficulty ftill remains, viz. Why,
after the eye ceafes to move, objeds fhould, for fome
time, ftill appear to continue in motion, though their
pidures on the retina be truly at reft, and do not at
all change their place. This, he imagined, proceeds
from a miftake we are in with refped to the eye,
which, though it be abfolutely at reft, we neverthelefs
conceive it as moving the contrary way to that in
which it moved before; from which miftake, with re¬
fped to the motion of the eye, the objeds at reft will
appear to move the fame way which the eye is ima¬
gined to move; and, confequently, will feeni to con¬
tinue their motion for fome time after the eye is at
reft.
M. Le Cat well explains a remarkable deception,
by which a perfon fhall imagine an objed to be on
the oppofite fide of a board, when it is not fo, and
alfo inverted, and magnified. It is illuftrated by fig. 3. Plate
in which D reprefents the eye, and CB a large CCXIV.
black board, pierced with a fmall hole. E is a large
white board, placed beyond it, and ftrongly illumi¬
nated; and d a pin, or other fmall objed, held be¬
twixt the eye and the firft board. In thefe circum-
ftances, the pin ftiall be imagined to be at F, on the
other fide of the board, where it will appear inverted,
and magnified; becaufe what is in fad perceived, is
the (hadow of the pin upon the retina; and the light
that is (topped by the upper part of the pin coming
from the lower part of the enlightened board, and
that which is (topped by the lower part coming from
the upper part of the board, the (hadow muft necef-
farily be inverted with refped to the objed.
There is a curious phenomenon relating to vifion,
which fome perfons have aferibed to the infledion of
light, but which Mr Melville explains in a very diffe¬
rent and very fimple.manner.
When any opaque body is held at the diftance of
three or four inches from the eye, fo that a part of
fome more diftant luminous objed, fuch as the win¬
dow, or the flame of a candle, may be feen by rays
paffing near its edge, if another opaque body, nearer
to the eye, be brought acrofs from the oppofite fide,
the edge of the firft body will feem to fwell out¬
wards, and meet the latter; and in doing fo will in¬
tercept a portion of the luminous objed that was fetn
before.
This appearance be explains in the following man¬
ner: Let AB, fig. 1. reprefent the luminous objed,
to which the fight is direded, CD the more diftant
opaque body, GH the nearer, and EF the diameter
of the pupil. Join ED, FD, EG, FG, and produce
them till they meet AB in K, N, M, and L. It is
plain that the parts AN, MB, of the luminous objed
cannot be feen. But taking any point a between N
and K, and drawing aDd, fince the portion dF oi
„ v • ;■ ■ v
.;:a
A_
Optics .
Plate CCXIV'.
3 ^V-
<$ .
Part III.
OPT
Concavity the pupil is filled with light flowing from that point,
ot the Sky. v;f,b]e. Any point b, between a and K,
muft fill /"F, a greater portion of the pupil, and there¬
fore muft appear brighter. Again, any point c, be¬
tween b and K, muft appear brighter than b, becaufe
it fills a greater portion ^F with light. The point K
itfelf, and every other point in the fpace KL, muft
appear very luminous, fince they fend entire pencils of
rays EKF, ELF, to the eye; arid the vifible bright-
nefs of every point from L towards M, muft decreafe
gradually, as from K to N; that is, the fpaces KN,
LM, will appear as dim ftiadowy borders, or fringes,
adjacent to the edges of the opaque bodies.
When the edge G is brought to touch the right
line KF, the penumbras unite; and as foon as it reaches
NDF, the above phenomenon begins; for it cannot
pafs that right line without meeting feme line aT) d,
drawn from a point between N and K, and, by inter¬
cepting all the rays that fall upon the pupil, render it
invifible. In advancing gradually to the line KDE,
it will meet other lines bT)f, cT>g, &c. and there¬
fore render the points b> c, &c. from N to K, fuccef-
fively invifible; and therefore the edge of the fixed
opaque body CD muft feem to fwell outwards, and
cover the whole fpace NK; while GH, by its motion,
covers MK. When GH is placed at a greater diftance
from the eye, CD continuing fixed, the fpace OP to
be paired over in order to intercept NK is kfs; and
therefore, with an equal motion of GH, the apparent
fwelling of CD muft be quicker; which is found true
by experience.
If ML reprefent a luminous objeft, and REFQ^
any plane expofed to its light, the fpace FQ_will be
entirely fhaded from the rays, and the fpace FE will
be occupied by a penumbra, gradually darker, from
E to F. Let now GH continue fixed, and CD move
parallel to the plane EF; and as foon as it paffes the
line LF, it is evident that the Ihadow QF will feem
to fwell outwards; and when CD reaches klE, fo as
to cover with its Ihadow the fpace RE, QF, by its
extenfion, will cover FE. This is found to hold true
likewife by experiment.
^ if. Of the Concave Figure of the Sky.
Extent of This apparent concavity is only an optical decep-
the vifible tion founded on the incapacity of our organs of vifion
apianeflir-*0 ta^e *n very ^arSe diftances.—Dr Smith, in his
face. Complete Syftem of Optics, hath demonftrated, that,
if the furface of the earth was perfeftly plane, the di¬
ftance of the vifible horizon from the eye would fcarce
exceed the diftance of 5000 times the height of the
eye above the ground, fuppofing the height of the
Plate eye between five and fix feet: beyond this diftance,
CCX1V. all objefts would appear in the vifible horizon. For,
4* let OP be the height of the eye above the line PA
drawn upon the ground ; and if an objeft AB, equal
in height to PO, be removed to a diftance PA equal
to 5O00 times that height, it will hardly be vifible by
reafon of the fmallnefs of the angle AOB. Confe-
quently any diftance AC, how great foever, beyond
A, will be invifible. For fince AC and BO are
parallel, the ray CO will always cut AB in fome
point D between A and B ; and therefore the angle
AOC, or AOD, will always be lefs than AOB, and
Vol. VIIL
ICS. . 5567
therefore AD or AC will be invifible. Conftcpiently Concavity
all objedls and clouds, as CE and EG, placed at allt)f the sky
diftances beyond A, if they be high enough to be
vifible, or to fubtend a bigger angle at the eye than
AOB, will appear at the horizon AB ; becaufe the
diftance AC is invifible. ,3J
Hence, if we fuppofe a vaft long row of obje&s, or Why a very
a vaft long wall ABZ/, built upon this plane, and long row
its perpendicular diftance OA from the eye at O to”1^* ^
be equal to or greater than the diftance O a of the cjialia!.,
vifiblethorizon', it will not appear ftraight, but circular, Fig i
as if it was built upon the circumference of the
horizon acegy : and if the wall be continued to an
immenfe diftance, its extreme parts YZ, will appear
in the horizon atyz, where it is cut by a line Oy pa¬
rallel to the wall. For, fuppofing a ray YO, the
angle Y O^ will become infenfibly fmall. Imagine
this infinite plane OAYy, with the wall upon it, to
be turned about the horizontal line O like the lid of a
box, till it becomes perpendicularto the other half of the
horizontal plane L M^', and the wall parallel to it,
like a vaft ceiling over head; and then the wail will
appear like the concave figure of the clouds over-head.
But though the wall in the horizon appear in the
figure of a femicircle, yet the ceiling will not, but •
much flatter. Becaufe the horizontal plane was a
vifible furface, which fuggefted the idea of the fame
diftances quite round the eye : but in the vertical plane
extended between the eye and the ceiling, there is
nothing that affe&s the fenfe with an idea of its parts
but the common line ; confi^quently the apparent
diftances of the higher parts of the ceiling will be gra¬
dually diminiftied in afeending from that line. Now
when the fky is quite overcaft with clouds of equal
gravities, they will all float in the air at equal heights
above the earth, and confequently will compofe a fur-
face refembling a large ceiling, as flat as the vifible
fnrface of the earth. Its concavity therefore is not
real, but apparent: and when the heights of the
clouds are unequal, fince their real lhapes and magni¬
tudes are all unknown, the eye can feldom diftinguifti
the unequal diftances of thofe clouds that appear in
the fame diredlions, unlefs when they are very near us,
or are driven by contrary currents of the air. So that
the vifible fhape of the whole furface remains alike in
both cafes. And when the fky is either partly over¬
caft, or perfeftly free from clouds, it is matter of fa&
that we retain much the fame idea of its concavity as
when it was quite overcaft. 13S
The concavity of the heavens appears to the eye, f.hc
which is the only judge of an apparent figure, to be
lefs portion of a fpherical Fn-face than a hemifphere. appears lefs
Dr Smith fays, that the centre of the concavity is much than a he-
below the eye ; and by taking a medium among feveral mifphere.
obfervations, he found the apparent diftance of its
parts at the horizon to be generally between three and
four times greater than the apparent .diftance of its
parts overhead. For let the arch ABCD reprefent Fig. tf,
the apparent concavity of the Iky, O the place of the
eye, OA and OC the horizontal and vertical apparent
diftances, whofe proportion is required. Firft obferve
when the fun or the moon, or any cloud or ftar, is in
fiuch a pofition at B, that the apparent arches BA, BC,
extended on each fide of this obje& towards the
2 31 M horizon
5568 OPT
Blue colour horizon and zenith, feem equal to the eye; then
ofjhe^ky. taking the altitude of the objedf B with a quadrant,
or a crofs-ftaff, or finding it by aftronomy from the
given time of obfervation, the angle AOB is known.
Drawing therefore the line OB in the pofition thus
determined, and taking in it any point B at plea-
fure in the vertical line CO produced downwards,
feek the centre E of a circle ABC, whofe arches BA,
BC, intercepted between B and the legs of the right
angle AOC, fiiall be equal to each other; then will this
arch ABCD reprefent the apparent figure of the Iky.
For by the eye we eftimate the diftance between any
two objefts in the heavens by the quantity of fky that
appears to lie between them; as upon earth we
eftimate it by the quantity of ground that lies be¬
tween them. The centre E may be found geometri¬
cally by conftru&ing a cubic equation, or as quick
and fufficiently exadl hy trying whether the chords
BA, BC, of the arch ABC drawn by conje&ure are
equal, and by altering its radius BE till they are fo.
Now in making feveral obfervations upon the fun, and
fome others upon the moon and ftars, they feemed to
our author to bifedt th? vertical arch ABC at B, when
their apparent altitudes or the angle AOB was about
23 degrees; which gives the proportion of OC to
OA as 3 to 10 or as 1 to 3-j- nearly. When the fun
was but 30 degrees high, the upper arch feemed always
lefs than the under one ; and, in our author’s opinion,
always greater when the fun was about 18 or 20 de¬
grees high.
§ 5- Of the Blue Colour of the fky, and of Blue and
Green Shadows.
©pinions The opinions of ancient writers concerning the co-
cients'c”* lour of the Iky merit no notice. The firft who gave
C)en s’ c‘ any rational explanation was Fromondus. By him it
was fuppofed, that the bluenefs of the Iky proceeded
from a mixture of the white light of the fun with the
black fpace beyond the atmofphere, where there is
neither refraftion nor refleftion. This opinion pre¬
vailed very generally even in modern times, and was
maintained by Otto Guerick and all his cotemporaries,
who afferted that white and black may be mixed in
Juch a manner as to make a blue. Mr Bouguer had
recourfe to the vapours diffufed through the atmo¬
fphere, to account for the refle&ion of the blue rays
rather than any other. He feems however to fuppofe,
that it arifes from the conftitution of the air itfelf,
whereby the fainter coloured rays are incapable of
making their way through any confiderable tradl of
it. Hence he is of opinion, that the colour of the air
is properly blue; to which opinion Dr Smith feems alfo
139 to have inclined.
^owTob*" ^ l^'s k*uc co1°ur of the fky is owing the appear
ferved by ance an<^ green fhadows in the mornings and
M. Buffon. evenings.'—Thefe were firft taken notice of by M.
Buffon in the month of July 1742, when he obferved
that the fhadows of trees which fell upon a white wall
were green. He was at that time ftanding upon an
eminence, and the fun was fetting in the cleft of a
mountain, fo that he appeared confiderably lower than
the horizon. The fky was clear, excepting in the
-weft, which, though free from clouds, was lightly
fhaded with vapours, of a yellow colour, inclining to
red. Then the funJtfelf was exceedingly red, and was
I C S. Part III.
feemingly, at leaft, four times as large as he appears Blue colour
to be at mid-day. In thefe circumftances, he fawof t^ie
very diftinftly the fhadows of the trees, which were
30 or 40 feet from the white wall, coloured with a
light green, inclining to blue. The fhadow of an ar¬
bour, which was three feet from the wall, was ex¬
actly drawn upon it, and looked as if it had been
newly painted with verdegrife. This appearance lafted
near five minutes ; after which it grew fainter, and
vanifhed at the fame time with the light of the fun. 139
The next morning, at fun rife, he went to obferve ®lne An¬
other fhadows, upon another white wall ; but *nftead
of finding them green, as he expe&ed, be obfervedbim.
that they were blue, or rather of the colour of lively
indigo. The fky was ferene, except a flight covering
of yeilowifli vapours in the eaft ; and the fun arofe be¬
hind a hill, fo that it was elevated above his horizon.
In thefe circumftances, the blue fhadows were only vi-
fible three minutes; after which they appeared black,
and in the evening of fame day he obferved the green
fhadows exa&ly as before. Six dayspafled without his
being able to repeat his obfervations, on account of the
clouds; but the 7th day, at fnn-fet, the fhadows were
not green, but of a beautiful fky-blue. He alfo obfer¬
ved, that the fky was, in a great meafure, free from va¬
pours at that time ; and that the fun fet behind a rock,
fo that it difappeared before it came to his horizon.
Afterwards he often obferved the fhadows both at fun-
rife and fun-fet; but always obferved them to be blue,
though with a great variety of fliades of that colour.
He fhewed this phenomenon to many of his friends,
who were as much furprifed at it as he himfelf had
been; but he fays that any perfon may fee a blue fha¬
dow, if he will only hold his finger before a piece of
white paper at fun-rife or fun-fet. t4;) !
The firft perfon who attempted to explain thisphe-Explana-
nomenon was the Abbe Mazeas, in a memoir of thetion of th® 1
fociety in Berlin for the year 1752. He °bferved,
that when an opaque body was illuminated by theAbbe
moon and a candle at the fame time, and the two Mazeas.
fhadows were caft upon the fame white wall, that
which was enlightened by the candle was reddifh, and
that which was enlightened by the moon was blue.
But, without attending to any other circumftances, he
fuppofed the change of colour to be occafionedby the
diminution of the light; but M. Melville, and M.
Bouguer, both independent of one another, feem to
have hit upon the true caufe of this curious appear- i4t
ance, and which hath been already hinted at. The for- Melville’s
mer of thefe gentlemen, in his attempts to explain the ’d i5011."
blue colour of the fky, obferves, that fince it is cer- pi^nation.
tain that no body affumes any particular colour, but
becaufe it refleds one fort of rays more abundantly
than the reft ; and fince it cannot be fuppofed that the
conftituent parts of pure air are grofs enough to fepa-
rate any colours of themfelves ; wemuft conclude with
Sir Ifaac Newton, that the violet and blue making
rays are refleded more copioufly than the reft, by the
finer vapours diffufed through the atmofphere, whofe
parts are not big enough to give them the appearance
of vilible opaque clouds. And he fhews, that in proper
circumftances, the bluilh colour of the fky-light may
be adually feen on bodies illuminated by it, as, he
fays, it is objeded fhould always happen upon this hy-
pothefis. For that, if on a dear cloudlefs day a fheet
Partlll. OPT
Blue colour of white paper be expofed to the fun’s beams, when
of the Sky.any opaque body is placed upon it, the fhadow which
is illuminated by the Iky only will appear remarkably
bluilh compared with the reft of the paper, which re-
141 ceives the fun’s diredl rays.
M. Begue- M. Beguehn, who has taken the moft pains with
nationTf^thi8 fubgeft, obferves, that as M. Buffon mentions the
the'greeti lhadows appearing green only twice, and that at all
thadows. other times they are blue, this is the colour which
they regularly have, and that the blue was changed
into green by fome accidental circumftance. Green,
he fays, is only a compofition of blue and yellow, fo
that this accidental change may have arifen from the
mixture of fome yellow rays in the blue fhadow; and
that perhaps the wall might have had that tinge, fo
that the blue is the only colour for which a general
reafon is required. And this, he fays, muft be derived
from the colour of pure air, which always appears
blue, and which always refle&s that colour upon all
©bje&s without diftin&ion ; but which is too faint
to be perceived when our eyes are ftrongly affc&ed
by the light of the fun, refle&ed from other objefts
around us.
To confirm this hypothefis, he adds fome curious
©bfervations of his own, in which this appearance is
agreeably diverfified. Being at the village of Boucholtz
in July 1764, he obferved the fhadows proje&ed on the
,43 white paper of his pocket-book, when the fky was clear.
Some cu- At half an hour paft 6 in the evening, when the fun was
rious phe- about four degrees high, he obferved that the fhadow
~0b-°f his finger was of a dark grey, while he held the
him. paper oppofite to the fun ; but when he inclined it al-
moft horizontally, the paper had a bluifh caft, and the
fhadow upon it was of a beautiful bright blue.
When his eye was placed between the fun and the
paper laid horizontally, it always appeared of a bluifh
caft ; but when he held the paper, thus inclined, be¬
tween his eye and the fun, he could diftinguifh, upon
every little eminence occafioned by the inequality of
the furface of the paper, the principal of the prifma-
tic colours. He alfo perceived them upon his nails,
and upon the fkin of his hand. This multitude of co¬
loured points, red, yellow, green, and blue, almoft ef¬
faced the natural colour of the objefts.
At three quarters paft fix, the fhadow’s began to be
blue, even when the rays of the fun fell perpendicu¬
larly. The colour was the moft lively when the rays
fell upon it at an angle of 450 degrees; but with a lefs
inclination of the paper, he could diftinftly perceive,
that the blue fhadow had a border of a ftronger blue,
on that fide which looked towards the fky, and a r^d
border on that fide which was turned towards the
earth. To fee thefe borders, the body that made the
fhadow was obliged to be placed very near the paper;
and the nearer it was, the more fenfible was the red
border. At the diftance of three inches, the whole
fhadow was blue. At every obfervation, after having
held the paper towards the fky, he turned it towards
the earth, which was covered with verdure; holding it
in fuch a manner, that the fun might fliine upon it
while it received the fhadows of various bodies, but,
in this pofitfon, he could never perceive the fhadow to
be blue or green at any inclination with refpeft to the
fun’s rays.
At feven o’clock, the fun being ftill about two de-
! C S. 5569
grees high, the fhadows were of a bright blue, even Blue colofar
when the rays fell perpendicularly upon the paper, butof the
were the brighteft when it was inclined at an angle of
450. At this time he was furprifed to obferve, that
a large trad of fky was nut favourable to this blue co¬
lour, and that the fhadow falling upon the paper placed
horizontally was not coloured, or atleaft the blue was
very faint. This Angularity, he concluded, arofefrom
the fmall difference between the light of that part of
the paper which received the rays of the fun, and that
which was in the (hade in this fituation. In a fitua-
tion precifely horizontal, the difference would vanifh,
and there could be no fhadow. Thus too much or too
little of the fun’s light produced, but for different rea-
fons, the fame effed ; for they both made the blue
light reflefted from the fky to become infenfible. This
gentleman never faw any green fhadows, but when he
made them fall on yellow paper. But he does not
abfolutely fay, that green fhadows cannot be produ¬
ced in any other manner; and fuppofes, that if it was
on the fame wall that M. Buffon faw the blue fha¬
dows, feven days after having feen the green ones, he
thinks that the caufe of it might be the mixture of
yellow rays, reflefted from the vapours, which he ob¬
ferves were of that colour. 144
Thefe blue fhadows, our author obferves, are not Blue ftia-
confined to the times of the fun-rifing and fun-fetting;dowfis “i*
on the 19th of July, when the fun has the greateft^"
force, he obferved them at three o’clock in the af- ings and
ternoon, but the fun (hone through a mift at thate»enings*
time.
If the (Icy is clear, the fhadows begin to be blue;
when, if they be proje&ed horizontally, they are eight
times as long as the height of the body that produces
them, that is, when the centre of the fun is 70 8' a-
bove the horizon. This obfervation, he fays, was made
in the beginning of Auguft.
Befides thefe coloured fhadows, which are produced
by the interception of the diredl rays of the fun, our
author obferved others fimilar to them at ever hour of
the day, in rooms into which the light of the fun wag
refledled from fome white body, if any part of the
clear fky could be feen from the place, and all unne-
ceffary light was excluded as much as poffible. Ob-
ferving thefe precautions, he fays that the blue fha¬
dows may be feen at any hour of the day, even with
the diredl light of the fun ; and that this colour will
difappear in all thofe places of the fhadow from which
the blue flcy cannot be feen.
All the obfervations that our author made upon the
yellow or reddifh borders of fhadows above-mention¬
ed, led him to conclude, that they were occafioned by
the interception of the fky-light, whereby part of the
fhadow was illuminated either by the red rays reflec¬
ted from the clouds, when the fun is near the horizon,
or from fome terreftrial bodies in the neighbourhood.
This conjedlure is favoured by the neeeflity he was
under of placing any body near the paper, in order to
produce this bordered fhadow, as he fays it is eafily
demonflrated, that the interception of the fky-light
can only take place when the breadth of [he opaqne
body is to its diftance from the white ground on which
the fhadow falls, as twice the fine of half the ampli-
tu - ■ of the fky to its cofine. J4j
At the conclufion of his obfervations on thefe blue Anolher
31 M 2 fhadotvs,kmd’
557° OPT
Irradiations fhadows, he gives a (hort account of another kind of
^ S^cs them, which, he does not doubt, have the fame ori-
g ’ igin. Thefe he often faw early in the fpring when he
was reading by the light of a candle in the morning,
and confequently the twilight mixed with that of his
candle. In thefe circumftances, the fhadow that was
made by intercepting the light of his candle, at the di¬
ll ance of about fix feet, was of a beautiful and clear
blue, which became deeper as the opaque body
which made the fhadow was brought nearer to the
wall, and was exceedingly deep at the diftance of a
few inches only. But wherever the day-light did not
«ome, the fhadows were all black without the lead
mixture of blue.
§ 6. 0/ the Irradiations of the Sun’s Light appearing
through the interfices of the Clouds.
This is an appearance which every one muft have
obferved when the fky was pretty much overcaft with
clouds at fome diftance from each other. At that time
feveral large beams of light, fomething like the appear¬
ance of the light of the fun admitted into a fmoky
room, will be feen, generally with a very confiderable
degree of divergence, as if the radiant point was fi-
tuated at no great diftance above the clouds. Dr
Smith obferves, that this appearance is one of thofe
which ferve to demonftrate that very high and remote
obje&s in the heavens do not appear to us in their real
fliapes and pofitions, but according to their perfpe&ive
projections on the apparent concavity of the fky. He
acquaints us, that though thefe beams are generally
rrxiv feen c,iverg'nS’ as reprefented in fig. 7. it is not al-
ccx v< ways the cafe. He himfelf, in particular, once faw
146 _ them converging towards a point diametrically oppo-
irradiation^ t0 the flin : for> as Iiear as he could conjefture, the
obferved byPoint t0 which they converged was fituated as much
Dr Smith, below the horizon, as the fun was then elevated above
the line tY)t> and the point below it in oppofition to
the fun is E; towards which all the beams vt, vt, &c.
j47 appeared to converge.
Thepheno- “ Obferving, (fays our author,) that the point of
"hined^b conve,'Sence was oppofite to the fun, I began to fufpeft
-'.tame ythat this unufua! phenomenon was but a cafe of the
ufual apparent divergence of the beams of the fun from
his appai-ent place among the clouds, as reprefented in
fig. 7. I fay, an apparent divergence; for though no¬
thing; is more common than for rays to diverge from a
luminous, body, yet the divergence of thefe beams in
fuch large angles is not real but apparent. Becaufe it
is impofiible for the direCt rays of the fun to crofs one
another at any point of the apparent concavity of the
fky, in a greater angle than about half a degree. For
the diameter of the earth being fo extremely final], in
comparifon to the diftance of the fun, as to fubtend ah
angle at any point of his body of but 20 or 22 feconds
at molt; and the diameter of ourvifible horizon being
extremely fmaller than that of the earth ; it is plain,
that all the rays which fall upon the horizon, from any
given point of the fun, muft be inclined to each other
in the fmalieft angles imaginable ; the greateft of them
being as much fmaller than that angle of 22 feconds,
as the diameter of the vifible horizon is fmaller than
that of the earth. All the rays that come to us from
any given point of the fun piay therefore be cOnfuK -
ICS. Partin.
ed as parallel to each other; as the rays from the irradiations
point e, or ffth from the oppofite point f; and con- LVhrS&cS
fequently the rays of thefe two pencils that come from lg * c*
oppofite points of the fun’s real diameter, and crofs each
other in the fun’s apparent place B among the clouds,
can conftitute no greater an angle with each other
than about half a degree; this angle of their interfec-
tion e B/"being the fame as the fun would appear un¬
der to an eye placed among the clouds at B, or (which
is much the fame), to an eye at O upon the ground.
Becaufe the fun’s real diftance OS is inconceivably
greater than his apparent diftance OB. Therefore the
rays of the fun, as B^, B^, do really diverge from his
apparent place B in no greater angles^B^ than about
half a degree. Neverthelefs they appear to diverge
from the place B in all poffible angles, and even in op- Fig. 7*
pofite dire&ions. Let us proceed then to an explana¬
tion of this apparent divergence, which is not felf-evi-
dent by any means; though at firft fight we are apt to
think it is, by not diftinguilhing the vaft difference
between the true and apparent diftances of the fun.
“ What I am going to demonftrate is this. Sup-
pofing all the rays of the fun to fall accurately paral¬
lel to each other upon the vifible horizon, as they do
very nearly, yef in both cafes they muft appear to di¬
verge in all poffible angles. Let us imagine the hea¬
vens to be partly overcaft with a fpacious bed of bro¬
ken clouds, v, v, v, &c. lying parallel to the plane ofp. ^
the vifible horizon, here reprefented by the line AOD. S'
And w'hen the fun’s rays fall upon thefe clouds in the
parallel lines sv, sv, See. let fome of them pafs through
their intervals in the lines vt, vt, See. and fall upon
the plane of the horizon at the places t, t, Sec. And
fince the reft of the incident rays sv, sv, are fuppofed
to be intercepted from the place of the fpe&ator at O
by the cloud x, and from the intervals between the
tranfmitted rays vt, vt. Sec. by the clouds v, v, Sec. a
fmall part of thefe latter rays vt, vt, when refle&ed
every way from fome certain kind of thin vapours float¬
ing in the air, may undoubtedly be fufficient to affeft
the eye with an appearance of lights and fliades, in
the form of bright beams in the places W, v t, Sec.
and of dark ones in the intervals between them: juft
as the like beams of light and fliade appear in a room
by reflexions of the fun’s rays from a fmoky or dufty
air within it: the lights and fliades being here occa-
fioned by the tranfmiffion of the rays through fome
parts of the window, and by their interruption at other
parts.
“ Now if the apparent concavity of this bed of
clouds v, v, to the eye at O, be reprefented by the
arch ABCD, and be cut in the point B by the line OB.v
drawn parallel to the beams tv; it will be evident by
the rules of perfpedlive, that thefe long beams will not
appear in their real places, but upon the concave AB
CD diverging every way from the place B, where the
fun himfelf appears, or the cloud x that covers his
body, as reprefeut' d feparately in full view in fig. 7.
“ And for the fame reafon, if the line BO be pro¬
duced towards E, below the plane of the horizon AOD,
and the eye be dlrefted towards the region of the Iky
direftly above E, the lower ends of the fame real beams
vt, vt, will now appear upon the part DF of this
concave; and will feem to converge towards the point
Fij inuaud juft ad much below the horizon as the op¬
pofite
OPTICS .
Plate CCXV
Part III. OPT
Irradiations pofite point B is above it: which is feparately repre-
of the Sun’s fente<] ;n full v;evv jn flgt g.
g 'r* c’ “ For if the beams vt, vt, be fuppofed to be vifible
throughout their whole lengths, and the eye be direc¬
ted in a plane perpendicular to them, here reprefented
by the line OF; they and their intervals will appear
broadeft in and about this plane, becaufe thefe parts
of them are the neared to the eye; and therefore their
remoter parts and intervals will appear gradually nar¬
rower towards the oppofite ends of the line BE. As
a farther illudration of this matter, we may conceive
the fpeftator at O to be fnuated upon the top of fo
large a defcent OHI towards a remote valley IK, and
the fun to be fo very low, that the point E, oppofite
to him, may be feen above the horizon of this (hady
valley. In this cafe it is manifed, that the fpeftators at
O would now fee thefe beams converging fo far as to
148 meet each other at the point E in the Iky itfelf.
ved'*' ^ n0t reniem^er to ^ave ever ^een any pheno-
mooi/lieht menon by moon-light; not fo much as of
beams diverging from her apparent place. Probably
her light is too weak after reflexions from any kind
of vapours, to caufe a fenfible appearance of lights and
(hades fo as to form thefe beams. And in the unufual
phenomenon I well remember, that the converging
fun-beams towards the point below the horizon were
not quite fo bright and drong as thofe ufually are that
diverge from him; and that the Iky beyond them ap¬
peared very black (feveral (howers having pafled that
way), which certainly contributed to the evidence of
this appearance. Hence it it is probable that the thin-
nefs and weaknefs of the refleXed rays from the va¬
pours oppofite to the fun, is the chief catife that this
appearance is fo very uncommon in comparifon to that
other of diverging beams. For as the region of the
Iky round about the fun, is always brighter than the
oppofite one ; fo the light of the diverging beams
ought alfo to be brighter than that of the converging
ones. For, though rays are refleXed from rough un-
polifhed bodies in all pofiible direXions, yet it is a ge¬
neral obfervation, that more of them are refleXed for¬
wards obliquely, than are refleXed more direXly back¬
wards. Befides, in the prefent cafe, the incident rays
upon the oppofite region to the fun, are more dimi-
nifhed by continual refleXions from a longer traX of
the atmofphere, than the incident rays upon the region
149 next the fun.
More fre- «< -phe common phenomenon of diverging.beams, I
furmner th»nk> 13 m°re frequent in fummer than in winter, and
than in alfo when the fun is lower than when higher up; pro-
winter. bably becaufe the lower vapours are denfer and there¬
fore more ftrongly refltXive than the higher ; be¬
caufe the lower iky-lightis not fo bright as the upper;
becaufe the air is generally quieter in the morn¬
ings and evenings than about noon-day; and laltly,
becaufe many forts of vapours are exhaled in greater
plenty in fummer than in winter, from many kinds of
volatile vegetables; which vapours, when the air is
cooled and condenfed in the mornings and evenings,
may become denfe enough to refleX a fenfible light.”
§7-0/ the Illumination of the Shadow of the Earth by
■ the refraflion of the Atmofphere.
The ancient philofophers, who knew nothing of the
refraXive power of the atmofphere, were very much
perplexed to account for the body of the moon being
ICS. 5571
vifible when totally eclipfed. At fuch times fhe gene- lHumina-
rally appears of a dull red colour, like tarniflied C0P* g3”t£>fsthfr
per, or of iron almoft red hot. This, they thought,
was the moon’s native light, by which (he became vi 
fible when hid from the brighter light of the fun.
Plutarch indeed, in his difeourfe upon the face of the
moon, attributes this appearance to the light of the iio
fixed ftars refleXed to us by the moon; but this muftExplained
be by far too weak to produce that effeX. The trueg^1|^
caufe of it is the fcattered beams of the fun bent into53"11
the earth’s fttadow by refraXions through the atmo¬
fphere in the following manner.
“ Let the body of the fun, fays Dr Smith, be repre- Plate
fented by the greater circle a b, and that of the earth by CCXV.
the leffer one c d; and let the lines ace and b de touch Ia
them both on their oppofite fides, and meet in e beyond
the earth ; then the angular fpace ced will reprefent the
conic figure of the earth’s fhadow, which would be to¬
tally deprived of the fun’s rays, were none of them
bent into it by the refraXive power of the atmofphere.
Let this power juft vanifh at the circle hi, concentric
to the earth, fo that the rays ah and hi, which touch
its oppofite fides, may proceed unrefraXed, and meet
each other at k. Then the two neareft rays to thefe
that flow within them, from the fame points a and b,
being refraXed inwards through the margin of the at-
mofphere, will crofs each other at a point /, fomewhat
nearer to the earth than k; and in like manner, two
oppofite rays next within the two laft will crofs each
other at a point m, fomewhat nearer to the earth than
/, having fuffered greater refraXions, by palling thro’
longer and denfer traXs of air lyii^* fomewhat nearer
to the earth. The like approach of the fucceflive in-
terfeXions k, /, m, is to be underftood of innumerable
couples of rays, till you come to the interfeXion n of
the two innermoft ; which we may fuppofe juft to touch
the earth at the points oand />. It is plain then, that
the fpace bounded by thefe rays on, np, will be the only
part of the earth’s (hadow wholly deprived of the fun’a
rays. Let reprefent part of the moon’s orbit
when it is neareft to the earth, at a time when the
earth’s dark (hadow onp\% the longed : in this cafe I
will (hew that the ratio of tm to tn is about 4 to 3;
and confequently that the moon, tho’ centrally eclip¬
fed at m, may yet be vifible by means of thofe fcatter¬
ed rays above-mentioned, firft tranfmitted to the moon
by refraXion through the atmofphere, and from thence
refleXed to the earth.
“ For let the incident and emergent parts aq, r«,
of the ray aqorn, that juft touches the earth at 0, be
produced till they meet at u, and let <7 y « produced
meet the axis // produced in x; and joining us and
u m, fince the refraXions of an horizontal ray pafling
from 0 to r, or from 0 to q, would be alike and equal, the
external angle nux is double the quantity of the ufual
refraXion of an horizontal ray ; and the angle aus is
the apparent meafure of the fun’s femidiameter feen
from the earth ; and the angle ust is that of the earth’s
femidiameter tu feen from the fun (called his horizon¬
tal parallax); and laftly, the angle umt is that of the
earth’s femidiameter feen from the moon, (called her
horizontal parallax); becaufe the elevation of the point
u above the earth, is too fmall to make a fenfible er¬
ror in the quantity of thefe angles; whole meafures by
aftronomical tables are as follow;
The
S572
Illumina¬
tion of the
Earth’s
Shadow.
OPTICS.
r it
The fun's lead apparent femidiameter = ang. aus = 15—50
The fun’s horizontal parallax - = ang. ust z=. 00—jo
Part III|
Meafures fe
Light,!
Plate
CCXV.
hg. 3-
Their difference is -
Dobble the horizontal refraflion
= ang. txu— 15—40
= ang. /tax= 67—30
Their fum is
The moon's greateft horizontal
Therefore we have tm : tn :: (ang. tnu \ ang. tmu
:: 83'—to" : 62'—jo" ::) 4:3 in round numbers;
which was to be proved. It is eafy to colleft from the
moon’s greateft horizontal parallax of 62'—10", that
her leaft diftarvce tm is about 55I- femidiameters of the
earth; and therefore the greateft length of the dark
fhadow, being three quarters of tm, is about 414 fe-
midiamettrs.
“ The difference of the laft mentioned angles tnu,
tmu, is murr=-2\', that is, about two thirds of 31'—
40", the angle which the whole diameter of the fun
fubtends at a. Whence it follows, that the middle point
in of the moon centrally eclipfed, is illuminated by rays
which come from two thirds of every diameter of the
fun’s difk, and pafs by one fide of the earth; and alfo
by rays that come from the oppofite two thirds of
every one of the faid diameters, and pafs by the other
fide of the earth. This will appear by conceiving the
ray aqorn to be inflexible, and its middle point 0 to
Bide upon the earth, while the part rn is approaching
to touch the point m; for then the oppofite part qa
will trace over two thirds of the fun’s diameter. The
true proportion of the angles num,aus, could not be
preferred in the fcherne, by reafon of the fun’s im-
menfe diftance and magnitude with refpeft to the
earth.
Having drawn the line at*, is is obfervable, that
all the incident rays, as aq, «*, flowing from any one
point of the fun to the circumference of the earth, will
be colle&ed to a focus «, whofe diftance t“ is lefs than
tm in the ratio of 62 to 67 nearly; and thus an image
of the fun will be formed at «/?, whofe rays will di¬
verge upon the moon. For the angle t«.u is the dif¬
ference of the angles xu*, u«t found above; and to. :
tm :: ang. tmu : ang. t*u :: 62'—16" : 67—30".
“ The rays that flow next above aq and a*., by
paffing through ja thinner part of the atmofphere, will
be united at a point in the axis at* fomewhat farther
from the earth than the laft focus «; and the fame may
be faid of the rays that pafs next above thefe, and fo
on ; whereby an infinite feries of images of the fun
will be formed, whofe diameters and degrees of bright-
nefs will increafe with their diftances from the earth.
Hence it is manifeft why the moon eclipfed in her
>n ap- perigee is obferved to appear always duller and dark-
pears dullerer ;n fop,, apogee. The reason why her colour is
fclTin herF'a'W3ys l^e c0PPer k'nt* between a dull red and
perigee orange, I take to be this. The blue colour of a clear
than in herfky fhews manifeftly that the blue-making rays are
more copioofly refleded from pure air than thofe of
any other colour; confequently they are lefs copioufly
tranfmitted through it among the reft that come from
the fun, and fo much the lefs as the traft of air thro’
which they pafs is the longer. Hence the common co¬
lour of the fun and moon is whiteft in the meridian,
and grows gradually more inclined to diluted yellow,
Why the
.apogee.
= ang. tnu — 83—10
parallax = ang. tmu — 62—to
orange, and red, as they defcend lower, that is, as the
rays are tranfmitted through a longer traft of air ;
which tradt being ftill lengthened in palling to the
moon and back again, caufes a ftill greater lofs of the
blue-making rays in proportion to the reft ; and fo the
refulting colour of the tranfmitted rays mull lie be¬
tween a dark orange and red, accoiding to Sir Ifaac
Newton’s rule for finding the refult of a mixture of
colours. We have an inftance of the reverfe of this
cafe in leaf-gold, which appears yellow by refle&ed,
and blue by tranfmitted rays. The circular edge of
the (hadow in a partial eclipfe appears red; becaufe the
red-making rays are the leaft refracted of all others,
and confequently are left alone in the conical furface
of the lhadow, all the reft being refradted into it.
§ 8. Of the Meafures of Light.
That fome luminous bodies give a ftronger, and
others a weaker light, and that fome refledt more
light than others, was always obvious to mankind; Mr Bou-
but no perfon, before Mr Bouguer, hit upon a toler- guer’s co
able method of afcertaining the proportion that twotrivances
or more lights bear to one another. The methods he^or.niea*
mod commonly ufed were the following. light?
He took two pieces of wood or pafteboard EC and p| ^
CD, fig. 4. in which he made two equal holes PcCXV
and over which he drew pieces of oiled or white
paper. Upon thefe holes he contrived that the light
of the different bodies he was comparing fhould fall;
while he placed a third piece of pafteboard FC, to
prevent the two lights from mixing with one another.
Then placing himfelf fometimes on one fide, andfome-
times on the other, but generally on the oppofite fide
of this inftrument, with refpedt to the light, he alter¬
ed their polition till the papers in the two holes ap¬
peared to equally enlightened. This being done, he
computed the proportion of their light by the fquares
of the diftances at which the luminous bodies were
placed from the objefts. If, for inftance, the diftan¬
ces were as three and nine, he concluded that the
light they gave were as nine and eighty-one. Where
any light was very faint, he fometimes made ufe of
lenfes, in order to condenfe it; and he inclofed them
in tubes or not, as his particular application of them
required.
To meafure the intenfity of light proceeding from
the heavenly bodies, or reffe&ed from any part of the
fky, he contrived an inftrument which rtfembles a
kind of portable camera obfcura. He had two tubes,
of which the inner was black, fattened at their lower
extremities by a hinge C, fig. 5. At the bottom of
thefe tubes were two holes, R and S, three or four
lines in diameter, covered with two pie'es of fine'white
paper. The two other extremities had each of them
a circular aperture, an inch in diameter; and one of
the tubes confifted of two, one of them Aiding into
the
Part III. OPT
Meafures of the other, which produced the Tame effedl as varying
the aperture at the end. When this inftrument is
ufed, theobferver has his head, and the end of the in¬
ftrument C, fo covered, that no light can fall upon his
eye, befides that which comes thro’ the two holes S
and R, while an afliftant manages the inftrument, and
draws out or fhortens the tube DE, as the obferver di-
refls. When the two holes appear equally illumina¬
ted, the intenfity of the lights is judged to be inverfe-
ly as the fquares of the tubes.
In ufing this inftrument, it is neceflary that the ob-
jedi (hould fubtend an angle larger than the aperture
A or D, feen from the other end of the tube ; for,
otherwife, the lengthening of the tube has no effeft.
To avoid, in this cafe, making the inftrument of an
inconvenient length, or making the aperture D too
CCXV narrow« he has recourfe to another expedient. He
conftruds an inftrument, reprefented fig. 6. confid¬
ing of two objeft-glafies, AE and DF, exaftly equal,
fixed in the ends of two tubes fix or feven feet, or, in
fome cafes, toor 12 feet long, and having their foci at
the other ends. At the bottom of thefe tubes B, are
two holes, three or four lines in diameter, covered
with a piece of white paper; and this inftrument is
ufed exactly like the former.
If the two objedls to be obferved by this inftrument
be not equally luminous, the light that iffues from them
muft be reduced to an equality, by diminifhing the
aperture of one of the objedt-glafies ; and then the re¬
maining furface of the two glaffes will give the propor¬
tion of their lights. But for this purpofe, the central
parts of the glafs muft be covered in the fame propor¬
tion with the parts near the circumference, leaving the
aperture fuch as is reprefented fig. 7. becaufe the
middle part of the glafs is thicker and lefs tranfparent
than the reft.
If all the objedls to be obferved lie nearly in the
fame direftion, our author obferves, that thefe two
long tubes may be reduced into one, the two obje&-
glafies being placed clofe together, and one eye-glafs
fuffieing for them both. The inftrument will then
be the fame with that of which he publifhed an ac¬
count in 1748, and which he called a heliometer, or
I?5 aftrometer.
There in- Our author obferves, that it is not the abfolute
ftruments quantity, but only the intenfity of the light, that is
onT^h6 • mea^ure^ by tbefe two inftruments, or the number of
tcnLy of"' rays> *n proportion to the furface of the luminous bo-
the light, dy 5 and it is of great importance that thefe two things
be diftinguifhed. The intenfity of light may be very
great, when the quantity, and its power of illumina-
tfng other bodies, may be very fmall, on account of
the fmallnefs of its furface ; or the contrary may be
the cafe, when the furface is large.
Having explained thefe methods which M. Bouguer
took to meafure the different proportions of light, we
fhall fubjoin in this place a few mifcellaneous examples
of his application of them.
It is obfervable, that when a perfon Hands in a place
where there is a ftrong light, he cannot diftinguifh
objefts that are placed in the (hade ; nor can he fee
any thing upon going immediately into a place where
there is very little light. It is plain, therefore, that
the aflion of a ftrong light upon the eye, and alfothe
imprefiion which it leaves upon it, makes it infenfible
ICS. 5573
to the effe& of a weaker light. M. Bouguer had theMeafnres of
curiofity to endeavour to afeertain the proportion be- -b’febc
tween the intenfities of the two lights in this cafe;
and by throwing the light of two equal candles upon
a board, he found that the (hadow made by intercep¬
ting the light of one of them, could not be perceived
by his eye, upon the place enlightened by the other,
at little more than eight times the diftance ; from
whence he concluded, that when one light is eight
times eight, or 64 times lefs than another, its pre¬
fence or abfence will not be perceived. He allows,
however, that the effect may be different on different
eyes ; and fuppofes that the boundaries in this cafe,
with refpedl to different perfons, may lie between 60
and 80.
Applying the two tubes of his inftrnmenf, men¬
tioned above, to meafure the intenfity of the light re-
fle&cd from different parts of the Iky ; he found, that
when the fun was 25 degrees high, the light was four
times ftronger at the diftance of eight or nine degrees
from his body, than it was at 31 or 32 degrees. But
what ftruckhim the moft was to find, that when the
fun is 15 or 20 degrees high, the light decreafes oa
the fame parallel to the horizon to 110 or 120 de¬
grees, and then increafes again to the place exaftly
oppofite to the fun.
The light of the fun, our author obferves, is too
ftrong, and that of the ftars too weak, to determine
the variation of their light at different altitudes : but
Ss, in both cafes, it muft be in the fame proportion,
with the diminution of the light of the moon in the
fame circumftances, he made his obfervations on that
luminary, and found, that its light at 190 16', is to
its light at 66° 1T, as 1681 to 2500; that is, the
one is nearly two thirds of the other. He chofe thofe 154
particular altitudes, becaufe they are thofe of the fun 9r<:at va"
at the two folllices at Croific, where he then refided.^of
When one limb of the moon touched the horizon ofthe moon
the fea, its light was 2000 times lefs than at the alti-at different
tude of 66° 11'. But this proportion he acknowledges akitu<les‘
muft be fubjeft to many variations, the atmofphere
near the earth varying fo much in its denfity. From
this obfervation he concludes, that at-a medium light :
is diminifhed in the proportion of about 2500.to 168 t,
in traverfing 7469 toifes of denfe air. r5J.
-Laftly, our accurate philofopher applied his inftru-Variation
ment to the different parts of the fun’s difk, and founcE11‘Afferent
that the centre is coniiderably more luminous than the-!?3!15 ^!,<r
extremities of it. As near as he could make the ob-fun atl<i
fervation, it was more luminous than a part of the difle planets.
|ihs of the femi-diameter from it, in the proportion
of 2810 35 ; which, us he obferves, is more than in
the proportion of the fines of the angles of obliquity.
On the other hand, he obferves, that both the primary
and fecondary planets are more luminous at their edges
than near their centres,
The comparifon of the light of the fun and moon is
a fubjeft that has frequently exercifed the thoughts of
philofophers ; but we find nothing but random conjec¬
tures, before our author applied his accurate meafures
in this cafe. In general, the light of the moon is
imagined to bear a much greater proportion to that of
the fun than it really does ; and not only are the ima¬
ginations of the vulgar, but thofe of philofophers al-
fo, impofed upon with refpeft to it. It was a great:
fuc-
5574 ° p 'T
Meaiures offurprife to M. De la Hue to find that he could not,
L’ght. bv (he help of any burning mirror, colleft the beams
of the moon in a fufficient quantity to produce the
lead fenfible heat. Other philofophers have fince
made the like attempts with mirrors of greater power,
tho* without any greater fuccefs ; but this will not
furprife us, when we fee the refult of M. Bouguer’s
156 obfervations on this fubjedt.
Mt Bou- In order to folve this curious problem concerning
filiation^" t^le comPar'^on t^ie °f t^ie ^un an^ moon> lle
concerning compared each of them to that of a candle in a dark
the light8 room, ooe in the day-time, and the other in the night
of the following, when the moon was at her mean diftance
moon. fr0m the earth; and, after many trials, he concluded
that the light of the fun is about 300,000 times greater
than that of the moon; which is fuch a difproportion,
that, as he obferves, it can be no wonder that philo¬
fophers have had fo little fuccefs in their attempts to
colled! the light of the moon with burning-glaffes.
For the larged of them will not increafe the light 1000
times; which will dill leave the light of the moon, in
the focus of the mirror, 300 times lefs than the inten-
fity of the common light of the fun.
To this account of the proportion of light which
we adtually receive from the moon, it cannot be dif-
pleafing to the reader, if we compare It with the quan¬
tity which would have been tranfmitted to us from
that opaque body, if it refledted all the light it re¬
ceives. Dr Smith thought that he had proved, from
two different confiderations, that the light of the full
moon would be to our day-light as one to about 90,900,
JS7 if no rays were lod at the moon.
Dr Smith’s In the fird place, he fuppofes that the moon, en-
cakulation. lightened by the fun, is as luminous as the clouds are
at a medium. He therefore fuppofed the light of the
fun to be equal to that of a whole hemifphere of
clouds, or as many moons as would cover the furface
of the heavens. But on this Dr Priedley obferves,
that it is true, the light of the fun fhining perpendi¬
cularly upon any furface would be equal to the light
„ refledted from the whole hemifphere, if every part re¬
fledted all the light that fell upon it; but tlie light
that would in fadt be received from the whole hemi¬
fphere (part of it being received obliquely) would be
only one-half as much as would be received from the
whole hemifphere if every part of it fhone diredtly
upon the furface to be illuminated.
In his Remarks, par. 97, Dr Smith demondrates
his method of calculation in the following manner:
“ Let the little circle cfdg reprefent the moon’s
CCXV k°fiy fialf enlightened by the fun, and the great circle
8. * a el, ^ fpherical fhell concentric to the moon, and
touching the earth; a b, any diameter of that fhell per¬
pendicular to a great circle of the moon’s body, re-
prefented by its diameter cd; e the place of the fhell
receiving full moon light from the bright hemifphere
f dg. Now, becatrfe the furface of the moon is rough
like that of the earth, we may allow that the fun’s
rays, incident upon any fmall part of it, with any ob¬
liquity, are refiedted from it every way alike, as if
they were emitted. And therefore, if the fegment df
fhone alone, the points a, e, would be equally illudrated
by it; and likewife if the remaining bright fegment
dg fhone alone, the points b e would be equally il-
kidrated by it. Conftquently, if the light at the
ICS. Part ml
point a was increafed by the light at l, it would be- Meafure.#
come equal to the full moon-light at e. And con-
ceiving the fame transfer to be made from every point
of the hemifpherical furface bbik to their oppofite
points in the hemifphere kaeh, the former hemi¬
fphere would be left quite dark, and the latter would
be uniformly illuftrated with full moon-light; arifing
from a quantity of the fun’s light, which, immediately
before its incidence on the moon, would uniformly il-
luftrate a circular plane equal to a great circle of her
body, called her dijk. Therefore the quantities of
light being the fame upon both furfaces, the denfity
of the fun’s .incident light, is to the denfity of full
moon-light, as that hemilpherical furface bek is to
the faid difk; that is, as any other hemifpherical fur-
face whofe centre is at the eye, to that part of it which
the moon’s diflt appears to poffefs very nearly, becaufe
it fubtends but a fmall angle at the eye: that is, as
radius of the hemifphere to the verfed fine of the
moon’s apparent femidiameter, or as 10,000,000 to
1106— or as 90,400 to 1; taking the moon’s meaa
horizontal diameter to be 16' 7".
“ Striftly fpeaking, this rule compares moon-light
at the earth with day-light at the moon; the medium
of which, at her quadratures, is the fame as our day¬
light ; but is lefs at her full in the duplicate ratio of
365 to 366,' or thereabout; that is, of the fun’s di-
ttances from the earth and full moon: and therefore
fall-moon light would be to our day-light, as about 1
to 90,900, if no rays were loft at the moon.
1 Secondly, I fay that full-moon light is to any
"L of the r
other moon light as the whole diflc of the moon to
the part that appears enlightened, confidered upon a
plane furface. For now let the earth be at b, and let Fig. 5.
d/be perpendicular to fg, and gtn to cd: then it is
plain, that g l is equal to dm; and that^/ is equal to
a perpendicular fedtion of the fun’s rays incident upon
the arch dg, which at b appears equal to dm; the
eye being unable to diftinguiih the unequal diftances
of its parts. In like manner, conceiving the moon’s
furface to confift of innumerable phyfical circles pa¬
rallel to cfdg, as represented at A, the fame reafon
holds for every one of thefe circles as for cfdg. It
follows then, that the bright part of the furface vifible
at b, when reduced to a flat as reprefented at B, by
the crefcent pdqmp, will be equal and fimilar to a
perpendicular fedtion of all the rays incident on that
part, reprefented at C by the crefcent pgqlp- Now
the whole diflc being in proportion to this crefcent,
as the quantities of light incident upon them; and the
light falling upon every rough particle, being equally
rarified in diverging to the eye at b, conlidered as
equidiftaut from them alh; it fellows, that full moon¬
light is to this moon-light as the whole diflc pdqc to
the crefcent pdqvip.
“ Therefore, "by compounding this ratio with that
in the former remark, day light is to moon-light as
the furface of an hemifphere whofe centre is at the
eye, to the part of that furface which appears to be
poffeffed by the enlightened part of the moon.
* Mr Miehell made his computation in a much more Mr Mi-
fimple and eafy manner, and in which there is
lefs danger of falling into any miftake. Confidering™ a lon‘
the diftance of the moon from the fun, and that the
denfuy
PartHI. OPT
Of Optical denfity of the light muft decreafe in the proportion of
Iaftrumeiust}ie fqUare 0f that diltance, he calculated the denfity
p 0f lhe fun>s Ught, at that diftance, in proportion to its
denfity at the furface of the fun and in this manner
he found, that if the moon refle&ed all the light it re¬
ceives from the fun, it would only be the 45,000th
part of the light we receive from the greater lumi-
; uary. Admitting, therefore, that moon light is only
a 300,000th part of the light of the fun, Mr Michell
concludes, that it reflects no more than between the
6th and 7th part of what falls upon it.
Sect. IV. Of Optical Injlruments.
. pia(e § 1. The Multiplying-glafs.
. CCXVI. The multiplying-glafs is made by grinding down
the round fide hik (fig. 1.) of a convex glafs AB,
into feveral flat furfaces, as hbt bid, dk. An ob¬
ject C will not appear magnified when feen through
this glafs by the eye at H; but it will appear multiplied
into as many different objeds as the glafs contains
plane furfaces. For, fince rays will flow from the
objed C to all parts of the glafs, and each plane fur-
face will refrad thefe rays to the eye, the fame objed
will appear to the eye in the diredion of the rays
which enter it through each furface. Thus, a ray
gi H, falling perpendicularly on the middle furface,
will go through the glafs to the eye without fuffering
any refradion; and will therefore fhew the objed in
its true place at C: whilft a ray ab flowing from
the fame objed, and falling obliquely on the plane
furface bh, will be refraded in the diredion be, by
» pafiing through the glafs; and, upon leaving it, will
go on to the eye in the diredion eH; which will
caufe the fame objed C to appear alfo at E, in the
diredion of the ray H e, produced in the right line
Hen. And the ray c d, flowing from the objed C,
and falling obliquely on the plane furface d k, will be
refraded (by pafiing through the glafs, and leaving
it at f) to the eye at H; which will caufe the fame
objed to appear at D, in the diredion Hfm.—If
the glafs be turned round the line glH, as an axis,
the objed C will keep its place, becaufe the furface
bld'vs not removed; but all the other objeds will
feem to go round C, becaufe the oblique planes, on
which the rays abed fall, will go round by the turning
of the glafs.
§ 2. Mirrors.
1. The Plane Mirror, or common Looking-glafs. The
image of any objed that is placed before a plane mirror,
appears aS big to the eye as the objed itfelf; and is
ered, diftind, and feetningly as far behind the mirror,
as the objed is before it ; and that part of the mirror
which refleds the image of the objed to the eye (the
eye being fuppofed equally diftant from the glafs with
the objed) is juft half as long and half as broad as.the
I piate objed itfelf. Let AB (fig. 3.) be an objed placed
CCXVT. before the refieding furface g h i of the plane mirror
CD ; and let the eye be at 0. Let A/£ be a ray of
light flowing from the top A of the objed and falling
upon the mirror at h, and b in be a perpendicular to
the furface of the mirror at h; the ray Ab will be re-
fkded from the mirror to the eye at os making an
angle >«A/j,?equal to the angle A h m: then will the
Von. VIII. 1
ICS. . . SS7S
top of the image E appear to the eye in the direc-Of Optical
tion of the refleded ray oh produced to E, where theIaftrtlmcnir'
right line A/> E, from the top of the objed, cuts the
right line o/’E, at E. Let B/' be a ray of light pro¬
ceeding from the foot of the objed at B to the mirror
at i; and ni a perpendicular to the mirror from the
point i, where the ray B i falls upon it: this ray will
be refleded in the line i0, making an angle w/o, equal
the angle B i n, with that perpendicular, and enter¬
ing the eye at 0; then will the foot F of the image ap¬
pear in the diredion of the refleded ray oi, produced
to F, where the right line BF cuts the refleded ray pro¬
duced to F. All the other rays that flow from the inter¬
mediate points of the objed AB, and fall upon the
mirror between h and i, will be refleded to the eye at
0} and all the intermediate points of the image EF
will appear to the eye in the diredion of thefe reflec¬
ted rays produced. But all the rays that flow from the
objed, and fall upon the mirror above b, will be re¬
fleded back above the eye at c; and all the rays that
flow from the objed, and fall upon the mirror be¬
low i, will be refleded back below the eye at 0 ; fo
that none of the rays that fall above h, or below i,
can be refleded to the eye at 0; and the diftance be¬
tween h and i is equal to half the length of the objed
AB. l69
Hence it appears, that if a man fees his whole size of a
image in a plane looking-glafs, the part of the glafslooking-
that refleds his image muft be juft half as long andsbf5”1
half as broad as himfelf, let him Hand at any diftance wjq
from it whatever ; and that his image muft appear juft fee his
as far behind the glafs as he is before it. Thus, the man whole i-
AB (fig 4.) viewing himfelf in the plane mirror CD,1*19^-
which is juft half as long as himfelf, fees his whole
image as at EF, behind the glafs, exadly equal to
his own fize. For, a ray AC proceeding from his eye
at A, and falling perpendicularly upon the furface of
the glafs at C, is reflected back to his eye, in the fame
line CA; and the eye of his image will appear at E,
in the fame line produced to E, beyond the glafs.
And a ray BD, flowing from his foot, and falling
obliquely on the glafs at D, will be refleded as ob¬
liquely on the other fide of the perpendicular abT), in
the diredion DA ; and the foot of his image will ap¬
pear at F, in the diredion of the refleded ray AD,
produced to F, where it is cut by the right line BGF,
drawn parallel to the right line ACE. Juft the fame
as if the glafs were taken away, and a real man flood
at F, equal in fize to the man {landing at B : for to
his eye at A, the eye of the other man at E would be
feen in the diredftion of the line ACE ; and the foot
of the man at F would be feen by the eye A, in the
diredion of the line ADF.
If the glafs be brought nearer the man AB, as fup-
pofe to c b, he will fee his image as at CDG : for the
refleded ray CA (being perpendicular to thp glafs)
will {hew the eye of the image as at C ; and the inci¬
dent ray B being refleded in the line b A, will
ftiew the foot of his image as at G ; the angle of re-
fledion ab A being always equal to the angle of inci¬
dence H>ba: and fo of all the intermediate rays from
A to B. Hence, if the man AB advances towards
the glafs CD, his image will approach towards it;
and if he recedes from the glafs, his image will alfo
recede from it. .
3»N
If
5576 OPT
Ot Optical If the objedl be placed before a common looking-
Inftrnmentsg)af3< an(j v;eweci obliquely, three, four, or more images
p. of it will appear behind the glafs.
CCXII. To explain this, let ABCD (fig. n.) reprefent the
glafs; and let EF be the axis of a pencil of rays flow-
WhV'three ing from E, a point in an objeft fituated there. The
or four i- rays of this pencil will in part be refle&ed at F, fup-
mages of pofe into the line FG. What remains will (after re-
cbjefls are fra(qjon at which we do not confider here) pafs on
plane'mir- to ^ ’ ^rom wl161106 (on account of the quickfilver
rors. which is fpread over the fecond furface of glafles of
this kind to prevent any of the rays from being tranf-
mitted there) they will be llrongly refledted to K,
where part of them will emerge and enter an eye at
L. By this means one reprefentation of the faid point
will be formed in the line LK produced, fuppofe in M:
Again, another pencil, whofe axis is E N, firft reflec¬
ted at N, then at O, and afterwards at P, will form
a fecond reprefentation of the fame point at Qj And
thirdly, another pencil, whofe axis is ER, after reflec¬
tion at the feveral points R, S, H, T, V, fuccefiively,
will exhibit a third reprefentation of the fame point at
X ; and fo on in infinitum. The fame being true of
each point in the object, the whole will be reprefented
in the like manner; but the reprefentations will be
faint, in proportion to the number of reflections the
rays fuffer, and the length of their progrefs within the
glafs. We may add to thefe another reprefentation of
the fame objedt in the line LO produced, made by fuch
.of the rays as fall upon O, and are from thence reflec¬
ted to the eye at L.
This experiment may be tried by placing a candle
before the glafs as at E, and viewing it obliquely, as
fiom L.
2. Of Concave and Convex Mirrors. The effedls of
thefe in magnifying and diminilhing objedts have been
already in general explained ; but for the better un-
derftanding the nature of reflecting telefcopes, it will
ft ill be proper to fubjoin the following particular de-
fcription of the effedts of concave ones.
' rvuii When parallel rays, (fig. 2.) as dfat C?nb, etc,
’ ’ fall upon a concave mirror AB (which is not tranfpa-
rent, but has only the furface Abb oi a clear polifli)
they will be refiedted back from that mirror, and meet
in a point m, at half the diflanceof the furface of the
mirror from C the centre of its concavity; for they
will be reflected at as great an angle from a perpen¬
dicular to the furface of the mirror, as they fell upon
it with regard to that perpendicular, but on the other
fide thereof. Thus, let C be the centre of concavity
of the mirror A ^B; and let the parallel rays dfat
G mb, and elc, fall upon it at the points a, b, and c.
Draw the lines Cia, Cmb, and Cbc, from the cen¬
tre C to thefe points; and all thefe lines will be per¬
pendicular to the furface of the mirror, becaufe they
proceed thereto like fo many radii or fpokes from its
centre. Make the angle Cab equal to the angle da
C, and draw the line amh, which will be the direc¬
tion of the ray dfa, after it is reflected from the
point a of the mirror: fo that the angle of incidence
daC, is equal to the angle of reflection Cab; the
rays making equal angles with the perpendicular C
on its oppofite Tides.
Draw alfo the perpendicular to the point c,
where the ray elc touches the mirror; and having
made the angle 2c i equal to the angle Ctf?, draw the
I C S. Part in.
line cmi, which will be the courfe of the ray elc, af- Of Optical |
ter it is reflected from the mirror. Iifttramems
The ray G mb paffing thro’ the centre of concavity
of the mirror, and falling upon it at b, is perpendicu¬
lar to it; and is therefore reflected back from it in the
fame line bmC. j
All thefe reflected rays meet in the point m; and in
that point the image of the body which emits the pa¬
rallel rays da, Cb, and <?c, will be formed; which,
point is diftant from the mirror equal to half the ra¬
dius b mC of its concavity.
The rays which proceed from any celeftial objedt
may be efteemed parallel at the earth ; and therefore
the images of that objedt will be formed at sn, when
the reflecting furface of the concave mirror is turn¬
ed diredtly towards the objedt. Hence, the focus m
of parallel rays is not in the centre of the mirror's
concavity, but half way between the mirror and that
centre.
The rays which proceed from any remote tcfreftrial
objedt, are nearly parallel at the mirror: not ftridtly
fo, but come diverging to it, in feparate pencils, or, as
it were, bundles of rays, from each point of the fide
of the objedt next the mirror; and therefore they will
not be converged to a point at the diftance of half the
radius of the mirror’s concavity from its reflecting fur¬
face, but into feparate points at a little greater di¬
ftance from the mirror. And the nearer the objedt is
to the mirror, the farthsr thefe points will be from it;
and an inverted image of the objedt will be formed in
them, which will feem to hang pendant in the air;mages
and will be feen by an eye placed beyond it (with re-formed by
gard to the mirror) in all refpedts like the objedt, andco.ncave
as diftina as the objed itfelf. inirrors'
Let Ac B (fig. 3.) be the reflea ing furface of a
mirror, whofe centre of concavity is at C ; and let
the upright objea DE be placed beyond the centre
C, and fend out a conical pencil of diverging rays
from its upper extremity D, to every point of the con¬
cave furface of the mirror A c B. But to avoid con-
fufion, we only draw three rays of that pencil, as DA,
D c, DB.
From the centre of concavity C, draw the three
right lines CA, C c, CB, touching the mirror in the
fame points where the forefaid rays touch it; and all
thefe lines will be perpendicular to the furface of the
mirror. Make the angle CAd equal to the angle
DAC, and draw the right line Ad for the courfe of
the refledled ray DA: make the angle Ccoequal to
the angle DcC, and draw the right line cd for the
courfe of the refledted ray D d: make alfo the angle
CB^ equal to the angle DBG, and draw the right
line B d for the courfe of the refledled ray DB. All
thefe refledled rays will meet in the point d, where
they will form the extremity d of the inverted image
fimilar to the extremity D of the upright ebjedl
If the pencil of rays Eyj E^, E be alfo continued
to the mirror, and their angles of refledtion from it
be made equal to their angles of incidence upon it, as
in the former pencil from D, they will all meet at
the point e by refledlion, and form the extremity <?of
the image e d, fimilar to the extremity E of the ob¬
jedt DE.
And as each intermediate point of the objedt, be¬
tween D and E, fends out a pencil of rays in like
man-
PartHI. OPT
Of Optical manner to every part of the mirror, the rays'of each
Ihnftrumcntspencil will be reflefted back from it, and meet in all
the intermediate points between the extremities e and
d of the image; and fo the whole image will be form¬
ed, not at /, half the diftance of the mirror from its
centre of concavity C; but at a greater dittance, be¬
tween i and the objeft DE; and the image will be in¬
verted with refpeft to the objedt.
This being well underftood, the reader will eafily
fee how the image is formed by the large concave mir¬
ror of the refledting telefcope, when he comes to the
defeription of that inftrument.
When the objedt is more remote from the mirror
than its centre of concavity C, the image will be lefs
than the objeft, and between the objedt and mirror :
when the objeft is nearer than the centre of concavity,
the image will be more remote and bigger than the
object. Thus, if DE be the objedt, ed will be its image:
For, as the objedt recedes from the mirror, the image
approaches nearer to it; and as the objedt approaches
nearer to the mirror, the image recedes farther from
it; on account of the leffer or greater divergency of
the pencils of rays which proceed from the objedt:
for, the lefs they diverge, the fooner they are conver¬
ged to points by reflection ; and the more they di¬
verge, the farther they muft be refledted before they
meet.
If the radius of the mirror’s concavity, and the di-
flance of the objedt from it, be known, the diftance of
the image from the mirror is found by this rule: Di¬
vide the produdt of the diftance and radius by double
the diftance made lefs by the radius, and the quotient
is the diftance required.
If the objedt be in the centre of the mirror’s conca¬
vity, the image and objedt will be coincident, and equal
in bulk.
If a man places bimfelf diredtly before a large con¬
cave mirror, but farther from it than its centre of con¬
cavity, he will fee an inverted image of himfelf in the
air, between him and the mirror, of a lefs fize than
himfelf. And if he holds out his hand towards the
mirror, the hand of the image will come out towards
his hand, and coincide with it, of an equal bulk, when
his hand is in the centre of concavity; and he will ima¬
gine he may (hake hands with his image. If he reaches
his hand farther, the hand of the image will pafs by
his hand, and come between his hand and his body:
and if he mores his hand towards either fide, the hand
of the image will move towards the other ; fo that
whatever way the objed moves, the image will move
the contrary.
All the while a byftander will fee nothing of the
image, becaufe none of the refleded rays that form it’
enter his eyes.
§ 3- Microfcopes.
i. The Single Microfcope is only a very fmall globule
Plate glafs, or a convex lens, whofe focal diftance is very
CCX. fhort. It is reprefented by cd, fig. 6. The objed ab
is placed in its focus, and the eye at the fame diftance
on the other fide; fo that the rays of each pencil, flow¬
ing from every point of the objed on. the fide next the
glafs, may go on parallel to the eye after pafling thro’
the glafs; and then, by entering the eye at C, they
will be converged to as many points on the retina, and
1 c S- 5577
form a large inverted piQurc AB upon it. The mag- Of Optical
nifying power of this microfcope is thus explained by ln^ruments
Dr Smith. “ A minute objed p feen diftinftly
through a fmall glafs AE by the eye put clofe to it eexvm.
appears fo much greater than it would to the naked fig. j. 6.
eye, placed at the leaft: diftance yL from whence it ap¬
pears fufficiently diftind, as this latter diftance yL is
greater than the former yE. For having put your eye
clofe to the glafs EA, in order to fee as much of the
objed as poflible at one view, remove the objed pq to
and fro till it appear mod diftindly, fuppofe at the di¬
ftance £q. Then conceiving the glafs AE to be re¬
moved, and a thin plate, with a pin-hole in it, to be
put in its place, the objed will appear diftind, and as
large as before, when feen through the glafs, only no
fo bright. And in this lafter cafe it appears fo much
greater than it does to the naked eye at the diftance
yL, either with the pin-hole or without it, as the angle
pEq is greater than the angle pLq, or as the latter di¬
ftance yL is greater than the former yE. Since the
interpofition of the glafs has no other effed than to
render the appearance diftind, by helping the eye to
increafe the refradion of the rays in each pencil, it is
plain that the greater apparent magnitude is entirely
owing to a nearer view than could be taken by the na-
ked eye. If the eye be foperfed as to fee diftindly by
pencils of parallel rays falling upon it, the diftance Ey,
of the objed from the glafs, is then the focal diftance of
the glafe. Now, if the glafs be a fmall round globule, cf
about Tj-th of an inchdiameter, its focal diftance Ey, be¬
ing three quarters of its diameter, is ^th of an inch;
and if yL be eight inches, the diftance at which we
ufually view minute objeds, this globule will magnify
in the proportion of 8 to or of 16o to t.
2. The Double or Compound Microfcope (fig. 7.) con- Plate
fifts of an objed-glafs cd> and an eye-glafs ef The CCX.
fmall objed ab is placed at a little greater diftance
from the glafs c d than its principal focus; fo that the
pencils of rays flowing from the different points of the
objed, and pafling through the glafs, may be made
to converge, and unite in as many points between g
and hy where the image of the objed will be formed:
which image is viewed by the eye through the eye-
glafs ef. For the eye-glafs being fo placed, that the
image g h may be in its focus, and the eye much about
the fame diftance on the other fide, the rays of each
pencil will be parallel after going out of the eye-
glafs, as at e and f, till they come to the eye at h,
where they will begin to converge by the refradive
power of the humours; and after having croffed each
other in the pupil, and paffed through the cryftalline
and vitreous humours, they will be colleded into
points on the retina, and form the large inverted image
AB thereon. i(f2
By this combination of lenfes, the aberration ofufeof fe*
the light from the figure of the glafs, which in a glo- yeral lenfes
bule of the kind abovementioned is very confiderable,in a <\om:
is in fome meafure correded. This appeared fo fen-crofcop?.1*
fibly to be the cafe, even to former opticians, that
they very foon began to make the addition of another
lens. The inftrument, however, receives a confiderable
improvement by the addition of a third lens. For, fays
Mr Martin, it is not only evident from the theory of
this aberration, that the image of any point is ren¬
dered lefs confufed by refraction through two lenfes,
31 N 2 than
5578 OPT
Of Optical than by an equal refraftion through one; but it alfo
3;Utrunients£0]j0VVE} fr0m the fame principle, that the fame point
has its image ftill lefs confufed when formed by rays re-
frafted through three lenfes, than by an equal refrac¬
tion through two; and therefore a third lens added to
the other two, will contribute to make the image more
diftin<5t, and confequently the inftrument more com¬
plete. At the fame time the field of view is ampli¬
fied, and the ufe of the microfcope rendered more
agreeable, by the addition of the other lens. Thus
alfo we may allow a fomewhat larger aperture to the
objeft-lens, and thereby increafe the brightnefs of
objects, and greatly heighten the pleafure of viewing
them. For the fame reafon, Mr Martin has propofed
a four-glafs microfcope, which anfwers the purpofes of
of magnifying and of dillindt vificn ftill more per-
feftly.
The magnifying power of double microfcopes is ea-
Plate fily underftood, thus: The glafs L next the objedt PQ^
CCXVin. veryfmall, and very much convex, and confequently
7‘ its focal diftance LF is very ftiort; the diftance LQjaf
the fmall objedt PQ^is but a little greater than LF:
fo that the image /> q may be formed at a great di¬
ftance from the glafs, and confequently may be much
greater than the objedl itfelf. This pidhire pq being
viewed through a convex glafs AE, whofe focal di¬
ftance is q E, appears diftindt as in a telefcope.
Now the objedf appears magnified upon two ac¬
counts ; firft, becaufe, if we viewed its pidfure pq
with the naked eye, it would appear as much greater
than the objedf, at the fame diftance, as it really
is greater than the objedt, or as much as L y is
greater than LQ^ and, fecondly, becaufe this pic¬
ture appears magnified through the eye-glafs as much
as the leaft diftance at which it can be feen diftindlly
with the naked eye, is greater than yEj.the focal
diftance of the eye-glafs. For example, if this latter
ratio be five to one, and the former ratio of L y to
LQJ^e 20 to i; then, upon both accounts, the objedt
will appear 5 times 20, or 100 times greater than to
the naked eye.
Fig. 2. reprefents a compound microfcope with
three lenfes. By the middle one GK the pencils of
rays coming from the objedt-glafs are refradted fo as
to tend to a focus at O; but being intercepted by the
proper eye-glafs DF, they are brought together at I,
which is nearer to that lens than its proper focus atL;
fo that the angle DIF, under which the objedl now
appears, is larger than DLF, under which it would
have appeared without this additional glafs; and con¬
fequently the objedt is more magnified in the fame
proportion. Dr Hooke tells us, that, in moft of his
obfervations, he made ufe of a double microfcope with
this broad middle-glafs when he wanted to fee much
of an objedt at one view, and taking it out when he
would examine the fmall parts of an objedt more ac¬
curately; for the fewer refradtions there are, the more
jjj. bright and clear the objedt appears.
How to In microfcopical lenfes whofe focal diftances are not
preferve the much (horter than half an inch, there is no need to
contradt their apertures for procuring diftindt vifion;
in diffe- * t^ie PUP^ itfelf being fmall enough to exclude the ex¬
rent magni- terior ftraggling rays. But in fmaller lenfes, where
fers. apertures are neceflary, Dr Smith has demonftrated,
that, to preferve the fame degree of diftindtnefs, their
I c s.
Part III.
apertures muft be as their focal diftances, and then Of Optical
the apparent brightnefs will decreafe in a duplicate In^rument
ratio of their focal diftances: fo that, by ufing fmaller
glaffes, the apparent magnitude and the obfcurity of
the objedl will both increafe in the fame ratio. F
the ratio of PD to PF being invariable, the angle Fig. 3.
PFD is alfo invariable; and confequently the quan¬
tity of light received from the point F is alfo invari¬
able ; becaufe the apertures of the lenfes, whether
fmaller or larger, mnft all be fituated at fuch diftances
from F as juft to receive all the rays contained in a
tone defcribed by^turning the angle PFD about the
axis PF, neither more nor lefs. But the apparent
magnitude of the objedl, or the furface of its pidhire
upon the retina, is reciprocally as PF fquare; and
confequently, the light being the fame, its brightnefs
is dfredlly as PF fquare. By this theory it appears,
that a minute objedt cannot be magnified to infinity
by a fingle lens, though it were poffible to make it as
fmall as we pleafe, without fome method of increafing
its light. Neverthelefs, this imperfedtion in fingle
microfcopes is not fo great as at firft fight one would
take it to be, or as in fadt we find it; the reafon may
be, becaufe the eye is capable of discerning objedts
tolerably well by above 20,000 different degrees of
light. But though the brightnefs of the objedt were
increafed by throwing new light upon it, yet Huygens
pbferves, that the power of the microfcope will ftill
be limited by the breadth of the pencils which enter
the pupil; which is equal to the breadth of the
aperture. For, if this breadth be lefs than or £
of a line, he affirms that the edges of the objedl
will begin to appear indiftindt. But by double mi¬
crofcopes this author has made it appear, that we
may magnify objedls at pleafure, provided it was
poffible to form their objedt-glaffes fufficiently fmall.
3. The Solar Microfcope (fig. 4..), invented by Drpiatc
Lieberkuhn, is conftrudted in the following manner. CCXVII.
Having procured ,a very dark room, let a round hole
be made in the windovv-ffiutter, about three inches
diameter, through which the fun may caft a cylinder
of rays AA into the room. In this hole place the
end of a tube containing two convex glaffes and an
objedt, viz. 1. A convex glafs a a, of about two inches
diameter, and three inches focal diftance, is to be
placed in that end of the tube which is put into the
hole. 2. The objedt bb being put between two glaf¬
fes, which muft be concave to hold it at liberty, is
placed about two inches and a half from the glafs a a.
3. A little more than a quarter of an inch from the
objedt is placed the fmall convex glafs cc, whofe focal
diftance is a quarter of an inch. The tube may be fo
‘‘placed when the fun is low, that his rays AA may enter
diredtly into it; but when he is high, his rays BB muft
be refledted into it by the mirror CC. Things being
thus prepared, the rays that enter the tube will be con¬
veyed by the glafs a a towards the objedt bb^ by which
means it will be ftrongly illuminated, and the rays d,
which flow from it through the convex lens cc, will
make a large inverted pidture of the objedt at DD,
which, being received on a white paper, will reprefent-
the objedt magnified in length, in the proportion of
the diftance of the pidture from the glafs c c to the di¬
ftance of the objedt from the fame glafs. Thus, fup-
pofe the diftance of the objedt from the glafs to be
t~5
Partlll. OPT
Of Optical of an ,'nc}^ ancj t}je dJftance of the diftinft plfture
Inflrumentst0 fjg I2feet 0r 144 inches, in which there are 1440
tenth parts of an inch ; this number divided by 3 gives
380 ; which is the number of times that the pidture
is longer or broader than the objeft ; and the length
multiplied by the breadth, (hews how many times.the
M4r whole furface is magnified,
tin's me" Martin propofes the following method of in-
thod of in-creating the light upon objedts without heating them
creafing the too much. Let AB be the frame or plate of the mi-
hght on crofCOpe ; CD the hoi e in the middle, into which the
PlJte ^ ' tu^e's ^crewec^ on onefide, and the illuminating glafs
IcxVIII. is on the other : the fize of this illuminator is com-
fig. 4. monly 1 ~ inch diameter; but that not giving fufficient
light, we fuppofe it removed, and another much lar¬
ger lens GH placed at the end of the refledlor (or
looking-glafs) EF, moveable upon a foot at F. We
may fuppofe this glafs GH to be from three to fix
inches diameter; and therefore, in our example, let it
be a lens of 4 inches diameter, and its focal diftance
12 inches.
Then the looking-glafs EF being properly adjufted,
and the lens GH fo pofited as to receive the rays of
the fun a, 6, c, in a perpendicular diredlion, they will
be refradted through it, tending towards a focus in the
axis IL at 12 inches from the lens. But this cone of
rays falling upon the glafs EF, between K and L,
will, by it, be refledied to a focus O in the refledted
axis L,g, which is parallel to the horizon.
Now the focus O of any lens being the image of the
fun, will of courfe be a circle; and in the prefent cafe
of a lens 12 inches focal diftance, this circle will be
extremely near tV of an inch diameter, by allowing
3o'-«for the diameter of the fun. Hence the vertex N
of the cone will be of an inch beyond the focus O.
Therefore the diameter of the fedLon of the cone
within the focus, will be of an inch ; at ^ within
the focus, the fedlion will be ; at from the fo-.
cus, the fedlion will be -rcr > an(f at J-iV from the
focus, the fediion will be or half an inch in dia¬
meter.
Therefore at of an inch from the focus the fec-
tion of the cone will be alfo of an inch in diameter;
and it is found by experience that nearer the focuS O
no objedts can be placed. Therefore the firft inch and
quarter of the radious cone may be applied for all the
various powers of magnifying microfcopic objedis;
and from thence, through the next inch, the me-
galafcope may be applied in the greateft perfediion.
Let Z be the centre of the hole CD in the frame,
then ZO will be about yi of the 12 inches, and
confequently long enough for a movement of the mi-
crofcope and megalafcope through the 2 inches juft
mentioned. Hence it will appear, that in this con-
ftrudlion of the folar microfcope* a much lefs appara¬
tus of tube-work will be neceffary than in the common
fort, where DOC makes all the cone, and the length
Z^ is 7 or 8 inches.
If we put the diameter of the common illuminator
CD=i,5, and the diameter of the lens GH=3,
then, in the fame fedlion RS of the cone produced by
each lens feparately, we have the intenfity of light as
CD* to GH% that is, as 2,25 to 9, or as 1 to 4.
If GH=4, then the ratio of the increafe of light
will be that of 2,25 to 16, or as 1 to 7,1. Suppofe
1 C S. 5579
GH = 5 ; then 2, 25 : 25 : : t : 11 nearly. So that Of Optical
by this conftrudlion you may increafe the light uponJn^run~‘ei>ts
objedfs, or their images, at leaft feven times with eafe,
or ten times with very little trouble or expence.
§ 4. Teltfcopes.
I. The Refracting Telescope.
After what has been faid concerning the ftrudlure
of the compound microfcope, and the manner in wlfich
the rays pafs through it to the eye, the nature of the
common aftronomical telefcope will eafily be under-
ftood : for it differs from the microfcope only in that
the objedl is placed at fo great a diftance from it, that
the rays of the fame pencil, flowing from thence,
may be confidered as falling parallel to one another
upon the objedl-glafs; and therefore the image made
by that glafs is looked upon as coincident with its focus
of parallel rays.
1. The 6th figure will render this very plain ; in Plate
which AB is the objedl emitting the feveral pencilsCCXVlL
of rays A.dc, Red, &c. but fuppofed to be at fo
great a diftance from the objedl-glafs e d, that the rays
of the fame pencil may be confidered as parallel to
each other; they are therefore fuppofed to be cclledted
into their refpedtive foci at the point m and />, fituated
at the focal diftance of the objedl-glafs c d. Here
they form an image E, and croffing each other proceed
diverging to the eye-glafs ^ ; which being placed at
its own focal diftance from the points m and />, the
rays of each pencil, after pafiing through that glafs,
will become parallel among themfelves; but the pencils
themfelves will converge confiderably with refpedl to
one another, even fo as tocrofs at e, very little farther
from the glafs gh than its focus ; becaufe, when they
entered the glafs, their axes were almoft parallel, as
coming through the objedl-glafs at the point k, to
vvhofe diftance the breadth of the eye-glafs in a long
telefcope bears very fmall proportion. So that the
place of the eye will be nearly at the focal diftance of
the eye-glafs, and the rays of each refpedlive pencil
being parallel^among themfelves, and their axes crofting
each other in a larger angle than they would do if the
objedl were to be feen by the naked eye, vifion will
be diftindl, and the objedl will appear magnified.
The power of magifying in this telefcope is as the
focal length of the objedl-glafs to the focal length of
the eye-glafs.
Dem. In order to prove this, we may confider the
angle A^B as that under which the objedl would be feen
by the naked eye; for in confidering the diftance of
the objedl, the length of the telefcope may be omit¬
ted, as bearing no proportion to it. Now' the angle
under which the objedl is feen by means of the tele¬
fcope, \§ geh, which is to the other AIB, or its equal
gklu as the diftance from the centre of the objedl-glafs
to that of the eye-glafs. The angle, therefore, under
which an objedl appears to an eye aflifted by a tele-
fcopc of this kind, is to that under which it vvguld be
feen without it, as the focal length of the objedl-glafs
to the focal length of the eye-glafs.
It is evident from the figure,, that the vifible area,
or fpace which can be feen at one view when we look
through this telefcope, depends on the breadth of the
eye-glafs, and not of the objedl-glafs; for if the eye-
glafs be too fmall to receive the rays^;«, fb7 the ex¬
tremities
558°
Of Optical
Inftrument!
Plate
CCXVII.
Plate1
CCXVII.
OPT
tremities of theobjeft could not have been feen at a!!:
1 a larger breadth of the objetft-glafs conduces only to the
rendering eacli point of the image more luminous by
receiving a larger pencil of rays from each point of
the objeft.
It is in this telefcope as in the compound micro-
fcope, where we fee, when we look through it, not
the objeft itfelf, but only an image of it at CED: now
that image being inverted with refpefit to the objedl,
as it is, becaufe the axes of the pencils that flow from
the objedf erofs each other at k, obje&s feen through
a telefcope of this kind neceflarily appear inverted.
This is a circumftance not at all regarded by aftro-
nomers : but for viewing obje&s upon the earth, it is
convenient that the telefcope rtiould reprefent them in
their natural pofture; to which ufe the telefcope with
three eye-glaffes, as reprefented fig. 7. is peculiarly
adapted, and the progrefs of the rays through it from
the objedl to the eye is as follows:
AB is the objeft fending out the feveral pencils
Acd, Red, &c. which paffing through the objecl-
glafscaf, are eollefted into their refpeftive foci in CD,
where they form an inverted image. From hence they
proceed to the firft eye-glafs ef, whofe focus being at
/, the rays of each pencil are rendered parallel among
tbemfelves, and their axes, which were nearly parallel
before, are made to converge and crofs each other:
the fecond eye-glafs gbt being fo placed that its focus
ftiall fall upon m, renders the axis of the pencils which
diverge from thence parallel, and caufes the rays of
each which were parallel among themfelves to meet
again at its focus EF on the other fide, where they
form a fecond image inverted with refpeft to the for¬
mer, but ereft with refpefl: to the objeft. Now this
image being feen by the eye at ab through the eye-
glafs iky affords a direft reprefentation of the objedl,
and under the fame angle that the firft image CD
wbuld have appeared, had the eye been placed at /,
fuppofing the eye-glaffes to be of equal convexity ;
and therefore the objedt is feen equally magnified in
this as in the former telefcope, that is, as the focal di¬
fiance of the objedl- glafs to that of any one of the eye-
glafles, and appears eredt.
If a telefcope exceeds 20 feet, it is of no ufe in view¬
ing objedts upon the furface of the earth; for if it mag¬
nifies above 90 or too times, as thofe of that length
ufually do, the vapours, which continually float near
the earth in great plenty, will be fo magnified as to
render vifiou obfeure.
2. The Galilean Telefcope with the concave eye-glafs
is conftrudled as follows:
AB (fig. 5.) is an objedl fending forth the pencils
of vzys g h i, k lin, &c. which, after pafiing through
the object-glafs cdy tend towards eE_/'(where we will
fnppofe the focus of it to be), in order to form an in¬
verted image there as before; but in their way to it
arc made to pafs through the concave glafs no, fo pla-
I C S. Parti]
ced that its focus may fall upon E, and jconfequently Of Opd
the rays of the feveral pencils which were convergingInftrum*
towards thofe refpedtive focal points e, E,y^ will be”
rendered parallel among themfelves ; but the axes of
thofe pencils croffing each other at F, and diverging
from thence, will be rendered more diverging, as re¬
prefented in the figure. Now thefe rays entering the
pupil of an eye, will form a large and diftindl image
ab upon the retina, which will be inverted with refpedt
to the objedl, becaufe the axes of the pencils crofs in
F; and the angle the objedl will appear under will be
equal to that which the lines a¥, b¥, produced back
through the eye-glafs, form at F.
It is evident, that the lefs the pupil of the eye is,
the lefs is the vifible area feen through a telefcope of
this kind; for a lefs pupil would exclude fuch pencils
as proceed from the extremities of the objedl AB, as is
evident from the figure. This is an inconvenience that
renders this telefcope unfit for many ufes; and is only
to be remedied by the telefcope with the convex
eye-glaffes, where the rays which form the extreme
parts of the image are brought together in order to
enter the pupil of the eye, as explained above.
It is apparent alfo, that the nearer the eye is placed
to the eye-glafs of this telefcope, the larger is the area
feen through it; for, being placed dole to the glafs,
as in the figure, it admits rays that come from A and
B, the extremities of the objedl, which it could not if
' it was placed farther off.
The degree of magnifying in this telefcope is in the
fame proportiort with that in the other, wz. as the fo¬
cal diftance of the objedt-glafs is to the focal-diftancc
of the eye-glafs.
For there is no other difference but this, viz. that
as the extreme pencils in that telefcope were made to
converge and form the angle (fig. 6.), ox i n k
(fig. 7.), thefe are now made to diverge and form the
angle «F£ (fig. 5.) ; which angles, if the concave glafs
in one has an equal refradlive power with the convex
one in the other, will be equal, and therefore each
kind will exhibit the objedl magnified in the fame de¬
gree.
There is a defedt in all thefe kinds of telefcopes,
not to be remedied in a fingle lens by any means
whatever, which was‘thought only to arife from
hence, viz. that fpherical glaffes do not colledl rays
to one and the fame point. But it was happily dif-
covered by Sir Ifaac Newton, that the imperfec¬
tion of this fort of telefcope, fo far as it arifes from
the fpherical form of the glaffes, bears almoft no pro¬
portion to that which is owing to the different re-
frangibility of light. This diverfity in the refradlion
of rays is about a 28th part of the whole; fo that the
objedi-glafs of a telefcope cannot colledl the rays which impjrfe,..
flow from any one point in the objedl into a lefs room tion in
than the circularfpace whofe diameter is about the56th dioptrical
part of the breadth of the glafs (a). Therefore, fince telefcoPes*
each
(A) To fhew this, let AS, fig. 1. reprefent a convex lens, and let CDF be a pencil of rays flowing from the
point D : let H be the pmnt at which the leaft refrangible rays are colkdted to a focus; and I, that where the
moft refrangible concur. Then, if IH be the 28th part of EH, IK will be a proportionable part of EC (the triangles
iIK and HEC being fimilar): confequently LK will be the 28th part of FC. But MN will be the leaft fpace in-
to vyhich the rays will be collected, as appears by their progrefs reprefented in the figure. Now MN is but about
halt of KL; and therefore it is about the j6th part of CF: fo that the diameter of the fpace, into which the rays
are colledled, will be about the 56th part of the breadth of that part of the glafs thro’ which the rays pals. Which
was to be fhewn. r o 1 v
Part III. OPT
Of Optical each point of the obje& will he reprefented ia fo large
ffftruincntsa fpace, and the centres of thofe fpaces will be conti¬
guous, becaufe the points in the obje& the rays flow
from are fo; it is evident, that the image of an objedt
made by fuch a glafs mull be a mod confufed repre-
fentation, though it does not appear fo when viewed
through an eye-glafs that magnifies in a moderate de¬
gree ; confequently the degree of magnifying in the
eye-glafs mull not be too great with refpeft to that
of the object-glafs, left the confufion become fen-
fible.
Notwithftanding this imperfe&ion, a dioptrical te-
lefcope may be made to magnify in any given degree,
provided it be of fufficient length ; for the greater the
focal diftance of the objedt-glafs is, the kfs may be
the proportion which the focal diftance of the eye-glafs
may bear to that of the objedl-glafs, without render¬
ing the image obfcure. Thus, an objeft-glafs, whofe
focal diftance is about four feet, will admit of an eye-
glafs whofe focal diftance fhall be liitle more than an
inch, and confequently will magnify almoft 48 times :
but an objedt-glafs of 40 foot focus will admit of an
eye-glafs of only four-inch focus, and will therefore
magnify 120 times; and an objedt-glafs of too foot
focus will admit of an eye-glafs of little more than
fix-inch focus, and will therefore magnify almoft zoo
times.
The reafon of this difproportion in their feveral de¬
grees of magnifying is to be explained in the follow¬
ing manner. Since the diameter of the fpaces, into
which rays flowing from the feveral points of an ob-
jedl are colledted, are as the breadth of the objedl-
glafs, it is evident that the degree of confufednefs in
the image is as the breadth of that glafs; for the de¬
gree of confufednefs will only be as the diameters or
breadths of thofe fpaces, and not as the fpaces them-
felves. Now the focal length of the eye-glafs, that is,
its power of magnifying, muft be as that degree ; for,
if it exceeds it, it will render the confufednefs fen-
Able; and therefore it muft be as the breadth or dia¬
meter of the objedt-glafs. The diameter of the ob-
j eA-glafs, which is as the fquare root of its aperture
or magnitude, muft be as the fquare-root of the power
of magnifying in the telefcope ; for unlefs the aper¬
ture itfelf be as the power of magnifying, the image
will want light: the fquare root of the power of
magnifying will be as the fquare root of the focal
diftance of the objeft-glafs ; and therefore the fo¬
cal diftance of the eye-glafs muft be only aS the
fquare root of that of the objeft-glafs. So that in
making ufe of an objedl-glai's of a longer focus,
fuppofe, than one that is given, you are not obli¬
ged to apply an eye-glafs of a proportionably longer
focus than what would fuit the given objecl-glafs, but
fuch an one only whofe focal diftance (hall be to the fo¬
cal diftance of that which will fuit the given objedl-
glafs, as the fquare root of the focal length of the ob¬
jedt-glafs you make ufe of, is to the fquare root of
the focal length of the given one. And this is the
reafdn that longer telefcopes are capable of magnify¬
ing in a greater degree than fhorterones, without ren-
x66 dering the objedt ponfufed or coloured.
How reme- 3. Doilond's ‘Telefcopes.—The general principle on
died by Mr^jch tj,;g artift’s celebrated improvement of therefrac-
0 ou ' ting telefcope depends, hath been already mentioned }
ICS. - 5iSi
namely, that by the different powers of refradlion in two Of Optical
kinds of glafs, and by their different powers of difner- Ir'ftrumei1ts
fing the rays, theerrofs arifing from the different refran-
gibility of the light are in a great meafute, if nottotallyj
corredted.—For this purpofe the objedl-glaffes of
his telefcopes are compofed of three diftindl lenfes, ria'c
two convex and one concave; of which the concave^cxvr’
one is placed in the middle, as is reprefenled in fig. 6.
where a and e (hew the two convex lenfes, and 60 the
concave one, which is by the Britifh artifts placed in
the middle. The two convex ones are made of green
glafs, and the middle one of white flint glafs, and are
all ground to fpheres of the fame radius. When put
together, they refradl the rays in the following manner.
Let ab, db, be two red rays of the fun’s light falling '•
parallel on the firft green convex lens c. Suppofing
there was no other lens prefent but that one, they
would then be converged into the lines be, be, and at
laft meet in the focus q. Let the lines gh, g b, re-
prefent two violet rays falling on the furface of the
lens. Thefe are alfo refradted, and will meet in a
focus; but as they have a greater degree of refran-
gibiiity than the red rays, they trinft, of confe-
quence, converge more by the fame power of refrac¬
tion in the glafs, and meet fooner in a focus, fuppofe
at r.—Let now the concave lens d d be placed in fuch
a manner as to intercept all the rays before they come
to their focus. As this lens is ground to the fame
radius with the convex one, it muft; have the fame
power to caufe the rays diverge that the former had to
make them converge ; that is, fuppofing them both to
be made of the fame materials. In this cafe, the red rays
would become parallel, and move on in the line 00, ope
But the concave lens, being made of white glafi, has
a greater refradlive power, and therefore they diverge
a little after they come out of it ; and if no third lens
was interpofed, they would proceed diverging in the
lines opt, opt; but, by the interpofition of the third
lens ovo, they are again made to converge, and meet,
in a focus fomewhat more diftant than the former, as
at x. By the concave lens the violet rays are alfo
refradled, and made to diverge : but having a greater
degree of refrangibility, the fame power of refradion
makes them diverge fomewhat more than the red ones;,
and thus, if no third lens was interpofed, they would
proceed in fuch lines as hnn, linn. Now as the
differently coloured rays fall upon the third lens with
different degrees of divergence, it is plain, that the
fame power of refradion in that lens will operate upon
them in fuch a manner as to bring them all together
to a focus very nearly at the fame point. The red
rays, it is true, require the greateft power of refrac¬
tion to bring them to a focus ; but they fall upon the
lens with the lead degree of divergence. The violet
rays, though they require the lead power of refradion,
yet have the greateft; degree of divergence; and thus
all meet together at the point x, or very nearly fo.
But, though we have hitherto fuppofed the refrac¬
tion of the concave lens to be greater than that of the
convex ones, it is eafy to fee how the errors occafion-
ed by the firft lens may be correded by it, though it
ftiould ha've even a lefs power of refradion than the
convex one. Thus, let ab, ab, fig* 8. be two rays of
red light falling upon the convex lens c, and refraded
into the focus q; let alfog^, gb} be two violet rays
can*
55B2 OPT
Of Optical converged into a focus at r; itis not neceflary, in order
Inftrements jq the,',- convergence into a common focus at x, that the
~~ concave lens (hould make them diverge: it isfufficient
if the glafs has a power of difperfing the violet rays
fomewhat more than the red ones ; and many kinds of
glafs have this power of difperfing fome kinds of rays,
without a very great power of refraction. It is better,
however, to have the objedt-glafs compofed of three
lenfes; becaufe there is then another correction of the
aberration by means of the third lens; and it might
be impofiible to find two lenfes, the errors of which
would exaCtly correCt each other. It is alfo eafy to
fee, that the effeCt may be the fame whether the con¬
cave glafs is a portion of the fame fphere with the
others or not; the effeCt depending upon a combina¬
tion of certain circumllances, of which there is an in¬
finite variety.
By means of this correction of the errors arifing
from the different refrangibility of the rays of light,
it is poffible to fhorten dioptric telefcopes confider-
ably, and yet leave them equal magnifying powers.
The reafon of this is, that the errors arifing from the
objeCt-glafs being removed, thofe which are occafion-
ed by the eye-glafs are inconfiderable: for the error
is always in proportion to the length of the focus in
any glafs ; and in very long telefcopes it becomes ex¬
ceedingly great, being no lefs than of the whole ;
but in glaffes of a few inches focus it becomes trifling.
RefraCting telefcopes which go by the name of Dol-
plste land’s, are therefore now. conftruCted in the following
CCXVIII. manner. Let AB (fig. I.) reprefent an objeCt-glafs
compofed of three lenfes as above defcribed, and con-
verging the rays I, 2, 3, 4, &c. to a very diftant
focus as at x. By means of the interpofed lens CD,
however, they are converged to one much nearer, as
at^>, where an image of the objeCt is formed. The
rays diverging from thence fall upon another lens EF,
where the pencils are rendered parallel, and an eye
placed near that lens would fee the objeCt magnified
and very diftinCt. To enlarge the magnifying power
ftill more, however, the pencils thus become parallel
are made to fall upon another at GH; by which they
are again made to converge to a diilant focus: but,
being intercepted by the lens IK, they are made to
tneet at the nearer one z; whence diverging to LM,
they are again rendered parallel, and the eye at N fees
the objeCt very diftinCtly.
From an infpeCtion of the figure it is evident, that
Dollond’s telefcopc thus conitruCted is in fad two te-
lefcopes combined together; the firft ending with the
lens EF, and the fecond with LM. In the firft we
do not perceive the objeft itfelf, but tlie image of it
formed at ; and in the fecond we perceive only the
image of that image formed at z. Neverthelefs fuch
telefcopes are exceedingly diftinCt, and reprefent ob¬
jects fo clearly as to be preferred, in viewing terreftrial
things, even to refleCtprs themfelves. The latterindeed
have greatly the advantage in their powers of magni¬
fying, but they are much deficient in point of light.
Much more light is loft by refieCtion than by refrac¬
tion : and as in thefe telefcopes-the light muft una¬
voidably fuffer two reflections, a great deal of it is
loft; nor is this lofs counterbalanced by the great¬
er aperture which thefe telefcopes will bear, which
enables them to receive a greater quantity of light
I C S. Part Illi
than the refraCIing ones. The metals of reflefting tele- Of Optica
fcopes alfo are verymuch fubjeftrto tarnifh, and requireIn^ru 11161
much more dexterity to clean them than the glaffes of
refraCtors; which makes them more troublefome and
expenfive, though for making difeoveries in the cele-
ftial regions they are undoubtedly the only proper in-
ftruments.
II. The Reflecting Telescope.
1. Of Sir Ifaac Newton's Refletting Telefcope. The
inconveniences arifing from the great length of refrac¬
ting telefcopes are fufficiently obvious; and thefe, to¬
gether with the difficulties arifing from the different
refrangibility of light, induced Sir Ifaac Newton to
give attention to the fubjeCt of reflection, and endea¬
vour to realize the ideas of himfelf and others con¬
cerning the poffibility of conftruCting telefcopes upon p]ate l
this principle. The inftrument he contrived is repre- CCXVI. >
fented fig. 9. where ABCD is the tube, BC a con¬
cave reflecting metal, EF a plain reflecting metal fix¬
ed to the tube by means of the ftem HI. MN repre-
fents a diftant objeCt emitting pencils of rays from each
point, two only of which are here reprefented, and
thofe cut off before they reach the metal, to prevent
confufion in the figure. Now it is evident from what
has been explained above, that thefe rays, were they
not intercepted in their way, would return after reflec¬
tion at the concave furface BC, and form an inverted
image at OP, fuppofing that to be the place of the
focus of reflected rays. But in this cafe the reflected
rays are intercepted in their return to that place by the
plain metal, and are thereby thrown fidewife; and in-
ftead of forming the image OP, are made to form the
image QR : which, becaufe the rays have as yet fuf-
fered no refraCtion, is not liable to the imperfeCtion
which arifes from the different refrangibility of the rays
of light, nor to any other except what may arife from
an imperfeCt polifh, or the want of the form of one of
the conic feCtions in the refleCtor BC; and therefore
may be viewed by an eye at T with a very fmall lens
or eye-glafs KL, without appearing either coloured or
confufed.
2. The Gregorian telefcope. This remedies the in¬
convenience of the Newtonian one, by which ob¬
jects are found with difficulty. This defeCt, indeed,
was in forne meafure removed by having a fmall refrac¬
ting telefcope with two hairs, or wires, running thro’
the tube in the common focus of the two glaffes, and
croffing each other at right angles; and the objeCt be¬
ing firft viewed through this fmall telefcope was after¬
wards eafily found by the refleCtor. But the inconve¬
nience is more effectually remedied by the following
conftruCtion. pjate
At the bottom of the great tube TTTT (fig. 8.)cCXVM.
is placed the large concave mirror DUVF, whole prin¬
cipal focus is at m; and in its middle is a round hole
P, oppofite to which is placed the fmall mirror L,
concave toward the great one; and fo fixed to a ftrong
wire M, that it may be moved farther from the great
mirror, or nearer to it, by means of a long ferew on
the outfide of the tube, keeping its axis lull in the
fame line Rmn with that of the great one. Now, fince
in viewing a very remote objeCt, we can fcarce fee a
point of it but what is at leaft as broad as the great
mirror, we may confider the rays of each pencil, which
flow
Part III. OPT
Optical flow from every point of the objeft, to be parallel to
Inftrumentseac^ other, and to cover the whole reflefting furface
DUVF. But to avoid confufion in the figure, we fliall
only draw two rays of a pencil flowing from each ex¬
tremity of the objeft into the great tube, and trace
their progtefs, through all their refledtions and refrac¬
tions, to the eye f, at the end of the fmall tube
which is joined to the great one.
Let us then fuppofe the objedt AB to be at fuch a
diftance, that the rays C may flow from its lower ex¬
tremity B, and the rays E from its upper extremity A.
Then the rays C falling parallel upon the great mirror
at D, will be thence reflected converging^ in the di¬
rection DG; and by crofling at I, in the principal fo¬
cus of the mirror, they will form the upper extremity
I of the inverted image IK, fimilar to the lower ex¬
tremity B of the objedt AB: and palling on to the
concave mirror L (whofe focus is at ») they will fall
upon it at g, and be thence refledted converging, in
the direction ^N, becaufep-w is longer than and
palling through the hole P in the large mirror, they
would meet fomewhere about r, and form the lower
extremity D of the eredt image a d, fimilar to the
lower extremity B of the objedt AB. But by palling
through the plano-convex glafs R in their way, they
form that extremity of the image at b. In like man¬
ner, the rays E, which come from the top of the ob-
jedl AB, and fall parallel upon the great mirror at F,
are thence refledted converging to its focus, where they
form the lower extremity K of the inverted image IK,
fimilar to the upper extremity A of the objedt AB ;
and thence palling on to the fmall mirror L, and fall-
ing upon it at they are thence refledted in the con-
verging Hate hO-, and going on through the hole P
of the great mirror, they would meet fomewhere about
q, and form there the upper extremity a of the eredl
image ad, fimilar to the upper extremity A of the ob¬
jedt AB: but by palling through the convex glafs R
in their way, they meet and crofs fooner, as at a, where
the point of the eredt image is formed. The like be¬
ing underftood of all thofe rays which flow from the
intermediate points of the objedt between A and B,
and enter the tube TT, all the intermediate points of
the image between a and b will be formed ; and the
rays palling on from the image, through the eye-glafs
S, and through a fmall hole e in the end of the lef-
fer tube tt, they enter the eye f, (which fees the image
by means of the eye-glafs) under the large angle
ced, and magnified in length under that angle from c
to d.
In the bell reflediing telefcopes, the focus of the
fmall mirror is never coincident with the focus ?n of
the great one, where the firft image IK is formed,
but a little beyond it (with refpedl to the eye), as at
n: the confequence of which is, that the rays of the
pencils will not be parallel after refledlion from the
fmall mirror, but converge fo as to meet in points
about q,e,r\ where they would form a larger upright
image than a b, if the glafs R was not in their way ;
and this image might be viewed by means of a Angle
eye-glafs properly placed between the image and the
eye: but then the field of view would be lefs, and
corifequently not fo pleafant; for which reafon, the
glafs R is ftill retained, to enlarge the fcope or area of
the field.
Von. VIII. 2
ICS.’ J583
To find the magnifying power of this telefcope, < >;»tical
multiply the focal diftance of the great mirror by theInftri,mei,t5
diftance of the fmall mirror from the image next the
eye, and multiply the focal diftance of the fmall mir¬
ror by the focal diftance of the eye-glafs; then divide
the produdf of the former multiplication by the pro-
dudf of the latter, and the quotient will exprefs the
magnifying power.
One great advantage of the refle&ing telefcope is,
that it will admit of an eye-glafs of a much ftiorier
focal diftance than a refradling telefcope wHl ; and,
confequently, it will magnify fo much the more : for
the rays are not coloured by refle&ion from a concave
mirror, if it be ground to a true figure, as they arc
by palling through a convex-glafs, let it be ground
ever fo true.
The adjufting ferew on the outfideof the great tube
fits this telefcope to all forts of eyes, by bringing the
fmall mirror either nearer to the eye, or removing it
farther; by which means the rays are made to diverge a
little for ftiort-fighted eyes, or to converge for thofe of
a long fight.
The nearer an objefl is to the telefcope, the more
its pencils of rays will diverge before they fall upon
the great mirror, and therefore they will be the longer
of meeting in points after reflexion ; fo that the firft;
image IK will be formed at a greater diftance from
the large mirror, when the objeft is near the tele¬
fcope, than when it is very remote. But as this
image muft be formed farther from the fmall mirror
than its principal focus n, this mirror muft be always
fet at a greater diftance from the large one, in view¬
ing near objefts, than in viewing remote ones. And
this is done by turning the ferew on the outfide of the
tube, until the fmall mirror be fo adjufted, that the
objeft (or rather its image) appears perfeft.
In looking through any telefcope towards an ob-
je£l, we never fee the objeft itfelf, but only that
image of it which is formed next the eye in the tele¬
fcope. For if a man holds his finger or a ftick be¬
tween his bare eye and an objed, it will hide part
(if not the whole) of the objeft from his view. But
if he ties a ftick acrofs the mouth of a telefcope be¬
fore the ohjedt-glafs, it will hide no part of the ima¬
ginary objedt he faw through the telefcope before,
unlefs it covers the whole mouth of the tube; for all
the effedt will be, to make the objedl appear dimmer,
becaufe it intercepts part of the rays. Whereas, if
he puts only a piece of wire acrofs the infide of the
tube, between the eye-glafs and his eye, it will hide
part of the objedt which he thinks he fees: which
proves, that he fees not the real objedl, but its image.
This is alfo confirmed by means of the fmall mirror L,
in the refledting telefcope, which is made of opake
metal, and ftands diredtly between the eye and the
objedt towards which the telefcope is turned ; and will
hide the whole objedt from the eye at e>, if the two
glafles R and S are taken out of the tube.
§ 5. Camera Obfcura.
The camera obfcura is made by a convex-glafs
CD (fig. 2.) placed in a hole of a window-fhutter. pfate
Then if the room be darkened, fo as no light can en-CCXVI.
ter but what comes thro’ the glafs, the pidtures of
all the objedts (as fields, trees, buildings, men,
31 O cattle.
i5§4
OPT
Optical cattle, &c.) on the outfide, will be (hewn in an in-
lnftriunentsvertej or(jer} on a white paper placed at GH in the
focus of the glafs ; and will afford a mod beautiful
and perfect piece of perfpedtive or landfcape of what¬
ever is before the glafs, efpecially if the fun fliines up¬
on the objects.
If the convex-glafs CD be placed in a tube in the
fide of a fquare box, within which is the plane mirror
Plate EF, reclining backwards in an angle of 45 degrees
CCXVI. from the perpendicular k q, the pencils of rays flow-
** ing from the outward obje&s, and paffing thro’ the
convex glafs to the plane mirror, will be refle&ed up¬
wards from it, and meet in points, as I and K (at the
fame diftance that they would have met at H and G,
if the mirror had not been in the way,) and will form
the aforefaid images on an oiled paper ftretched ho¬
rizontally in the diredlion IK: on which paper the
outlines of the images may be eatily drawn with a
black-lead pencil ; and then copied on a clean (heet,
and coloured by art, as the objefts themfelves are by
nature.—In this machine, it is ufual to place a plane
glafs, unpolilhed, in the horizontal fituation IK, which
glafs receives the images of the outward obje&s ; and
their outlines may be traced upon it by a black-lead
pencil.
N. B. The tube in which the convex-glafs CD
is fixed, mull be made to draw out, or pulh in, fo
as to adjuft the diftance of that glafs from the plane
mirror, in proportion to the diftance of the out¬
ward obje&s; which the operator does, until he fees
their images diftinftly painted on the horizontal glafs
at IK.
The forming a horizontal image, as IK, of an up¬
right objeft AB, depends upon the angles of inci¬
dence of the rays upon the plane mirror EF, being
equal to their angles of reflediion from it. For, if a
perpendicular be fuppofed to be drawn to the furface
of the plane mirror ate, where the ray A.aCe falls
upon it, that ray will be refledted upwards in an equal
angle with the other fide of the perpendicular, in the
line edl. Again, if a perpendicular be drawn to the
mirror from the point f, where the ray P^hf falls up¬
on it, that ray will be refledted in an equal angle from
the other fide of the perpendicular, in the line fh\.
And if a perpendicular be drawn from the point
where the ray &.cg falls upon the mirror, that ray will
be refledled in an equal angle from the other fide of
the perpendicular, in .the line g i I. So that all the
rays of the pencil ab c, flowing from the upper extre¬
mity of the objedt AB, and paffing thro’ the convex
glafs CD, to the plane mirror EF, will be refledted
from the mirror, and meet at I, where they will form
the extremity I of the image IK, fimilar to the^xtre-
mity A of the objedt AB. The like is to be under-
ftood of the pencil qrs, flowing from the lower ex¬
tremity of the objedt AB, and meeting at K (after
refledtion from the plane mirror) the rays form the
extremity K of the image, fimilar to the extremity B
of the objedt: and fo of all the pencils that flow from
the intermediate points of the objedt to the mirror, thro’
the convex glafs.
If a convex glafs, of a fhort focal diftance, be placed
Bear the plane mirror in the end of a ffiort tube, and a
sonvex glafs be placed in a hole in the fide of the
I C S. Partin.
tube, fo as the image may be formed between the Optica!
laft-mentioned convex glafs and the plane mirror; theIn^ruments
image being viewed thro’ this glafs, will appear mag- “
nified.—In this manner, the Opera-glaffes are con-
ftrudted ; with which a gentleman may look at any
lady at a diftance in the company, and the lady know
nothing of it.
§ 6. Magic Lantern,
ABCD (fig. 5.) is a tin lantern, with a tube
nklm fixed in the fide of it. This tube confifts of
two joints, one of which flips into the other: and by
drawing this joint out, or pufhing it in, the tube may
be made longer or fhorter. At k l, in the end of the
moveable joint of the tube, a convex lens is fixed ;
and an objedt painted with tranfparent colours upon a
piece of thin glafs is placed at de, fomewhere in the
immoveable joint of the tube ; fo that as the tube is
lengthened or fhortened, the lens will be either at a
greater or a lefs diftance from this tranfparent objedt.
In the fide of the lantern there is a very convex lens
bh c, which ferves to caft a very ftrong light from the
candle within the lantern upon the objedt ie. Now
when the rays, which fhine through the objedt di¬
verge from the feveral points as d, e, Sec. in the ob¬
jedt, and fall upon the lens b /, they will be made to
converge to as many points f, g, 8cc. on the other
fide of the lens, and will paint an inverted pidture of
the objedt at fg upon a white wall, a {heet, or a fereen
of white paper, provided the objedt is farther from
the lens than its principal focus. To make this pidture
appear diftindt and bright, it muft have no other light
fall upon it but what comes through the lens and
for this reafon the vyhole apparatus is to be placed in a
dark room EFGH. The lens k l muft be very con¬
vex, fo that the objedt d e may be very near to it, and
yet not be nearer than its principal focus: for by this
means, as the objedt is near to the lens, the pidture
fg will be at a great diflance from it, and confequent-
ly the pidture will be much bigger than the objedt.
Since the pidture is inverted in refpedt of the objedt, in
order to make the pidture appear with the right end
upwards, it is neceffary that the objedt de fhould be
placed with the wrong end upwards.
Sect. V. A Defcription of the above and other
Optical Injlruments, fitted with their Appara¬
tus : with an account of the methods of apply¬
ing them to the purpofes for which they are in¬
tended.
§ 1. Camera Obfcura and Magic Lantern.
See Dioptrics, p. 2477 to p. 2482.
$ 2. The Graphical Perfpeflive.
This inftrument confifts of two lenfes AB and CD,
fig. 1. which are placed at twice their focal diftance piate
, from one another; and in their common focus is ano-CCXIX.
ther glafs EF, divided into equal parts with the point
of a diamond. Though this inftrument does not
magnify objedts, yet the angle under which any ob¬
jedt is feen is eafily known by it; and fince this angle
varies with the diltance of objedts, it is eafily applied
to the purpofe of meafuring inacceffible heights and
diftances j.
Fart III. OPT
Optical diftances ; and fincethe field of view is divided into equal
inftrumentsfquaces, k4s ufeful in drawing the perfpedive appear-
” ~ auce of objefts. As all foreign light is excluded by
the tube in which thefe lenfes are inclofed, pi&ures
feen through this machine have a fine relievo; on
which account, as alfo becaufe obje&s appear inverted
through it, the images of a camera obfcura are viewed
to particular advantage by its means. If a lens of a
greater focal length be fixed at a proper didance from
the centre of the tube, this inftrument will be a tele-
fcope, and will magnify the prints which are looked at
through it ; and if a fmall lens be ufed, it will be a
microfcope, and the fame micrometer will ferve for
both.
$ 3. Of the Single Microfcope.
The famous microfcopes made ufe of by Mr Leeu¬
wenhoek, were all, as Mr Baker affures us, of the
fingle kind, and the condruftion of them the mod
finaple poffible, each confiding only of a fingle lens fet
between two plates of filver, perforated with a fmall
hole, with a moveable pin before it to place the objeft
on, and adjud it to the eye of the beholder. He in¬
forms us alfo, that lenfes only, and not globules, were
ufed in every one of thefe microfcopes.
The fingle microfcope now mod generally known
and ufed is that called Wilfon’s Pocket Microfcope.
The body is made of brafs, ivory, or filver, and is re-
Plate prefented by AA, BB. CC is a long fine-threaded
CCXVIII. male-fcrew that turns into the body of the microfcope,
8. D a convex glafs at the end of the fcrew. *, Two con¬
cave round pieces of thin brafs, with holes of different
diameters in the middle of them, to cover the above-
mentioned glafs, and thereby diminifh the aperture
when the greated magnifiers are employed. EE,
three thin plates of brafs within the body of the mi¬
crofcope ; one of which is bent femicircularly in the
middle, fo as to form an arched cavity for the recep¬
tion of a tube of glafs, the ufe of the other two be¬
ing to receive and hold the Aiders between them. F,
a piece ol wood or ivory, arched in the manner of the
femicircular plate, and cemented thereto. G, the
other end of the body of the microfcope, where a hol¬
low female fcrew is adapted to receive the different
magnifiers. H, is a fptral fpring of deel, between
the end G and the plates of brafs, intended to keep
the plates in aright pofition, and counteraft the long
fcrew CC. I, is a fmall turned handle, for the better
holding of the inftrument, to fcrew on or off at plea-
fure.
To this microfcope belong fix or feven magnifying
glaffes: fix of them are fet in filver, brafs, or ivory,
as in the figure K, and marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6;
theloweft numbers being the greatell magnifiers. L,
is the feventh magnifier, fet in the manner of a little
barrel, to be held in the hand for the viewing of any
larger objeft. M, is a flat flip of ivory, called a
fider, with four round holes thro’ it, wherein to place
objects between two pieces of glafs, or Mufcovy
talc, as they appear dddd. Eight fuch Aiders, and
one of brafs, are ufually fold with this microfcope ;
fome with objedls placed in them, and others empty
for viewing any thing that may offer: but whoever
pleafes to make a colleftion, may have as many, as he
defircs. The brafs Aider is to confine any fmall ob-
I C S. 558.;
je6t, that it may be viewed without crufhing or de- Optical
ftroying it. Inftrume*
N, is a forceps, or pair of plyers, for the taking up
of infefts or other objects, and adjufting them to the
glaffes. O, is a little hair-brufli or pencil, wherewith
to wip any dull from off the glaffes, or to take up
any fmall drop of liquid, which one would want to
examine, and put it upon the talcs, or ifinglafs. P
is a tube of glafs contrived to confine living ob¬
jects, fuch as frogs, fiflies, &c. in order to difeo-
ver the circulation of the blood. All thefe are con¬
tained in a little neat box, very convenient for car¬
rying in the pocket.
When an objeA is to be viewed, thruft the ivory
Aider, in which the faid objedl is placed, between the
two flat brafs plates EE : obferving always to put
that fide of the Aider where the brafs rings are, far-
theft from the eye. Then fcrew on the magnifying
glafs you intend to ufe, at the end of the inftrument
G; and looking thro’ it againft the light, turn the
long fcrew CC, till your objeft be brought to fit yogr
eye; which will be known by its appearing perfe&Iy
diftinft and clear. It is moft proper to look at it firft
through a magnifier that can /hew the whole at once,
and afterwards to infpedi the fevera! parts more parti¬
cularly with one of the greateft magnifiers ; for thu*
you will gain a true idea of the whole, and of all its
parts. And tho’ the greateft magnifiers can ftrew but
a minute portion of any objeft at once, fuch as the
claw of a flea, the horn of a loufe, or the like, yet by
gently moving the Aider which contains theobjedl, the
eye will gradually overlook it all.
As objects muft be brought very near the glaffes
when the greateft magnifiers are made ufe of, be care¬
ful not to fcatch them by rubbing the Aider againft
them as you move it in or out. A few turns of the
fcrew CC will eafily prevent this mifehief, by giving
them room enough. You may change the objefts in
your Aiders for what others you think proper, by taking
out the brafs rings with the point of a pen-knife ;
the ifinglafs will then fall out, if you but turn the Ai¬
ders ; and after putting what you pleafe between them,
by replacing the brafs rings you will faften them as
they were before. It is proper to have fome Aiders fur-
niflied with talcs, but without any objesft between
them, to be always in readinefs for the examination
of fluids, falls, fands, powders, the farina of flowers,
or any other cafual objefts of fuch fort as need only
be applied to the outfide of the talc.
The circulation of the blood may be eafieft feen in
the tails or fins of fifties, in the fine membranes be¬
tween a frog’s toes, or beft of all in the tail of a
water-newt. If your objeft be a fmall fifti, place it
within the tube, and fpread its tail or fin along the
fide thereof: if a frog, choofe fuch an one as can but
juft be got into your tube ; and, with a pen, or fmall
ftick, expand the tranfparent membrane between the
toes of the frog’s hind foot as much asyou can. When
your object is fo adjuft^d, that no part of it can in¬
tercept the light from the place you intend to view,
unferew the long fcrew CCj and thruft your tube in¬
to the arched cavity, quite thro’ the body of the mi-
ferope; then fcrew it to the true focal diftance, and
you will fee the blood paffitig along, its veffels with a
rapid motion, and in a moft furprifing manner.
The
5586 OPT
Optical The third or fourth magnifiers may be ufed for
Inftrnments frag3 or fifhes: but for the tails of water-newts, the
fifth or fixth will do ; becaufe the globules of their
blood are twice as large as thofe of frogs or fifh. The
firft or fecond magnifier cannot well be employed for
this purpofe ; becaufe the thicknefs of the tube, in
which the objedt lies, will fcarce admit }ts being
brought fo near as the focal diftance of the mag¬
nifier.
$ 5. The Single Microfcope with Reflexion.
Plate jN fig. 2, A is a fcroll of brafs fixed upright on a
CCXIX. roun(j pedeftal of wood B, fo as to ftand perfedlly
firm and fteady. C is a brafs fcrew, that pafies thro’
a hole in the upper limb of the fcroll, into the fide of
the microfcope D, and fcrews it fall to the faid fcroll.
E, is a concave fpeculum fet in a box of brafs,
which hangs in the arch G by two fmall fcrews ff,
that fcrew into the oppofite fides thereof. At the bot¬
tom of this arch is a pin of the fame metal, exadlly
fitted to a hole /; in the wooden pedeftal, made for the
reception of the pin. As the arch turns on this pin,
and the fpeculum turns on the ends of the arch, it may,
by this twofold motion, be eafily adjufted in fuch a
manner as to refledt the light of the fun, of the fky,
or of a candle, diredlly upwards through the micro¬
fcope that is fixed perpendicularly over it; and by fo
doing, may be made to anfwer almoft all the purpofes
of the large double refledling microfcope. The body
of the microfcope may'alfo be fixed horizontally, and
objedls viewed in that pofition by any light you
choofe, which is an advantage the double refledling
microfcope has not. It may alfo be rendered further
ufeful by means of a flip of glafs, one end of which
being thruft thro’ between the plates where the Aiders
go, and the other extending to fome diftance, fuch ob-
jefts may be placed thereon as cannot be applied in the
Aiders : and then, having a limb of brafs that may
faften to the body of the microfcope, and extend over
the projedting glafs a hollow ring wherein to fcrew the
magnifiers, all forts of fubjedls may be examined with
great conveniency, if a hole be made in the pedeftal,
to place the fpeculum exadlly underneath, and there¬
by throw up the rays of light.
The pocket-microfcope, thus mounted, fays Mr
Baker, “ is as eafy and pleafant in its ufe; as fit for
the moft curious examination of the animalcules and
falls in fluids, of the farinse in vegetables, and of the
circulation in fmall animals; in fhort, is as likely to
make confiderable difcoveries in objedlsthat have fome
degree of tranfparency, as any microfcope I have ever
feen or heardof.”
§ 5. Of the Double Ref rafting and Reflefting Micro-
fcopes.
Double microfcopes are fo called as being a com¬
bination of two or more lenfes.
The only advantage which the double refrafting
microfcope hath over the Angle one is, that it takes in
a larger field of view; and therefore hath yielded
to the double reflefting microfcope, which gives a
clearer view of objedls, with a greater power of mag¬
nifying at the fame time.
F'S- 3* The body of this microfcope AAAA is a large
tube, fupported by three brafs pillars kb b) rifing from
I C S. Partlll.
a wooden pedeftal C; in which pedeftal is a drawer Optical
D, to hold the objedl-glafies and other parts of the tnftrumcnts
apparatus. A lefler tube ee Aides into the greater,
and fends from its bottom another tube f much fmal-
ler than itfelf, with a male fcrew g at the end there¬
of, whereon to fcrew the objeft-glafs or magnifier.
There are five of thefe magnifiers, numbered 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 ; which numbers are alfo marked on the inner
tube, to dir'efl whereabout to place it according to
the magnifier made ufe of: but if then it fits not the
eye exadlly, Aide the inner tube gently higher or
lower, or turn the fcrew of the magnifier gradually,
till the objedl appears diftindL The greateft mag¬
nifiers have the fmalleft apertures and the loweft
numbers.
L, is a circular plate of brafs fixed horizontally be¬
tween the three brafs pillars, and in the centre there¬
of a round hole M is adapted to receive a proper con¬
trivance N for holding ivory Aiders wherein objedls
are placed: this contrivance confifts of a fpiral fteel
wire confined between three brafs circles, one where¬
of is moveable for the admiffion of a Aider. O is a
round brafs plate with feveral holes for placing objedls
in, fome of which are ufually furniftied with them at
the fhops: bnt two holes are commonly referved for
fmall concave glafles, whereon to place a drop of any
liquid, in order to view the animalcules, &c. There
is alfo a piece of white ivory, and a piece of black
ebony, of the fame fize and Aiape as the holes for ob¬
jedls : the ivory is for holding fuch opaque objedls as
are black, and the ebony fuch as are white, by which
contrariety of colours they will be feen more diftindl-
ly. At the bottom of this objedl-plate is a button to
flip into a flit P, that fits it, on the circular plate of
brafs: and by turning it round on this, all the ob¬
jedls may be examined fucceffively with very little
trouble.
is a concave fpeculum fet in a box of brafs, and
turning in an arch R, upon two fmall fcrews / r.
From the bottom of the arch comes a pin, which be¬
ing let down into a hole /, in the centre of the pede¬
ftal, enables the fpeculum to turn either vertically or
horizontally, and to refledl the light diredlly upwards
on the objedl to be viewed. V, is a plano-convex
lens, which by turning on two fcrews * *, when the
pin at the bottom of it is placed in the hole W, for
its reception in the circular plate L, will tranfmit the
light of a candle to illuminate any opaque objedl that
is put on the round piece of ivory or on the ebony
for examination: and it may be moved higher or
lower, as the light requires. This glafs is of fervice
to point the funfliine or the light of a candle upon
any opake objedl, but in plain day-light is of no
great ufe. X, is a cone of black ivory, to faften on
a fhank underneath the brafs circular plate L, princi¬
pally when the firft or fecond magnifier is made ufe
of, and the objedl very tranfparent: for objedls are
rendered much more diftindlly vifible, by intercepting
fome part of the oblique rays which come from the
fpeculum. The brafs fifli-pan Y is to faften any fmall
fifh upon, to fee the circulation of the blood in its
tail. For this purpofe, the tail of the fifh muft be
expanded acrofs the oblong hole at the fmalleft end of
the pan: then by flipping the button on the back-
fide of the pan into the flit JP thro’ the circular plate
OPTICS .
Plate OCXJX.
.
PartHI. OPT
Optical L, the fpring that comes from the button will make
Inftrumcnts ;t ftCady, and prefent it well to view. But if it be a
frog, a newt, or an eel, in which the circulation is
defired to be Ihewn, a glafs tube i is fitteft for the pur-
pofe. The tail of a newt or eel, or, in a frog, the web be¬
tween the toes of the hind-feet, are the parts where it
may be feen beft. When the objedt is well expanded on
the infide of the tube. Aide the tube along under the
circular brafs plate L, (where there are two fprings
and a cavity made in the fhank to hold it), and bring
your objedt diredtly under the magnifier.
There are three of thefe glafs tubes fmaller one than
another, and the fize of the objedt muft diredl which
of them is to be ufed ; but, in general, the lefs room
the creature has to move about in, the eafier will it
be managed.
The cell 2, with a concave and a plane glafs in it,
is intended to confine fleas, lice, mites, or any fmall
living objedls, during pleafure ; and by placing it over
the hole M, in the middle of the circular brafs plate,
they may be viewed with much conveniency. Three
loofe glaffes, viz. one plane, and two concave, belong
alfo to this microfcope ; and are defigned to confine
objeSs, or to place them upon occafionally. The long
fteel wire 3, with a pair of plyers at one end, and a
point on the other, to hold faft or ftick objedts upon,
flips backward or forward in a ihort brafs tube where¬
to a button is faftened, which fits into the little holez,
near the edge of the brafs plate L : and then the ob-
jedl may be readily brought to a right pofition, and a
light be call upon it either by the fpeculum under¬
neath, or, if it be opake, by the plano-convex lens
V. 4, Is a flat piece of ivory called a Jlider, with
four round holes thro’ it, and objedls placed in them,
between Mufcovy talcs or ifinglafs, kept in by brafs
wires. It is proper to have a number of thefe Aiders,
filled with curious objedts, always ready, as well as
fome empty ones for any thing new that offers. When
made ufe of, thruft them between the brafs rings of
the contrivance on purpofe for them, which flioots into
the round hole M, in the centre of the brafs plate L.
This keeps them fteady, and at the fame time permits
them to be moved to and fro for a thorough exami¬
nation. 5, Is a little round ivory box to hold pieces of
ifinglafs for the Aiders ; 6, a fmall hair-brulh to wipe
off any duft from the glafies, or to apply a drop of any
liquid; 7, a pair of nippers to take up any objedt to
be examined.
§ 6. The Microfcope for Opaque Ohjefis.
This microfcope remedies the inconvenience of ha¬
ving the dark fide of an objedl next the eye, which
formerly was an unfurmountable objedtion to the ma¬
king obfervations on opaque objedts with any confider-
able degree of exadtnefs or fatisfadtion : for, in all
other contrivances commonly known, the nearnefs of
the inftrument to the objedl (when glafles that mag¬
nify much are ufed) unavoidably overfliadows it fo
much, that its appearance is rendered obfcure and in-
diftindt. And, notwithflanding ways have been tried
to point light upon an objedt, from the fun or a
candle, by a convex glafs placed on the fide thereof,
the rays from either can be thrown upon it in fuch an
acute angle only, that they ferve to give a confufed
glare, but are infufficient to afford a clear and perfect
ICS. 5587
view of the objedl. But in this microfcope, by means Optical
of a concave fpeculum of filver highly polifhed, in h'flrumen;;
whofe centre a magnifying lens is placed, fuch a
ftrong and diredt light is refledted upon the objedl,
that it may be examined with all imaginable cafe and
pleafure. The feveral parts of this inftrument, made
either of brafs or filver, are as follow.
Thro’ the firft fide A, pafles a fine fcrew B, thephte
other end of which is faftened to the moveable fide C. CCX1X.
D is a nut applied to this fcrew, by the turning offiS,4*
which the two fides A and C are gradually brought
together. E, is a fpring of fteel that feparates the
two fides when the nut is unfcrewed. F a piece of
brafs, turning round in a focket, whence proceeds a
fmall fpring-tube moving upon a rivet, thro’ which
tube there runs a fteel wirej one end whereof termi¬
nates in a Aiarp point G, and the other hath a pair of
plyers H faftened to it. The point and plyers are to
thruft into, or take up and hold, any infedl or objedl ;
and either of them may be turned upwards, as beft
fuits the purpofe. I, is a ring of brafs, with a female
fcrew within it, mounted on an upright piece of the
fame metal; which turns round on a rivet, that it may
be fet at a due diftance when the leaft magnifiers are
employed. This ring receives the fcrews of all the
magnifiers. K, is a concave fpeculum of filver, po-
liftied as bright as pofiible; in the centre of which is
placed a double convex lens, with a proper aperture
to look thro’ it. On the back of this fpeculum, a
male fcrew, L, is made to fit the brafs ring I, to fcrew
into it at pleafure. There are four of thefe concave
fpecula of different depths, adapted to four glafles of
different magnifying powers, to be ufed as the ob¬
jedts to be examined may require. The greateft mag¬
nifiers have the leaft apertures. M, is a round objedl-
plate, one fide of which is white and the other black :
The intention of this is to render objedls the more vi-
fible, by placing them, if black, on the white fide,
or, if white, on the black fide. A fteel ring, N, turns
down on each fide to make any objedl faft; and if-
fuing from the object-plate is a hollow pipe to fcrew
it on the needle’s point G. O is a fmall box of brafs,
with a glafs on each fide, contrived to confine any li¬
ving objedl, in order to examine it: this alfo has a
pipe to fcrew upon the end of the needle G. P, is a
turned handle of wood, to fcrew into the inftrument
when it is made ufe of. a pair of brafs plyers to
take up any objedl, or manage it with conveniency.
R is a foft hair-brufh for cleaning the glaffes, &c.
S, is a fmall ivory box for ifinglafles, to be placed,
when wanted, in the fmall brafs box O.
When you would view any objedt with this micro¬
fcope, fcrew the fpeculum, with the magnifier you
think proper to ufe, into the brafs ring I. Place your
objedl, either on the needle G in the plyers H, on the
objedl-plate M, or in the hollow brafs box O, as may
be moft convenient: then holding up your inftrument
by the handle P, look againft the light thro’ the mag¬
nifying lens ; and by means of the nut D, together
with the motion of the needle, by managing its lower
end, the objedl may be turned about, raifed, or de-
prefled, brought nearer the glafs, or removed farther
from it, till you hit the true focal diftance, and the
light be feen ftrongly refledled from the fpeculum up¬
on the objedl, by which means it will be ftrewn in a
manner
5588 OPT
Optical manner furprifingly difHnd and clear; and for this
Jnftniments purp0fe the light of the flcy or of a candle will anfwer
very well. Tranfparent objefts may alfo be viewed by
this microfcope : only obferving, that when fuch come
under examination, it will not always be proper to
throw on them the light refle&ed from the fpeculum ;
for the light tranfmitted thro’ them, meeting the re-
fleded light, may together produce too great a glare.
A little pra&ice, however, will fliew how to regulate
both lights in a proper manner.
$ 7, The Solar Microfcope.
This inftrument is compofed of a tube, alooking-
glafs, a convex lens, and Wilfon’s Angle pocket mi¬
crofcope before defcribed. The fun’s rays being di¬
rected thro’ the .tube, by means of the looking-glafs,
upon the objed, the image or pidure of the objed is
thrown diftindly and beautifully upon a fcreen of
white paper, or a white linen Iheet, placed at a pro¬
per diitance to receive the fame ; and may be magni¬
fied to a fize not to be conceived by thofe who have
not feen it: for the farther the fcreen is removed, the
larger will the objed appear ; infomuch, that a loufe
may thus be magnified to the length of five or fix feet,
or even a great deal more; though it is more diftind,
when not enlarged to above half that fize.—The ap¬
paratus for this purpofe is as follows,
crxx. ^ a ^luare woo<len frame, thro’ which pafs two
fig lV long fcrews afiifted by a couple of nuts 1,1. Faften it
firmly to a window-fliutter, wherein a hole is made for
its reception; the two nuts being let into the (butter,
and made fad thereto. A circular hole is made in the
middle of this frame to receive a piece of wood, B, of
a circular figure; whofe edge, that prpjeds a little be¬
yond the frame, compofes a (hallow groove 2, where¬
in runs a catgut 3 ; which, by twifting round, and
then eroding over a brafs pulley 4, (the handle where¬
of, 5, pafles thro’ the frame) affords an eafy motion
for turning round the circular piece of wood B, with
all the parts affixed to it. C is a brafs tube covered
with feal-(kin; which, ferewing into the middle of the
circular piece of wood, becomes a cafe for the unco¬
vered brafs tube D to be drawn backwards or for¬
wards in. E is a fmaller tube, of about one inch in
length cemented to the end of the larger tube D. F
is another brafs tube, made to Aide over the above de-
feribed tube E ; and to the end of this the microfcope
muff be ferewed, when we come to ufe it. 5, a con¬
vex lens, whofe focus is about 12 inches, deligned to
colleft the fun’s rays, and throw them more (trongly
upon the objeft. G is a looking-glafs of an oblong
figure, fet in a wooden frame, fattened by hinges in
the circular piece of wood B, and turning about
therewith by means of the abovementioned cat-gut.
H is a jointed wire, partly brafs, and partly iron ;
the brafs part whereof, 6, which is flat, being faften-
ed to the looking-glafs, and the iron part, 7, which
is round, palfing thro’ the wooden frame, enable the
obferver, by putting it backwards or forwards, to ele¬
vate or deprefs the glafs according to the fun’s alti¬
tude. There is a brafs ring at the end of the jointed
wire, whereby to manage it with the greater eafe.
The extremities of the cat-gut are fattened to a brafs
pin, by turning of which it may be braced up, if at
any time it becomes too (lack.
ICS. Partin
When this microfcope is employed, the room mutt Optical]
be rendered as dark as polfible ; for on the darknefsInftrumer
of the room, and the brightnefs of the funfliine, de¬
pend the (harpnefs and perfeftion of your image.
Then putting the looking-glafs G thro’ the hole in
your window-(hutter, faften the fquare frame A to the
(hutter by its two fcrews and nuts r, I. This done,
adjuftyour looking-glafs to the elevation and fituation
of the fun, by means of the jointed wire H, together
with the cat-gut and pulley, 3, 4. For the firft of
thefe raifing or lowering the glafs, and the other in¬
clining it to either fide, there refults a twofold mo¬
tion, which may eafily be fo managed as to bring the
glafs to a right pofition, that is, to make itrefleft the
fun’s rays dire&ly thro’ the lens, 5, upon the paper
fcreen, and form thereon a fpot of light cxaftly round.
But tho’ the obtaining a perfeft circular fpot of light
upon the fcreen before you apply the microfcope, is a
certain proof that your looking-glafs is adjufted right,
that proof mutt not always be expe&ed : for the fun
is fo low in winter, that if it (bines in a direA line
againft the window, it cannot then afford a fpot of
light exaftly round; but if it be on either fide, a
round fpot may be obtained, even in December. As
foon as this appears, ferew the tube C into the brafs
collar provided for it in the middle of your wood-work,
taking care not to alter your looking-glafs: then
ferewing the magnifier you choofe to employ to the
end of your microfcope, in the ufual manner, take away
the lens at the other end thereof, and place a Aider,
containing the objeA to be examined, between the
thin brafs plates, as in the other ways of ufing the
microfcope.
Things being thus prepared, ferew the body of
your microfcope to the (hort brafs tube F; which Aip
over the fmall end E of the tube D, and pull out the
faid tube D lefs or more, as your objeA is capable of
enduring the fun’s heat. Dead objefts may be brought
within about an inch of the focus of the convex lens, 5$
but the diftance mutt be (hortened for living creatures,
or they will foon be killed.
If the light falls not exa&ly right, you may eafily,
by a gentle motion of the jointed wire and pulley, di-
re& it thro’ the axis of the microfcopic lens. The
(hort tube F, to which the microfcope is ferewed,
renders it eafy, by Aiding it backwards or forwards on
the other tube E, to bring the objefts to their focal
diftance ; which will be known by the (harpnefs and
clearnefs of their appearance : they may alfo be turn¬
ed round by the fame means, without being in the leaft
difordered.
The magnifiers mod ufeful in the folar microfcope
are in general, the fourth, fifth, or fixth. The fcreen
on which the reprefentations of the objeAs are thrown,
is ufually compofed of a (heet of the largeft elephant
pap^r, drained on a frame which Aides up or down, or
turns about at pleafure on a round wooden pillar, af¬
ter the manner of fome fire-fereens. Larger fereens
may alfo be made of feveral flieets of the fame paper
patted together on cloth, and let down from the ceil¬
ing with a roller like a large map.
“ This microfcope (fays Mr Baker) is the mod
entertaining of any ; and perhaps the moft capable
of making difeoveries in objeAs that are not too opa¬
que : as it (hews them much larger than can be done
any
Part III. OPT
Optical any other way. There are alfo feveral conveniencies
Inftrumentsattending it, which no other microfcope can have:
for the weakeft eyes may ufe it without the leaft (training
or fatigue : numbers of people together may view any
object at the fame time, and, by pointing to the par¬
ticular parts thereof, and difcourfing on what lies be¬
fore them, may be able better to underftand one ano¬
ther, and more likely to find out the truth, than in
other microfcopes, where they muft peep one after
another, and perhaps fee the objedfc neither in the
fame light nor in the fame pofition. Thofe alfo,
who have no (kill in drawing, may, by this contri¬
vance, eafily (ketch out the exaft figure of any objeft
they have a mind to preferve a pidture of; fince they
need only fallen a paper on the fcreen, and trace it
out thereon either with a pen or pencil, as it appears
before them. It is worth the while of thofe-who are
defirous of taking many draughts in this way, to get
a frame, wherein a (beet of paper may be put in or
taken out at pleafure ; for if the paper be Angle, the
image of an objedl will be feen almoft as plainly on
the back as on the fore fide, and, by (landing be¬
hind the fcreen, the (hade of the hand will not ob-
ftrudl the light in drawing, as it muft in fome degree
when one (lands before it.”
$ 8. Univerfal Microfcope.
Plate ABC, is the body of the microfcope.
CCXXf. ;s a j0;nt> by which it is moveable vertically.
* E, is a hollow fquare focket, with
F, a fcrew, by which it is fixed to the part at D.
DQR is a (trong brafs pillar or (land.
S, T, V, the tripod, or three feet, on which it
Hands.
GHI is a ftage on which objedls of different forts
are placed to be viewed.
K, is a ftrong fcrew by which the ftage is rendered
moveable horizontally.
MN, are two brafs fockets, conne&ed by an adjuft-
ing fcrew, and moveable up and down upon the fquare
part of the (land.
O is a fcrew for fixing the focket M.
P is a long adjufting fcrew by which the focket N
is moveable, and the objefts upon the ftage adjufted to
the view.
W is a concave mirror, or fpeculum, fixed at
X, juft under the central part of the ftage, for illu¬
minating tranfparent objeds.
Y is a concave lens moveable at
Z, in a fpring focket; by this lens opaque bodies are
fufficiently enlightened for the view.
This compound microfcope is in the bed manner
adapted to view tranfparent objedls; for if they are
fuch as can be put into the concave glafs in the middle
of the ftage at H, then they will be fufficiently en¬
lightened by the refle&or W below, in one fide of
which is a plane fpeculum, and in the other a concave
one, as both forts are occafionally neeeffary.
If the tranfparent obje&s are fuch as may be included
between talcs in the ivory Aiders, then there is a part
J'S’ ABCD, called the f ider-holder, which is fitted to the
hole at H in the middle of the ftage, and in which
all the variety of objedls in Aiders may be viewed to
great perfedlion by refiedted light from the fpeculum
W below..
ICS. 5589
As fome curious experiments with tranfparent ob- Optical
jedts require the light to be very pure, and adjufted to Inflruments
a proper degree, there is an inverted cone of brafs,
ABC, to be placed in the under part of the hole at Fig. 3.
H by its broad end or bafe AC; and by the narrow
end B only the interior and purer light contained in
the upper and denfer part of the large cone of rays re¬
fiedted by the fpeculum W, can illuminate the objedls
to be viewed. This cone is indeed of more immediate
ufe in the fingle microfcope, to be mentioned by and
by. Thus, it is plain, in one or other of thefe ways
all kinds of tranfparent objedts are to be viewed in the
utmoft perfedxion.
In this conftrudlion it is alfo as evident, that every
opaque objedt may be ftiewn as well in this as in that
which is ufually called the opaque microfcope: becaufe
here is all the fame apparatus for that purpofe, and
much more ; for this is both a fingle and compound
opaque microfcope.
Thus, if any opaque objedt be laid upon the glafs
at H, it may be very ftrongly illuminated by the lens
Y, moveable higher or lower in the focket Z, to make
the light upon the objedt greater or lefs, as occafion
requires. In this cafe you have the advantage of a
large and delightful field of view, and objedts of all
(hapes and fizes are immediately viewed upon the (lage
GHI, as it is fo eafily moved up and down by the Ai¬
ding fockets MandN, faftened in any pofition by ths
fcrew O, and adjufted for the mod accurate infpec-
tion by the fcrew P.
In many cafes it may be requifite to view light-co¬
loured objedts upon a dark ground, and the contrary:
therefore, to anfwerfuch purpofes, there is provided a
round flat piece of ivory, with one fide white and the
other black, fitted into the hole at G, and to be taken
in and out at pleafure.
To anfwer thefe purpofes dill more generally, there
is a pair of plyers, AB, moveable in a brafs fpring Fig. 4,
focket at C, and by the (hank at D it is fitted in the
hole of the ftage at I, where it has a horizontal mo¬
tion, and alfo a vertical motion (up and down) by its
joint at E. By the pincers at the end A any objedt
may be very readily adjufted to the view, and illumin¬
ed by the lens Y. Alio at the other end of the plyers
B, there is a fmall cylindric piece of ivory F ferewed
on, with one end black, the other white, for the above-
mentioned purpofes.
But oftentimes objedts will be found which require
the ufe of the plyers AB, and are feen to the greateft
advantage by light refledted upon them ; for which
purpofe a fmall concave metallic fpeculum AB is ferew¬
ed into the end CD of a tube CDEF, which is Fig. s.
made to go on upon the pipe of the microfcope;
and the large cone of refledted light from the mir¬
ror W will pafs through the hole H to this fmall
concave AB, by which it will be refledted upon
the objedt in the plyers at A, but more efpecial-
ly Upon the ivory at F, where exceeding fmall obr
jedts require the greateft degree of light they can
bear.
Further, to make this microfcope anfwer all the ends
of a fingle opaque microfcope, there is a brafs piece
AB, with a fquare hole-or focket, to go on upon the Fig. C.
(hank at D (fig. 1.) when the body of the microfcope
ABC is taken off, and is there made fad by the fcrew
G.
559° 0 P .
Optical C. To tills is annexed a ftrong brafs ring DE, into
InftrumentswhlCh are fcrewed the fame Liberkhuns, as they are
called, or concaves with a fmall lens in the middle of
each, as are ufed in the fingle opaque microfcope ; and
being applied to objefts on the ftage GHI, or in the
plyers, they are viewed in the fame mannner here as
they are there; with this additional advantage, that in
the prefent microfcope, the light is much more intenfe
from the fpeculum W, than the common light but
once refle&ed in the ufual form of this inftrument.
Laftly, every thing (hewn in the aquatic microfcope
is to he feen equally in this ; becaufe, fince the hole at
H in the ftage is very large, it will admit of a con¬
cavity fufficiently capacious for any purpofes of view¬
ing objefts in water, of any fort whatfoever. And not
only the magnifiers, but the mode of applying them,
is nearly the fame here as in thofe of the common
form. But in this conftru&ion, you have both the
fingle arid compound aquatic microfcope: for the ftage
GHI being moveable horizontally, and the magnifier
at A moving vertically on the joint at D, it is plain,
every part of the water in the concave glafs at H may
be brought under it, and the moft minute obje&s well
enlightened by the conCave AB, and ftiewn with great
diftinclnefs.
The other parts of the apparatus are common to all
microfcopes. Every body knows the ufe of the ivory
Aiders, for holding and applying tranfparent objefts
as above directed, (fig. 7.). But in fig. 8. you have
the form of a brafs Aider, with feveral fmall glafs con¬
caves fixed in one fide, and over them a fiip of clear
plain glafs is made to Aide in the frame, and thereby
to confine in the hollow of the glafles very fmall living
objefts, as a flea, loufe, mite, &c. and prevent their
crawling out of the field of view.
There is alfo what is called a bug-bo-x, confiding of
two parts: the lowed contains a large concave; and
‘ the upper part contains a plane glafs, which, being
fcrewed upon the concave, will confine any larger
animal, as a bug, an ant, a fpider, a fmall fly, &c.
As the circulation of the blood is one of the nobleft
experiments of the microfcope, fo ample jtrovifion is
made for it by a fet of glafs tubes of different fizes for
applying the tranfparent parts of proper obje&s fer
that purpofe, fuch as fmall fifh, tadpoles, and water-
newts, the bed fubjeA of all; fuch a tube is AB
(fig. 9.) It being neceflary to dop the open end B,
when the animal is in, with a cork, there is a fmall
hole at the other end A to give air to the animal.
Thefe tubes are applied to the hole H in the ftage by
two fteel fprings on the under part, bent to receive
them.
In cafe it be required to view the circulation in the
tail of a large fifh, as a gudgeon, loach, &c. thtre
is an inftrument of brafs called the fifo-patt) (fig. 10.)
contrived of a proper form to hold and confine it;
where ABD is the incurved plate to receive the body
of the fifh; CFG is a ribbon to tie the fifh to the faid
plate or pan, and is kept tight by a fpring behind
at H. At the end AD, is a long tranfverfe hole or
flit, over which the tranfparent tail of the fifh is placed;
and then by the {hank at E, on the under fide, it is put
upon the ftage thro’ a hole at I, and there eafily adap¬
ted to the magnifier A, by moving it every way un¬
der the fame.
TICS.
§ 9. Clark's Improved Pocket Microfcope.
This is reprefented in Plate CCXX. where ABC
DEE (fig. 2. n° 1.) is a box three inches broad, four
inches long, and one inch deep, covered with fhagreen,
and having the lid open, which when fhutis faftened
by clafps as in the figure. This box ferves for the pe-
deftal as well as cafe of the inftrument. abed, Is a
folid piece of wood, fixed in the middle of the box;
on which is fcrewed a brafs plate ef having in the
middle a female ferew for holding the other parts now
to be deferibed.
n° 2. Is a piece of brafs of the fhape reprefent¬
ed in the plate, having a male ferew at «, anfwering to
the female one abovementioned at and by which
this part is firmly fixed upright in the middle of the
box. On the lower part of this piece of brafs is fa¬
ftened, but in fuch a manner as to be moveable at the
joint a femicircle of brafs £ f, in which is a concave
fpeculum iiHy ground to a focus of about eight
inches: it is moyeable in the ring, by means of two
pivots ; and as the ring itfelf is alfo moveable, it is
plain that the fpeculum may be moved to a proper
diftance from the ftandard. The face of it is placed
next the ftandard when the inftrument is put into the
cafe, in order to prevent the polifhed furface from in¬
jury. v Is a piece of folid brafs, which goes into a
dovetail flit in the part next to be deferibed, and which
Mr Clark calls the Jlage. This confifts of two pieces,
n° 3. One of thefe, x xx .v, is a parallelogram of brafs,
in which the other part yzyz Aides up or down by
means of the ferew mn. From the upper part of this,
proceeds at right angles another piece 91 zr s. This is
formed of two pieces of brafs riveted at y and z ; and
joined to each other at their extremities by the crofs
piece rs. Upon this Aides another piece 1, 2, 3, 4,
having in it a round hole 5, and which can be made
to approach either to y-z or to rs as occafion re¬
quires. This part, by means of the dovetail flit at
xx, may be put on the folid piece of brafs at y of the
former, and fecured in a perpendicular pofition on the
top of it.
The laft; part of this microfcope is reprefented n° 4.
It confifts of a folid piece of brafs 0p q t, to which is
fixed at right angles the piece op v; <t> is a fmall plane
fpeculum, with the refle&ing fide downwards, and,
by means of a joint, capable of being raifed up or let
down as the obferver finds neceffary. To the under
fide
Part HI.
It is often required to fee what many fmall objefts OpticalT
are, and how they are beft difpofed in Aiders, glaffes, Inftrumea
tubes, &c. for which purpofe there is a hand-mag¬
nifier ABC, (fig. 11.) containing a lens of about
one inch focal diftance, to be ufed upon all fuch occa¬
fion 3.
Befides the above particulars, there is a pair of nip¬
pers (or forceps) to take "up fmall obje&s, in order to
place them on the ftage, between the talcs, &c. alfo
a camel-hair brufh, for cleanfing talcs, glafs, See. A
fmall wire, with a fpiral ferew at the end, for holding
cotton, &c. for cleanfing the glafs tubes. A little
ivory box with fpare talcs, and wires to faften them in
the Aiders. A piece of (hammy leather is ufeful up¬
on all occafions for wiping the glades of every fort,
as it will cleanfe them well without hurting their fur-
faces.
Optics .
Plate ecxx
Part III. OPT
Optical fide of the fore*part of this is placed a fmall brafs
Jnftrumentscjrc|e> cdges of which appear at « and a, and
""which is fully reprefented in n° 5. Round this
circle, the magnifiers are difpofed, and over againft
each of them is engraved its magnifying power, ex-
preffed by x, 2, 3, 4, 5, the higheft numbers magnify¬
ing mod. This circle is movable; and fo difpofed,
that, as it turns round, the magnifiers appear fuccef-
fively through the hole at at the fame time that the
power of each is Ihewn by the cipher which appears
through the little fquare hole at ), n° 4. This whole
part of the machine Aides up and down on the back of
the other, by means of a dovetail; and thus, though
the part 0 p ^ v is always above and parallel to the
ftage, yet it may be brought nearer to it or removed
farther off at pleaftire.
On the folid back plate are marked the numbers
Tj 2, 3, 4, 5, to fhew the foci of the different mag-
■ , nifiers. Concerning the proper method of ufing this
microfcope, Mr'Clark gives the following direftions.
When the cafe is opened, take out the microfcope,
which confifts of two feparate parts ; fcrew the under
part (on which the fpeculum is) into the brafs plate in
the infide of the cafe, which is the bafe for the inflru-
ment while in ufe.—Put the other end into the dove¬
tail flit behind the handle of the adjufting fcrew m »,
n° 3. place the microfcope fo as the fpeculum may
front the light ; then gently move up the back part
by the button for that purpofe, till the figure x,
on the plate opqt, (n° 4.) appears juft above the ftage:
then turn round the circular plate which contains the
magnifiers, being five in number, till 1 appear in
the fquare hole a-top. Put the Aider with the objefts
into the ftage ; give the concave fpeculum fuch an in¬
clination as to throw the rays through the object im¬
mediately under the magnifier: thereabout diftin£t
vifion will be had ; if not entirely fo, a turn or two of
the adjufting fcrew will either raife or deprefs the
ftage, as the eye or objeft requires: and fo on with
«ach magnifier and correfponding figure, always taking
care that the fpeculum be in fuch a fituation as to
throw the light properly up.
The Aider for opaque objeAs confifts of three
divifions ; firft, ebony, for laying all white or light-
coloured obje&s on, fuch as feeds, fands, mineral, &c.
The fecond divifion ivory, for all dark and black
bodies. The third divifion glafs, which opens and
fhuts ; when open, for the circulation of the blood in
tadpoles, &c. when fhut, for confining any live objeft
to be examined, and for all kinds of animalcules in
fluids, folmions of falls, &c. Likewife there are on
the. fide of the above Aider, a pair of fmall forceps,
that turn out at pleafure, to hold any opaque or
tranfparent objedf, fuch as a fly, fpider, &c. which
may be viewed with the aid of one or both fpeculums
to great advantage. See n° 6.
When this microfcope is employed for examining
an opaque objeft, the upper fpeculum muft be bent
down to fuch an angle as to throw the rays rtfle&ed
from the under fpecultim upon the opaque objeift in
view: with the fun or candle-light, thofe two fpe¬
culums have a moft delightful effed. The rays from
the under fpeculum, pafiing through the fquare opening
yz, t, 2, (n° 3.) behind the ftage, fall on the fmall up¬
per plane fpeculum, which, moving on an axis, may
, Vot-Vril. 1
I C S. 5591
be placed in a dife&ion fo as to illuminate the opaque Optical
objedl with the whole light proceeding from the large Inftrum{'ll!S
concave fpeculum. In this operation all the magni¬
fiers but n° 5. may be ufed with fucccfs and fatisfa&ion.
§ 10. Of Extempore Microfcopes.
For thofe who cannot conveniently procure the
apparatus of any of the above-mentioned microfcopes,
it may afford fome entertainment to try the magnify¬
ing power of fmall globules of water, which in fome
cafes is very confiderable. The inventor of this me¬
thod of viewing objefls was Mr Stephen Gray, who
gives an account of it in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions N° 221, 223. “ Having obferved, fays he,
fome irregular particles within the glafs globules (for
microfcopes), and finding that they appeared diftinft,
and prodigioufly magnified when held clofe to my
eye ; I concluded, that if I conveyed a fmall globule
of water clofe to my eye, in which there were any
opacous or lefs tranfparent particles than water, I
might fee them diftinftly. I therefore took on a pin
a fmall portion of water, which I knew to have in it
fome minute animals, and laid it on the end of a
fmall piece of brafs wire that then lay by me,
about of an inch in diameter, till there was formed
fomewhat more than an hemifphere of water. Then
keeping the wire ercft, I applied it to my eye, and,
ftanding at a proper diftance from the light, I faw
them and fome irregular particles, as I had predi&ed ;
but moftly enormouAy magnified. For, whereas they
were fcarce difcetnable by my glafs microfcope, they
appeared within the globule not much different in
form, nor lefs in magnitude, than ordinary peas.
They cannot be well feen by day-light, unlefs the
room be darkened; but mod diftinftly by candle-light.
They may alfo be very well feen by the light of the
full moon.”
But Mr Gray tells us, that thefe little animals
will appear more diftindtly, if drops of water be con¬
veyed by a pin’s point into a round hole made in a
brafs plate whofe thicknefs is about one tenth of an
inch, and the diameter of the cylindrical hole a little
lefs than half a tenth; obferving to fill it till near an
hemifphere of water be extant on each fide of it.
Now, fuppofing the axis of this cylinder of water to
be terminated by equal fpherical furfaces, and to be
exaftly equal to three diameters of the fpheres of thofe
furfaces; in that cafe the little animals feen by reflec¬
tion from the farther furface, will appear juft twice as
big in diameter, as if they were placed in the focus
of one of thofe fpheres of water, and were feen thro'
it as in common microfcopes. His defcription of the
animalcules thus obferved is curious. “ They are
(fays he) of a globular form, and but little lefs tranf¬
parent than the water they fwim in. They have
fometimes two dark fpots diametrically oppofite ; but
thefe are rarely feen. There are fometimes two of
thefe globular infefts flicking together, and the place
of junction is opacous: poflibly they may be in the
adt of generation. They have a twofold motion ; a
fwift progreflive regular one, and at the fame time a
rotation about their axes, at .right angles to the dia¬
meter that joins their dark fpots ; but this is only
feen when they move flowly. They are almoft of an
.incredible minuteijefs. Mr Leeuwenhoek is moderate
31 P enough
optical enough in his computation, when he tells us that he
Iiiftrumemspaw infe&s in water fo fmall that 30,000 ofjhern
could fcarcely equal a grain of coarfe fand. But I
believe it will feem a paradox to him when he is told,
that he may fee them by only applying his eye to a
portion of water wherein they are contained. I have
examined many tranfparent fluids, as water, wine,
brandy, vinegar, beer, fpittle, urine, &c. and do
not remember to have found any liquors without thefe
infe&s. But I have not feen many in motion, except
in common water that has flood, for fometimes a
longer, at others a fnortcr time. In the rivers, after
the water has been thickened by rain, there are fuch
infinite numbers of them, that the water feems in great
part to owe its opacity and whitenefs to thofe globules.
Rain-water, as foon as it falls, has many, and fnow-
water has more of them. The dew that ftands on
glafs windows has many of them : and for as much as
rains and dews are continually afcending and defcend-
ing, I believe we may fay the air is full of them.
They feem to be of the fame fpecific gravity with the
water they fwim in ; the dead remaining in all parts
of tlse water. Of the many thoufands that I have
feen, I could difcern no fenfible difference in their dia¬
meters ; they appear of equal bigneffes in water that
has been boiled: they retain their ftiapes, and will
fometimes revive.”
Plafe. The fame ingenious author deferibes another water-
CCXXII. microfcope of his own invention, as follows. “ AB
“S' I call the frame of the microfcope; it may be about
of an inch in thicknefs. At A there is a fmall
hole near of an inch in diameter, in the middle of
a fpherical cavity about ^ of an inch in diameter,
and in depth fomewhat more than half the thicknefs of
the brafs. Oppofite to this, at the other fide of the
brafs, there is another fpherical cavity, half as broad
as the former; and fo deep as to reduce the circum¬
ference of the fmall hole above-mentioned, almoft to
to a (harp edge. In thefe cavities the water is to be
placed, being taken upon a pin or a large needle, and
conveyed into them till there be formed a double con¬
vex lens of water ; which, by the concavities being of
different diameters, will be equivalent to a double
convex lens of unequal convexities. By this means
I find the obje& is rendered more diftinft than by a
plano-convex of water, or by a double convex formed
on the plane furfaces of a piece of metal. CDE is
the fupporter whereon to place the obje<ff ; if it be
water, in the hole C ; if a folid, on the point F. This
is fixed to the frame of the microfcope by the ferew E,
where it is bent upwards, that its upper part CF may
ftand at a diftance from the frame AB. It is move-
able about the ferew E as a centre, in order that
either the hole C, or the point F, may be expofed be¬
fore the microfcope A, and that the objeft may be
brought to, and fixed in its focus. There is another
{crew, about half an inch in length, which goes
through a round plate in the frame of the microfcope
AE, the ferew and plate taking hold of the fupporter
about D, where there is a flit fomewhat larger than
the diameter of the ferew. This is requifite for the
admifiGon of the hole C, or point F, according to the
nature of the objeft, into the focus of the watery lens
at A. For, by turning the ferew G, the fupporter
is carried to or from the fame; which may be
1 c S. Partin.
fooner done, if, while one turns the ferew with one Optical;
hand, the other holds the microfcope by the end Inf*runicn!
B; and one be looking through the water, till the '
objeft be feen moft diflinftly. The fupporter muft 1
be made of a thin piece of brafs, well hammered,
that, by its fpriug, it may better follow the motion
of the ferew. I choofe rather to fix the fupporter
by the ferew E, than by a rivet; becaufe it may
now, by the help of a knife, be unferewed, and, by
the other ferew G, be brought clofe to the frame of
the microfcope, without weakening its fpring, and fo
become more conveniently portable. If the hole C
in the fupporter be filled with water, but not fo as to
be fpherical, all objects that will bear it are feen
therein more dtftin&ly. The hole at B is made for
feeing animal? in water by refle&ion from its farther
furface as above deferibed.”
$11. To find the Magnifying Power of Glafifes employed
in Single Microfcopes.
The apparent magnitude of any obje<A, as muft
appear from what hath been already delivered, is
meafured by the angle under which it is feen ; and
this angle is greater or fmaller, according as the
objeft is near to or far off from the eye; and of confe-
quence the lefs the diftance at which it can be viewed,
the larger it wll appear. The naked eye is unable to
diftinguiftied any objedl brought exceedingly near it :
but looking through a convex lens, however near the
focus of that lens be, there an obje&may bediftin&ly
feen ; and the fmaller the lens is, the nearer will be
its focus, and in the fame proportion the greater will
be its magnifying power. From thefe principles it is
eafy to find the reafon why the firft or greateft mag¬
nifiers are fo extremely minute ; and alfo to calculate
the magnifying power of any convex lens employed
in a fingle microfcope : For as the proportion of the
natural fight is to the focus, fuch will be its power of
magnifying. If the focus of a convex lens, for in-
ftance, be at one inch, and the natural fight at eight
inches, which is the common itandard, an objetA may
be feen through that lens at one inch diftance from the
eye, and will appear in its diameter eight times larger
than it does to the naked eye : but as the objedt is
magnified every way, in length as well as in breadth,
we muft fquare this diameter to know how much it
really is enlarged ; and we then find that its fuperficies
is magnified 64 times.
Again, fuppofe a convex lens whofe focus is only
one-tenth of an inch diftant from its centre ; as in eight
inches, the common diftance of diftind! vifion with
the naked eye, there are 80 fuch tenths, an objedt
may be feen through this glafs 80 times nearer than
with the naked eye. It will, of confequence, appear
80 times longer, and as much broader, than it does to
common fight; and therefore is 6400 times magni¬
fied. If a convex glafs be fo fmall that its focus is
only of an inch diftant, we find that eight inches
contains t6o of tbefe twentieth-parts ; and of confe¬
quence, the length and breadth of any objedt feen
through fuch a lens will be magnified 160 times, and
the whole furface 25,600 times. As it is an eafy
matter to melt a drop or globule of a much fmaller
diameter than a lens can be ground, and as the focus
of a globule is no farther off than a quarter of its own
diameter,
Part III. OPT
Optical diameter, it mud of confequence magnify to a pro-
fuftruments jjgioug degree. But this excefiive magnifying power
"" "* is much more than counterbalanced by its admitting fo
little light, want of diftinftnefs, and (hewing fuch a
minute part of the objeft to be examined ; for which
reafon, thefe globules, though greatly in vogue fome
time ago, are now almoft entirely rejected. Mr Leeuwen¬
hoek, as has been already obferved, made life only
of Angle microfcopes confiding of convex lenfes, and
left to the Royal Society a legacy of 26 of thofe
glaffes. According to Mr Folkes’s defcription of
thefe, they were all exceedingly clear, and (hewed the
object very bright and diftinft; “ which (fays Mr
Folkes) mud be owing to the great care this gentle¬
man took in the choice of his glafs, his exadtnefs in
giving it the true figure, and afterwards, among
many, referving only fuch for his ufe as upon trial he
found to be mod excellent. Their powers of magni¬
fying are different, as different obje&s may require:
and as on the one hand, being all ground glaffes,
none of them are fo fmall, and confequently magnify
to fo great a degree, as fome of thofe drops frequently
ufed in other microfcopes; yet, on the other hand, the
diftin&nefs of thefe very much exceeds what I have
met with in glaffes of that fort. And this was what
Mr Leeuwenhoek ever propofed to himfelf; rejecting
all thofe degrees of magnifying in which he could not
fo well obtain that end. For he informs us in one of
his letters, that though he had, above 40 years by
him, glaffes of an extraordinary fmallnefs, he had
made but very little ufe of them ; as having found, in
a long courfe of experience, that the mod confider-
ICS. 5593
able difcoveries were to be made with fuch glaffes as, Optxal
magnifying but moderately, exhibited the objed withInttnimcnts
the greateft brightnefs and diftinftion.”
In a Angle microfcope, if you want to learn the
magnifying power of any glafs, no more is neceffary
than to bring it to its true focus, the exa& place
whereof will be known by an obje&’s appearing
perfe&ly diftind and (harp when placed there. Then,
with a pair of fmall compaffes, meafure, as nearly as
you can, the diftance from the centre of the glafs to
the objed you was viewing, and afterwards applying
the compaffes to any ruler, with a diagonal fcale of
the parts of an inch marked on it, you will eafily find
how many parts of an inch the faid diftance is. When
that is known, compute how many times thofe parts
of an inch are contained in eight inches, the common
ftandard of fight, and that will give you the number
of times the diameter is magnified: fquaring the dia¬
meter will give the fuperficies ; and, if you would
learn the folid contents, it will be (hewn by multiply¬
ing the fuperficies by the diameter.
The fuperficies of one fide of an objed only can be
feen at one view; and to compute how much that is
magnified, is moft commonly fufficient: but fome-
times it is fatisfadory to know how many minute
objeds are contained in a larger; as fuppofe we de*
fire to know how many animalcules are contained in
the bulk of a grain of fand: and to anfwer this, the
cube, as well as the furface, muft be taken into the
account. For the greater fatisfadion of thofe who
are not much verfed in thefe matters, we (hall here fub-
join the following
TABLE of the magnifying powers of convex glasses, employed in Single Microfcopes, according
to the diftance of their focus: Calculated by the fcale of an inch divided into 100 parts.
Shewing how many times the diameter, the superficies, and the cube of an object, is magnified, when
viewed through fuch glafles, to an eye whofe natural fight is at eight inches, or 800 of the 1 oodth-parts of an inch.
The focus of
a glafs at
t> or jo
■h> or 40
tV> or 3°
j-, or 20
!5
H
’3
12
11
26
40
53
57
61
66
72
80
. 88
100
“4
133
160
200
266
400
800
Magnifies
theSuper-
ficies.
256
400
676
1,600
2,809
3»249
3.721
4.356
5,184
6,400
7.744
10,000
12,996
17,689
25,600
40,000
70,756
160,000
640,000
Objeft.
4,096
8,000
64,000
148.877
rtS’m
226,981
287,496
373.248
512,000
681,472
1,000,000
i,48i,544
2,352,637
4,096,000
8,000,000
18,821,096
64,000,000
512,000,000.
The greateft magnifier in Mr Leeuwenhoek’s cabinet of microfcopes, prefented to the Royal Society, has
its focus, as nearly as can well be meafured, at one-twentieth of an inch diftance from its centre; and confe¬
quently magnifies the diameter of an objed 160 times, and the fuperficies 25,600. But the greateft mag¬
nifier in Mr Wilfon’s fingle microfcopes, as they are now made, has ufually its focus at no farther diftance
than about the 50th part of an inch; whereby it has a power of enlarging the diameter of an objed 400, and
us fuperficies 160,000 times.
2 31 P 2
The
Optical The magnifying power of the folar microfcope
In liniments mujj calculated in a different manner; for here the
difference between the focus of the magnifier and the
diflance of the fcreen or. fheet whereon the image of
the objeft is caft, is the proportion of its being mag¬
nified. Suppofe, for inftance, the lens made ufe of
has its focus at half an inch, and the fcreen is placed
at the diflance of five feet, the objedt will then ap¬
pear magnified in the proportion of five feet to half
an inch: and as in five feet there are 120 half-inches,
the diameter will be magnified 120 times, and the
furperficies 14,400 times; and, by putting the fcreen
at farther dillances, you may magnify the objedt
almoft as. much as you pleafe ; but Mr Baker advifes
to regard diftindlnefs more than bignefs, and to place
the fcreen juft at that diftance where the obje& is feen
moft diftindt and clear.
With regard to the double refledling microfcope,
Mr Baker obferves, that the power of the objedl-lens
is indeed greatly increafed by the addition of twoeye-
glafles; but as no objedl lens can be ufed with them
of fo minute a diameter, or which magnifies of itfelf
near fo much as thofe that can be ufed alone, the
glaffes of this microfcope, upon the whole, magnify
little or nothing more than thofe of Mr Wilfon’s
fingle one; the chief advantage arifing from a com¬
bination of lenfes being the fight of a larger field or
portion of an objedt magnified in the fame degree.
$ 12. To find out the real Size of Objefts fein by
Microfcopes.
Though, by the diredlions already given, the mag-
sifying powers of microfcopes,may be eafily calcu¬
lated ; yet if we examine extremely minute objedls,
the real fize of them will ftill remain uncertain. For,
though we may know that they are magnified fo
many thoufand times, we can by that make but a very
imperfedl computation of their natural and true lize ;
nor indeed can we come to any certain conclufion as
to that, but by the mediation of fome larger objedt
whofe dimenfions we really know. For as bulk itfelf
is merely comparative, the only way we can judge of
the bignefs of any thing is by comparing it with fome-
thing elfe, and finding out how many times the lefler
is contained in the larger body. The plained and moft
pradticable methods of doing this in microfcopical ob-
jedts are the following.
I. Mr Leeuwenhoek’s method of computing the
fize of falls in fluids, of the animalcules in femine
mafculino, in pepper-water, &c. was by comparing
them with a grain of fand. By this, however, we
muft underftand the coarfe fea-fand, ufually called
fcouring-fand, which is equal in bignefs to feveral
grains of writing fand. But to make our caculations
ftill more certain, we muft fuppofe them to be of fuch
a fize, that too of them placed in a row (hall extend
an inch in length. Mr Leeuwenhoek then made his
calculations in the following manner.
p)ate He viewed thro’ his microfcope a fingle grain of
oohcil. fand, which we will fuppofe to be magnified as the
fig. i. round figure ABCD. Then, obferving an animal¬
cule fwimming or running acrofs it, (which fuppofe
to be of the fize 1,) confidering and meafuring this,
by his eye, he concludes, that the diameter of this
animalcule is only xV of the diameter of the grain
I C S. Partin;
of fand : confequently, according to the common Optical
rules, the fuperficies of the grain of fand is 144 times,Illftlument?
and the whole contents 1728 times, larger than the ani¬
malcule.
Suppofe again, that he fees among thefe another
and fmaller fpecies of animalcules; one of which, 2,
he likewife meafures by his eye, and computes its dia¬
meter to be four times lefs than the former: then, ac¬
cording to the foregoing rules, the furface of this fe-
cond animalcule will be 16, and the whole bulk 64,
times lefs than the animalcule 1.
If farther, upon a nicer view, he difeovers a third
kind of animalcule, 3, fo exceedingly minute, that,
examining it-in the former manner, lie concludes the
diameter to be 10 times fmaller than the fecond fort; it
will then follow, that 100c of them are only equal in
bignefs to one of that fort. Hence, of the firft fort,
1728 would be contained in a grain of fand ; of the
fecond, 110,592 ; and of the third, 110,592,000.
In this manner may the comparative fize of fmall
objefts be judged of with tolerable certainty : parti¬
cularly in the folar microfcope; fince the image of the
objedt and of the grain of fand, or whatever elfe is
thought proper to compare with it, may be really mea-
fured by a ruler or a pair of compafies, and the diffe¬
rence of their diameters moft exadlly found.
2. Mr Hooke deferibes his method in the follow¬
ing words. “ Having redtified the microfcope to fee
the defired objedl thro’ it very diftindlly ; at the fame
time that I look upon the objedl thro’ the glafs with
one eye, I look upon other objedls at the fame di¬
ftance with my other bare eye : by which means I am
able, by the help of a ruler divided into inches and
fmall parts, and laid on the pedeftal of the microfcope,
to caft as it were the magnified appearance of the ob¬
jedl upon the ruler, and thereby exadtly to meafure
the diameter it appears of thro’ the glafs; which be¬
ing compared with the diameter it appears of to the
naked eye, will eafily afford the quantity of its be¬
ing magnified.” This method is recommended by
Mr Baker as very good for multitudes of objefts;
and he declares from his own experience, that a little
pradlice will render it exceedingly eafy and pleafant.
3. Another very curious method for this purpofe is
deferibed by Dr Jurin in his Phyfico-Mathematical
Differtations. Wind a piece of the fined filver-wire
you can get a great many times about a pin, or fome
other fuch (lender body, fo clofely as to leave no in¬
terval between the wire-threads; to be certain of
which, they muft be carefully examined with a glafs.
Then, with a fmall pair of compaffes, meafure what
length of pin the wire covers; and applying the com¬
paffes with that meafure to a diagonal fcale of inches,
you will find how much it is; after which, by count¬
ing the number of wire-rounds contained in that
length, you will eafily difeover the real thicknefs of
the fingle wire. This being known, cut it into very
fmall pieces ; and, when you examine the obje£l, if it
be opaque, drew fome of thefe wires upon it; if tranf-
parent, under it; and by your eye compare the parts
of the objedl with the thicknefs of fuch bits of wire
as lie fairdt to the view. By this method, Dr Jurin
obferv.ed, that four globules of human blood would
generally cover the breadth of a wire which he had
found to be part of an inch ; and confequently
Part III. OPT
Optical that the diameter of a fmgle globule was r-jrar^tli of
[nflmmenlsan . which Was alfo confirmed by Leeuwenhoek,
from obfervations made on the blood with a piece of
the fame wire.
4. Mr Martin in his Optics gives another method
fufficiently eafy. On a circular piece of glafs, let a
number of parallel lines be carefully drawn, with the
fine point of a diamond, at the diftance of ^th of an
inch from each othert If this be placed in the focus
of the eye-glafs of a microfcope, the iq^age of the ob-
jeft will be feen upon thefe lines, and the parts there¬
of may be compared with the intervals: whereby its
true magnitude or dimenfions may be very nearly
known ; for the intervals of thefe lines, tho’ fcarce
difcernible to the naked eye, appear very large thro*
the microfcope. A contrivance of this kind may alfo
be invented for fuch microfcopes as a glafs cannot be
applied to in the above manner, by placing it under
or behind the objeft, which will anfwer the fame pur-
pofe. Here it will be eafy to find what proportion an
objeft, or any part thereof, bears to an interval be¬
tween two lines, and then determine it in parts of an
inch : for if the width of an objedf appears juft one
interval, we fhall know it to be juft one fortieth part
of an inch ; if half an interval, the 80th ; if a quar¬
ter of an interval, the 160th; if one fifth, only the
200th part of an inch.
5. Dr Smith has an invention fimilar to this for taking
exa6t draughts of objefts viewed in double micro¬
fcopes : for he advifes to get a lattice made with fmall
filver wires, or fmall fquares drawn upon a plane glafs
by the ftrokes of a diamond, and to put into the place
of the image formed by the objeA-glafs. Then, by
transferring the parts of the objeft feen in the fquares
of the glafs or lattice upon fimilar correfponding
fquares drawn upon paper, the pidture thereof may be
exactly taken. A micrometer may alfo be applied to
microfcopes of the fame form with thofe applied to
telefcopes; for by opening the hairs of the micrometer
till they exadfly correfpond to a certain length, fup-
pofe x^th of an inch, and by obferving the number
of revolutions in this opening, the diameter of any
other objeft, anfwering to a known number of revo¬
lutions, may be found by the golden rule.
$13. Of the Field of Flew in Microfcopes.
This is always in proportion to the diameter of the
lens made ufe of, and its power of magnifying, by
which it may be determined : fince, if the lens is ex¬
tremely fmall, it magnifies a great deal, and confe-
quently a very minute portion of an objedt only can be
diftinguilhed thro’ it; for which reafon the greateft
magnifiers never fhould be employed but for the moft
minute objedls. This confideration will dired to the
life of fuch magnifiers as are moft proper to be em¬
ployed, which is of the utmoft confequence in micro-
fcopical obfervations. On this fubjed Mr Baker gives
the following ftiort rule, viz. that the field of view dif¬
fers not greatly from the fize of the lens; and that the
whole of any objed much beyond that fize, cannot be
conveniently viewed thro’ it. There is fome diffe¬
rence, as to the vifible area of an objed, as feen
thro’ fingle or double microfcopes ; for the double
fhew a larger portion of it than the fingle, tho’ mag¬
nified as much*
ICS. 5595
Optical
§ 14. Of Microfcopic Objefls, and the Method of pre- Inftrunients
paring them for being examined.   
Mr Hooke gives a general account of microfcopic
objeds under the following denominations, viz. “ ex¬
ceeding fmall bodies, exceeding fmall pores, and ex¬
ceeding fmall motions.” The firft muft either be the
parts of larger bodies ; or things, the whole of which
is exceedingly minute, fuch as fmall feeds, infeds,
fands, falts, &c. The fecond are the interftices be¬
tween the folid parts of bodies, as in ftones, minerals,
fhells, &c. or the mouths of minute veffels in vege¬
tables, the pores in the fkins, bones, &c. of animals,
—Exceeding fmall motions' are the movements of the
feveral parts or members of minute animals, or the
motion of the fluids contained either in animal or ve¬
getable bodies.
Many, as Mr Baker obferves, even of thofe who have
purchafed microfcopes, are fo little acquainted with
their general and extenfive ufefulnefs, and fo much at
a lofs for objeds to examine by them, that, after di¬
verting themfelves and their friends fome few times
with what they find in the Aiders bought with them,
or two or three more common things, the microfcopes
are laid afide as of little farther value; and a fuppo-
fition that this muft be the cafe, prevents many others
from buying them : whereas, among all the inven¬
tions that ever appeared in the world, none perhaps
can be found fo conftantly capable of entertaining,
improving, and fatisfying the mind of man.
An examination of objeds, in order to difeover
truth, requires a great deal of attention, care, and
patience, together with .fome confiderable fkill and
dexterity, (to be acquired by pradice chiefly), in the
preparing, managing, and applying them to the mi¬
crofcope. When any objed comes to be examined,
the fize, contexture, and nature of it, fhould be duely
confidered, in order to apply it to fuch glaffes and
in fuch a manner as may fhew it beft. The firft ftep
towards this fhould conftantly be, to view it thro’ a
magnifier that can take in the whole at once : for, by
obferving how the parts lie as to one another, we fhall
find it much eafier to examine and judge of them fe-
parately if there be occafion. After having made
ourfelves acquainted with the form of the whole, we
may divide it as we pleafe ; and the fmaller the parts
into which it is divided, the greater muft be the mag¬
nifiers with which we view them.
The tranfparency or opacity of an objed muft alfa
be regarded, and the glaffes made ufe of muft be fuit-
ed to it accordingly : for a tranfpSrent objed will
bear a much greater magnifier-than one that is opaque;
fince the nearnefs required in a large magnifier un¬
avoidably darkens an opaque obj^d, and prevents its
being feen, unlefs by the microfcope contrived on
purpofe for fuch objeds. Moft objeds,. however, be¬
come tranfparent by being divided into extremely thin
or minute parts. Contrivance therefore is requifiteta
reduce them into fuch thinnefa or fmallnefs as may
render them moft fit for examination.
The nature of the objed, whether it be alive or
dead, a folid or a fluid, an animal, a vegetable, or a
mineral fubftance, muft likewife be confidered, and all
the circumftances attended to, that we may apply it
in the moft convenient manner. If it be a living ani¬
mal^
550 OPT
optical mal, care mu ft be taken to fqueeze, hurt, or dif-
InftruinehtsCompofe it as little as pofiible, that its right form, po-
^fture, and temper, may be difcovered. If a fluid, and
too thick, it muft be thinned with water ; if too thin,
we muft let fome of its watery parts evaporate. Some
fubftances are fitteft for obfervation when dry, others
again when moiftened; fome when frefti, and fome af¬
ter being kept a while.
Light is a thing next to be taken care of; for on
this the.truth of all our examination depends, and a
very little experience will {hew how differently objedts
appear in one pofition and kind of it, from what they do
in another. So that we (hould turn them every way,
and view them in every degree of light, from bright-
nefs even to obfcurity ; and in all pofitions to each
degree ; till we are certain of their true form, and
that we are not deceived. For, as Mr Hooke fays,
it is very difficult, in many objefts, to diftinguifli be¬
tween a prominency and a depreffion, between a (ha-
dow and a black ftain ; and, in colour, between a re¬
flection and a whitenefs. The eye of a fly, for in-
ftance, in one kind of light, appears like a lattice
drilled through with abundance of holes,; in the fun-
fliine, like a furface covered with golden nails; in one
pofition like a furface covered with pyramids, in ano¬
ther with cones, and in other pofitions of quite other
fhapes.
The degree of light muft be duly fuited to the
objefl:: which if dark, will be belt feen in a full and
ftrong light; but, if very tranfparent, the light
{hould be proportionably weak ; for which reafon
there is a contrivance both in the Angle and double
microfcope to cut off abundance of its rays when fuch
tranfparent objects are viewed by the greateft mag¬
nifiers.
The light of a candle, for many objeCts, and
efpecially fuch as are exceedingly minute and tranfpa¬
rent, is preferable to day-light. For others, day¬
light is beft; that is, the light of a bright cloud. As for
fun-ftiine, it is reflected from objeCts with fo much
glare, and exhibits fuch gaudy colours, that nothing
can be determined by it with certainty ; and there¬
fore it is to be accounted the worft light that can be
had.
This opinion of foolhine, however, mull; not be
extended to the folar microfcope, which cannot be
ufed to advantage without its brighteft light: for in
that way we fee not the objeCt itfelf, whereon the fun-
fiiine is caft, but only the image or (hadow of it exhi¬
bited upon a fcreen ; and therefore no confufion can
arife from the glaring reflection of the fun-beams from
the objeCt to the eye, which is the cafe in other mi-
crofcopes: but then, in this way, we muft reft contented
with viewing the true form and ftiape of an objeCt
without expeCting to find its natural colour, fince no
{hadow can pofiibly wear the colours of the body it
reprefents.
Moft objeCts require fome management in order to
bring them properly before the glaffes. If they are
flat and tranfparent, and fuch as will not be inju¬
red by preffure, the beft method is to inclofe them
in Aiders, between two Mufcovy talcs or ifinglafs.
This way, the feathers of butterflies, the fcales of
fiflies, the farinae of flowers, &c. the feveral parts
aad even whole bodies of minute infeCts, and a
ICS. Partin.
thoufand other things, may very conveniently be pre- Qpticali
ferved. Every curious obferver, therefore, will haveIn^ruwY
them always ready to receive any accidental objeCt, T
and fecure it for future examination : and a dozen or if
two of thefe fliders properly furniflied are 8 fine natu- |
ral hiftory.
In making a collection of objeCts, the fliders |
{hould not be filled promifcuoufly, but care taken to
fort the objeCts accordingto their fize and tranfparen- |
cy ; in fuch a manner that none may be put together |
in the fame Aider but what may be properly examin¬
ed by the fame magnifier : and then the Aider fliould I
be marked with the number of the magnifier its objeCts
are fitteft for: that is, the moft tranfparent, or mi¬
nuted objeCts of all, which require the firft magnifier
to view them by, fiiould be placed in a Aider or Aiders
marked with number I, thofe of the next degree in
fliders marked with number II, and fo of the reft. j|
This method will fave abundance of time and trouble
in (hifting the magnifiers, which, without fuch forf-
ment, muft perhaps be done two or three times, in
overlooking a Angle Aider. The numbers marked out I
upon the Aiders will likewife prevent our being at any t]
lofs what glafs to apply to each. In placing your §
objeCts in fliders, a convex glafs of about an inch
focus, to hold in the hand, and thereby adjuft them
properly between the talcs, before you fallen them
down with the brafs rings, will be found very conve- |
nient.
Small living objeCts, fuch as lice, fleas, gnats, ij;
fmall bugs, minute fpiders, mites, &c. may be placed
between thefe talcs, without killing or hurting them,
if care be taken not to prefs down the brafs rings that
keep in the talcs, and will remain alive even for |
weeks in this manner. But if they are larger than |
to be treated thus, either put them in a Aider with
concave glaffes intended for that ufe, or in the cell de- 1
fcribed above, or elfe examine them ftuck on the pin
or held between the plyers; either of which ways they
may be viewed at pleafure.
If fluids come under examination, to difcover the
animalcules that may be in them, take up a fmall drop |
with your pen or hair-pencil, and place it on a Angle j
ifinglafs, which you rtiould have in a Aider ready, or
elfe in one of the little concave glaffes, and fo apply j
it. But in cafe, upon viewing it, you find, as often
happens, the animalcules fwarming together, and fo ]
exceedingly numerous, that, running continually over
one another, their kinds and real form cannot be !
known ; fome part of the drop muft be taken off the
glafs, and then a little fair water added to the reft, will
make them feparate, and fhew them diftinft and well.
And this mixture of water is particularly neceffary in
viewing the femen mafculinum of all creatures ; for
the animalcules therein contained are inconceivably
minute, and yet crowded together in fuch infinite num¬
bers, that, unlefs it be diluted a great deal, they can¬
not be fufficiently feparated to diftinguifh their true
fhape.
But if we vie'w a fluid, to find what falls it may
have in it, a method quite contrary to the foregoing
muft be employed: for then the fluid muft be fuffered
to evaporate, that the falls, being left behind upon the
glafs, may the more eafily be examined.
Another, and indeed the moft curious way of ex¬
amining
PartlH. OPT
I| Optical amining fluids, is by applying them to the microfcope
tjnftrumems exceedingly fmall capillary tubes made of the thin-
neft glafs poffible. This was Mr Leeuwenhoek’s me¬
thod of difcovering the fttapes of falls floating in
vinegar, wine, and feveral other liquors; and fuch
tubes Ihould be always ready to ufe as occafion requires.
For the circulation of the blood, frogs, newts,
or fifhes, are commonly made ufe of; and there are
glafs tubes in the Angle microfcope, and a filh-pan as
well as tubes in the double one, on purpofe to con¬
fine thefe creatures, and bring the proper parts of
them to view : thefe parts, in newts and fifhes, are the
tails, and in frogs the fine filmy membrane between
the toes of the hinder legs. Though, if we can con¬
trive to fallen down the creature, and bring our ob-
Ijedt to the magnifier, the circulation cannot poffiblybe
feen fo plainly any where as in the mefentery, or thin'
tranfparent membrane which joins the guts together;
and this part, by pulling out the gut a little, may ea-
fily be adjufted to the magnifier.
To difieft minute infe£ts, as fleas, lice, gnats,
mites, &c. and view their internal parts, requires a
great deal of patience and dexterity; yet this may be
done in a very fatisfa&ory manner, by means of a fine
lancet and needle, if they are placed in a drop of wa¬
ter : for their parts will then be feparated with cafe,
and lie fair before the microfcope, fo that the ftomach
and other bowels may be plainly diftinguifhed and ex¬
amined.
We fhould always have ready for this purpofe,
little flips of glafs, about the fize of a Aider, to place
objefls on occafionally ; fome of which flips fhould be
made of green, blue, and other coloured glafs, many
objedls being much more diftinguifhable when placed
on one colour than on another. We fhould likewife
be provided with glafs tubes of all fixes, from thefinefl
capillaries that can be blown, to a bore of half an inch
diameter.
There is, perhaps, no better way of preferring
tranfparent obje&s in general, than by placing them
between clear ifinglafs in Aiders: but opaque bodies,
fuch as fands, feeds, woods, &c. require different ma¬
nagement, and a colledion of them fhould be prepared
in the following manner.
Cut cards into fmall flips, about half an inch in
length, and one tenth of an inch in breadth : wet
them half their length with a ftrong but very tranfpa¬
rent gum-water, and with that flick on your objedd.
As the fpots of cards are red and black, by making
your flips of fuch fpots, you will obtain a contrail to
objefts of almoft any colour ; and by fixing black
things on the white, white on the black, blue cr green
on the red or white, and all other coloured obje&s on
flips moft contrary to themfelves, they will be fhewn
to the bed advantage. Thefe flips are intended chiefly
for the microfcope for opaque objeds, to be applied
between the nippers: but they will alfo be proper for
any other microfcope that.can fhew opaque bodies- A
little fquare box fhould be contrived to keep thefe flips
in, with a number of very fhallow holes in it jufl big
enough to hold them. If fueh holes were cut through
that pafteboard of which the covers of books are
made, exaftly fitted to the box, and a paper pafted
on one fide of it to ferve for a bottom to it, three or
four fuch paflvboards flored with objects might lie up¬
on one another in fame box, and contain too or more
ICS. 5507
flips; with obje&s fattened on them, always ready for Optica|
examination. It will not be found amifs to provide Intbumeurs
fome flips larger than others, for the reception of dif¬
ferent fixed obje&s. But this will, perhaps, be bet¬
ter underftood by an infpeftion of fig. 3. The box
fhould likewife be furnifhed with a pair of pliers, toPI3'6
take up and adjufl the flips, and therefore a convenientCCXXI1,
place is contrived therein to hold them, as is ihewn in
the figure.
There is no advantage in examining any ohjefl
with a greater magnifier than what fhews the fame di-
flindly ; and therefore, if you can fee it well with the
third or fourth glafs, never ufe the firfl or fecond; for
the lefs a glafs magnifies, the better light you will
have, the eafier you can manage the objedt, and the
clearer it will appear. It is much to be doubted, whe¬
ther the true colours of objedts can be judged of when
feen through the greateft magnifiers: for as the pores
or interftices of an objedt mull be enlarged according
to the magnifying power of the glafs made ufe of,
and the component particles of matter mutt by the
fame means appear feparated many thoufands of times
farther than they do to the naked eye, their reflexions
of the rays of light will probably be different, and ex¬
hibit different colours. And indeed the variety of co¬
louring which fome objedls appear dreffed in, may
ferve as a proof of this.
The motions of living creatures themfelves, or of
the fluids contained within them, as feen through the
roicrofcope, are Hkewife not to be determined without
due confideration : for, as the moving body, and the
fpace wherein it moves, are magnified, the motion
mutt probably be fo too; and therefore that rapi¬
dity wherewith the blood feems to pafs along through
the veffels of fmall animals mutt be judged of accord-
ingly.
§ 15. Doll-jncTs Achromatic Telefcope.
Mr. Doliond’s telefcopes are of two kinds. I. Thofe
in which only the eye-piece Aides, fo as to be drawn
out as far as is neceffary for procuring diilinft vifion.
Of this form are all the larger inflruments; which are
therefore generally fixed upon a Hand, for viewing
objedls with greater (leadinefs.—2. Thofe which are
compofed of feveral Aiding tubes, for the convenience
of being put into the pocket.
The ufual method of makingthe Aiding tubes of tele*
fcopes has been with paper covered with vellum ; but as
fuch tubes have been found liable to feveral inconve-
niencies from being affedled by the moillure of the air,
they are now contrived to be made exceedingly thin
of brafs, and the outfide of mahogany.
The Aiding tubes are all made to flop, when drawn
out to the proper length; fo that, by applying one hand
to the outfide tube A, fig. 4. and the other hand to
the end of the fmallell tube B, the telefcope may be,
at one pull, drawn out to its whole length, as is re-
prefented by fig. 5.; then any of the tubes may be flip¬
ped in a little while you look through, and the objedt
rendered diftindt to any fight.
To make the tubes Aide properly, they all pafs thro*
ftiort fprings or tubes, which are fetewed in at a,ht and
c, fig. 5. Thefe fprings may be unferewed from the
ends of the Aiding tubes by means of the milled edges
which projedt above the tubes, and the tubes taken
from one another when required.
There
559§ OPT
Optical There are four convex Cye-glafles to thefe tele-
Inftriiitientsfcopes, whofe furfaces and focal-lengths are fo pro-
~ portioned as to render the field of view very large.—
Thefe eye-glafles are all contained in the fmallelt
Aiding tube ; three of them may be feen by unfcrew-
ing the tube at e e e; and the fourth, which is at the
end of the tube, may be come at by unfcrewing the
fpring at c.
Thefe telefcopes are of three different lengths and
fixes, ufually called i foot, 2 feet, and 3 feet.
14 Inches.
28 ditto.
40 ditto.
Length when
Ann up.
5 Inches.
9 ditto.
10 ditto.
Aperture of the
Achromatic
Obje£t-glafs.
I,i Inches.
1,6 ditto.
2,0 ditto.
Wei^t.
6 Ounces.
16 ditto.
30 ditto.
The bed achromatic telefcopes which Mr Dollond
has yet made, are thofe with a triple objeft-glafs of
about 45 inches focal diftance, with an aperture of 34-
inches. Some of thefe magnify the diameters of objedls
150 times, with great diftin&nefs, and light fufficient
for moft aftronomical purpofes. When fitted (for terre-
ftrial objedls) with an eye-piece magnifying about 70
or 80 times, they give moft agreeable vifion.
The objed-glafs of one' of thefe telefcopes was
found to have the following radii (in inches) of cur¬
vature for its different furfaces, beginning with that
next the objedf, 264, 374, ty-rV, 264, 26-f-, 26-4. But
it does not appear that Mr Dollond and the bed ar-
tids abide by a fixed rule in their condruflions ; for
telefcopes of the fame length and magnifying power,
and made by the fame artid, have different conftruc-
tions of the objeft glafs. This may be expedled,
when wre confider the variable nature of the flint-glafs.
It is probable, that thete very fine objedi>glaffes have
been produced by trials pro re nata of different curva¬
tures.
Till fome method can be difcovered of making flint
glafs free from veins, which differ in their refrac-
iing power, it is not probable that larger tele¬
fcopes than thofe now mentioned will be produced.
§ \6. Of the Newtonian Re fie fling Telefcope.
Flafe Fig. 1. fhews one of thofe telefcopes made by the
CCXXin. jjon> Samuel Molyneux, and prefented by him to
king John V. of Portugal. ABC reprefents a tri¬
angular board or table fupported by the globe D,
and by the annexed carvings and malks, and which
ferves for the bafis or pededal of the indrument.
Upon occafion this board may be taken off by un¬
fcrewing three iron fcrews, the heads of which lie near
the three volutes at the three corners. At E is repre-
fented a fmall key or handle which turns fome wheel-
work, concealed under the board of the table, and which
ferves to give an horizontal circular motion to the pillar
F placed in the middle, and to the fuperincumbent
tube HIKE. If this fhould ever be out of order by
taking off the upper board, it may be re&ified. At
G is reprefented another handle which gives the tube
its perpendicular motion ; fo that while the obferver
fits with his right fide applied to the fide of the table
AC at the end C, by turning the two handles E and
G, he can give the tube any required elevation or
azimuth, and thereby follow the motion of the heavenly
bodies very commodioufly.
ICS. Partin:
The telefcope itfelf confifts of two metalline fpecula Optical
and an eye-glafs, which are to be duely placed in the Inftnimel
tube HIKE left open at the end HE. The large
concave fpherical fpeculnm ik is to be placed within
the tube at IK; in which are fixed three flops, or bits
of wood, againft which the polifhed furface of the <
fpeculum being applied, the axis of refledlion will fall ;
exaftly in the axis of the tube. In the brafs plate
which clofes this end of the tube, there are three
fcrews intended for holding the metal in this fituation; l
but many cautions are requifite with regard to this
metal and the placing of it. In the firft place, it is i
never to be touched, but by fcrewing into the backfide ]
of it a handle /, which fits the hole therein. In the next \
place, great care mufl be taken not to breathe on it,
or to expofe it to damp air. If any thing of that kind
happens, it muft be wiped thoroughly dry with a linen
cloth before a fire; and it may be fometimes in like '
manner cleaned with a rag wetted in fpirit of wine ;
provided the fpirit be not left to evaporate, for that
would leave an humid fediment which wouldEurt the
polifh. In the third place, unlefs when in ufe, it
fhould be conftantly kept with its face downwards on
a piece of plane glafs made on purpofe.
The fpeculum is a portion of a concave fphere
whofe diameter is about eight feet eight inches, and |!
which of confequence colle&s the rays into a focus
about 26 inches diftant from its furface. The laws of |
refleftion are fuch, that any error in the figure ef this 1
fpeculum will produce about fix times as great an ir¬
regularity in the pi&ure formed in'its focus, as the like
irregularity would caufe in a common refra&ing tele¬
fcope. It hath been found by experiment, that an
error of lefs than 1000th part of an inch is capable of
vitiating its figure ; fo that great care muft be taken
in placing the metal in the tube for ufe, againft the three
flops above-mentioned; and that the three fcrews at
IK be gently ferewed, only j'uft fufficient to bear
the metal truly againft the flops; for the fmalieft
excefs of ftrefs in the fcrews againft the back of the
metal may diftort and very much damage its figure.
There is alfo a piece of wood >n, having a round hole p
in it, and carrying a fmall brafs arm «, which holds
the other fmaller fpeculum o, which is plane. This fpe¬
culum muft be always preferved from the air when out
of ufe. When the telefcope is to be ufed, the cqver ^
of the fmall fpeculum muft firft be taken off; then ^ «
place it in the tube at the hole M, which exactly fits
the above-faid fquare piece. Prefs it in pretty tight
and true ; which, if duely performed, the centre of
the fmall fpeculum will be placed in the axis of the
large concave one, and will reflect the parallel rays
which enter at the open end HE, to the round hole/*
in the faid fquare piece, -ro which hole one of the two
eye-glaffes in its cel! ^ is to be placed; and then the
inftrument is prepared for ufe. The obferver is there¬
fore to place himfelf at the fide of the tube, and to
look in at M, where he will fee the images of the ob¬
jects which lie at his left-hand. In taking out or put¬
ting in the little fpeculum at c, great care muft be
ufed to avoid (baking or bending the arm ; for the
fmalleft accident of that kind will certainly diforder its
fituation. There are three fcrews at the back, the
middlemoft of which fixes it to the arm mn; the
other two only prefs upon the back, and lerve to ad-
juft
Part III. OPT
Optical juft its fituation to an exa& angle of 450 with the
fn{tinmentsax;3 0f great fpeculum. There are two eye-glafles,
whereof the one that hath the largeft aperture being
made ufe of, th einftrument will magnify as much as
a common refrafting tclefcope of about 20 or 22 feet
long; and with the eye-glafs that hath the fmalleft
apertures, it will magnify as much and as diftiri&ly as
one of 3£ or 40 feet.
At P Hands a round button of ivory ; and at Qjs
reprefented a fmall pin of ivory, which may be feen
with a fmall white thread fixed to it, at the end
of the tube H. This thread at the other end is fixed
in the infide of the tube ; and towards the middle of it,
itis wound once roundthe inward endofthe ivory button
P. From this difpofition, by turning round the ivory
button P, the whole Aider of black ebony wood NO,
' with the fmall fpeculum and the eye-glafs applied at
M, may be made to approach to or recede from the
large fpeculum at the other end IK: and by this
means its true diftance, and the diftinft appearance
of the objeft, muft be found, for various diftanccs of
‘ the fame objeff, and for the various eyes of different
obfervers; which variety in different perfons, from
the great magnifying power of the eye-glafs in this
inftrument, will be confiderably more fenlible than in
a refra&ing telefcope. But the true diftance of the
fpecula will immediately be found in all cafes, by
turning this ivory pin P backwards and forwards very
floWly and gently; and, for celeftial objedls, the true
diftance being once found for the obferver’s eye, a fmall
mark may be made acrofs the Aider, and upon the
edge of the tube, to bring it fpeedily, and without any
difficulty, to its proper place at another time. By the
little ivory pin at the firing may be tightened or
relaxed to make the Aider NO move moft eafily as
occafion requires. Either of the eye-glaffes being ap¬
plied in the cylindrical hole />, in the fquare piece
inp, may alfo be made to approach to or recede
from the focus, by turning round the fmall tube q
in which they are inferted, the outfide whereof is
wrought into a fine ferew for that pnrpofe. Diftindt
vifion may alfo by that means be obtained for different
eyes, without moving the whole Aider NO.
RS reprefents a fmall refrafting telefcope, whofe
axis is parallel to the axis of the refle&or. In its focus
there are placed two crofs-hairs, and its only ufe is to
find out any objeft more readily by the refle&or.
The eye being applied at S, turn the two handles at
E and G, till the point of the objed to be viewed in
the refleftor falls exactly on the crofs-hairs ; then the
eye applied at'M to the refledor, will fee the fame objed
diftindly; with this caution, that as the whole inftru¬
ment with its bafis can eafily be moved, the moft con¬
venient fituation for the obferver will be to keep the tube
HI nearly at right angles to the fide AC, and to fit with
the fide AC flat againlt his right fide near C, as hath
been already mentioned. And in finding the objed at
firft with the fmall refrading telefcope, it is moft con¬
venient to ftand at the corner of the table C. The handle
G, may be inferted at either fide of the pillar F, as con¬
venience (hall require. At the (mail pillars TV, which
fupport and hold the fmall telefcope RS, there arefome
fmall ferews near T, which being relaxed, the direc¬
tion of the tube RS way be altered horizontally by
pufliing the tube with the hand fidewife, either way,
as occafion requires, and then tightening the (crews
Vot.. VIII. 2
ICS. ( ( 5599
again. And at V there sre ferews and a fpringing Optical
piece of brafs, which, beiag relaxed or tightened, willInf,rumcn^
in like manner alter its elevation, fo as to reftore the
parallelifm of the tubes in cafe of any accident that
may have difturbed them. In making obfervations, it
will be found convenient not to touch the table, but
only to move the handles, as the motions of the (far
or other celeftial body dired ; for in an inftrumtnt that
magnifies fo much, the leaft motion or trembling is
magnified proportionably.
In this telefcope Dr Smith takes notice of a re¬
markable deception; namely, that, when the refledor
is compared with a refrading telefcope of equal mag¬
nifying power, the obferver always imagines that the
latter has the advantage. For this he does not pre¬
tend to account, but looks upon it to be an optical
deception common to all mankind.
§ 17. The Gregorian Re fie fling Telefcope.
This is reprefented, fig. 16. O is a three-footedPlate
pedeftal of wood or metal, in the middle of whichCCXXL?i..
is faftened, by means of the large ferew R, the
ftand AB. On the top of this ftand is faftened
the plate CD, having in it a focket to receive the
brafs ball D. This plate is compofed of two parts;
and by means of the ferews L, M, the focket is
tightened or loofened on the ball, fo that it can ei¬
ther allow it a free motion, or keep it firm in its place.
This ball is fully ffiewn at fig. 17.; and, with its ftalk
F, is ftddered into the piece of brafs FG, which is
again faftened on the body of the telefcope by means
of the ferews HI. The whole length of the telefcope
is reprefented by ah; the eye-piece, or the part wdiich
contains the eye-glaffes, by a r; the other part, con- #
taining the fpecula, is reprefented by cb. Fig. 4. and 5.
fhew the proportional fuse of the two fpecula to one
another. The larger is placed at c, in the fame man¬
ner and with the fame precautions as have been al¬
ready mentioned with regard to the Newtonian tele¬
fcope; the other is placed on a fhort arm within the
tube, in fuch a manner, that it occupies exaftly the
middle of it: and by means of a rod rpqmo, having
the upper end of it turned into a ferew, the little fpe¬
culum can be removed from the other, or brought
nearer to it, as occafion requires. In the eye-piece,
ar, are two eye-glaffes, which receive the light re-
flefted from the little fpeculum ; and the eye being
applied at a, the obferver fees thofe objeCls which
are placed direftly before the mouth of the tube.
The following are the proportions of an excellent
Gregorian telefcope, made by Mr James Short of
Edinburgh, which may ferve as a model for calcula¬
ting others of any given length. inches.
Focal diftance of the larger fpeculum — 9.6
Its breadth or aperture — — 2 3
Focal diftance of the leffer fpeculum — 1 5
Its breadth     o 6
Breadth of the hole in the larger fpeculum o.^
Diftance between the lefier fpeculum and ? j, 2
the next eye-glafs     J
Diftance between the two eye-glaffes — 2.4
Focal diftance of the eye-glafs next the ? g
metals     5
Focal diftance of the eye-glafs next the ^ f t
This telcfcope was found by experiment to magnify
31 60
5600 OPT
Optical 60 times in diameter, and to take in an angle of 19'
tilth-umentst0 the naked eye; and of confequence the magnified
angle was equivalent to 190.
For finding the magnifying power of a telefcope
by experiment, Dr Smith tells us, that the following
method was purfued by Mr Haukfbee, Mr Folkes, and
Dr Jurin. Having fixed a paper circle of one inch
diameter upon a wall, at the dittance of 2674 inches
from the eye-glafs of the telefcope, they viewed it in
the telefcope with one eye, while, with the other eye
naked, they viewed two parallel lines drawn upon
paper, 12 inches afunder, moving them gradually to
and fro, till they appeared to touch two oppofite
points of the circle feen in the telefcope; and then
the perpendicular diftance of the lines was found to be
332 inches. In this pofition of the objefts, the angle
at the eye made by the rays that came from the ex¬
tremities of the diameter of the one-inch circle, was
equal to the angle fubtended at the other eye by the
12-inch interval of the parallel lines; and therefore
the ratio of this angle to that which the faid circle
would fubtend at the naked eye, viewing it at the faid
diftance of 2674 inches, is the magnifying power of
the telefcope; and is compounded of the diredl ratio
of the fubtenfes of thefe angles, and the inverfe ratio
of the diftances of the fubtenfes from the eye; that is,
of 12 to 1, and of 267410 142: which make the ratio
of 226 to 1, very nearly.
Suppofing a larger paper circle had been placed at
lb great a diftance, that its pi&ure might have been
formed by the fpeculum in its principal focus; the
telefcope would have magnified it more than our one-
inch circle, in the ratio of the diftance of this latter
fc circle from the principal focus, to its diftance from
the centre of the fphere of the fpeculum: becaufe the
diameter of the picture of the remoter circle would
have been greater, in this ratio, than that of the one-
inch circle, fuppofing thefe circles to fubtend the fame
angle at the centre of the fpeculum. But this ratio,
in the prefent experiment, being only 2674 to 2671,
gives only an inconfiderable incrcafe to the magnifying
power already determined.
Thus we have an eafy and accurate method of exa¬
mining the goodnefs of a telefcope of any kind. Firft,
by giving it the lead eye-glafs that will fhew the new
moon, or rather Jupiter and Saturn, with fufficient
light and diftinftnefs when the air is quiet and pure;
and then by finding how much it magnifies by the
method abovementioned. But if feveral telefcopes of
the fame kind have nearly the fame length, thofe are
the beft in their kind with which you can read a print
at the greateft diftance. That the reader may have
fome notion of the powers of telefcopes in this way,
we (hall fubjoin a ftiort account of the effefls of fome
refle&ors made by Mr James Short of Edinburgh, as
related by Mr Maclaurin.
With a reflefting telefcope, of which the fpeculum
was quick-filvered glafs, and focal diftance 15 inches,
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions could eafily be read at
the diftance of 230 feet; by another of. the fame di-
menfions, the Tranfa&ions could be read at 280 feet
diftance. By a telefcope of the fame kind, whofe
focal diftance was nine inches, Mr Maclaurin read in
theTranfaffions at the diftance of 138 feet; and ano¬
ther much fmaller print at the diftance of 1,25 feet.
I C S. Partin.
It is not mentioned whether thefe telefcopes were of Optical
the Newtonian or Gregorian form; though it is moftIn^rumenls
probable that they were of the former kind.
As the light produced by thefe glafs fpeculums was
very faint, Mr Short next applied himfelf to the con-
ftru&ion of metallic ones, and the effe&s of thefe
were vaftly greater; but as they were of the Grego¬
rian form, it is'doubtful whether we are to aferibe
their fuperiority entirely to the ufe of metalline fpe¬
culums, or to the more advantageous conftru&ion of
them. Thefe telefcopes had focal diftances of two
inches and 6-ioths; of four inches; fix, nine* and 15
inches. By thofe of four inches, the fatellites of Ju¬
piter were feen very dittin&ly; and he could read the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions at above 125 feet diftance.
By thofe of fix inches focus, he read at 160feet diftance;
by thofe of 9 inches, he read at 220 feet diftanec; and by
thofe of 15 inches,he was able to read the Tranfadions at
500 feet diftance. With thefe laft he alfo feveral times
faw the five fatellites of Saturn. The effe&s of thefe
15-inch telefcopes of Mr Short’s therefore were equal to
thofe of the beft x7-feet refra&ors ever known; for it
was thought wonderful that Caffini ftiould obferve all the
fatellites of Saturn with a 17-feet refrading telefcope.
$ 18. 77;<? So/ar Telefcope.
This inftrument is of the nature of the camera ob-
feura, and fhews the image of the fun in a darkened
room, as that of an infed is (hewn by the folar mi
crofcope. AB, fig, 6. reprefents a part of the window- piate
fhutter of a darkened room ; CD the frame, which, by CCXXII.
means of a ferew, contains the fcioptric ball EF,
in a hole of the faid ftiutter adapted to its fize. This
ball is perforated with a hole abed. Through the
middle, on the fide b c, is ferewed into the faid hole a
piece of wood, and in that is ferewed the end of a
common refrading telefcope GHIK, with its objed-
glafs GH, and one eye-glafs at IK; and the tube is
drawn out to fuch a length, that the focus of each
glafs may fall near the fame point. This being done,
the telefcope and ball are moved about in fuch a man¬
ner, as to receive the funbeams perpendicularly on
the lens GH, through the cylindric hole of the ball;
by this glafs they will be colleded all in one circular
fpot m, which is the image of the fun. The lens IK
is to be moved nearer to, or farther from, the faid
image m, as the diftance at which the fecondary image
of the fun is to be formed requires, which is done by
Aiding the tube IKLM backward and forward in
the tube LMNO. Then of the firft image of the
fun w, will be formed another, PQ^ very large, lumi¬
nous, and diftind.
In this manner the fun’s face may be viewed at any
time without offence to weak eyes; and whatever
changes happen herein may be duely obferved. The
fpots are here all of them confpicuous, and eafy to be
obferved under all their circumftances of beginning to
appear, increafe, divifion of one into many, &c. By
the folar telefcope alfo we view an eclipfe of the fun
to the beft advantage ; as having it by this means in
our power to reprefent the fun’s difk as large as we
pleafe, and confequently to render the eclipfe prppor-
tionably confpicuous. Alfo the circle of the fun’s difle
may be fo divided by lines and circles drawn thereon,
that the quantity of cclipfe,. eftimated in digits, may
*
'Plate CC:XXIV\
b
d
Optic s
Bmocular Teleee
ope .
Hrlio stata
1
'//%*// (vfsvfi
Part III.
Optical this way be moll exa£lly determined; alfo the mo-
Inftrumcnts ments 0f t}je beginning,%nriiddle, and end of it, for
determining the longitude of the place. The tranfits
of Mercury and Venus over the fun are thus alfo beau¬
tifully reprefented, and the planets appear very round,
black, and well-defined. Their comparative diameters
with that of the fun may alfo be thus obferved, the
times of ingrefs and egrefs, &c. better than by any
other method hitherto invented.
By the folar telefcope the clouds are moft beautiful¬
ly reprefented palling before the fun, according to
their various degrees of rarity or denfity; butthefe, Mr
Martin fays, are bell obferved by the camera obfeura.
He takes notice of an unufual phenomenon which he
once obferved in looking at the image of the fun by
this indrument. The window looked towards the
weft, and the fpire of Chicefter cathedral was dire&ly
before it at the diftance of aboutjo or 60 yards. The
images of the fun and fpire were very large, being
made by a lens of 12 feet focal diftance, and it was
very agreeable to obferve the manner in which the fun
was for fome time eclipfed by the fpire. Once, as he
obferved the occultation of the fun behind the fpire,
juft as the dilk difappeared, he faw feveral fmall, bright,
round balls, running towards the fun from the dark
part of the room, even to the diftance of 20 inches.
Their motion was a little irregular, but re&ilinear,
and feemed accelerated as they approached the fun.
Thefe luminous globules alfo appeared on the other
fide of the fpire, and preceded the fun, running out
into the dark room, fometimes more, fometimes lefs
together, in the fame manner as they followed the fun
at its octultation. “ They appeared, fays he, to be
in general about ^ of an inch in diameter; and there¬
fore mull have been very large luminous globes in
fome part of the heavens, whole light was extinguifh-
«d by that of the fun, ib that they appeared not in
open day-light; but whether of the meteor kind, or
what fort of bodies they might be, I could not con-
jefture.”
J 19. The Heliojiata.
The ufe of this machine is to take off the inconve*
niencies which arife from the motion of the earth, in
making experiments on the folar light. By this mo¬
tion it happens, that the image of the fun formed by
the folar telefcope can never be Heady, but conti¬
nually (hifts its place on the fereen upon which it is
thrown ; and the like may be faid of the folar micro-
fcope. Any contrivance therefore by which this ap¬
parent motion can be prevented, and the light of the
■fun fixed upon any particular fpot, or in one certain
dire&ion, muft certainly be of the higheft utility. The
helioftata anfwers the purpofe completely; and is an
invention of Dr ’sGravefande, who gives the follow¬
ing deftription of it.
“ This machine confifts of two principal parts,
each of which confifts of many fmaller parts. The firft
is a plane metallic fpeculum, fupported by a Hand ;
the other is a cloSk, which dire&s the fpeculum.
“ We make ufe of a metallic fpeculum, becaufe
there is a double refieAion in a glafs one. The mag¬
nitude and figure of it are not material ; mine is rec¬
tangular, four inches long and three broad.
S601
“ This is put into a Wooden frame, which is fur- Optical
rounded with wooden rulers, cut in, whereby the fpe- Inftruments
culum is retained.
“ To fuftain this, without hindering its motion, to Plate
the faid wooden frame, behind, is applied the brafs CCXXIV.
plate a a, whofe ends, being bent, are faftened to the”s' **
wood fidewife.
“ This fpeculum S is fufpended by the handle AA,
fmall ferews being put through holes in the end of it,
which go into the ends a, a, of the faid frame, and
whofe parts, which are in the holes of the handle, are
cylindrical, fo that the fpeculum turns freely upon its
axis, which, if it were made fenfible, would pafs along
the furface of the fpeculum.
“ The handle is joined to the cylinder C, whofe
axis, if it were continued, would concur with the
middle point of the faid axis of the revolution of the
fpeculum.
“ To the fame point anfwers the tail DE, which is
joined perpendicularly to the hind part of the fpecu¬
lum. This tail is cylindrical; and is made of a brafs
wire, which is ftraight, firm, and whofe diameter is
about a fixth part of an inch.
“ The cylinder C is put upon the wooden Hand P,
whofe upper part is reprefented by itfelf: whilft this
is done, the iron cylinder e, whofe furface is fmooth,
goes into a cavity in the cylinder C, which is of cop¬
per ; by which means this turns freely about its
axis, fo that, by the motion of the tail DE, the
pofition of the fpeculum is very eafily altered as you
pleafe.
“ This is raifed and depreffed, by means of the
three brafs ferews B, B, B, which are turned with z
key, and go through a plate of the fame metal, which
is applied to the bottom of the ftand for that pur¬
pofe ; and which ftands out in three places, to re¬
ceive the ferews.
“ If the fpeculum is to be raifed higher, as may
eafily be done, we put the fpeculum together with its
ftand, upon a fmall board, which has low feet, and is
made for that purpofe.
“ The other part of the machine is a clock, as has
been faid above. This is repreiented at H ; the in¬
dex performs its revolution in 24 hours.
“ The plane of the clock is inclined to the horizon,
according to the inclination of the equator in the place
where the machine is made ufe of; that is, in this our
city of Leyden is 37049'.
“ But this machine may be made ufe of in other
places, whofe latitudes differ one or two degrees from
this place, as will appear.
“ The clock is fuftained by the copper pillar EG;
this confifts of two parts, which are joined by the
ferews d, d, between which, as in a fheath, is moved
an iron plate, in the middle of which there is a flit,
through which the faid ferews d, d, pafs. This plate is
joined fall to the lower plate of the clock itfelf, which
is raifed and deprelled by this method, and faftened
by the ferews dd. It may alfo be raifed higher by the
ferews I, I, I, which go thro’ the thick copper plate
LLM, upon which the pillar FG ftands.
The extreme parts of this plate L, L, are terminated
in fuch manner, that be and cb make one right line,
.through which we fuppofe a vertical plane to pafs: this
31 will
OPTICS.
5602 OPT
Optical will be perpendicular to the horizontal lines, which
Inftruments may be drawn on the plane of the clock ; fuch as are
fg, hi.
“ The machine is fo ordered, that the plane of the
clock may have the inclination beforementioned, when
the plane LLM is horizontal ; in which fituation it
is eafily placed by means of the fcrews I, I, I, by
help of the plumb-line whofe point (hould an-
fwer to the point 0, which is marked upon the furface
LLM.
“ If the machine were to be ufed in another place,
whofe latitude differed from that for which the ma¬
chine was conftrufted,another point, as 0, would to be
marked, in which cafe the plane LLM would be in¬
clined to the horizon.
“ The axis of the wheel, which moves the index, is
pretty thick, and is perforated cylindrically; but the
cavity inclines a little to a conical figure, for towards
the bottom it is fomewhat narrower.
“ The index itfelf is reprefented at ON. This is
of brafs, and its tail pq exaftly fills the cavity men¬
tioned laft, into which it is thruft tight, that it may
ftick, and that the wheel may carry the index with it
as it moves; whofe fituation may yet be altered, and
fct to any hour.
“ This tail has alfo a cylindrical hole; and through
this paffes the fmall brafs wire Id, which remains in
any fituation, whilft it is raifed or depreffed.
“ At the end O of the index there is a fmall cylin¬
der n, which is perforated cylindrically.
“ The length of the index is meafured in the line,
perpendicular to Id, drawn from the axis of the cylin¬
der « to the axis of the wire Id. In my machine this
length is fix inches.
“ The iron tail t of the piece T goes into the ca¬
vity of the cylinder n ; this tail exadly fills the cavity,
but yet moves freely in it.
“ Between the legs of the piece T, the fmall pipe
R may be fufpended at different heights, thro* which
the tail DE of the fpeculum may be moved freely,
which fills the pipe very exaftly. This fmall pipe is
fufpended, as was faid of the fpeculum. The fmall
21 Mar. 1 Mar. 21 Fe. 11 Fe.
o. 8. 17- 32-
21 Sept. 11 oa. 21 Oc. 1 No.
“ On the oppofite fide of the ruler, there is alfo
whofe divifions are contained in this fecond fmall
21 Mar. 11 Ap. 21 Ap. 1 May
o. 11. 22. 36.
21 Sep. 1 Sep. 21 Au. 11 Au.
“ Thefe things being thus ordered; to fix the ma¬
chine, it is put upon a plane that is horizontal, or
nearly fo.
“ Firft we join the placer to the Hand P, which
we raife as much as is neceffary, that the ruler YZ
being reduced to a juft length, which we turn at plea-
fure, and incline in every refpedt, that is with refpeft
to the place and direftion, may agree to the fun’s
ray, wh:ch we undertake to fix.
“ We fo order the other part of the machine, that
the lines be, be, may agree to a meridian line which
has been drawn on the plane; and it is fo difpofed by
means of the fcrews I, I, I, that the plumb-line
may anfvver to the point a.
I C S. Partlll.
fcrews r, r, pafs through the faid legs, and the ends Optical
of them go into the parts m, m, of the pipe, and re- Inftruiuents
main there : then the pipe turns freely about the axis
which paffes through mm; for the parts of the fmall
fcrews are cylindrical, which anfwer to the holes in the
legs of the piece T.
“ When the machine is to be fixed, we make ufe
of another machine, which we fhall call a placer.
“ The cylinder C, together with its fpeculum, is re¬
moved from the ftand P, upon which is placed the
brafs pillar VX. This (licks tighter to e than the cy¬
linder C, that the pillar may keep its place, whilft the
machine is fettled.
“ Upon the head X the ruler YZ moves round
a centre, fo that it may be inclined to the horizon as
you pleafe, and keep its pofition. The length of
the arm YX is determined at pleafure. The arm
XZ is of a peculiar conftrudlion, and a certain
length.
“ To the faid ruler, which is not extended beyond
y, there are applied two others, as xZ, between which
the firft is inclofed : thefe are joined at Z, and alfo
cohere by means of the fcrews z, z, which pafs thro’
a flit in the firft ruler. On this ruler is marked
the fmall line v x, whofe length is equal to nine hun¬
dredth-parts of the length of the indix, and which is
divided in the manner which will be mentioned pre-
fently.
“ The arm XZ is equal to the length cf the index,
if it be meafured between the centre of motion at X
and the end Z, when the end x of the outward ruler
agrees to v, where the divifions of the fmall line v x
begin.
“ The divifions of this fmall line are unequal, and
determine the length of the arm at different times of
the year, by applying x to the divifion which anfwers
to the day in which the machine is ufed.
“ But in order to mark the divifions, we fuppofe
the length of the arm to be divided into 1000 equal
parts, that is, vx into 90 equal parts ; but the di-
.(lances from the point v are fet down in the following
fmall table.
1 Fe. 21 Ja. 11 Ja 21 Dec.
47. 64. 77. 90.
H No. 21 No. 1 Dec. 21 Dec.
drawn a fmall line, which accurately anlwers to v x,
table.
11 May 21 May 1 Jun. 21 Jun.
5!. 66. 79. 90.
1 Au. 21 Jul. 11 Jul. 21 Jun.
“ The index NO is turned, that the fun’s rays may
pafs direftly thro’ the pipe R, which is turned and
inclined, as is required. The brafs wire/r/is then rai¬
fed or depreffed, that the (hadow of the end of it /may
pafs through the middle of the pipe.
“ This whole part is moved to the placer, which
is ordered as has been faid before. But the clock is fo
moved towards the placer, and raifed, that the end l
of the brafs wire Ik may agree to the end Z of the
ruler YZ.
“ We muff continually have regard to the plum¬
met Q^, that it may always anfwer to the point 0; we
muft alfo take care, that after the clock is moved, the
fun’s rays and the (hadow of the point l may pafs thro’
'   the
| Part III. OPT
i|. Optical the fmall pipe R as before, that the pofition with re-
fnflrumen's fpefi to the meridian may not be diftnrbed.
“ The pillar VX with its ruler YZ is removed, the
Hand P being left in its place, on which the cylinder
C with its fpeculum is put. The piece T is taken out
of its place, that the tail DE of the fpeculum may be
put thro’ the pipe R; when the piece T is put in the
fame place again, every thing is ready.
“ Then the rays reflected from the middle of the
fpeculum, to which all the other rays, reflefted from
the fpeculum, are parallel, agree, as to place anddi-
reftion, with the pofition which the ruler of the placer
had ; and whilft the tail of the fpeculum is moved, as
the clock moves, whofe index follows the fun, its fi-
tuation is altered with refpeft to the fun ; but the ray,
reflected from the middle point of the fpeculum, re¬
mains fixed.
(“ If the index NO being taken away, we fubfti-
tute the index K, the machine may be ufed as a com¬
mon clock.
“ The experiments concerning light muft be made
in the dark; for this reafon the machine, when made
life of in the experiments, muft be (hut up in a box or
cafe.
r,Plate “ Thi8 cak >s reprefented at A ; it (lands upon
leexxv. ^eet ^iat have rollers joined to them, that it may be
;fig. j. eafily moved. It is open at one end, which end is mo¬
ved to a window, through which the fun’s rays come
freely to the fpeculum.
“ But the box is every way larger than the win¬
dow, that, by being applied clofe to the wall, the light
may be hindered from entering into the chamber; to
this end, the box is moved as near the wall as pofiible,
and the ferews C, C, which are fattened to the fore¬
feet, are turned till they touch the ground.
“ The door in my machine is oppofite to the win¬
dow ; it might have been otherwife difpofed. We
tranfmit the rays through the fore part B ; we make
choice of this, by reafon of the make of the place in
which the experiments concerning light were made.
In this part there are two apertures three inches broad,
and about to inches high, one of which is reprefented
open at DE.
“ Thefe are clofed on the outfide by pieces of
wood, which are moveable between wooden rulers.
Each piece ferves either aperture, that they may be
changed. One of them F is three feet long, and has
a hole in its middle. The aperture is five inches
long, and two broad.
“ This is clofed by the copper plate GH, in which
there are two holes, c, d; the diameter of that is two
thirds of an inch, the diameter of this is lefs. Thefe
holes are (lopped by the plates I and K, which are
applied to the firit plate GH, and are moveable about
the centres i and k : the magnitudes of the holes may
alfo be varied, by turning the laft plates, as the fi¬
gure (hews.
“ The board F is hollowed behind, in order to
receive the objedl-glafs of a telefcope of 16, 20 or
25 feet, according to the magnitude of the place
in which the experiments art made ; the centre of
this glafs ought to anfwer to the centre of the hole c.
“ This board F is pretty long ; the holes of the
fmall plate may anfwer to any part of the aperture of
the box, the other part of the aperture remaining (hut.
ICS. 5603
For this reafon the fecond board is fhorter; it is fuffi- Optical
cient if the aperture be clofed with this. Thefe boardsInftruments
are fattened by the ferews M, M.
“ We have (hewn how the box is to be applied to
the window ; but this cannot be done thus, if we
would make the experiments in the hours in which
the fun’s rays enter the window very obliquely. In
this cafe, that the rays may come to the fpectr-
lum, the box muft anfwer to a part of the window
only ; the remaining part is clofed any other way :
I make ufe of a curtain to exclude all the fun’s rays.”
§ 20. Equatorial Telefcopet or Portable Obfervatory.
The Equatorial Telefcope was contrived by Mr James
Short; and confifts of two circular planes or plates
A A, fupported upon four pillars; and thefe again
fupported by a crofs-foot or pedeftal moveable at each
end by the four ferews BBBB. The two circular plates
AA> are moveable, the one above the other, and called
the horizontal plates, as reprefenting the horizon of
the place ; and upon the upper one are placed two
fpirit-levels, tn render them at all times horizontal:
thefe levels are fixed at right angles to each other.
The upper plate is moved by a handle G which is called
\\\e horizontal handle, and is divided into 360°, and has a
nonius index divided into every three minutes.—Above
this horizontal plate is a femicircle DD; divided into
twice 90°, which is called the meridian fetnicircle, as
reprefenting the meridian of the place; and is moved
by a handle E, called the meridian handle', and has a
nonius index divided into every three minutes. Above
this meridian femicircle is fattened a circular plate,
upon which are placed two other circular plates FF,
moveable the one upon the other, and which are
called the equatorial plates ; one of them, reprefenting
the plane of the equator, is divided into twice twelve
hours, and thefe fubdivided into every ten minutes of
time. This plane is moved by a handle G, called the
equatorial handle, and has a nonius index for (hew¬
ing every minute. Above this equatorial plate there
is a femicircle HH, which is called the declination femi¬
circle, as reprefenting the half of a circle of declina¬
tion, or horary circle, and is divided into twice 90°,
being moved by the handle K, which is called the
declination handle. It has alfo a nonius index, for
fubdividing into every three minutes. Above this de¬
clination femicircle is fattened a reflefting telefcope
LL, the focal length of its great fpeculum being 18
inches.
In order to adjuft this inftrument f<?r obfervation,
the firft thing to be done is to make the horizontal
plates level by means of the two fpirit-levels, and the
four ferews in the crofs pedeftal. This being done,
you move the meridian femicircle, by means of the
.meridian handle, fo as to raife the equatorial plates to
the elevation of the equator in the place, which is
equal to the complement of the latitude, and which,
if not known, may alfo be found by this inttrument.
By this telefcope the following problems may be folved.
To find the Hour of the Day, and Meridian of the
Place. Firft find, from the aftronomical tables, the fun’s
declination for the day, and for that particular time
of the day ; then fet the declination fcmicircle to the
declination of the fun, taking particular notice whe¬
ther it is north or louth, and fet the declination femi¬
circle
5604 OPT
Optical circle accordingly. You then turn about the horizon-
Irvttruraents taj handle ancj the equatorial handle, both at the
fame time, till you find the fun precifdy concentrical
with the field of the telefcope. If you have a clock
or watch at hand, mark that inftant of time; and by
looking upon the equatorial plate and nonius index,
you will find the hour and minute of the day, which
comparing with the time (hewn by the clock or watch,
(hews how much either of them differ from the fun.
In order to find the meridian of the place, and
confequently to have a mark by which you may always
know your meridian again, you firft move the equa¬
torial plate by means of the equatorial handle, till the
meridian of the plate, or hour-line of 12, is in the mid¬
dle of the nonius index ; and then by turning about
the declination handle till the telefcope^ comes down
to the horizon, you obferve the place or point which
is then in the middle of the field of the telefcope, and
a fuppofed line drawn from the centre of this field to
that point in the horizon, in your meridian line.
The beft time of the day for making this obfervation
for finding your meridian, is about three hours before
noon, or as much after it. The meridian of the place
may be found by this method fo exa&ly, that it will
not differ from the true meridian above 10" in time ;
and if a proper allowance be made for refra&ion at
the time of obfervation, it will be ftill more exadt.
The line thus found will be of ufe afterwards, as
being the foundation of all aftronomical obfervations.
To find a Star or Planet in the Day-time. The
inftrument remaining re&ified as already dire&ed,
you fet the declination femicircle to the declination
of the flar or planet you want to fee ; and then you
fet the equatorial plate to the right afcenfion of
the ftar or planet at that time; and looking through
the teleCcope, you will fee the ftar or planet: and
having once got it into the field of the telefcope, you
cannot lofe it again; for as the diurnal motion of a
ftar is parallel to the equator, by moving the equato¬
rial handle fo as to follow it, you will at any time,
while it is above the horizon, recover it, if it is gone
-out of the field.
The eafieft method for feeing a ftar or planet in the
-day-'time is this: Your inftrument being adjufted as
before dire&ed, you bring the telefcope down, fo as
Xo look dkeftly at your meridian mark ; and then you
fet it to the declination and right afcenfion, as before
mentioned. By this inftrument moft of the ftars of
the firft and fecond magnitude have been feen even at
noon-day, when the fun was (hining very bright; as alfo
Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter. Saturn and Mars are
not fo eafily feen, on account of the faintnefs of their
light, except when the fun is but a few hours above
the horizon.
And in the fame manner, in the night-time, when
you can fee a ftar, planet, or any new phenomenon,
fuch as a comet, you may find its declination and
right afcenfion imnriediately, by turning about the
equatorial handle and declination handle, till you fee
the objeft.: and then, looking upon the equatorial
plate, you find its right afcenfion in time ; and you
find, upon the declination femicircle, its declination
in degrees and minutes.
In order to have the other ufes of this inftrument,
you muft make the equatorial plates become parallel
I C S. Partin.!
to the horizontal plates ; and then this telefcope be- Optical \
comes an equal altitude inftrument, a tranlit inftrument*In^rumetti
a theodolite, a quadrant, an azmuth inftrument, and a
level. The method of applying it to thefe different
purpofes is obvious. As there is alfo a box with a
magnetic needle faftened in the lower plate of this in¬
ftrument, by it you may adjuft it nearly in the meri¬
dian, and by it you may alfo find the variation of
the needle. If you fet the horizontal meridian and
the equatorial meridian in the middle of their nonius
indexes, and direft your telefcope to your meridian
mark, you obferve how many degrees from the meri¬
dian of the box the needle points at, and this diftance
or difference is the variation of the needle.
§21. The Binocular Telefcope.
The binocular telefcope confifts of two diftinft tcle-
fcopes fevenlly direfted from each eye to the fame
object, and combined together in the following man¬
ner. In fig. l. ab and are two equal telefcopes p|ate j
laid in a long box, nearly parallel to each other; theccxxivj
intervals between the eye-ftops a and c being equal
to the interval of the pupils, and that of the centres
of the objeA-glafles fomewhat lefs than the other.
Both ends of the telefcopes pafs through oblong flits
in both ends of the box ; and the interval between
them may be widened or contrafted at either end by
a long ferew-pin laid over each end of both the tele¬
fcopes ; the threads of each half of the ferews being
wrought contrary ways, and called a right and left
handed ferenu. For thefe halves being put through
two nuts e, f, fixed to the upper fides of the tele¬
fcopes, it comes to pafs, that by turning the ferew-
pin one way, the two telefcopes, will accede to, and !
the other way they will recede from, each other ; till,
by one of thefe ferew-pins, the interval between the
eye-ftops a, c, becomes equal to the intervals of the
pupils of the obferver; and by the other, the axes of
the telefcope become diredled to the fame object;
which will be known exactly if there are crofs hairs in
the focus of each telefcope, and even without them.
For before this pofition is obtained, the objefts will
appear double, and afterwards Angle; and a much
ftronger and brighter appearance of the objeft will be
obtained than by a fingie telefcope.—There are other
contrivances, befides that of a two-handed ferew, by
which the telefcopes may be made to approach to or
recede from each other. To exclude all ufelefs and
hurtful light from the eyes, the eye-ftops are made
hollow and very broad, to cover fome part of the
temples; and their inner parts are cut away, to admit
the upper part of the nofe between them. Two re¬
ft eel ing telefcopes, as well as two refracting ones, might
be combined into a binocular telefcope ; and, for the
purpofe of celeftial difeoveries, promifes to be a very
ufeful inftrument.
$ 2 2, Of making Celejlial Obfervations.
In the day-time there is little difficulty in finding
the exaCl time of the tranlit of fuch ftars as are ca¬
pable of being difeovered by the telefcope over the
middle of the field, becaufe the crofs-hairs placed in
the focus of the objedt-glafs receive a fufficient quan¬
tity of light to render them vifible. But, in the night¬
time, thefe hairs are not vifible, and therefore the ob¬
ferver
PartHI. OPT
I' Optical ferver hat-h not any mark to direcl him : hence aftro-
ibiHniment5noniera ar€ Qjjjjggj en]]gj)ten crofs-hairs artifi¬
cially, in order to render them vifible, and this with¬
out letting the luminous body interfere with the ob-
jeft which they intend to view ; and, for doing this,
two ways are propofed.
1. The objeft-glafs of the telefcope may be obliquely
enlightened by placing a candle near to it in an oblique
fituation, fo that its fmoke or flame may not interfere
with the objedt. But if the objedt-glafs Ihoulcl hap¬
pen to be pretty deep in the tube, it cannot be fuffi-
ciently enlightened by this means ; and befides, if
the telefcope is above fix feet long, there will be a
confiderabie difficulty in throwing a fufficient quanti¬
ty of Hght upon the crofs hairs.
2. By fome an opening is made in the fide of the
tube near the focus of the objeft-glafs, through which
the crofs hairs are illuminated by means of a candle.
But this method alfo is attended with inconveniencies;
for the obferver is incommoded by the light being fo
near his eyes, and the hairs themfelves become liable
to accidents through their expofed fituation. An error
alfo attends this method ; which is, that, according
to the pofition of the light illuminating thefe hairs,
they will appear in different fituations. For example,
when the horizontal hair is enlightened above, we per¬
ceive a luminous line which may be taken for the
hair itfelf, and which appears at its upper fuperficies.
On the other hand, when the hair is enlightened under¬
neath, the luminous line will appear at the under fur-
face of it ; and the error will be the diameter of the
hair, which often amounts to more than fix feconds.
M. de la Hire, however, found a remedy for this in¬
convenience. He often obfervtd, that in moon-fhine
nights, when the weather was a little foggy, the crofs
hairs were diftin&ly feen; but when the heavens were
ferene, they could fcarcely be perceived: he therefore
covered with a piece of gauze, or fine filk-crape, that
end of the tube next the objeA-glafs ; and this method
fucceeded fo well, that a link placed at a good diftance
from the telefcope fo enlightened the crape, that the
crafs-hairs diftindtly appeared, and the fight of the
ftars was by no means obfcured.
In making folar obfervations, a fmoked glafs muft
be ufed for preferving the eyes; and which may be
thus prepared. Take two equal and well polifhed
round pieces of flat glafs; upon the furface of one of
which, all round its limb, glue a pafteboard ring:
then put the other piece of glafs into the fmoke of a
lamp, taking it feveral times out, and putting it in
again, left the heat fhould break it, until the fmoke be
fo thick, that the lamp can fcarcely be feen through
it: but the fmoke muft not be all over of the fame
thicknefs, that fo a place may be chofen anfwering to
the fplendour of the fun. This being done, the glafs,
thus blackened, muft be glued to the pafteboard ring
abovementioned, with its black fide next to the other
glafs, that the fmoke may not be rubbed off.
There are two kinds of obfervations relating to the
ftars: one is, when they are in the meridian; the other,
when they are in vertical circles. If the pofition of
the meridian be known, the quadrant with which the
obfervation is made, muft be placed in the plane of
that circle, and then the meridian altitudes are eafily
obferved by means of the plumb-line. The meridian
ICS. 5605
altitude of a ftar may likewife be had by a pendulum Optical
dock, if the exaft time of the liar’s paffing by theIaftrumcnls
meridian be known. It muft be obferved, however,
that«ftars have the fame altitude a minute before and
after their paffing the meridian, if they be not in or
near the zenith ; but if they be, their altitudes muft be
taken every minute when they are in or near the me¬
ridian, and then their greateft or lea ft altitudes will be
thofe in queftion. The pofition of a given vertical
circle muft be found by the following method. 1. The
quadrant and telefcope remaining in the fame fituation
wherein it was when the altitude of a ftar, together
with the time of its paffage by the interfe&ion of the
crofs hairs in the focus of the objeft-glafs, was taken,
we obferve the time when the fun, or fome fixed ftar,
whofe longitude and latitude is known, arrives to the
vertical hair in the telefcope ; and from thence the po¬
fition of the faid vertical circle will be had, and alfo
the obferved liar’s true place. But if the fun, or fome
other ftar, does not pafs by the mouth of the tube; and
if a meridian line be otherwife well drawn upon a floor,
or very level ground, in the place of obfervation ; a
plumb-line muft be fufpended from a fixed place, at
about i 8 or 20 feet from the quadrant; under which
a mark muft be made on the floor, in a right line with
the plumb-line. You muft next put a thin piece of
brafs or pafteboard very near the objeft-glafs, in the
middle of which there is a flit vertically placed, and
paffing through the centre of the circular figure of the
objeft-glafs. Now, by means of this flit, the before-
mentioned plumb-line may be perceived through the
telefcope, which before could not be feen, becaufe of
its nearnefs. Then the plumb-line muft be removed
and fufpended, fo that it be perceived in a right line
with the vertical hair in the focus of the objeft-glafs,
and a point marked on the floor diredly under it.
And if a right-line be drawn through this point, and
that marked under the plumb-line before it was remo¬
ved, the faid line will meet the meridian drawn upon the
floor ; and fo we (hall have the pofition of the vertical'
circle in which the obferved ftar is, with rcfpedl to the
meridian, the angle whereof may be meafured in af»
fuming known lengths upon the two lines from the
point of concourfe ; for if, through the extremities of
thefe known lengths, a line or bafe be drawn, we (hall
have a triangle, whofe three fides being known, the
angle at the vertex may be found, which will be the
angle made by the vertical circle and meridian.
Under the article Quadrant, is (hewn the proper
method of fixing that inftrument exadfly in the meri¬
dian : but where the obferver has no conveniency of
this kind, it will be proper to ufe a portable quadrant;
by means of which the altitude of a ftar muft be ob¬
ferved a little before its paffage over the meridian,
every minute, if poffible, until its greateft or lead
altitude be had ; by which means, though we have
not the true pofition of the meridian, yet we know the
meridian altitude of the ftar. But although this me¬
thod is very good, yet if a ftar paffes by the meridian
near the zenith, we cannot have its meridian altitude
by repeated obfervations every minute, unlefs by
chance ; becaufe in every minute of an hour, the alti¬
tude augments 15 minutes of a degree ; and in thefe
kind of obfervations, the inconvenient fituation of the
obferver, the variation of the (tar’s azimuth feveral de¬
grees
5606 OPT
Optical grees In a little time, the alteration that the Inftrument
Inftmments muft liave> ancj the difficulty in well replacing it ver¬
tically again, hinders our making obfervations oftener
than once in four minutes, during which time the dif¬
ference in the ftar’s altitude will be one degree. In
thefe cafes, therefore, it will be better to have the
true pofition of the meridian, In order to place the in¬
ftrument exaftly in it; or to move it fo that one may
obferve the altitude of the ftar the moment it paffes
the meridian.
The refrafifion maybe found in the following man¬
ner. Having the meridian altitudes, and the declina¬
tion of two ftars of nearly equal altitudes, find a!fo,by
the dire&ions already given, the apparent meridian al¬
titude of fome ftar near the pole ; and if the comple¬
ment of that ftar’s declination be added thereto or taken
therefrom, we (hall have the apparent- height of the
pole. After the fame manner may the apparent
height of the equator be found by means of the meri-
jdian altitude of fome ftar near it, and adding or fub-
tradling its declination. Then thefe heights of the
pole and equator being added together, they will al¬
ways make more than 90 degrees, becaufe both of
them are raifed by the refra&ion : but taking 90 de¬
grees from this fum, the remainder will be double the
refra&ion of either of the ftars obferved at the fame
height; and therefore taking this refradtion from the
apparent height of the pole, or equator, we (hall have
their true altitude.
To illuftrate this : Suppofe the meridian altitude of
a ftar obferved below the north pole to be 30* 15', and
complement of its declination 50 ; whence the appa¬
rent height of the pole will be 350 15'. Alfo let the
apparent meridian altitude of fome other ftar, obfer¬
ved near the equator, be 30® 40', and its declination
40° 9'? whence the apparent height of the equator
will be 54° 49’. Therefore the fum of the heights of
the pole and equator thus found will be 90° 4'; from
which fubtrafiing 90°, there remain 4', which is double
the refraction at 30® 28' of altitude, which is about
the middle of the heights found. Therefore at the al¬
titude of 30° 15', the refradion will be fomewhat
above 2', viz. 2' t" ; and at the altitude of 30° 40',
the refradion will be I’jfp". Laftly, if 2' 1" be taken
from the apparent height of the pole, 35' 15", the re¬
mainder 35° 12' 59" will be the true height of the
pole ; and fo the true height of the equator will be
54° 47' 1", as being the complement of height of the
pole to 90°. The refraftion and height of the pole
found according to this way, will be fo much the more
exad as the height of the ftars is greater; for if the
difference of the altitudes of the ftars (hould be even
2° when their altitudes are above 30°, we may by this
method have the refradion and the true height of the
pole ; becaufe, in this cafe, the difference of refrac¬
tion in altitudes differing only two degrees is not per¬
ceptible.
The quantity of refradion may alfo be found by
the obfervation of one ftar only, whafe meridian alti¬
tude is 90°, or a little lefs: for the height of the pole
or equator above the place of obfervation being other-
wife known, we (hall have the ftar’s true declination
by its meridian altitude ; becaufe refradions near the
zenith are infenfible. Now, if we obferve by a pen¬
dulum the exad times when the faidttar comes to every
I C S. Part ill:
degree of altitude, as alfo the time of its pafTage by Opticjt;
the meridian, which may be known by the equal alti- Inftrl'rnf!
tudes of the ftar being eaft and weft, the refradion
may be found by the folution of a cafe in fpherical |
trigonometry: for here, in a fpherical triangle, we
have the diftance between the pole and zenith, the y
complement of the ftar’s declination, and the angle
comprehended by the arcs abovementioned ; namely,
the difference of mean time between the paffage of the i
ftar by the meridian and its place, converted into de- |l
grees and minutes, to which muft be added the pro- i
per proportional part of the mean motion of the fun in i
the proportion of 59' S" per day ; therefore the true
arc of the vertical circle between the zenith and true x |;
place of the ftar may be had. But the apparent arc
of the altitude of the ftar is had by obfervation, and
the difference of thefe arcs will be the quantity of re- |
fradion at the height of the ftar.
To find the time of the equinox and folftice by ob- |
fervation, we muft proceed in the following manner. I
Having found the height of the equator, the refrac- I|
tion, and the fun’s parallax at the fame altitude, it t1
will not be difficult afterwards to find the time in which
the centre of the fun is in the equator; for if, from
the apparent meridian altitude of the fun’s centre the I
fame day that it comes to the equinox, be taken the
convenient refradion, and then the parallax be added j
thereto, the true meridian altitude of the fun’s centre |
will then be had. Now the difference of this altitude ;
and the height of the equinodial will (hew the true
time of the true equinox before or after noon : and if
the fum of the feconds of that difference be divided by
59, the quotient will (hew the hours and fradions .
which muft be added to or fubtraded from the true hour i
of noon to have the time of the true equinox. The
hours of the quotient muft be added to the time of ;
noon, if the meridian altitude of the fun be lefs than
the height of the equator about the time of the vernal
equinox ; but they muft be fubtraded, if it be found 1
greater. We muft proceed in a contrary manner when
the fun is near the autumnal equinox.
The folftices are found with much more difficulty ;
for one obfervation only is not fufficient, becaufe
about this time the difference between the meridian al- j
titudes in one day and the next fucceeding day is al- '
moft infenfible. The exad meridian altitude of the
fun muft therefore be taken for 12 or 15 days before !
the folftice, and as many after, that fo one may find
the fame meridian angle by little and little ; to the
end that, by the proportional parts of the alteration of
the fun’s meridian altitude, we may the more exadly
find the time when the fun’s altitude is the fame before
and after the folftice, being in the fame parallel to the
equator. Now, having found the time elapfed between
both fituations of the fun, you muft take half of it,
and feek in the tables the true place of the fun at thefe
three times. This being done, the difference of the ex¬
treme place of the fun muft be added to the mean place,
in order to have it with comparifon to the extremes;
but if the mean place found by calculation does not
agree with the mean place found by comparifon, you
muft take the difference, and add to the mean time,
that which anfwers to that difference, if the mean time
found by calculation be leffer; but, if greater, it muft
be fubtraded, in order to have the time of the fol¬
ftice.
-
'
(o') St!
Oftics.
Fiaf- ('OXXVi
J/ equatorial Telefcope.
PartHI. OPT
Optical ftice. Here It mud be noticed, that an error of a
Inftruments few fecon(js Jn the obferved altitude of the fun will
make an alteration of an hour in the true time of the
folftice ; whence it is plain, than the true time of the
folftice cannot be had but with inftruments very well
divided, and feveral very exaft obfervations.
With regard to eclipfes, the beginning, end, and
total emerfion may be eftimated with fufficient exaft-
nefs without telefcopes; excepting the beginning and
ending of lunar eclipfes, where an error of one or two
minutes may be made, becaufe it is difficult to deter¬
mine with certainty the extremity ofthe lhadow. But
the quantity of the eclipfe, that is, the eclipfed por¬
tion of the fun and moon’s dilk, which is meafured by
digits, or the 12th part of the fun and moon’s diame¬
ter, and minutes, or the 60th part of digits, cannot
be well known without a telefcope joined to fome in-
ftrument. One method of obferving them by the fo-
lar telefcope hath been already defcribed ; but this ap¬
plies only to eclipfes of the fun, thofe of the moon
not being difcoverable by reafon of the faintnefs of
the light: for thefe therefore micrometers mult be
ufed, which are be placed in the focus of the telefcope,
Bnd of which various kinds are defcribed under the ar¬
ticle Micrometer. The eclipfes of the fateliites of
Jupiter are to be obferved in the fame manner, but re¬
quire a better telefcope than what is neceffary for ob¬
ferving the eclipfes of our moon.
It is here proper to take notice of the method of
obviating a difficulty formerly taken notice of j name¬
ly, that in a ferene night we often find the light of
Jupiter and its fateliites obferved through the tele¬
fcope to diminifh by degrees, fo that it is impoffible
to determine exattly the true times of the immerfion
and emerfion of the fateliites. This proceeds from the
dew which falls upon the furface of the objeft-glafs,
and intercepts the light. A very hire remedy is, to
make a tube of blotting paper, about two feet long,
and of a fufficient bigncfs to go about the end of the
tube of the telefcope next to the objeft-glafs, which
will very efFeftually drink up the dew, and hinder
it from coming to the objed-glafs; and by this
means we may make our obfervations with fufficient
exadlnefs.
$ 15. Telefcopic Injlruments for finding ’Time by obfer¬
ving ’when the Sun or any Star has equal Altitudes on
tgj each fide of the Meridian.
in ft rumen* ^NE t^ie^e *n^ruments W3S made by Mr Roger
defcribed. Cotes, and was contrived by him for the purpofe of regu¬
lating a pendulum-clock prefented to the Royal Society
by Sir Ifaac Newton, to whom he fent the following
Plate defcription. “ AB is a ftrong wooden axis about fix
CCXX7f. feet in length : CD and DE on one fide, EF and FG
*• on the other, are pieces framed to each other and to
the axis as firmly as was poffible. Into the piece CD,
and at the angle F, were fixed ftrong wooden pins
nearly parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the
plane CDEFG. PQ_is the cylindrical brafs tube of
a five-foot telefcope (belonging to our fextant;) this
was well fattened with iron ftaples and fcrews to the
piece of wood IKML, whofe under plane furface is
here reprefented as obje&ed to view. Into this fur¬
face there was perpendicularly fixed a ftrong wooden
pin N, which was defigned to hang the upper end of
Von. VIII. 2
ICS. 5607
the telefcope upon any of the pins in CD, whilft its Optical
lower end retted upon the pin F. Now, that the tele-InftTument!’
fcope might be taken off, and yet afterwards be again r~~
placed accurately in the fame pofition, I ordered the
edges IK and CD, which touched each other, to be
rounded like the furface of a cylinder, as alfo the edge
EF into which the pin F was fixed, and againft which
the cylindrical tube of the telefcope refted, fo that the
contaft in both places might be made in a point. Up¬
on the fame account the pins in CD were made a little
hollow, as is reprefented at R ; and the pin F was a
fruftum of a cone, that thereby the telefcope might
more furely touch the edges CD and EF. Into the two
ends of the wooden axis were ftrongly fixed two pieces
of well-tempered fteel: that at the upper end A was a
cylinder well turned, which moved in a collar, whofe
cavity, reprefented by S, was figured like two hollow
and inverted fruftums of cones joined together ; the
lower at B was a cone moving in a conical focket of a
fomewhat larger angle. This focket had liberty to be
moved horizontally, and to be fixed in any pofition by
two fcrews, which preffed againft it fideways at right
angles to each other. The inftrument being thus pre¬
pared, 1 fixed a needle V, at the lower end of the
wooden axis, whofe point flood out from it about an
inch; then fufpending a fine plumb-line TVX from
the upper end of the fome axis, I altered the pofition
of the inftrument by the fcrews, until the plumb-
line came to beat againft the point of the needle in the
whole revolution of the inftrument, and there I fixed
it as prepared for ufe.”
So far Mr Cotes. The plumb-line or fine wire
TVX was fufpended by a loop T upon a brafs pin
that ferewed into the top of the axis AB ; a nick be¬
ing filed round the pin to flay the loop from Hiding
out of it. Then by ferewing the pin in or out, the
plumb-line was brought to the fame diftance from the
axis AB as the point of the needle is at V : which was
fixed in the end of a thick wooden pin Y, not in the
axis of it, but towards one fide ; fo that by turning
the pin round itfelf, in a hole bored through the axis
AB, the needle’s point might deferibe a fmall circle,
and be brought to touch the plumb-line when parallel
to the axis of motion of the wood AB.
Dr Smith gives the following defcription of an ex¬
cellent inftrument of this kind, in the noble colleftion rtf8
of the right honourable the earl of Hay. “ It is made Earl 0f
all of brafs, except a fquare fteel axis ab 30 inches in Hay’s in¬
length. To one fide of the upper part of this axis^rument"
there is fixed a fmall fextantal arch cd reprefented fe-
parately at E ; its centre a being at the top of the
axis a b. The telefcope MN is alfo 30 inches long,
and is fixed along the diameter of a femicircle of the
fame radius as the fextant, and concentric to it. The
telefcope with the femicircle being moveable about
this centre upon the plane of the fixed fextant a c d,
may be fattened to it in any elevation by two nuts and
fcrews c, d, fixed in the ends of the fextantal arch ; a
circular flit being made all along the limb of the femi¬
circle for thefe ferew-pins to Aide in. Clofe under
thefe arches, the axis a b is furrounded by a (hort cy¬
linder e, about an inch in diameter, well turned and
polilhed. The lower end of the axis is formed into a
fine conical point b. The frame in which the axis
turns, is a long hollow parallelepiped wanting two
31 R fides.
5608 OPT
Optical fides. Its other (ides fg, are two brafs plates, equal
l.iitnimentsjn ]engt}, t0 t}ie part i e q{ the axjS} ancj are fcrewed
together edgeways. It has For its bafes two equal
plates h, it four inches £quare. In the middle of the
upper fquare there is a round hole large enough to re¬
ceive the cylinder e, without touching it ; and over
this hole is fixed a triangular hole in another plate ;
one of whofe fides is moveable by a fcrew, to make
all the fides of the triangle touch the cylinder. Up¬
on the lower fquare there lies a fmaller plate with a
fine centre-hole to receive the point 3 of the axis. This
centre-plate is moveable fideways by two fcrews at
right angles to each other, which, when the frame is
firmly fixed into a nitch of «Tfree-ftone pillar, will bring
the axis ab exa&ly perpendicular to the horizon.
This pofition is known by a fpirit-level lm fixed at
right angles to the axis above the cylinder, upon the
fide oppofite to the femicircle. Along the top of the
level there is a Aiding pointer to be fet to the end of
the air-bubble ; and when the pofition of the axis is
fo adjufted by the fcrews below, that the air-bubble
keeps to the pointer for a whole revolution of the in-
ftrument, the axis a b \% certainly perpendicular to the
horizon ; and then the line of fight through the tele-
fcope defcribes a circle of equal altitudes in the hea¬
vens. There are feveral of thefe circles defcribed in
the heavens, even when the telefcope is fixed to the
fextantal arch. For the round hole in its focus has five
wires parallel to the horizon at equal intervals from one
another, as at k ; and they are crolfed at right angles
in the middle by two other upright wires at a fmalfdi-
ftanee from each other. The defign of fo many wires
is to obferve when the fame ftar is fuccefiively covered
by every one of the five, both in the eaft and weft; fo
that the time of its paflage over the meridian may be
had more accurately, by taking a medium among all
the obfervations. The diftances between the five wires
need be no greater than to afford time enough to
write down the feveral obfervations, which muft be
taken when the ftar is between the perpendicular
wires.
Ufts of thefe Time (hewn by a clock may be called mechanicaly
memi dift!ngui/b from filar and Jidereal time. By obfer-
ving when a ftar has equal altitudes before and after
its culmination or appulfe to the meridian, we have the
mechanical time of its culmination. Then by fubtrac-
ting the fun’s right afcenfion computed to this me¬
chanical time, from the ftar’s right afcenfion determi¬
ned for the fame time, we have the folar time of the
ftar’s culmination, and confequently the difference be¬
tween the mechanical and folar times.
Thus, by finding the mechanical times, when the
fame ftar culminates any two nights, rather at a di-
ftance from each other than fueceflive, we have the
difference between a fidereal day and a mechanical day;
and confequently between a mechanical day and a fo¬
lar day of a mean length.
Hence any number of mechanical minutes may be
converted into folar or into fidereal minutes by the
rule of three.
Thefe obfervations will anfwer the purpofe the
more exaftly as the ftar is nearer to the prime verti¬
cal; becaufe the variation of its altitude is heregreater
in a given time, than if it were fituated in any other
vertical oblique to the meridian. In the latitude of
I C S. Part nr.
50 degrees an erfof of one minute in altittfde, at any Optical]
point of the prime vertical, will caufe an error of fiHnflrumcd
feconds in time ; and in the latitude of 55 degrees it
will caufe an error of near 7 feconds; as that excellent
geometer Mr Cotes has fhewn in his treatife con¬
cerning the Efii motion and Limits of Error} in mix¬
ed mathematics, publifhed at the end of his admi¬
rable book called Hannonia Menfurarum. It is alfo
the fafeft to choofe a ftar as high as poffible, left a
different ftate of the atmofpbere (hould caufe a diffe¬
rent refraftion of the vifual rays, and confequently an
error in the times of obfervation.
The folar time may alfo be found by obferving
when the fun bimfelf has equal altitudes in the morn¬
ing and evening ; if we correft the time of the latter
obfervation by a juft allowance for the variation of the
fun’s declination, as follows. Upon a celeftial globe :
let the pole be at P ; the vertex of the obferVer’s place 4, 1 :
at V ; the complement of its latitude PV ; its rneri- £
dian PVBG ; a circle of equal altitudes ABCD, de¬
fcribed about its pole V; and palling thro’ the fun’s
centre at A at the time of the morning obfervation,
and through it at D at the time of the evening obfer¬
vation ; two circles of declination, PAF, PUl, cut¬
ting the equator FGHI, in F and I; a parallel of
declination ACE, cutting the circle PDI in E, and
ABD in C ; three equal vertical arches VA, VC,
VD ; and laftly, a third circle of declination PCH
cutting the equator in H. Now, had not the fun va¬
ried his declination from A or E to D, in the even¬
ing he would have had the fame altitude at C as in
reality he has at D. And then as the angles VPC,
VPA, would have been equal, fo the times of the
evening and morning obfervations would alfo have been
equidiftant from noon; being meafured by thofe
angles, or by the arches GF, GH. Therefore the
angle CPU, or the arch IH, which ifteafures it, is al¬
fo the meafure of a portion of time to be fobtra&ed
from the evening obfervation, if the fun’s declination
varies northwards, otherwife lobe added, to give the
time fought equidiftant from noon. Let another circle
of declination Vkl bifeft the fmall angle HPI, and
confequently the fmall arches CD and HI in k and /.
Draw the vertical arch /IV ; and in the triangle iPV,
we have given PV the complement of the latitude, and
P k half the fum of the given complements, PC or PA
and PD, of the fun’s declinations at the times of the
two obfervations, and laftly, the included angle k PV,
by converting half the interval of time between the
obfervations into degrees and minutes. Hence by tri¬
gonometry we have the angle P^ V, of an interme¬
diate magnitude between PCV and PDV, and there¬
fore fitter to be ufed inftead of either of them. Hence
alfo we (hall have the arch IH ; by taking it in pro¬
portion to DE the difference of the declinations, as the
co-tangent of the angle PCV, to the fine of the arch
PC or PL For IH is to DE in a ratio compounded
of IH to CE and of CE to DE, that is, of the radius
to the fine of the arch PC, and of the co tangent of
the angle DCE or PCV to the radius : as appears by
taking away the common angle DCP from the right
angles ECP and DCV ; and by cbhfidering the fmall
triangle DCE, right-angled at E, as if it was rectili¬
near. The calculation fuppofes the fun’s centre has
equal altitudes at A and D; which is agreeable to the
Mechanifm obfervatipns that determine when his upper or his un-
o t'c I ^cr ^as c<lua'
jfnftrumeiii«s?CT. yj. Qf the Mechanifm of the principal Opti¬
cal Injirumenti.
As part of the irechanifm of opt,leal inftru-
meuts depends on a knowledge of the arts of calling,
poldhing and foldering brafs and other metals, of
turning wood, &c. we mud; neceijarily confine our-
felves in this fedtion to fot».e djreftions concerning the
grinding and polifhing of the glafies and fpecula for
microfeopes and telefcopes, with the method of put¬
ting them together and adjuiting them ; leaving the
fabrication of th? other pans to be learned by the in¬
genuity and indu [try of thofe who choofe to employ
themfelves in that manner, and for ^hich fcarce any
rules that would be of much fervice can be laid down.
§ i • Of making Giafs-globules for Microfeopes.
Though thefe are not found to be of fuch ufe as
fmall convex lenfes, yet as they are eafily made, and
are ftill ufed through choice by fome perfons, we fliall
*70 here give fome of the bed methods of making them,
field’sme-" ^utter6eld,s method of making thefe was by the
thod. flame of a fpirit-larap, which, indead of a wick, had
feveral folds of fine filver-wire doubled up and down
like a fkain of thread. Having prepared fome fine
giafs, beaten to powder and waftied very clean, he
took a little of it upon the ftiarp point of a filver
needle wetted with fpittle, and held it in the flame,
turning it about till it become quite round, but no
longer, for fear of burning it. The art lies in giving
the globules an exafit roundnefs, which can only be
learned by experience. When a great many globules
were thus formed, he rubbed them clean with foft
leather. Then, having feveral fmall pieces of thin
brafs plates, twice as long as broad, he doubled them
up into the form of a fquare, and punched a fine hole
through the middle of them; and having rubbed
off the bur about the holes with a whetftone, and
blacked the infides pf the plates with the fmoke of
a candle, he placed a globule between the two holes,
, j, and tacked the plates together with two or three rivets.
Mr Dr Hooke, for the fame purpofe, ufed to taken
Hooke’s, very clear piece of giafs, and draw it opt into fong
threads in a lamp ; then he held thefe threads in the
flame, till they ran into round globules at tire end.
He next faftened the globules with fealing-wax to-the
end of a (lick, fo that the threads flood upwards, and
grinding off the'ends of the threads upon a whetfione,
poliflied them upon a fimooth metal plate with a little
t7t putty.
Mr Gray’s. Mr Stephen Gray tell us, that, for want of a fpint-
lamp, he laid a fmall particle of giafs, about the big-
nefs of the intended globule, upon the end of a piece
of charcoal, and by the help of a Blow-Pv/c, with the
flame of a candle, he foon melted it into a globule.
By this means be made them indifferently clear, and
the fmallefl very round ; but the larger, by veiling
upon that fide, became a little flatted, and received a
roughnefs on that fide. He was therefore yvpnt to
grind and polifh them upon a brafs plate till he re¬
duced them to hemifpheres ; but he found, that the
final! round globules, hefidts that they magnified
more, fhewed objefts more diftin&ly than the bemi«
jpheres.
$ 2. Of grinding Lenjes for Telefcopes and Micrdfcopes. Mediaiufai
A lens is more eafily made of an equal convexity Optical
on both fides than of any other figure, becaufe the Iuftrurpents
fame toqls will ferve for grinding both its furfaces.
And a j^Iafs of this figure will make as perfeA an
image as any other, becaufe the aberrations of the
rays occafioned by the fpherical figures of the furfaces,
whatever be the proportion of the femidiameters, are
inconfidepable in long telefcopes, in proportion to
what is occafioned by the different refrangibility of
' the rays, which laft error Mr Dollond has (hewn how
to correct. If it be propofed, then, to make a giafs of
equal convexities, that (hall have a given focal dillance,
the radius of the fperical furface will be found by
taking it in proportion to the given focal diftance as
iz to |i, putting the fine of incidence to the fine of
refraftion out of air into giafs as 17 to 1 P, which Sir
Ifaac Newton bath accurately determined it to be.
The focal diftance of the giafs being given, its aper ¬
ture may be found by the following table.
Length
i of the te-
lefcppe,
or fpcal
diftance
of the
objeft-
glafs.
Feet.
Linear
aperture of
the obieft
giafs.
0-55
9.-77
9-95
1.09
1.23
1-34
1.45
x-55
1.64
i-73
1 *97
2.J2
2.45
2.74
3-09
3-24
3-46
3-67
3-87
4.06
4.24
4-5S
490
5.20
5.48
6.00
6.48
6- 93
7- 35
7-75_
Focal dt-
ftance of
the eye-
glafs.
O.61
9.85
I.05
I.47
I.60
I-7I
1.80
1.90
2.17
2.32
2.70
3.01
3-30
3- 56
3.81
4.04
4.26
4- 47
4.66
5.04
5-39
5.72
6.03
6.60 v
7-i3
7.62
8.09
8'53
amplifi-
nifying
OPT
Table continued.
InchfkDec. UnchgzDec.
400
500
600
8.83
9.16
9.49
10.95
12.25
LBL.
8.83
8 93
9.71
10.08
10 44
12.05
I3,47
H-76
295
308
321
333
345
398
445
488_
Thefe proportions, in Huygens’s table for refrafting
telefcopes, are meafured by the Rheinland foot, which
is to the Englifli foot as 139 to 135: fo that, ta¬
king their lengths of as many Englilh feet, their
apertures and eye-glafles and linear amplifications
fhould be feverally diminifhed in the fubduplicate ratio
of 139 to 135; that is, nearly in the ratio of 139 to
173 137, or about or Tt-th part of the whole.
Mr Huy- Becaufe the figure of the glafs cannot be made ex-
geiis’sdirec-a£]y true tQ jts very. ecjges> breadth of it may
cerning the be about half an inch more than the diameter of its
iize of the aperture, or even three quarters, or a whole inch
glafs and more, if its focal diftance be between 50 and 200 feet.
Mr Huygens dire&s in general to make the breadth
of the concave tool or plate in which an objeft-glafs
muft be ground, almoft. three times the breadth of
the glafs; though in another place he fpeaks of
grinding a glafs whofe focal diftance was 200 feet,
and breadth 8^- inches, in a plate only 15 inches broad.
But for eye-glafles, and others of a (horter radius,
the tool muft be in proportion to the breadth of thefe
glafles, to afford fufficient room for the hand in po-
lifliing. Huygens made his tools of copper or call
brafs; which, for fear they fhould change their figures
by bending, can hardly be caft too thick: neverthelefs
he found by experience, that a tool 14 inches broad
and half an inch thick was fufficient for grinding
glaffes to a fphere of 36 feet diameter; when the tool
I C S. Part III.
breadth two or thure inches. Then having faftened Mechanifri 1
thefe plates flat againft the wall in an horizontal po- 0p°cal .
ftion, with the moveable point in the pole ftrike ainftrumentj|ii
true arch upon each of them. Then file away the ——
brafs on one fide exaftly to the arch ftruck, fo ai to
make one of the brafs edges convex and the other
concave ; and, to make the arches correfpond more
exa&ly, fix one of the plates flat upon a table,
and grind the other againft it with emery. Thefe are
the gauges to be made ufe of in turning the brafs tools
exadly to the fphere required.
But if the radius of the fphere be very large, the
gauges muft be made in the following manner. Sup- PIafe_
tools for
grinding.
gauges muu oe mauc m luciumrwwg niauuvi. „x m,
pofe the line AE, fig. 1. drawn upon the brafs plate, 'I
to be the tangent of the required arch AFB, whofe
radius, for example, is 36 feet, and diameter 72.
From A fet off the parts AE, EE, &c. feverally
equal to an inch, and let them be continued a little
beyond half the breadth of the tool required. Then,
as 72 feet or 864 inches is to one inch, folet one inch
be to a fourth number ; this will be the number of
decimal parts of an inch in the firft line EF, reck¬
oning from A. Multiply this fourth number fuc-
cdfively by the numbers 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. the
fquares of 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and the feveral produds
will be the numbers of decimal parts contained in the
2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th EF refpedively. But becaufe
thefe numbers of parts are too fmall to be taken from
a fcale by a pair of compafles, fubtrad them feverally
from an inch reprefented by the lines EG; and the
remainders being taken from a fcale of an inch divided
into decimal parts, and transferred by the compaffes
from G to F, will determine the points F, F, &c. of
the arch required ; after which the brafs plate muft
be filed away exadly to the points of this arch, and
poliflied as before. 176 ;
To apply the brafs tool to a turning lathe in order Of turning |
to turn the concave furface of it exadly fpherical, let the brafs
fig. 2. reprefent a view of fome part of the lathe,100 * j
taken from a point diredly over it; \ei a b reprefent Fig 2, 3,4,
a ftrong flat diflc of brafs half an inch thick at leaft.
was ft rongly cemented upon a cylindrical ftone an inch having a ftrong iron fcrew-pin firmly fixed in the
,74 thick, with hard cement made of pitch and allies.
Method of In order to make moulds for calling fuch tools as
making theare pretty much concave, he direds that wooden
115011 s‘ patterns Ihould be turned in a lathe a|little thicker and
broader than the tools themfelves. But for tools that
belong to fpheres above 20 or 30 feet diameter, he
fays it is fufficient to ufe flat boards turned circular to
the length and breadth required. When the plates
are caft, they muft be turned in a lathe exadly to the
concavity required. And for this purpofe it is requi-
fite to make a couple of brafs gauges in the following
17s manner.
of making Take a wooden pole a little longer than the radius
t>e£auScs* 0f tj)e fp!ler;cai furface of the glafs intended, and
through the end of it ftrike two fmall fteel points at
a diftance from each other, equal to the radius of the
fphtre intended ; and by one of the points hang up
the pole againft a wall, fo that this upper point may
centre of it, and Handing out exadly perpendicular
to one fide; by which it may be fcrewed into the
end c of the mandrel or axis of the lathe, reprefented
by c d. This difk is reprefented feparately in fig. 3.
and muft be well foldered to the backfide of the tool
e f, which therefore, in the middle of it, muft be made
plane, and exadly parallel to the circumference of its
oppofite furface, in order that the circumference may
be carried round the axis of the lathe in a plane
perpendicular to it. The mandrel or axis cd turns
upon a point*/ in the puppet-head of the lathe, and in
an iron collar reprefented by / /.
Let ghik reprefent a board nailed fail on the other
puppet-head; and let the concave gauge £ ^ belaid
upon this board, with its concave arch parallel to the
concavity of the tool e f, and be fcrewed down to the
board with flat-headed fcrews funk into the brafs.
Let l mn 0 reprefent fuch another board lying upon
have a circular motion in a hole or focket made of the former, with the convex gauge Im fcrewed to the
brafs or iron firmly fixed in the wall. Then take two under fide of it; fo that, by moving this upper board,
equal plates of brafs or copper well hammered and the arch of the convex gauge may be brought to touclv
fmoothed, whofe length is fomewhat more than the the concave one, and to Aide againft it. The turning
breadth of the tool of caft brafs, and whofe thicknefs tool / S' is laid upon the moveable board, and is held
may be a tenth or a twelfth part of an inch, and the fall to it by a broad-headed ferew at r, to be turned
Part III. OPT
.Mechanifmlor unturned by the hand upon occafion. To know
< o °fcal w^et^er t^ie concave gauge be exaftly parallel to the
llnftrLimentsconcavity t^ie to°^ ef Screwed fall to the mandrel,
——— diredt the point p of the turning tool to touch any
i point of the tool ef near its circumference: then
having fixed the turning tool pqby its fcrew r, turn the
brafs tool e f half round, and move the upper board
till the point p of the turning tool be brought over-
againlt the fame mark upon the tool e f; and if it juft
touches it as before when the gauges coincide, all is
right. If not, the pofition of the head of the lathe
may be altered a little by ftriking it with a mallet.
But the beft way is, to make this examination of the
fituation of the concave gauge, when only one end of
it is fixed to the lathe by a Angle tack or fcrew, about
which it may eafily be moved into its true pofition.
And while the tool or plate ef \s turning, the fame
examination of its parallelifm to the gauge muft be fre¬
quently repeated; otherwifc its furface will take a
falfe figure. It is convenient that the upper board
Imno (hould projeft over both the gauges ; and to
keep its furface parallel to that of the under board,
two round-headed nails, or a plate of brafs, as thick
as the gauges, muft be fixed to its under furface, to¬
wards the oppofite fide/zc. Care muft be taken to
drill the holes in the gauges, through which they are
fcrewed to the boards, not too near the polilhed arches
for fear of altering their figure by the yielding of the
brafs. The tool and all the parts of the lathe muft be
fixed very firm ; becaufe any trembling motion will
caufe the graving tool p q Xo indent the brafs. After
the tool is well turned, it muft be feparated from the
brafs ab by melting the folder with live coals laid up¬
on it. In a fimilar manner may a convex tool be turned
by tranfpofing the gauges.
Mr Huygens advifes firft to form the plates or tools
in a turning lathe ; and then to grind them together
with emery; that is to fay, the concave and convex
tool of the fame fphere together. But the tools of
very large fpheres, he would have ground at firft
quite plane by a ftone-cutter; and then ground hollow
with a round flat ftone and emery to the proper gauge.
And he prefcribes to ufe for this grinding firft a ftone
half as broad as the tool, and after that another nearly
of the whole breadth of it; and in this way of form¬
ing the tools, it will be convenient to tie a little
frame of thick paper, or rather of thin pafteboard,
about an inch high, round the tool, in order to keep
in the emery ; and in grinding, the whole muft be
made extremely firm. When the tool is to be po-
lifhed, it muft ftill remain upon the ftone pedeftal;
otherwife it will be in danger of bending a little in the
operation.
Of polilh- Forpolifhingthe tools when ground, Mr Huygens di-
ing the refts the concave tool to be daubed with foap; after
tools. which,he takes the round ftone above-mentioned, fome-
what lefsthan the tool, (or the convex tool itfelf),and
heats it; then he pours upon it fome hot melted cement
(made of pitch and fine powdered and lifted aihes, as
much as he can mix with it ), and then he turns over the
ftone and cement upon the concave tool, into which alfo
he had poured a good quantity of the fame cement; ha¬
ving firft laid three little pieces of brafs, of equal thick-
neffes, on the circumference of it, in order to prefs and
keep this cruft of cement of an esad equal ihicknefs
ICS. 5611
in all its parts; and thus he lets them cool together. Mechanlfm
Then taking the ftone from the tool, and tnrning it n .
up, he lifts upon the cement that Hicks to it a cruft of
very fine emery; and with a flat iron fpatula, about one  
third of an inch thick, gently warmed, he prefles light¬
ly the emery, to ftick to and incruftate upon the ce¬
ment. The whole is then gently warmed, viz. the
ftone, cement, and emery, and he again replaces it
upon the concave tool, and leaves it again to cool; fo
that he has by this means a cruft of emery exaftly of
the figure of his tool; and with this he polilhes the
tool dry, without the addition of any wet, prefiing it
hard on the furface of the tool. To prefs it the harder,
he places upon it a long pole, a little bent, to make it
fpring, whofe upper end is fixed to the ceiling of the
room, or elfe is prefled downwards by a ftrong iron
fpring; and he thinks it is neceflary to have two per-
fons to rub the ftone upon the tool. Here, however,
it muft be obferved, that great care muft be taken in
this, and in all cafes where this way of grinding by a
pole is made ufe of, to fix the point of prefiure exadily
in the middle.
To bring the concave tool ftill nearer to perfe&ion,
take equal pieces, about an inch fquare, of blue hone,
fuch as are ufed by engravers for polifhing their cop¬
per, and place as many of them as you can upon the
furface of the tool to be polifhed, laying the grain of
them, fome one way, fdme another; fticking them as
clofe as you can to one another with foap and com¬
mon white ftarch: then fill up all the interfticesof the
hones with clean dry fand, to about two thirds of the
tbicknefs of the hones; then having a border of paper
or pafteboard put round the tool as before, (hake the
tool gently, that the fand may equally fubfide, and
blow it every where to an equal depth with a pair of
bellows. Then take fome hard cement, extremely hot,
and pour it all over the hones ; then having cleaned
the ftone, or convex tool, which before was incrufta-
ted with pitch and emery, place this ftone (or convex
tool) warmed, on the top of the cement, and let all
cool together. Then rubbing the tool with this po-
lifher made with hones, by applying your pole to the
top of the ftone as before, you will know when the
tool is brought to perfection, by wiping off the filth,
in which cafe all parts of it will appear equally bright
by looking upon it obliquely againft the light. If
you would ufe this poliflier again, it muft be kept in-
a cool cellar, leaving the hones uppermoft; otherwife
in warm weather they will change their fituation in
the cement, even by their own weight. I7g
The cement ufed for faftening the glaffes is. made Cement for
of feveral different compofitions, according to the fancy fjl^en1'n1j>ioa
of the operator. Cherubin informs us, that it was"162,1 ^
ufually made of common black pitch and fine fifted
vine-afhes: but he himfelf made it of rofin and ochre,
or rodn and Spaniflr white ; pounding the rofin firft,
and mixing it with a due quantity of the powder, and
then fifting the mixture upon hot melted pitch, and, .
while hot, well mixing and incorporating the whole.
By others, the cement is made of pitch and common
coai-afhes fifted fine. In all cafes, it is harder orfoft-
er, as more or lefs of the afhes or other fine powder is
put into it: and in the prefent cafe, for polifliing thefe
tools, it muft be made as bard as poffible, by putting
in a large quantity of aftus; for otherwife, if the ce-
561s OPT
Mechanifm ment is not hard enough, the particles of the emery
will be loofened by the heat in grinding, and then will
ihtmtiikiiu,°nly run round upon the tool, without working out
 —the little inequalities thereof. If the emery (hould be
found to grow blunt, a very little more of it may be
dufted dry upon the tool, by which its (harrpnefs and
cutting quality will be a little recovered; but if the
cement be fufficiently hard at firft, the emery will al-
n? ways remain fufficiently fharp.
Of choofing -phe beH 0f gjafs ;s perfedlly white; but great
1 e 2 a s* c3re muft be taken in choofing it totally free from
veins. To difcover thefe veins, one fhould look very
obliquely againft a fmall light in a room otherwife
dark. In this manner one may examine pieces of a
polilhed looking-glafs, of which objedt-glafies are
fometimes made; but becaufe thefe are fddom of a
fufficient thicknefs for this purpofe, it will be proper
to take fome pieces of the fame fort of glafs before it
is poliPned, and get it ground to an equal thicknefs
and polKhed a little by the common glafs-grinders, in
order to judge what pieces are fit for ufe. Sometimes
little veins will appear like fine threads, which fcarce
do any harm. Sometimes their imperfe&ions cannot
be difeovered by the former way of trial; and yet af¬
ter the glafs is well formed and polilhed, they will ap¬
pear by refledlion in the following manner. In a dark
room place the glafs upright upon a table, turning
that fin face from you which is fufpedted to be faulty;
then holding a lighted candle in your hand, fo that
the middle of the broad light refledfed from the firft
furface may fall upon your eye, recede from the glafs
till the rays refteded from the back furface lhall juft
begin to invert the candle; then the whole glafa will
appear all over bright, and then you will difcover its
defeds, and the imperfedions of the polilh.- When
the glafs is a portion of a large fphere, we ufe a fmall
perfpedive, three or four inches long, to magnify the
180 defeds.
Howglafles The pieces of glafs above-mentioned fhould be
fmoothed milc^ broader than the intended objed-glafs, that there
and round- ma7 room enough for choofing the beft part of
ed. them. For planing and fmoothing thefe large pieces
of glafs, plates of caft-iron may be made ufe of;
fuch as are fold at the iron-mongers (hops, after they
have been ground and planed on a ftone-cutter’s en¬
gine. Upon the plate of glafs, with a diamond-
pointed -compafs, ftrike a circle reprefenting the ob-
jed-glafs; and alfo another concentric circle, with a
tadius about a tenth or twelfth part of an inch bigger;
And alfo two other fuch circles, on the -other tide of
the glafs, diredly oppofite to the former; which may
be done by means of the circular glafs to be after¬
wards defcribed. The larger parts of the glafs may
be feparated from the outward circle by a red-hot iron,
or by a ftrong broad vice, opened exaftly to the thick-
nefs of the glafs. The remaining inequalities may be
taken off by a grind-ftone ; beginning with the lar-
geft firft, and taking care that they do not fplinter.
Then, having warmed the glafs, cement a wooden
handle to it, and in a common deep tool for eye-
glaffes, making ufe of white clear fend and water,
grind the circumference of the glafs exaftly true to
the innermoft circle on each fide of it. Then, having
‘made a great many fmall cavities with a punch upon
one fide of a round copper-plate, and having fixed the
I C S. Partin.
other fide of it upon the middle of the round glafs, by Mechanif
cement made with two parts of rofin or hard pitch, °!
and one part of wax, place the fteel-point pf the fpring- inftr„mer
ing pole above defcribed, being 14 or 15 feet long, ;
into that cavity of the copp’er plate which lies neareft
the thickeft part of the glafs; then work the glafs by
the pole with fend and water upon a flat plate of caft
iron, of a round figure, the plate having been planed
with fend and water by a ftone-cutter, Then having
examined the thicknefs of the glafs in feveral places
by a hand-vice, which is better than a pair of cal¬
lipers, by repeating the fame operation, it will foon
be reduced to an equal thicknefs in all its parts. To¬
wards the end of this operation it will be convenient to
make ufe of fifted emery, becaufe the fend will fcratch
too deep : and then it will alfp be neceffary to place
the fteel-point of the pole exa&ly over the centre of
the under furface of the glafs; otherwife that furface
will take a cylindrical or convex figure, even though
it was exactly plane before you began to grind it; and
when concave glaffes are to be polifhed, it is alfo ab-
fohuejy neceffary to place the point of preffure exaflly
over the centre of the under furface of the glafs. To
bring one of the little cavities in the copper-plate ex-
adlly over that centre, a circular glafs is made ufe of,
formed from a broken looking-glafs with the quick-
filver rubbed off. On this muff be defcribed, with
a diamond-pointed compafs, eight or ten concentric
circles, about a quarter of an inch diftant from each
other, fo that the larger circles may be fomewhat big¬
ger than the circumference of the glafs to be poliftied.
Lay this circular glafs upon the furface of the glafs to
be poliftied; and move it to and fro till you perceive
that the circumference of the glafs to be poliftied is
exa&ly parallel to the neareft circle upon the circular
glafs; then, having inverted both the glaffes, lay the •
circular glafs upon a table, and having laid a fmall live
coal upon the copper plate, to make it moveable on the
cement, place one point of a pair of compaffes in one
of the little cavities, and move the copper till a cir¬
cumference defcribed with the other point coincides !
exa&ly with any one circle upon the circular glafs,
and the bufinefs is done. It is convenient to pafte
three flender ftireds of fine linen diredfed towards the :
centre of the circular glafs, that the other glafs may
not Aide too eafily upon it, and that they may not j
fcratch one another. The cavities punched in the cop¬
per plate, and alfo in the point of the pole, (hould be
triangular, to hinder the rotation of the glafs; which
is ftill more neceffary in giving it the laft polifh. Here
alfo we muft obferve whether the circumference re¬
mains exa&ly circular on both Tides of it, which muft j
be tried with compaffes: and if it be not, it muft be 1
corredted again by grinding it exadtly circular in a
common tool for making eye glaffes; which will,con¬
tribute very much to its taking an exadl fpherical fur- j
face when it comes to be ground in its proper tool. 1
For if any part of the circumference be protuberant, i
it will hinder the adjoining parts of the furface from
wearing fo much as tliey ftiould do; and of confequence {
will fpoil its furface.
When the glafs is thoroughly planed and rounded
as above, take away the plate with the feveral cavi¬
ties, and, with fome of the feme cement, fix on a 1
Imaller round piece of brafs or rather fteel truely flat,
and i
PartUI. OPT
.Mechamfm and turned about the bJgnefs of a farthing, but thicker,
°( . having firft made in the centre thereof, with a trian*
ilnftrnnients Su^r fteel punch, a hole about the bignefsofa goofe*
I— quill, and about the depth ofTV of an inch ; and at the
vefy bottom of this triangular hole, a fmall round hole
mull be punched, fomewhat deeper, with a very fine
fteel punch. A fmall fteel point about an inch long
mull be truly fhaped and fitted to this triangular hole,
and, at the very apex, to the fmall, round, deeper
i|?Iate impreffion. Neverthelefs, it muft not be fitted fo ex-
fCXXVII. aaiyj jjU{ t}jat jt may have feme liberty to move to
' and fro ; the apex always continuing to prefs upon
!| the furface of the round hole below. This fteel tri¬
angular point muft be fixed to one end of a pole; to
the other end of which another round iron point muft
be fixed, of about five or fix inches long, to play
freely up and down in a round hole in a piece of brafs
let into a board fixed in the deling for that purpofe,
perpendicularly over the bench, and over the centre of
the tool, which muft be ftrongly and truely fixed ho-
Ir tizontally thereon. Mr Huygens diredls the brafs
plate to be fixed to the glafs by means of cement, and
takes no notice of any other method whatever; though
it is plain, that it is hardly poffible, in this, or any
other cafe, to bring the cement to a fluidity fufficient
to fix two plane furfaces exa&ly parallel to one ano¬
ther, without heating the glafs, and the brafs alfo, to
a very great degree, and thus endangering the glafs
confiderably. To avoid this, fome have ufed plafter
of Paris ; others cement an intermediate glafs to the
brafs or wood, and then fix the glafs to be ground to
the outward furface of the cemented glafs with com¬
mon glue. It may eafily be done, however, with
common ifinglafs or fifti-glue, which will run very
fluid, and will fix the glafs and the brafs of itfelf
ftrongly together. Some common foft red wax is to
be ftuck on the edges of the brafs, to keep wet from
I H gctt'ng to the glue.
For grinding glafles truely plane by this method,
Mr Huygens prescribes the pole to be about 15 feet
long ; but, in grinding upon a concave plate, the pole
is moft conveniently made of the fame length with the
radius of the fphere, though Dr Smith is of opinion
that it would not be material if made confiderably
fliorter, as the height of the room may allow. It is
neceffary to have, lying by, an ordinary piece ofcoarfe
glafs ground in the fame tool, called zbruifer; where¬
by, when any new emery is laid on the tool in grind¬
ing the glafs, it muft be firft run over and fmoothed,
for fear that aiiy little coarfe grains (hould remain and
fcratch the glafs.
Things being thus prepared, fome pots of emery
of 'various finenffles muft be prepared. Take of
the rougheft fort a fmall half-pugil, ‘wetting and
daubing it pretty equably on the tool : then lay on
y6ur glafs, and fix up the pole, continuing to grind
fbr a quarter of an hour; not prefnng upon the pole,
but barely carrying the glafs round thereby : then
take the like quantity of fome fine emery, and work
another quarter of an hour therewith ; and then take
the like quantity of emery ft ill finer,’ and work for
the-fame time: after which you muft work for an
hour and an half with fome of the fineft emery
you have, taking away by little and little fome of
the emery with a wet fponge. It amft neither be
ICS. 5615
kept too moift nor too dry, but about the confiftence Merhamim
of pap. Much depends on this laft circumftance. For, °f
if it is too dry, the emery will clog and flick, and in- Inftr^*)U
corporate in fuch a manner as to cut little or none at
all, unlefs here and there, where its body chances to
be broke ; and in thofe places it will fcratch and cut
the glafs irregularly : or if it is too much diluted, it
will, from the irregular reparation of its parts, cut in
fome places more than in others, as in the former cafe.
But Mr Huygens tells us, that this method of ufing
various forts of frefh emery is not good ; as in this
way, he finds by experience, that the beft glafles are
often fcratched. For this reafon, he advifes to take a
large quantity of emery of the firft or fecond fort, and
wmrk with it from firft to laft, taking away by little
and little every half hour, or quarter of an hour, more
and more of the emery with a wet fponge. By this
means he could bring the glafs extremely fmooth and
fine, fo that a candle or fafh window could be feeu
through it pretty well defined ; which is a mark of
its being fufficiently well ground for receiving the laft
polifli. But, if the glafs has not acquired this degree
of tranfparency, it is certain, fays Mr Huygens, that
too much emery remains ; and therefore it muft ftill be
diminiflied, and the operation continued. He found
common well-water moft proper in this operation of
grinding; and he took care to move the glafs in
circles, taking an inch beyond the centre of the tool,
and fomewhat beyond its outfide; and he found in a
glafs of 200 feet, whofe diameter was 8|r inches,
which he ground in a tool of 15 inches diameter,
that the figure of the tool in grinding would alter
confiderably, unlefs he carried the glafs round an inch
beyond the centre of the tool one way, and 3^ inches
beyond the fleirts of it another way; but if he carried it
no farther than a ftraw’s breadth beyond the fkirts of
the tool, and of confequence farther beyond the centre,
the glafs would always grind falfely, fo that he could
never afterwards bring the outfides of it to a true and
fine polifti.
When you firft begin to grind, and the emery be¬
gins to be fmooth, the glafs will flick a little to the
tool and run ttiff. Then frefh emery is to be added.
When it afterwards comes to be polifhed, it will,
if large, require a confiderable ftrength to move it;
but this inconvenience will happen lefs in grinding by
the pole than in grinding with the hand. For the
warmth of the hand makes the fubftance of the glafs
fwell; and not only increafes the flicking of the glafs,
but in fome meafure may fpoil the figure of it, as alfo
of the tool. When it is ground with the pole, it never
flicks very ftrongly, unlefs when you take the glafa
off from the tool, and keep it from it for fome time,
and then apply it to the tool again : and this in large
glaffes ; for by this means the glafs gets from the arr
a greater warmth than it had on the tool ; and being
again applied to the tool, its lower furface is fuddenly
contradied by the cold, and thus flicks to the tool.
Wherefore, fays Mr Huygens, you muft in that cafe-
wait till the glafs and the tool come to be of one tem¬
perature. The like effedt is obftrvable in grinding
when there is a fire in the room ; and hence we may
fee the great nicety requifite in grinding thefe large
glaffes, and the neceffity of attending even to the mi-
nuteft circumftances.
In--
56i4
'Mech^nilm
of
Optical
Initruments
Plate
CCXXVII.
% 6.
OPT
Inftead of emery, Father Cherubin prefcribes the
grit of a hard grind-ftone, well beaten into fine powder,
and fifted. The fame thing hath been done by com¬
mon white-fand wafhed clean, taking away by little
and little the grit as it became finer and finer. Nay,
glafles have been frequently polilhed off in this man¬
ner without the ufe of any other material whatever.
This method is called drying off on fond; becaufe, as
the matter grows finer and finer, they wet it lefs and
lefs, till for the laft quarter of an hour (the whole work
lafting nearly two hours) they only wet it by breath¬
ing upon it; and at the very laft, not at all. This me¬
thod, however, is now entirely difufed; for which Dr
Smith afiigns, as one reafon, the violent labour requi-
fite at the laft : another and better reafon, he fays,
may be, the great improbability of grinding or po¬
licing true by this method, by reafon of the uncer¬
tain and unequal force of the hand. But if this laft is
the reafon. Dr Smith is of opinion, that the method
might be reftored, and greatly improved by adding a
pole, and fpring to prefs down the pole, or fome ana¬
logous contrivance. And in all methods of grinding
hitherto invented, the artift muft allow time to bring
his glafs by grinding to the fmootheft and fineft fur-
face that he poffibly can, before he attempts to give
the laft polifti. For the fmoother you bring it in
grinding, the lefs labour you will have in policing;
in which confifts not only the greateft difficulty, but the
greateft danger of {polling all you have already done.^
In order to give the laft and fineft poliffi to glafles,
Mr Huygens dire&s us to proceed as follows. “ Ha¬
ving removed the little brafs plate from the glafs, take
a very thick flate, or rather a block of blue or giey
ftone ; let it be half an inch thick, and let it be ground
true and round at the ftone-cutter’s ; its diameter be¬
ing fomewhat fmaller than the diameter of your glafs,
leaving a hole quite tlfrough in the centre, of about an
inch diameter. Then make fome cement of two parts
rofin or hard pitch, and one part wax ; and taking a
piece of thick kerfey cloth, truly and equally wrought,
cut this cloth round, and leave a like hole one inch
diameter in the middle. Then warming the ftone and
alfo warming the glafs, and fpreading thinly and
equably upon them fome of this cement, lay on the
cloth, and thereupon lay alfo the glafs, having left
in the middle a fpace the breadth of a fhilling unce¬
mented and blacked with a candle. Then provide an
hollow conical plate of iron or fteel (fhaped like an
high-crowned hat) having the balis of the cone i inch
diameter, and having round the bafis a.flat border
about inches diameter, and having the depth or al¬
titude of the cone exaftly of the thicknefs pf the
flate, cloth, and cement, to which the glafs is fixed.
The vertex of this cone muft go down thro’ the flate
and cloth; fo that being cemented on the flate, thefaid
vertex may approach to the glafs within a hair’s
breadth, and lie perpendicularly over the centre of the
lower furface of the glafs: and this muft be adjufted
by the circular glafs defcribed above. Within the
vertex of this hollow cone, the lower point of the pole
is to be applied in polifhing ; but it may be firft pro¬
per to be obferved, that fifti-glue and a brafs plate,
in lieu and of the dimenfions of the aforefaid flate,
-may perhaps be better. Mr Huygens obferves alfo,
that the angle of the cone ffiould be 80 or 90 de-
I C S. Part m\
grees, and that the hollow vertex of it ffiould be folid Mechaniij
enough to receive a fmall impreffion from a round fteel °(
punch, to put the point of the pole into, which might inftrumet
otherwife have too much liberty, and flip from the—  1
vertex. The defign of the black fpot in the middle of
the glafs, is to difcover by the light of a candle J
obliquely refle&ed from your glafs, after it has been
poliffied fome time, whether it be perfectly clear, and
free from the appearance ofany bluifli colour like that
of allies.
Before the work of poliffiing is begun, it is proper !
to ftretch an even well wrought piece of linen over the
tool, dufting thereupon fome very fine tripoly. Then -|
taking the glafs in your hand, run it round 40 or 50 .
times thereupon; and this will chiefly take off. the
roughnefs of the glafs about the border of it, which |
otherwife might too much wear a^vay the lower parts
of the tool, in which the glafs is chiefly to obtain its
laft poliffi. This cloth is then to be removed, and the
glafs is to be begun to be polifhed upon the very na¬
ked tool itfelf. But firft there is to be prepared fome 1
very fine tripoly, and alfo fome blue vitriol, otherwife I
called cyprion, Englifli and Hungarian vitriol finely I
powdered : mix four parts of tripoly with one of vi« |
triol: 6 or 8 grains of this mixture (which is about
the quantity of two large peas) is fufficient for a glafs
5 inches broad. This compound powder muft be wet¬
ted with about 8 or 10 drops of clear vinegar in the
middle of the tool; and it muft be mixed and foften- !
ed throughly with a very fine fmall mullet. Then with
a cqarfe painting brufh, take great care to fpread it
thinly and equably upon the tool, or at leaft upon a
much larger fpace in the middle of it than the glafs |
{hall run over in the poliffiing. This coat muft be laid
on very thin, (but not too thin neither), otherwife it
will wafte away too much in the poliffiing, and the tool
will be apt to be furrowed thereby, and to have its fi¬
gure impaired; infomuch that fometimesa new daub¬
ing thereof muft be laid on, which it is not eafy to do I
fo equably as at firft. This daubing muft be perfefl-
ly dried by holding over it a hot clean frying-pan, or |
a thin pan of iron, with light charcoal therein for that
purpofe ; then leave all till the tool is perfe£Uy cold.
Then having fome other very fine tripoly very well
wafhed and ground with a mullet, and afterwards dried j
and finely powdered, take fome of the fame and ftrow
it thinly and equably on the tool fo prepared; then
take your coarfe glafs which lay by you, and fmooth j
all the faid tripoly very equably and finely: then
take your glafs to be polilhed, and wipe it thoroughly
dean from all cement, greafe, or other filth which may
ftick to it, with a clean cloth dipped in water, a little
tinged with tripoly and vitriol; then taking your |
glafs in your hand, apply it on the tool, and move it j
gently twice or thrice, in a ftraightline, backwards and
forwards; then take it off, and obferve whether the
marks of the tripoly, fticking to'the glafs, feem to be
equably fpread over the whole furface thereof; if not,
it is a fign that either the tool or the glafs is too warm;
then you muft wait a little and try again till you find
the glafs takes the tripoly every where alike. Then
you may begin boldly to poliffi, and there will be no
great danger of fpoiling the figure of the glafs; which
in the other cafe would infallibly happen. If the tool ,
be warmer than the glafs, it will touch the glafs hard¬
er
Part III.
Mechanifm er In the middle than towards its circumference ; be-
. caufe the upper furface of the tool being fwelled by
i infjruments hcst will become too flat. On the contrary, if the
.   glafs be warmer than the tool, it will bear harder to¬
wards its circumference than at the centre; bCcaufe the
inferior furface of the glafs is contra&ed by the cold-
nefs of the plate, more than the fuperion
Mr Huygens fays, that if the work of polifliing
were to be performed, by ftrength of hand only, it
would be a work of very great labour, and even could
not be performed in glafles of 5 or 6 feet focal di-
ftance : and he feems to think it abfolutely neceflary
that an extraordinary great force or preflure (houldbe
applied upon the glafs. For this purpofe he has there-
- fore contrived and defcribed two methods for fufficient-
f Seen0i8i.]yincreafing the pre(fure|. both of which chiefly con-
fift in applying the force of a ftrong fpring to prefs
H ig, down the centre of the glafs upon the polilher.
t Sir Ifaac This operation of polifliing, as it is one of the moft
I Newton's difficult and nice points of the whole, hath been very
i of varioufly attempted and defcribed by various authors.
3 |>« 1 ing. Newton, Pere Cherubin, Mr Huygens, and
the common glafs-grinders, have taken different me¬
thods in this matter. Sir Ifaac is the only perfon who
feems not to infill on the neceflity of a very violent and
ftrong prefiure. In the Englifh 8vo edition of his Op¬
tics, p, 95. he hath thefe words: “ An objecl-glafs
of a 14 foot telefcope, made by an artificer at London,
I once mended confiderably, by grinding it on pitch
with putty, and leaning very eafily on it in the grind¬
ing, left the putty fliould fcratch it. Whether this
may not do well enough for polifhing thefe refleding
glafles, I have not yet tried. But he that fhall try
either this or any other way of polifhing which he may
think better, may do well to make his glafles ready
for polifliing by grinding them without that violence
wherewith our London workmen prefs their glafles in
grinding : for-by fuch violent preffure, glaffes are apt
to bend a little in the grinding, and fuch bending will
certainly fpoil their figure.”
As to his own method of polifliing glafs, he no
where exprefsly deferibes it; but his method of polifli¬
ing refleding metals he doth ; and it was thus, in his
own words, p. 92. “ The polifh I ufed was in this
manner. I had two round copper plates each fix
inches in diameter, the one convex the other concave,
ground very true to one another. On the convex I
ground the objed-metal or concave, which was to be
polifhed, till it had taken the figure of the convex and
was ready for a polifh. Then I pitched over the con¬
vex very thinly, by dropping melted pitch upon it,
and warming it to keep the pitch foft, whilft I ground
it with the concave copper wetted to make it fpread
evenly all over the convex. Thus by working it well,
1 made it as thin as a groat; and after the convex was
cold I ground it again, to give it as true a figure as I
could. Then I took putty, which I had made very fine
by wafhing it from all its groffer particles; and laying
a little of this upon the pitch, I ground it upon the
pitch with the concave copper till it had done making
a noife ; and then upon the pitch I ground the obje6l-
metal with a brifk motion for about two or three mir
nutes of time, leaning hard upon it. Then I put frefh
putty upon the pitch, and ground it again till it had
done making a noife, and afterwards ground the ob-
jeS-metal upon it as before. And this work I re-
Vol. VIII. 2
5(>I5
peated till the metal was polimed, grinding it the laftMeehamt 1
time with all my ftrength for a good while together, and of
frequently breathing upon the pitch to,keep it moift> inftrum<n <
without laying on any more frefh putty. The objeft-  
metal was 2 inches broad, and about ^ of an inch thick to
keep it from bending. I had two of thefe metals, and
when I had polifhed them both, I tried which was bed,
and ground the other again to fee if I could make it bet¬
ter than that which I kept. And thus by many trials
I learned the way of polifliing, till I made thofe two
refledling perfpedives I fpoke of above. For this art
of polifhing will be better learned by repeated prac¬
tice than by my defeription. Before I ground the ob-
je£l-metalon the pitch, I always ground the putty on
it with the concave copper, till it had done making a
noife ; becaufe, if the particles of the putty were not by
this means made to flick fafl in the pitch, they would,
by rolling up and down, grate and fret the objeft-
metal, and fill it full of little holes. It feems not im¬
probable, that glafs mayalfo be poliflied, with proper
care, by the fame method.” 182
Pere Cherubin polifhes with tripoly or putty; or^erfChe-
firft with tripoly, and afterwards with pntty. * mer
what he feems moft to approve of is putty alone. He
polifties in the fame tool he grinds in, and deferibes
various ways of doing it. He preferibes to flretch very
tight a fine thin leather, fine Englifh fuflian, or fine
Holland, or any fine linen, or fine filk taffety or fa-
tin, all of an equable thicknefs, as near as may be,
upon the tool; then he daubs thinly on this furface,
thus flretched, a ftreak of putty wetted to the con-
fiflence of thick fyrup, about as broad as the glafs, or
a little more, paffing through the centre of the tool
diredlly from him ; then fmoothing the putty by run¬
ning his bruifer, and prefling it backwards and for¬
wards to him and from him, he at length lays on the
glafs cemented to its handle, and giving it always the
fame motion, flrongly prefisng to him and from him
along the flreak of putty, and by fuch preflure for¬
cing the furface of the filk, already fomewhat llretch-
ed, clofe to the furface of the tool, to which the fi¬
gure of the glafs was exaftly adapted, he fays that
he could by that means obtain an excellent fine polifli
on any of the abovementioned fubflances. Before
every flroke, he turned the glafs a little on its axis ;
and its handle was on this occafion confiderably hea¬
vier than ufual in grinding, which he commends as very
ufeful in this bufinefs; and if new putty was wanting,
he made no difficulty in laying it on as often as necef-
fary, always carefully fmoothing it thereon with the
bruifer before the glafs was applied. jgj
This method, according to Dr Smith, might be im- Dr Smith’s
proved by moving the glafs, not by hand, but byimProvc'
the pole and fpring, fomewhat after the manner of"1111115-
Huygens; efpecially if the pole were contrived not
to move loofe in a round brafs hole above, but on
a flrong point prefied down by fome fpring ; the
length of the pole being equal to the radius of the
tool, and the point where the fpring prefles the up¬
per end of the pole, being truly perpendicular over
the centre of the tool, and exa6lly in the centre of its
fphere. 184
Another method preferibed by Cherubin is as fol- Another
lows. He takes a fheet of very fine paper; and exa' cherubiny
mining it carefully by looking upon it, and thro’ it, c
he takes off with a fharp pen-knife all the little lumps,
31 S hard
OPTICS.
56.16 OPT
Mcehanifm haul parts, and raequalities, that he can find ; then
'°? he foaks it. in clean water; then he dries it between
J*ftturaenfs two ®ne ^nen cloths, tho’not fo much as to make it
... quite dry, but to leave it dampifli ; then, with fome
very thin (larch or pafte, he daubs equably all over the
furface of his tool as thin as poffible, but fome every
where ; then he lays on his paper very gently and
flowly, letting it touch and Hick firft at one fide, and
by degrees more and more towards the middle, and at
laft fo as to cover the whole. This is done flowly, in
order to let the air get out; then, with the palm of
his hand he prefles the centre, and every where round
about it towards the circumference, to make the pa¬
per flick every where ; and this he does three or four
times while it is drying, to get out all the air. He
lets it dry of itfelf, then revifes with his knife as be¬
fore : then he hath a very coarfe bruifer of glafs,
whofe circumference is fharply ground round, and at
right angles to its furface, which he had coarfely
ground before in the fame tool. With this, and with
a very heavy handle, he fmooths and poliflies and rubs
off all the remaining inequalities of the paper; and
when this is done, he lays on a ftreak of tripoly, and
polifhes as in his other method.
j>jate At CC rs reprefented a fquare beam of wood, a
CCXXVII. little longer than the diameter of the tool, and about
%• 7’ i-r inch thick : the two extremities of it at C and C
185 are bent downwards, and then are again dire&ed pa-
Mr Huy- rallel to the whole length, and ferve for handles for
chines7o~ ^ wor^man to lay'hold of. In the middle of this
foMfiog1 beam there is fixed an iron fpike, fo long, that when
the lower furfaces of the handles, C,C, are placed upon
a plane, the point of the fpike fhall juft touch the plane.
This point preffes upon the apex of the hollow cone,
which defcends through the hole in the flate, which, by
the interpofition of a cloth, was cemented to the glafs
B lying upon the tool A. To increafe this preffure,
a fort of bow, DED, is fhaped out of a deal-board,
half an inch thick, and five feet long, being feven
inches broad in the middle, and tapered narrower to¬
wards its extremities, fo as almoft to end in a (harp
point. The middle of the bow is fixed to the floor by
an iron ftaple at E driven crofs it; and is bent into an
arch by a rope FIIF; to which two other ropes are
tied at I and I ; the interval II being equal to the
length of the beam CC. One of thefe ropes ICCG
goes over the back of the beam CC, palling through
a hole in each handle at C and C, and then is lapped
round a cylindrical peg at G, that pafles through two
wooden chaps, to the bottom of which the other rope
is tied that comes from the other I. So that, by
turning the peg G, to lap the rope about it, the bow
DD may be bent as much as you pleafe. The tool A
is placed upon a ftrong fquare board fixed to the table
O on one fide, and fupported on the other fide by
the poft P. Then the workman fits down, and taking
hold of the handles CC, he draws the glafs to him
and from him over the tool A, with a moderate mo¬
tion ; and after every 20 or 24 ftrokes, he turns the
glafs a little about its axis. This way of policing took
up two or three hours, and was very laborious as well
as tedious; becaufe the gtafs, being fo much prtfled
downwards, was moved very flowly.
j-lg. g, Inftead of the bow DD, Mr Huygens afterwards in¬
vented another fpring by Hoping the flat ends of a couple
I C S. Tart III.!!
of dealboards * « y> and by nailing the flat Hopes to- Mechanifi^ |t
gether very firmly, that the boards might make an acute |
angle One of thefe boards fo joined was laid up- L
on the floor under the polifliing table, the endsbe- -j p
ing under the middle of the tool A.. So that they lay
quite out of the way of the workman, who before was
a little incommoded by the ends of the bow DD.
The boards at the end « were 8 or to inches broad^
and from thence went tapering almoft to a point at fi
and 7. The board lying upon the floor, the end
p, of the upper board, was pulled downwards by a
rope 0 f £ that paffed under a pulley *, fixed to the
floor, and then was lapped round a ftrong peg £ that
turned (tiffin a hole in the floor. Under the end y the
middle of a ftrong (tick fy* was fixed at right angles
to the board «y, and cords were tied to each end of
this (lick at which went over the polifliing beam
C, C, as in the former machine. This (tick was lift¬
ed up but very little from the floor at the time of po¬
lishing ; and* by confequence the ropes J C, ^ C were
long enough to give liberty of motion to the polifliing
beam CC. Two iron pins 8, «, pafling through the
ends of the boards at «, were ferewed into the floor;
but the heads of the pins flood up above the boards,
to give them liberty to rife up when the rope P * £ was
ftretched.
To facilitate the labour of moving the glafs back- Fig. 1.
wards and forwards in the tool, Dr Smith made the
following addition to the machine. At M is repre¬
fented a ftrong hand made of wood or iron, having a
fquare cavity cut through the bottom of it, for the
poliftiing beam CC to pafs through, not tight, but at
fome liberty. To one fide of this hand M is annexed
a long board LL, by means of an iron bolt. The
breadth of the lower furface of this board LL is equal
to the breadth of the hand M, being 2i inches; its
thicknefs is half an inch, and its length equal to three
femidiameters of the tool. The board LL muft be
drawn backwards and forwards lengthwife over a block
H firmly fixed to a table O ; the thicknefs of the
block being fucb, that the board LL may lie an
inch higher than the furface of the tool A. The
wooden hooks at n, and the pins at S, keep the mo¬
tion of the board in the fame direflion, by hindering
it from flipping either upwards or Tideways. Over this
board, at right angles to it, and over the middle of
the block H, there lies a wooden roller, having a
ftrong iron axis which turns in the holes of two iron
plates fixed to the ends of the block. The thicknefs
of the roller is about an inch and an half. Thro’ two
holes bored thro’ this roller, and made wider at one
end of them, two ftrong cords are made to pafs with
knots at one end of them, to be drawn into the wider
parts of the holes, that they may neither flip through,
nor ftand out from the roller. Then each cord is lap¬
ped round the cylinder feveral times ; and one end of
each is pegged firmly into the board LL at the end
towards M, and the other ends of them are lapped
round a peg at N ; which being turned round, will
ftretch the cords as much as you pleafe. At one end
of the axis of this roller there is a handle Q^which be¬
ing turned round backwards and forwards alternately,
the board LL with the glafs annexed to it is moved
to and fro, fo far, that about a third part of its dia¬
meter flioots both ways over the margin of the tool.
The.
I Part III. OPT
Mechanifm The fplke m the middle of the beam CC preflea the
| 0 °f j glafsa little obliquely, becaufe the hand M holds the
1 Inftriiments^earn not ^ut fonaewhat loofcly, to the end
I— -that the glafs may pafs over the tool without trem¬
bling. Neverthelefs this inclination of the fpike mull
be very fmali; and may eafily be increafed or dimi-
nifhed feveral ways. Two pins or flops muft be fixed
to the under furface of the board LL, to determine
the length of the ftroke. The tool A, or rather the
ftone to which it is cemented, is fqueezed faft between
the block H, and a ftrong flop on the oppofite fide of
the flone, by the interpofition of a wedge. The work¬
man fits upon a round ftool; and, when one hand is
tired with turning the roller, he applies the other;
and therefore is not fo foon tired as with the other
machine, which required both hands, and alfo a reci¬
procating motion of the whole body. A longer handle
Qjc wa's alfo made, which turned at both ends, for the
convenience of ufing both hands at once.
After every 20 or 24 ftrokes, it is neceflary to give,
the glafs a fmali turn about its axis; which is eafily
done by laying hold of the flate fixed to it, with one
hand, while the other hand goes on with the policing
motion. The tool muft alfo be moved a little after
every 25 or 50 ftrokes, by drawing it half a ftraw’s-
breadth towards that part of it which the glafs has
left, and by drawing it back again after as many
more ftrokes. At the beginning of the work the tri¬
poly will be gathered into little lumps in fome places of
the tool, but will be difperfed again in a little time; and
then the area of the tool will become perfectly fmooth.
If the tripoly does not appear to flick equally to the
glafs in all parts, and to be diffufed over it in {lender
ftraight ftreaks, the frying-pan with coals in it muft
be held over the tool again, till you perceive the area,
or coat of tripoly is not quite fo cold as the other
parts of the tool. Then let tripoly be rubbed upon the
tool again, and let the glafs be prefled over it with
your hand, to try whether it flicks equally to the glafs
in every place. When it does, you may proceed in
the work of polifhing. But when vitriol is ufed inftead
of verdigreafe, all that is faid about warming the tool
may be omitted ; becaufe thefe coats always touch the
glafs as they ftiould do, and ftick better than before.
The tool ought alfo, without being warmed, to be
rubbed with tripoly over the coat, that the latter may
be preferred more entire, and that the glafs may
touch it better, which muft always be repeated after
200 or 400 ftrokes in poliftiing. The glafs fhould al¬
fo be taken from the tool after 200 ftrokes, by with¬
drawing the boh L, which connedfs the hand M to
the board LL, and by removing the beam CC.
Then rub your finger upon the glafs, or a clean rag,
or a bit of leather, to examine how much it is po-
i$<s liflted.
Method of To fave the trouble of counting the ftrokes, there
theftiokes ls 3 wooden wheel A X> feven or ei‘ght illche8 broad,
Ufed in po- againft a board fixed to the fide of a wall. It
lifting. turns eafily about an axis, and has 24 teeth, like thofe
of a faw, which are pufhed round by a bended wire
TYX in the following manner. The wire turns about
a centre Y ; and while one end of it is polled by the
firing TV tied to the end of the board LL, the op¬
pofite end YX pufhes back a long fpring RS, fixed to
the board at R ; which, by preffing upon the wire at
ICS. 5617
S, caufes the part YX to bend a little* and fo the Mecbanifnv
point X, in returning to the wheel (the firing being °( .
relaxed) falls a little lower into the next tooth, arid jn4^ments
pufhes it forward in thepofition reprefented in the fi  
gure. There is a fpringing catch at A, vvhich flays
the wheel after every ftroke at X. Laftly, there is a
pin fixed in the circumference of the wheel at Z, which,
by preffing the tail of a hammer, and letting it go
again, caufes a bell to found after every revolution of
the wheel, and gives notice that the glafs muft be
turned a little about its centre. It is eafy to under-
ftand, that another piece of wheel-work, having three
or four indexes, whofe revolutions are in decimal pro-
greffion, may be fixed to the block H, and impelled
by the ftrokes of the board LL; by which means,
without any trouble of counting, one may be informed
how many ftrokes go to polifh a glafs. A glafs five
or fix inches broad requires about 3000 ftrokes upon
each furface to bring it to perfeftion. You muft care¬
fully examine the middle of the glafs oppofite to the
blacking, whether any place appears darkifh or of an
afh-colour; or whether any fmali fpots appears by an
oblique refleftion of the light of a candle, or of a
fmali beam of light let into a dark room; for the other
parts of the glafs will appear perfeftly fine much foon-
er than the middle.
After the glafs has been fufficiently polilhed, let the
ftone, the cloth, and the cement, be warmed over a pan
of charcoal, till the cement grows fo foft that the glafs
may be feparated from it by a fide-motion. Then,,
whatever cement remains upon the glafs muft be wiped
off with a hot cloth dipped in oil or tallow, and laft of
all with cleaner cloths. Then if it does not appear
perfectly poliftied, (for we are often deceived in this
point), the work muft be repeated again, by glueing
the glafs to the flate as before; then it muft be wiped
very clean, and made a little rough, as we faid before.
We muft alfo lay a new fund, or coat, upon the tool,
if the old one be fpoiled ; provided no other glafs has
been poliffied in the tool in the mean time. The old
fund may be waftied off from the tool with a little vi¬
negar. Laftly, take care always to choofe the thick-
eft and cleareft pieces of glafs, to avoid a great many
difficulties that arife from the unequal preffure in po-
lilhing.
§ 3. To Centre an Objett-glafs.
A circular objeft-glafs is faid to be truely centered
when the centre of its circumference is fituated in the
axis of the glafs, and to be ill centered when the
centre of the circumference lies befide the axis. Thus,
let d be the centre of the circumference of an objedl- Plate
glafs ab c; and fuppofe e to be the point where its CCXXVIll
axis cuts its upper furface. If the points </and e dofi2* J*
not coincide, the glafs is ill centered. Let afghe the
greateft circle that can be described about the centre
e; and by grinding away all the margin without this
circle, the glafs will become truely centered. The
beft method for finding the centre e which lies in
the axis of the glafs, according to Dr Smith, is as
follows. 187
Let a couple of fhort cylindrical tubes be turned in
wood or bra(s, and let the convexity of the narrower a g]afs ;s
be fo fitted to the concavity Of the wider as juft to turn ill-centered,
round in it with cafe, but without waddling ; and letpjg 3;>
5618 OPT
Ulechanifm the planes of the bafesof the tubes be exa&ly perpen-
°? dicular to their fides. Place the bafe of the narrower
hftrumentstub€ uPon a fmooth brafs P,ate or a wooden board of
  an equal thicknefs; and with any (harp-pointed tool
defcribe a true circle upon the board round the out¬
ward circumference of the bafe ; and upon the centre
of this circle, to be found when the tube is removed,
defcribe a larger circle upon the board. Thefe two
circles (hould be fo proportioned, that the one may be
fomewhat greater, and the other fomewhat fmaller,
than any of the glaffes intended to be centered by
them. Then, having cleared out all the wood within
the inner circle, put the end of the tube into this hole,
and there fallen it with glue, fo that the bafe of the
tube may lie in the furface of the board : then, having
fixed the wider tube very firmly in a hole made in a
window-(hutter, and having darkened the room, lay the
glafs to be centered upon the board fixed to the narrower
tube; and havingplaced the centre of it as nearly as you
can guefs ever the centre of the hole, fix it to the board
with two or three lumps of pitch, or foft cement, placed
at its circumference. Then put the narrower tube in¬
to the wider as far as it can go, and fix up a fmooth
fereen of white paper to receive the pi&uresof objedls
that lie before the window; and when they appear di-
ftinft upon the fereen, turn the inner tube round upon
its axis; and if the centre of the glafs happens to be
in this axis, the pi&ure will be perfe&ly at reft upon
the fereen ; if not, every point of it will defcribe a
circle. With a pencil mark the higheft and loweft
places of any one circle, deferibed by Tome remarkable
point in that part of the pifture which appears moft
diftinft; and when this point of the pi&ure is brought
jgg to the higheft mark, flop the circular motion of the
How to tul>e> and keeping it in that pofition deprefs the
coned the objeft-glafs till the point aforefaid falls exadtly in the
errors. middle between the two marks. Then turn the tube
round again, and the point of the pifture will either
reft there, or will defcribe a much fmaller circle than
before; which muft be reduced to a quiefeent point by
repeating the fame operation. The centre of refrac¬
tion of the glafs will then lie in the axis of the tube,
and by confequence will be equidiftant from the cir¬
cumference of the large circle deferibed upon the board
fixed to it. Now to defcribe a circle upon the glafs
fgh about its centre of refraftion, let a long flender
plate of brafs acb hz bent fquare at each end, as re-
prefented in the figure, leaving a piece in the middle
equal in length to the diameter of the large circle adbe
that was deferibed upon the board; and let the fquare
ends of the plate be filed away, fo that a little round pin
may be left in the middle of each. Then, having laid
it over the glafs, along any diameter of the large circle
adbe, make two holes in the board to receive the
pins a and b; and find the centre of this circle upon
the long plate. Then upon the centre c, defcribe a
circle as large as you can, upon the glafs underneath,
with a diamond-pointed compafs, and grind away all
the margin as far as this circle/V^, in a deep tool for
grinding eye-glaffes; and then the glafs will be truly
centered. If the pitch or cement be top foft to keep
the glafs from flipping, while the circle is deferibing,
it may be fixed firmer with wax or harder cement.
Pla’e ^ Fig. 3. reprefents a feftion of the objedt-glafs
ccxxyih. ^ 0f t},e kggni a ^ aiid of th<; tubes ed aad
I C S. Part III. 3
hi, and of the window-fhutter no. Imagine the plane Mechanifh^i
of this fe&ion, or of the fcheme, to pafs through e, a °f | j
point in the glafs which keeps its place while the reft inftfumend v
are turning round it by the motion of the tube. Let   [■
it alfo pafs through / the centre of refraction in the
glafs, and cut an objeft in the line PQR; then let a
pencil of rays flowing from any point Q_be colle&ed
to the focus q upon the fereen ST; and the points
QJ,q, will be in a ftraight line deferibed by the axis,
or principal ray of the pencil. Draw Q^, e,f, cutting
the fereen in f; and while the tube is turning round,
the line Q_/y will defcribe a conical furface whofe axis
is the fixed line Q tf/7 and therefore the focus q, or
image of the point will defertbe a circle qg x about
f, to be found upon the fereen by bifefting the inter¬
val q n between the higheft and loweft points of the
circle. Now, as f is the centre of this circle, fo e is
the centre of another circle deferibed by l: therefore
by depreffing the glafs ^/along the furface of the board
ab, till the image q falls upon the mark f, the point /
will he depreffed to e the centre of motion; and then
it will be in the axis of the tube, and confequently
equidiftant from the circumference of the circle deferi¬
bed on the board ab; and here it is plain that the
image q will be at reft in the point f. It is not. ne-
ceffary for the accuracy of the praftice, that the point
QJhould be in the axis of the glafs. For in fig. 7.
(Plate CCXXII.) if the glafs KLM be turned about
its axis OLy, the image p of any collateral point P
will remain at reft; becaufe the points PL are at
reft, and the axis PL/> of the oblique pencil is a
ftraight line. > l8p
The chief advantage of having a glafs well centered Advantage®;
is this, that the rays coming through any given hole,of a wel1 j
whofe centre coincides with the axis of the glafs, willc<jn“re<*
form a diftin&er image than if that centre lay befide^a * ;
the axis; becaufe the aberrations of the rays from the
geometrical focus of the pencil, are as the diftances of
their points of incidence from the centre of refractions
in the glafs.
If the picture be received upon the unpoliftied fide
of a piece of plane glafs, inftead of the paper ST, its
motion may be difeerned more accurately by viewing
it from behind through a convex eye-glafs; as in a te-
lefcope where crofs hairs are ufually (trained over a
hole put into-the place of the rough glafs. There¬
fore as objeft-glaffes are commonly included in cells
thatferew upon the end of the tube, one may examine
whether they be pretty well centered, by fixing the
tube, and by obferving, while the cell is unferewed,
whether the hairs keep fixed upon the fame lines of
an object feen through the telefcope.
§ 4. Of the Compofition of the Metals for the Specula
of Refelling Telefcopes.
The properties required in the metal for the fpecu-
lum of a refle&ing telefcope are, whitenefs, hardnefs,
and immunity from ruft, or at lead that it may be as
little liable totarnifh as poffible. Various compofitions
have been recommended; but the beft is that publifh-
ed by Mr Mudge in the Phil. Tranf. for 1777. His *50
metal is a compofition of copper and tin, in the pro- . e>s
portion of two pounds of the former to ounces ofcomp0jj. ■
the latter. If the proportion of tin was increafed only non for
by a Angle half ounce, Uto metal became fo hard thatcula- .
Partlll. OPT
b .;;ech«ifni it could not be polifhed. Neverthelefs he tells us, that
H °f one Mr Jackfon, a mathematical inftrument-maker,
ilftraments0^e<^ t^ie tin in as ^arSe 8 proportion as one third of
[I the whole. This indeed gives the metal its utmoft
i whitenefs, but at the fame time renders it fo exceed¬
ingly hard, that the fined waihed emery will not cut
it without breaking up its furface; and the common
blue dones ufed in grinding fpecula will not touch it.
With great pains, however, Mr Jackfon found a done
which would work upon this metal, and was at the
fame time of a texture fufficiently fine not to injure its
furface; but what this done was, or where it was to
be found, he would not difcover.
Another very effential property in the metal for
fpecula is its compaftnefs; and in this every one of
thofe formerly tried was deficient; neither was Mr
Mudge able to remove this defeft till after a great
many experiments. Sometimes, indeed, he fays that
he fucceeded in cading a fingle metal, or perhaps two
Iw or three, without this imperfedion; but mod frequently
he was unfuccefsful, without his being in any degree able
to aflign a reafon. The pores were fo very fmall, that
they were not perceptible when the metal had recei¬
ved a good face and figure upon the hones, nor till
the lad and highed polilh had been given: then it fre¬
quently appeared as if duded over with millions of mi-
crofcopic pores, which were exceedingly prejudicial in
two refpedts; for, fird, they became in time a lodge¬
ment for a moidure which tarnifhed the furface; and,
fecondly, on polilhing the fpeculum, the putty necef-
farily rounded off the edges of the pores, in fuch a
manner as to fpoil a great part of the metal, by the
lofs of as much light and fharpnefs in the image as
there were defe&ive points of refleftion in the metal;
and, to add to the misfortune, this fault was not dif-
covered till a great deal of pains had been taken in
grinding, and even polifhing the fpeculum ; which
was at once rendered ufekfs by this mortifying dif-
covery.
At lad Mr Mutlge was extricated from thefe diffi¬
culties by accident. Having made a great number of
experiments, and entirely exhauded his copper, he re-
collefted that he had fome metal which was preferved
out of curiofity, and was part of one of the bells of
St Andrew’s which had been recad. This he melted
with a little freih tin, and, contrary to his expecta¬
tion, it turned out perfedly free from pores, and in
every refpeft as fine a metal as could be defired. At
fird he could not account for this fuccefs, but after¬
wards difcovered it by reflecting on the circumdances
of his procefs. He had always melted the copper fird,
and, when it was fufficicntly fufed, he added the pro¬
portional quantity of tin ; and as foon as the two were
mixed, and the fcoria taken off, the metal was poured
into the moulds. He now began to confider that putty
was calcined tin, and fufpeCted that the exceffive
heat which copper neceffarily tindergoes before fufion,
was fufficient to reduce part of the tin to this date of
calcination, which therefore might fly off from the
compofition in the ftate of putty, at the 'ime the me¬
tal was poured out. On this idea he furniftied him-
felf with fome more Swedilh copper and grain-tin.
The former he melted as ufual, and mixed the tin a-
long with it, cafling the nrtixture into an ingot. This
was porous, as he had expeCkd; but after a fecond
i c s. ^6I9
fufion, it became perfe&ly clofe; nor, after this, did Mechanifm
he ever meet with the above-mentioned imperfedion °.f
in a fingle inftance. All that is neceffary to be done, jnftrPv^e,us
therefore, in order to procure a metal with the requi  —-
fite properties for a fpeculum, is to melt the copper
and tin in the above-mentioned proportions ; then,
having taken off the fcoria, cad it into an ingot. This
metal mud be a fecond time melted to cad the fpecu¬
lum; but as it will fufe with a fmall heat in this com¬
pound date, it ffiould be poured off as foon as melted,
giving it no more heat than is abfolutely neceffary.
It mud be obferved, however, that the fame metal, by
frequent melting, lofes fotnething of its hardnefs and
whitenefs; when this is this cafe, it becomes neceffary
to enrich that metal by the addition of a little tin,
perhaps of half an ounce to a pound. And indeed,
when the metal is firft made, if, indead of adding the
144- ounces of tin to the copper all at once, about an
ounce of the former is referved, and added to it in the
fecond melting, the compofition will be more beauti¬
ful, and the grain much finer. That the metal may
have a good furface, it is neceffary, before it is poured
off, to throw into the crucible a fpoonful of charcoal-
dud; immediately after which the metal mud be dir-
red with a wooden fpatula, and poured into the moulds-
§5’ Of preparing the Moulds} Grinding., Cajling, and
Polijhing, the Metal.
For this purpofe Dr Smith preferibes the following
method. “ Having in the fird place confidered of
what length one would propofe the inftrument to be,methodof
and confequently what diameter it will be neceffary to making the
give to the large fpeculum, for which there are ample 8aUSes-
indruftions by Sir Ifaac Newton’s table in the Philo-
fophical Tranfadlions aforefaid, allowing about an inch
more than the aperture in the table for the falfe figure
of the edges, which very often happens; I fay, having
determined thefe things, take a long pole of fir deal,
or any wood, of a little more than double the length
of the indrument intended, and drike through each
end of it two fmall deel points, and by one of them
hang up the fame againd a wall perpendicularly ; then
take two pieces of thin plate-brafs well hammered, a
little thicker than a fixpence; thefe may be about an
inch and a half broad, and let their length be in re-
fpe& of the diameter of the fpeculum as 3 to 2, viz.
if the fpeculum be 8 inches diameter, thefe may be
about 12. Fix each of thefe drongly with rivets be¬
tween two thin bits of wainfeot, fo that a little more
than a quarter of an inch in the breadth may dand
out from between the boards. Then fix up thefe pieces
horizontally againd the wall under your pole ; and
therewith, as with a beam compafs, drike an arch up¬
on each of them: then file each of them with a fmooth
file to the arch druck, fo as one may bg a convex and the
other a concave arch of the fame circle. Thefe braffes
are the gauges to keep the fpeculum, and the tools on
which it is ground, always to the fame fphere. And
that they may be therefore perfedlh true to each o-
ther, it is neceffary to grind them with fine emery one
againft the other, laying them on a flat table for that
purpofe, and fixing one of them to the table. 0f n
“ When .he gauges are perfedly true_, let a piece the
of wood be turned about 2 tenths of an inch broaderfor the fpe-
than the intended fpeculum, and fomewhat thicker, colam.
which
5620 OPT
Mechanifm which it is bell to cad in no cafe lefs than a tenths of
°( , an inch thick, and for fpecula of 6, 8, or jo inches
Inftrumentsbroad, this fhould be at lead 3 or 4 tenths thick when
—  finilhed. This board being turned, take fome com¬
mon pewter, and mix with it about of regulus of
antimony; and with that wooden pattern caft one of
this pewter, which will be confiderably harder than
common pewter. Let this pewter pattern be truly
turned in a lathe, and examined by means of the gauges
aforefaid, as a pattern for cafting the fpecula them-
felves; and take care when it is turned that it be at
lead -j1^ of an inch thicker, and about of an inch
broader, than the fpeculum intended to be cad there¬
from.
“ The manner of making the moulds for cading is
now to be explained; and will ferve for a direction as
well for cading this pewter pattern, as aftewards for
cafting thereby the fpeculum itfelf. The flafles had
bed be of iron, and mud be at lead two inches wider
every way than the fpeculum intended. In each flaik
there fltould be the thicknefs at lead of one inch of
fand. The cafting-fand which the common founders
ufe from Highgate, will do as well as any; and any
fand will do which is mixed with a fmall proportion
of clay to make it dick. The fand thould be as little
wet as may be, and well beaten but not too hard.
The ingates ihould be cut fo as to let the metal flow
in, in four or five dreams, over the whole upper part of
the mould ; otherwife whatever pores happen in the
metal will not be fo equally difperfed as they fltould
be over the whole face of the metal, thefe pores ge¬
nerally falling near the ingate dreams. Let the flafles
dry in the fun for fome hours, or near a very gentle
fire; otherwife they will warp, and give the fpeculum,
when cad, a wrong figure. For befides faving the
trouble in grinding, it is bed on many accounts to
have the fpeculum cad of a true figure; and it is for
this reafon, that it is bed to caft it from a hard pewter
pattern, and not from a wooden one as founders ufu-
ally cad.”
With regard to the proper metal, opticians have
been greatly at a lofs, till of late that Mr Mudge has
difeovered a compofition which anfwers every purpofe
I93 as well as can be expetded, and of which an account
Dr Smith’s hath been already given. “ The metal being duely
method of cad, the furface of it is to be ground quite bright upon
rough- a cornmon grindftone ; keeping it, by means of your
fheVpecu- convex g£USe> as near t^ie figure as may be. When
lum. afi the outward furface and fand-holes, falfe parts, and
inequalities, are ground off, then provide a good thick
done; a common fmall grindftone will do very well.
Let its diameter be to the diameter of the fpeculum
as 6 to y : with another coarfe done and fharp fand
or coarfe emery rub this done till it fits the concave
gauge ; and then with water and coarfe emery at firft,
and afterwards with finer, rub your fpeculum upon
this done until it forms itfelf into a true portion of a
fphere fitting your convex gauge. A different method
of moving the metal upon the done will incline it to
form itfelf fomewhat of a fmalleror larger fphere. If
it be ftruck round and round, after the manner of
glafs-grinders, the done will wear off at the outfides,
and the metal will form itfelf into the portion of a lefs
fphere. If it be ftruck crofs and crofs the middle, it
will flat the done, and become fomewhat of a larger
I C S. Part II
fphere. There (hould be ufed but very little emery Meehai
at a time, and it ought to be frequently changed ;
otherwife the metal will always be of a fmaller fphere
than the done, and will hardly take a true figure, efpe-
cially at the outfide. For the better grinding the me¬
tal, it is neceffary, that this ftone (hould be placed firm
upon a ftrong round board fixed firmly on a pod to the
floor, as is ufual with glafs-grinders; and the fame
table or pillar will ferve for the further grinding and
polilhing the fpeculum.
“ When the metal is caft and rough-figured, which
(hould be done with taking off as little of the fur¬
face of the metal as pofiible, (becaufe that cruft feems
generally to be harder and more folid than the inner
parts) the fides and back of it (hould be fmoothed
and finiftied ; left the doing that afterwards (hould
make the metal caft, and fpoil the figure of the fore-
fide.
“ Around brafs plate mud becadoffufficientbreadthinftrumi
and thicknefs (for a fpeculum of fix inches in diameter requifite*
Mr Hadley ufed a brafs plate 8 or 9 inches
and half an inch thick.) Let one fide be turned to the
concavity you defign your fpeculum to have, on the
other fide let it have fuch an handle faftened as may
make it eafily manageable. This handle (hould be as
(hort as conveniently it can, and be fixed to the plate’s
back rather by fome other method than either by ferew-
ing it into a hole in the metal, or by a broad (boulder
ferewed againft the back of it, for fear of bending the
plate. Have ready a round marble of about or Tr^
broader than the brafs plate, and an inch or an inch j
and a quarter thick: let this be cut by a done-cutter
to the fame convexity on one fide as the concavity
of the plate, and then grind it with the plate and
emery till all the marks of the chifel are out. This
marble is to be covered with pieces of the fined blue
hone or whetftone, choofing thofe that are neared of
a breadth and thicknefs ; but chiefly thofe that when
wetted appear mod even and uniform in their colour
and grain. They are to bp cut into fquare bits; and
thefe, having each one fide ground concave on the con¬
vex marble with emery or fine fand, are to be fixed Plate
clofe down on it with fome tough and ftrong cement CCXXV1
in the manner of a pavement, leaving a fpace of a^S-s*
fmall draw’s breadth between each ; their grain be¬
ing likewife placed in an alternate dire&ion, as repre-
fented in the figure. I choofe rather to difperfe the
fquares that come out of the fame whetftone, than
to keep them together. They mud then be reduced
to one common convex furface to fit the brafs plate.;
and if the cement happen to rife any where between
them, fo as to come up even with the furface, it mud
be dug out; and fo, from time to time, as often as
the hones wear down to it. Upon thefe fquare pieces
of whetftone the lad figure is to be given to the fpe¬
culum.
“ Befides thefe, there will be wanted for the lad po-
lifli, either a very thick round gla|s plate, (its diameter
being about the middle fize between that of the brafs
tool and the fpeculum itfelf,) or if that cannot be pro¬
cured of near half an inch in thicknefs, a piece of
true black marble of the evened grain and freed from
white veins or threads, may do in its dead. This
glafs or marble muft be figured on one fide to the brafs
tool likewife, and is to ferve for iiniftiing of the poli(h
of
Partlll. OPT
Mtrhanifm of tlie fpeculum, when covered with farctnet as fliall
1be dire died.
'Indrumen's “ ^ f««aller brafs or metal plate of the fame conca-
  vity with the larger will be ufeful, as well to help to
reduce the figure of the hones whenever it appears to
be too convex, as to ferve for-a bruifer to rub down
any gritty matter happening to be amongft your put¬
ty before you put the fpeculutn on the polilher, when
you renew the powder. Any of the fpeculums which
prove bad in calling, will ferve for this purpofe.
When all is thus far ready, let the marble with
the blue hones be fixed in fuch a manner that it may
be often wallied during your work, by throwing up¬
on it about half a quarter of a pint of water at a time
without inconvenience. Then place the brafs tool on
the hone pavement; and rub it backwards and for¬
wards with almoft a diredt motion; yet carrying it by
turns a little to the right and left, fo as to go a little
over the edges of the pavement every way, regularly
turning the tool on its own axis, and alfochatlging the
diredtion of the ftroke oh the hones. This continue,
keeping them alw'ays very wet, till you have got out all
the rings remaining in the plate from the turning, and
the blacknefs from grinding the marble or glafs in it;
and, towards the latter end, often wafhing away the
mud which comes from the whetftones. When this is
done, lay the brafs tool down, and in it grind again
with fine emery the glafs or marble defigned for the
Jaft polilher, giving it as true a figure as poffible.
“ Choofe a piece of fine farcenet as free from rows
and great threads as you can. Let it be three or four
inches broader than the glafs or marble; and turn
down the edges of the farcenet round the fides of the
glafs, &c. Strain it by lacing it on the backfide as
tight and fmooth as you can, having firft cleared it of
all wrinkles and folds with a fmooth iron, and drawn
out the knots and gouty threads. Then wet it all over
as evenly as you can with a pretty ftrong foliation of
common pitch in fpirit of wine; and when the fpirit
is dried out, repeat the fame ; and if any bubbles or
blifters appear under the farcenet, endeavour to let
them out with the point.of a needle. This mull be
repeated till the filkis not only ftuck every where firm¬
ly down to the glafs or marble, but is quite filled with
the pitch. A large painter’s pencil, made of fquir-
rel’s hair, is of ufe for fpreading this varnilh equally
on the li!k, efpeeially when it begins to be full. It
mud then be fet by for fome days, for the fpirit to dry
well out of it, and the pitch to harden, before any
thing more be done to it. If you do not care to wait
fo long, the pitch may be melted into the filk without
dilfolving it in fpirits. In order to this, drain a fe-
cond thin filk over the fird, but you need not be cu¬
rious in the choice of it; and having heated all together
as hot as you think the filk or glafs will fafely bear,
pour on it a little melted pitch (fird drained through
a rag) fo much as you judge fufficient to fill both
filks; it mud be kept hot for fome time till the pitch
feems to have fpread itfelf evenly all over. If you
cannot get it to fink all into the upper filk, but it
Hands above it any where, it is a lign that there was
too much pitch laid on, which Ihould be taken away
in thofe places while it remains liquid, with a hot rag
preffed down on it. When all is cold again, drip off
the outward filk, and cut away the ufekfs loofe edges
ICS. 562 r
of the inward. To take off the fuperflous pitch where Mechanifm
it lies too thick, and reduce the whole to a regular °(
furface, it mud be rubbed in the brafs tool with alittle
foap and water, till they are coloured of a pretty deep 
brown with the pitch ; then wafh them away, and re¬
peat the fame with more foap and water, till the wea¬
ving of the filk appears every where as equally as you
can make it. As this work takes up fome time, you
may expedite it by putting a few drops of fpirit of
wine to the foap and water (which will help them to
diffolve and wear away the pitch fomewhat fader till it
comes towards a conclufion ; and'if there are any
places where the pitch lies very thick, you may ferape
it away with a fharp knife.
This polilher mud be carefully kept from all dud
and grit, but particularly from emery and filings of
hard metals, and therefore (hould not be ufed in the
place where the others come. After they have ferved
a good while, they are more apt to fleek the metals
than at fird ; to prevent which, their furfaces may be
taken off by rubbing them wish foap and water in the
tool as before, and then driking- them over once or
twice with the abovementioned folution of pitch with
a pencil, proceeding as before ; only that you mud not
now put any fpirit to your foap and water, nor will you-
need to change them above once or twice.
“ You may now begin to give the figure to your
fpeculum on the hones, rubbing it and the brafs tool
on them by turns, till both are all over equally bright;
having fird fixed on to the middle of the back of your
fpeculum a fmall and lowhandle, with only pitch drain¬
ed through a rag. For of all cements, that feems the
lead apt to bend the metals in dicking thefe handles,
&c. on them. rpf
“ The polilher being fixed likewife in a proper man- Method off
ner for your work, rub either the metal itfelf, or ra-giving the
ther the before-mentioned bruifer, being fird alfo fi-PoliJh-
gured on the hones, with a little putty, wafhed very
fine, and fair water, till it begins to fhew fome polilh.
Then if you find it takes the polilh unequally, that is,,
more or lefs about the edges than in the middle, it is
a fign the brafs tool and metal, &c. are more or lefs
concave than to anfwer the convexity of the polilher
and mud be reduced to the curvature of this, rather
than to attempt an alteration in the figure of the po¬
lilher, which would be a much more difficult as well
as laborious work. If the fpeculum appears too fiat,
the larger brafs tool mud be worked on the hones for
fome time, keeping its centre near their circumference,
with a circular motion; but concluding for four or five
minutes with fuch a motion as was before deferibed,.
Then figure the metal anew on the hones, and try it
again on the polilher as before. If the metal be too
concave, the furface of the hones may be flatted by
rubbing the fmaller brafs plate, or the before-mention¬
ed ill-cad metal, on the middle of them; with a diredi
but ihort droke, fo as but jud to reach over their cir¬
cumference with the edge of it. Then the larger brafs
is to be worked on them in the fame manner; and lad
of all the metal to be polilhed. When you find the
brafs tool and hones, &c. anfwer the curvature of the
poliflier, you may then examine the truth of the figure
of the fpeculum more dridlly, to avoid the Ipfs of time
and labour in finilhing its polilh while the figure is im¬
perfect.
Place
I
5622 OPT
Mcchanifm « Place the fpecnlum In a vertical pofture on a table
. about 34 or 4 feet from the floor. On another table
Inftruroents^1 a cancMe whofe flame fhould be about the level of
——the middle of the fpeculum, and very near the centre
CCXXVII. *ts concavity. About an inch-before the ilame,
fig. 10. place a flat tin,or thin brafs, plate about 3 inches broad,
Ip(J but 4 or 5 high, having feveral holes about the middle,
Method of of different fhapes and fizes; fome of them as fmall as
cxamiaing the point of th? fharpeft needle will make them, the
the true fi- biggeft about the fizeof a large muftard-feed: darken
Seculatn C t^c room> an(^ move this candle and plate about on the
table, till the light from the brighteft part of the flame,
palling through fome of the larger holes to the fpecn-
lum, is rcfleded back fo as to form the images of thofe
holes clofe without one of the fide-edges of that thin
plate. Thofe largeft images in this cafe will be vi-
fible, (although the fpeculum have no other polifh than
what the hones give it), when received on a thick
white card held clofe to that edge of the plate, if the
back of the card be either blacked or fo lhaded that
the candle may not Ihine through it, and the eye be
alfo fkreened from the candle’s diredi light. If any
difficulty happens in difcerning them, the plate may
be removed, and the Image of the whole flame will be
eafily feen. Have ready an eye-glafs whofe focal di-
flance may be fomething greater than the double of
that of the eye-glafs you intend for the inftrument
when finilhed: you may try feveral at your difcretion.
Let this be fupported by a fmall {land moveable on
the table, and capable of raifing and finking it as the
height of the flame requires, and of turning it into any
dire&ion. By means of this (land, bring the eye-glafs
Into fuch a pofition, that the light from fome of the
holes, after its refledlion from the fpeculum, may be
received perpendicularly on its furface; and that its
diilance from the fpeculum be fuch, that the refle&ed
images of the holes may be feen diftindlly through it,
near the edge of the thin plate, by the light coming im¬
mediately from the fpeculum : guide the candle and
thin plate with one hand, and the ftand carrying the
eye-glafs with the other, till you have got them Into
fuch a fituation, that you fee difiinftly at the fame time,
through the eye-glafs, the edge of the thin plate, and
the image of one of the holes clofe to It. Meafure the
cxa& diftance of the middle of the fpeculum from the
thin plate diredliy againft the flame, and alfo from the
edge clofe to which you fee the image of the hole. If
thefe meafures are the fame, fet it down as the exa&
radius of concavity of your fpeculum, and proper cur¬
vature for any that are to be polifhed on your poliffi-
er, though that will allow fome latitude: if the mea¬
fures aforefaid differ, take the mean between them.
“ You will now alfo judge of the perfe&ion of the
fpherical figure of your metal by the diftindtnefs with
which you fee the reprefentations of the holes, with
their raggednefs, duits, and fmall hairs flicking in
them; and you will be able to judge of this more ex-
adtly, and likewife to difcover the particular defers of
your fpeculum, by placing the eye glafs fo as to fee
one of the ftnalleft holes in or near its axis; and then
by fhoving the eye glafs a very little forward towards
the fpeculum, and pulling it away, by turns, let¬
ting the candle and plate ftand dill in the mean time.
By this means you will obferve in what manner the
light from the metal comes to a point, to form the
I C S. Part III
Images, and opens again after It has paft It. If the Mechanp:
area of the light, juft as it comes to or parts from the °.f '
point, appears not round, but oval, fquarifh, or trian- E
gular, &c. it Is a fign that the fedlions of the fpecu- 1 L
lar furface, through feveral diameters of it, have not
the fame curvature. If the light, juft before it comes
to a point, have a brighter circle round the circumfe¬
rence, and a greater darknefs near the centre, than -!1
after it has croffed and is parting again ; the furface
is more curve towards the circumference, and flatter
about the centre, like that of a prolate fpheroid round jl
the extremities of its axis ; and the ill effects of this
figure will be more fenfible when it comes to be ufed
in the telefcope. But if the light appears more hazy
and undefined near the edges, and brighter in the
middle before its meeting than afterwards, the metal
is then more curve at its centre and lefs towards the
circumference ; and if it be In a proper degree, may I,
probably come near the true parabolic figure. But the
{kill to judge well of this, muft be acquired by obfer-
vation.
“ In performing the foregoing examination, the fw
image muft be reflefted back as near the hole itfelf
as the eye’s approach to the candle will admit of, that ■
the obliquity of the reflexion may not occafion any
fenfible errors: in order to which, the eye (hould be
Ikreened from the candle; and the glaring light, which
may difturb the obfervation, may be ftill more effeftu- 4
ally fhut out, by placing a plate, with a fmall hole in 4
it, in that focus of the eye- glafs which is next the eye.
A is the fpeculum, B the candle and plate with the Fig- >•->*
fmall holes, C the cell with the eye-glafs and plate be¬
hind it.
“ Inftead of the flame of the candle and plate with
fmall holes, 1 fometimes made ufe of a piece of glaf*
thick ftuck with globules of quickfilver,{trained thro' a
leather, and allowed to fall on it in a dew; placing this
glafs near a window, and the fpeculum at a diftance on
the fide of the room, being itfelf and every thing a-
bout it as much in the dark as can be. The light of
the window reflected from the globules of mercury, 1
appearing as fo many ftars, ferves inftead of the fmall
holes, with this advantage, that the refledlion from the
metal may be very near at right angles. 197 J
“ If the figure of the metal appears not fatisfa&o-9f corrccfl
ry, the hones muft be worked with the brafs tool and tln2 thc
water for 2 or 3 minutes with the motion, &c. firftrorS*
dire&ed; then work the metal on them with the like I
motion, and fuch length of the flroke as may carry
the edge of it about or I; of its diameter beyond that 1
of the hone pavement each way; carry it likewife by
turns to the right and left, to about the fame diftance.
Continue this about 5 minutes, not preffing the metal
down to the hones with any more than its own weight,
and obferve that the oftener the mud is wafhed away,
the more truly fpherical the figure of the fpeculum
will generally be: but the leaving a little more of this
mud on the Hones has fometimes feemed to give the
metal a parabolic figure. I have likewife given it the
fame, by concluding with a kind of fpiral motion of 11
the centre of the metal, near the circumference of the
hones, in the manner reprefented in fig. 11. for about
half a minute.
“ If after feveral trials the metal appears to have
always the fame kind of defedt, and anfwering to the
fame
Part III. OPT
Mechatiifm fame particular part of tbe metal, it is a fign of a dif-
j§ ■ ferent hardnefs in its feveral parts, which will make it
Inftrumentsvery to bring that fpeculum to perfeftion. In
 working the tools or metals on the hones, there will
often appear little fpots in them, much blacker and
harder than the reft ; thefe muft be dug out as fall; as
they appear.
“ When the figure is to your mind, you may pro¬
ceed to finifh the polilh on the farcenet with very little
putty, and that diluted with a great deal of water.
Before you put the putty and water on it, obferve, by
holding it very obliquely between your eyes and the
light, if it have any lifts or ftripes acrofs it, which
appear more glofly than the reft. If it be fo, let the
motion of the metal in polifhing be direflly athwart
thefe lifts, and not along with them, nor even circu¬
lar. In other refpe6ts you may obferve the fame direc¬
tions as were before given for its motion on the hones;
not forgetting, after every 15 or 20 ftrokes, to turn
it on its axis about -jV or of a revolution. As the
polifher grows dry, you will find the metal flick to it
more and more ft iff; at which time it both polifties
fafter and with a better glofs: only take care that it
grows not fo dry as for the metal to take hold of the
farcenet and cut it up, or for the pitch and putty to
fix in little knobs here and there on it; which, if it
happen, will prefently fpoil the figure. As fall there¬
fore as the farcenet appears to be growing dry at any
of its edges, touch the place with the end of a fea¬
ther dipped in clean water: you may ufe the fame
putty at leaft half an hour. As often as you change
it, wafh the old clean away, and rub the new about
firft with your bruifer, to fee if there be any gritty or
grofs particles in it, and rub them away for fear of
fcratching the metal ; then laying down the edge of
the fpeculum a little way on the edge of the polilher,
where it is well covered with water, Aide it on the
middle, and then proceed. The lefs putty you ufe at
a time, the flower the work will advance ; but if you
ufe too much, it will fpoil a little of tbe figure round
the edges. It will not want any confiderable force to
prefs it down ; but if it be of 5 or 6 inches diameter
or more, it will be very laborious to go through the
polifh without fome kind of machine.”
Mr Mudge is of opinion that all this troublefome
method is entirely unneceffary, and of the fame opi¬
nion is an anonymous French author who wrote on
this fubjedt in the year 1738. The latter tells us
what is certainly agreeable to reafon and experience,
that the more complicated the machines are by which
we attempt to accomplifh any purpofe, the more
liable we are to error by r’afon of their perpetual ten¬
dency to go wrong, and the neceffary multiplication
of inaccuracy is a complicated motion. Four tools,
according to Mr Mudge, are all that are neceffary;
viz. the rough grinder to work off the rough face of
the metal; a brafs convex grinder, on which the
metal is to receive its fpherical figure ; a bed of hones,
which is to perfeft that figure, and to give the metal
its fmooth fine face ; and a concave tool or bruifer,
with which both the brafs grinder and the hones are
to be formed. A poliftter may be confidered as an
additional tool ; but as the brafs grinder is ufed for
this purpofe, and its pitchy furface is expeditioufly
‘ and without difficulty formed by the bruifer, the ap-
Vol. VIII. i
I C S. 5623
paratus is therefore not enlarged. IV.echa.nim
The tool by which the rough furface of the metal 0
is rendered fmooth and fit for the hones, is beft made infhurtents
of lead ftiffened with about a fixth part of tin. This  
tool Ihould be at leaft a third more in diameter than 19S
the metal which is to be goound; and for one of any0^1™1^
fize, not lefs than an inch thick. It may be cemented
upon a block of wool, in order to raife it higher fromium,
the bench. This leaden tool being call, it being
fixed in the lathe, and turned as true as poffible by
the gauge to the figure of the intended fpeculum,
making a hole or pit in the middle for a lodgement to
the emery, of four inches ; when this is done, deep
grooves muft be cut acrofs its furface with a graver, as
is reprefented fig. 7. TLefe grooves will ferve t0J;lavvvm
lodge the emery, and by their means the tool will cut^
a great deal fafter. There is no reafon to fear any al¬
teration in the convexity of this tool by working the
metal upon it; for the emery will bed itfelf in the
lead, and fo far arm the furface of it, that it will pre-
ferve its figure, and cut the metal very faft. Any
kind of low handle, fixed on the back of the metal,
with foft cement, will be fufficient; but it ftiould
cover two thirds of its back, to prevent its bending.
“ This way of working (fays Mr Mudge) will cut
the metal fafter, and with more truth, than the me¬
thod deferibed by Dr Smith ; for fhould the furface
and rough parts be attempted to be ground off by a
common grindftone by hand, though you did it as
near the gauge as poffible, yet the metal would be fo
much out of truth when applied to the fucceding tool,
that no time would be faved by it.” For this purpofe
Mr Mudge ufed to employ a common labourer, who
foon acquired fuch dexterity at working upon the tool,
that in two hours time he would give a metal of four
inches dimeter fo good a face and figure as even to fit
it for the hones.
When all the fand-holes and irregularities on the
face of the metal are ground off, and the whole furface
is fmooth and regularly figured, the fpeculum is then
ready for the brafs grinder, and muft be laid afide for
the prefent. ijj,
The brafs grinding-tool is formed in the following Manner of '
manner. Procure around flout piece of Hamburgh
brafs, at rrioft a fixth part larger than the metal to be ing-tooZ"
poliffied; and let it be well hammered, by the affiftance
of the gauge, into a degree of convexity fuitable to the
intended fpeculum. Having done this, ferape and
clean the concave fide fo thoroughly, that it may
be well tinned all over ; than call upon it, after it
has been preffed a proper depth into the fand, the
compofition of tin and lead above-mentioned, in fuch
quantity, that it may, for a fpeculum of four inches
diameter, be at leaft an inch and half thick, and with
a bafe confiderably broader than the top, in order that
it may ftand firmly upon the bench hereafter to be
deferibed. This being done, it muft be fixed and
turned in the lathe with great care, and of fuch a con¬
vexity as exadliy to fuit the concave gauge. More
care will be neceffary in forming this tool than the
former, efpecially that no rings be left in turning ;
nor will the fucceeding hone-tool require fo much ex-
adlnefs, as any defedts in turning will, by a method
hereafter mentioned, be eafily removed ; but any in¬
equality or wanUof truth in the brafs tool will occa-
OPT
Mechanifm fion a great deal of troble before it can be ground out
„ . , by the emery. This tool mull have a hole, fomewhat
Optical , V ^ .v. .-i   :*
InarPumentslefs that in the metal to be worked upon it, in
— the middle, quite through to the bottom. When this
tool is finilhed off in the lathe, its diameter fliould be
aoo one-eighth wider than the metal.
The hones Ihould be of the beft fort of thofe re-
I C S. Part mm
every now and then, (hift your own pofition, by Mechani^iu
walking round, and working at different fides of the °f .Kc
Krafc tool • at timpe tVi<» ftrolre (VinnM Kp ronnrl .
t^Tof 6 commended by Dr Smith. They fhould be cemented
hones. in fmall pieces (in a kind of pavement, as hath been
already mentioned) upon a thick round piece of mar¬
ble, or metal made of lead and tin in the proportions
above diredted, in fuch a manner, that the lines be¬
tween the ftqnes may run ftraight from ope end to the
other; fo that placing the teeth of a fine faw in each
of thefc divisions, they may be cleared from one end
to the other of the cement which rifes between the
ftones. This bed of hones fhould be at lead one-
fourth larger than the metal which is to be ground
upon it ; but there i$ no neceflity for turning the me¬
tal on which the hones are cemented tq the fame con¬
vexity with the gaugje. As foon as the hones are
cemented down, and the joints cleared by the faw,
this tool mull be fixed in the lathe, and turned as
exadlly true to the gauge as pofiible ; which done, it
muft be laid afide for the prefent. The next tool to
a or be made is the bruifer.
Manner of The broiler fhquld be made of thick flout brafs like
brutfcrgthe^h? former, perfe&ly found, about a quarter of an inch
thick, and hammered as near to the g?uge as poffible.
It fhould then be ferpped, cleaned, and tinned on the
convex fide, as the former tool was on the concave,
and the fame thickqefs of lead and tin cafl upon it.
The general fhape of this fhould differ from the for¬
mer ; for as that increafed in diameter at thg bottoiq
for the fake of (landing firmly, fo this fhould be only
as broad at bpltorp as at top, as it is to be ufed oc-
cafionally in both thofe pofitions. When this tool is
fixed in the lathe, and turned off concave to the convex
gauge with great truth likewife, its diameter ought tq
be the middle fixe between the hones and the po-
lifiier.
Having with the lathe roughly formed the convex
brafs grinder, the bed of hones, and the concave
bruifers, the convex and concave brafs tqqls and the
metal muft be wrought alternately and reciprocally
upon each other with fine emery and water, fo as to
keep them as nearely to the fame figure as poffible;
in order to yrhich, fome wafhed emery muft be pro¬
cured. This is beft done by putting it into a vial,
which muft be half filled with water and well fhaken
up, fo that, as it fnbfixles, the coarfeft may fall to the
bottom firft, and the fined remain at the top; and
whenever frefh emery is laid upon the tools, the beft
method (which we fhould alfo obferve with the putty
in palifhing) will be, to fhake gently the bottle, and
act pour opt a (mail quantity of the turbid mixture.
Of grinding The tp0|3 being n.ow all, ready, upon a firm poft in
lum^the" t^ie of a room, you are to begin to grind the
brafs tool, -brafs convex tool witli the bruifer upon it, working
and the the latter croffwife, with ftrpkes fo.metimes actofs its
brmfer, to- diameter, at others a little to the right and left, and
ge.her. always fo ftiort, that the bruifers may not pafs above
half an inch within the furface of the brafs tool, either
way, fhifting the bruifer round its axis every half
dozen firokes or thereabout. Yqu muft likewife,
brafs tool: at times the ftroke fhould be carried round inftrrUmenH
and round, but not much over the tool: in fhort,  3|
they muft be dire&ed in fuch a manner, and with fuch
equability, that every part of both tools may wear
equally. This habit of grinding, as well as the future
one of polifhing, will foon be aquired. When you
have wrought m this manner about a quarter of an
hour with the bruifer upon the tool, it will be then
neceffary to change them, and, placing the bruifer
upon its bottom, to work the convex tool upon that
in the fame manner.
When, by working in this equable manner alternate¬
ly with the bruifer and tool, and occafionally adding
frefh emery, you have nearly got out all the veftiges
of the turning tool, and brought them both nearly to
a figure, it will then be time to give the fame form to
the metal. This muft be doire by now and then
grinding it upon the brafs topi with the fame kind qf
emery; taking care, however, by working the two
former tools frequently together, to keep all three
exaflly in the fame curve. The beft kind of handle
for the metal is made of lead, a little more than
double its thicknefs, and fomewhat lefs in diameter,
of about three ppqnds weight, with a hole in the
middle, (for reafons to be afterwards fhown), a little
larger than that in the metal: this handle fhould be
cemented on with pitch. The upper edge of this
weight fhould be rounded off, that the fingers may
not be hurt; and a groove about the bignefs of a
little finger be turned round juft below it, for the
more cqnveniently holding and taking the metal off the
tools.
When the bruifer, brafs tpol, and metal, are all Manner
brought to the fame figure, and have all a true goodfiguring
furface, the next part of the procefs is to give a cor-
reA fphericsl figure and a fine face to the metal upon
the hones, {t is neceffary to obferve, however, that the
hones fhould be placed in a veffel pf water, with which
they fhould be quite covered for at leaft an hour be¬
fore they are ufed ;^otherwife they will be continually
altering their figure when the metal comes to be ground
upon them. The fame precaution is alfo neceffary if
you are called off from the work while you are grind¬
ing the metal; for, if they be fuffered to grow dry,
the fame inconvenience will enfue.
In order to give a proper figure to the hones, and
exa&ly fuitableto that of the brafs tool, bruifer, and
metal, when the hones are fixed down to the block, fome
common flqur emery (unwa(hed),withagood deal of wa¬
ter, muft be put upon them, and the bruifer being placed
upon the hones and rubbed thereon with a few ftrokes
and a light hand, the inequalities of the done will be
quickly worn off; but, as a great deal of mud will be
fuddeoly generated, it muft be wafhed off every quar¬
ter of a minute with plenty of water. By a repeti¬
tion of this two or three times, the hones (being of a
very foft and friable nature) will be cut down, to the
figure without wearing or altering the bruifer at all.
Tho* this bufinefs may be qqickly done, and can be
continued but for a few ftr.okes at a time, it is abso¬
lutely neceffary that thofe ftrokes be carried in the
fame dire&ion, and with the fame care, which was ob-
ferved in grinding the former tools together.
As
i PartlH. OPT
I Mecharif'm As foon as the hones have received the general fi-
W . gure of the bruifer, and all the turning ftrokes are
ii flirtnimentsworn out ^rom t*iem> t^ie emery muft be carefully
Jj   wafhed off; in order to which, it will be neceflary to
clear it from the joints with a brufh, under a ftreamof
water. The bruifer and metal mud likewife be cleared
in the fame manner, and with equal care, from any
lurking particles of emery.
The hones being fixed down upon the block, you
now begin to work the bruifer upon them with very
cautious, regular, fhort ftrokes, forward and back¬
ward, to the right and left, turning the axis of the
bruifer in the hand, while you move round the hones
by fhifting your pofition, and walking round the
block. The whole now depends upon a knack in
working, which fhould be condu&ed nearly in the fol¬
lowing manner. Having placed the bruifer on the
centre of the hones, Aide it in an equable manner for¬
ward and backward, with a ftroke or two direftly
acrofs the diameter, a little on one fide, and fo on the
other. Then, fhifting your pofition an eighth part
round the block, and having turned the bruifer in
your hand about as much, give it a ftroke or two round
and round, but not far over the edges of the hones,
and then repeat the crofs-ftrokes as before: thofe round
ftrokes, which ought not to be above two or three at
moft, are given every time you fhift your own pofition
and that of the metals previous to the crofs ones, in
order to take out any ftripes, either in the hones or
bruifer, which may be fuppofed to be occafioned by
the ftraight crofs ftrokes. During the time of work¬
ing, no mud muft be fuffered to colledf upon the
hones, fo as to deftroy the perfeft contact between the
two tools ; and therefore they muft every now and
then be wafhed clean by throwing fome water upon
them. When, by working in this manner, all the
emery ftrokes are ground off from the bruifef, and it
lias acquired a good figure and clean furface, you may
then begin with the metal upon the hones, in the fame
cautious manner, wafhing off the mud as faff as it col-
lefts ; though that will be much lefs now than when
the bruifer was ground upon them. Every now and
then, however, the bruifer muft be rubbed gently and
lightly upon the hones, which will, as it were, by
fharpening them, and preventing too great fmoothnefs,
occafion them to cut the metal fatter.
After having, by working in this manner, taken
out all the emery ftrokes, and given a fine face and
true figure to the metal, which will be pretty well
known by the great equality there is in the feel while
you are working, and by which an experienced work¬
man will form a pretty certain judgement, you may
then try your metal, and judge of its figure by the
following more certain method.
Wafh the hone pavement quite clean ; then put the
metal upon the centre of it, and give two or three
ftrokes round and round only, not carrying, however,
the edges of the metal much over the hones; this
will take out the order of ftraight ftrokes : then, ha-
ving again walhed the hones, and placed the fpeculum
upon their centre, with gentle preffure. Aide it to¬
wards you, till its edge be brought a little over that
of the hones; then carry it quite acrofs the diameter
as far on the other fide, and having given the metal a
light ftroke or two in this direftion, take it off the
I C S. 5625
tool. The metal being wiped quite dry, place it up- Mechaniftn;
on a table at a little diftance from a window; {land °f .
yourfelf as near the window, at fome diftance from the rnfifumeuts
metal, and looking obliquely on its furface, turn it -
round its axis, and you will fee at every half turn the
grain given by the laft crofs ftrokes flaAi upon your eye
at once over the whole furface of the metal. This, fays
Mr Mudge, is as certain a proof of a true fpherical fi¬
gure, as the operofe and difficult method defcribed by
Dr Smith: for as there is nothing foft or elaflic either
in the metal, or in the hones, this glare is a certain
proof of a perfsft contaft in every part of the two fur-
faces ; which there could not be, if the fpheres were
not both perfeft and precifely the fame. Indeed
there is one accidental circumftance which affords its
aid in this and other fimilar cafes; namely, that a con¬
cave and convex furface ground together, though ever
fo irregular at firft, (will, if the working be uniform
and proper, confifting, efpecially at laft, of crofs
ftrokes in every poffible direftion acrofs the diameter)
be formed into portions of true and equal fpheres.
Had it not been for this lucky neceffity, it would have
been impoffible to have produced that correftnefs
which is effential in the fpeculum of a good refiefting
telefcope by any mechanical contrivance whatever.
For when it is confidered, that the errors in refleftion
are four times as great as in refraftion, and that the
leaft defeft in figure is magnified by the powers of the
inftrument, any thing fhort of perfeftion in the figure
of the fpeculum would be evidently perceived by the
want of diftinftnefs in the performance.
Here, however, Mr Mudge obferves, that he all
along fuppofes, both in forming the tools, and at lafl
in figuring the metal (and the fame is to be obferved in
the future procefsof polifhing), that no kind of pref-
fure is ufed that may endanger the bending or irregu¬
larly grinding them : they fhould therefore be held
with a light hand, and loofely between the fingers;
and the motion given (hould be in a horizontal di¬
reftion, with no other preffure than their own dead
weight.
Having now finiftied the metal on the hones, and
rendered it both in point of figure and furface fit for
the laft and moft effential part of the procefs, viz. that
of polifhing, we fhall now proceed to defcribe it as
minutely as poffible, though many little circumftances
muft neceffarily be omitted, and can only be fupplied
by experience. 204
The polifhing of the fpeculum is the moft difficult Of the po-
and effential part of the procefs; and every experienced
workman knows, to his vexation, that the moft tri-05"
fling error here will be fufficient to fpoil the figure
of his metal, and render all his preceding caution ufe-
lefs. On this occafion alfo Mr Mudge makes the
following remarks on the method of polifhing ufed by
Hadley and Molyneux, and already defcribed from Dr
Smith’s Optics. “ Firft then, fays he, the tool it-
felf ufed by them in polifhing the metal is formed with
infinite difficulty. The firft defcribed polifher is di¬
rected to be made by covering the tool with farcenet,
which is to be faturated with a folution of pitch in
fpirit of wine, by fucceffive applications of it with a
brufli, till it is covered, and by the evaporation of the
fpirit of wine filled with this extraft of pitch ; the
furface is then to be worked down and finiihed with
31 T z the
5626 OPT
Mcchaniim the bruifer. This is all very eafy in imagination; but
‘K . whoever has ufed this method (which I have myfelf,
InArumu!tslul^ucce^(u"y> ^evera' times) muil have found it at-
-r— tended with infinite labour, and at laft the bufmefs
done in a very unfatisfadory manner; for the pitch
by this procefs will be deprived of an eflential part of
itscompofition. The fpirit of wine diffolves none but
the refinous parts of its fubflance, which is hard and
untradable ; and if you ufe foap or fpirit of wine to
foftes or difTolve it, it will equally affe£t the whole fur-
face, the lower as well as the higher parts of it. And
fuppofe that, with infinite labour with the bruifer, it is
at lail reduced to a fine uniform furface, it is never-
thelefs too hard ever to give a good polifh with that
Inftre which is always feen in good metals. Nor will
it give a good fpherical figure : for a perfed fphere is
formed, as I obferved before, by that intimate accom¬
modation'arifing from the wear and yielding of both
tool and metal; whereas, in this method there isfuch
a ftubbornnefs in the polifher, that the figure of the
metal, whether good or bad, mull depend upon the
truth of the former, which is very feldom perfed.
“ If the polifher be made in the fecond manner pro-
pofed, viz. by {training the pitch through an outer
covering, which is afterwards to be ftripped off, the
fuperficies of pitch and farcenet is fo very thin, that
the putty working into them forms a furface hard and
untradable, fo that it is irapoffible to give the fpecu'-
lum a fine polifh. Accordingly all thofe metals which
are wrought in this way have an order of fcratches in-
ftead of polifh, difcovering itfelf by a greyifh vifible
furface. Befides, fuppofing this tool perfedly finifh-
cd, and anfwering its purpofe ever fo well, it is im-
poffible that it can produce in the fpeculum any other
than a fpherical figure ; and indeed nothing elfe is
expeded from this method, as is evident from the ex¬
periment recommended to afcertain the truth of it.
You are direded to place a fmall luminous objedf in
the centre of the fphere of which the metal is a feg-
ment; and then having adjufted an eye-glafs at the
diftance of its own focal length from the objed, and
fo lituated that the image of the objed formed by
the fpeculum may be vifible to the eye, you are to
judge of the perfed figure of the metal by the fharp-
nefs and diftindnefs with which the image appears.
'From hence it is very evident, that as the objed and
image are both diftant from the metal by exadly its
radius, nothing but a true fpherical figure of the fpe¬
culum can produce a {harp and diftind image ; and
that the image could not be diftind if the figure of
the fpeculum were parabolic. Confequently, if the
fame fpeculum ufed in a telefcope were to receive pa¬
rallel rays, there would neceffarily be a confiderable
aberration produced, and a confequent imperfedion in
the image. Accordingly, there never was a good
telefcope made in this manner; for if the number of
degrees, or the portion of the fphere of which the
great metal is a part, were as confiderable as it ought
to be, the inftrument would bear but a verylow charge,
unlcfs a great part of the circumference of the metal
were cut off by an aperture, and the ill effeds of the
aberration by that means in fome meafure prevented.
“ If ever a finiftied metal turned out without this
defed, and has been found perfedly iharp and diftind,
,t muft have, been owing to an accidental parabolic
I C S. Part nr.
tendency, noways the natural refult of the procefs, and Meelianifi
therefore quite unexpeded, and moft probably un- °f
known to the workman.” Tnftrumenf
Our author next acquaints us, that, from obferving-  
the high polifti of fome of the metals made by Mr
Short, and concluding that the high luftre of the
polifli could never have been produced in the manner
above deferibed, but by fome more foft and tender
fubftance, he was direded to make ufe of pitch itfelf,
efpecially as Sir Ifaac Newton mentions his having
ufed that fubftance in his operations. Accordingly,
ftiortening Dr Smith’s procefs, he made a fet of tools
in the manner above-mentioned, except that he was
obliged to make fome fubfequent alteration in the
polifher. Having given a good fpherical figure to
the brafs tool and the bruifer, and likewife to the
metal upon the hones, and made the brafs convex tool
fo hot as juft not to hurt the finger, he tied a lump of
common pitch, which {hould neither be too hard nor »
too foft, in a rag, and holding it in a pair of tongs
over a ftill fire where there was no rifing duft, till it
was ready to ftrain through the linen, he caufed it to
drop on the feveral parts of the convex tool, till he fup-
pofed it would cover the whole furface to about twice
the thicknefs of a {hilling; then fpreading the pitch
as equally as he could, he fuffered the polijher (the
name he gives to the tool fo prepared) to grow quite
cold. He then made the bruifer fo hot as almoft to
burn his fingers; and having fixed it to the bench
with its face upwards, he fuddenly placed the poliftier
upon it, and quickly Aid it off; by this means ren¬
dering the furface of the pitch fomewhat more equal.
The pitch is then to be wiped off from the bruifer
with a little tow; and by touching the furface with
a tallow candle, apd wiping it a fecond time, it
will then be perfeflly clean, and fit for a fecond pro¬
cefs of the fame fort, which muft again be performed
as quickly as poffible; and this is ordinarily fufficient
to give a general figure to the furface of the pitch.
The bruifer and the poliftier are then fuffered to
grow perfeftly cold; when the pitch, confidering what
has been taken off, will be about the thicknefs of a
{hilling.
Here, however, it is neceffary to obferve, that the
pitch lhould neither be very hard and refinous, nor
too foft: if the former, it will be fo untradable as
not to work kindly; and if too foft, it will in work¬
ing alter its figure fafter than the metal, and too
readily fit itfelf to the irregularity of its figure, if it
have any. When both tools are perfedly cold, he
gave the poliftier a gentle warmth, and then fixed the
bruifer to the block with its face upwards; and (ha¬
ving, with a large camel’s-hair brufti, fpread over the
face of the poliftier a little water and foap to prevent
fticking, with ftiort, ftraight, and round ftrokes, be
worked it uporr the bruifer, every now and then add¬
ing a little more water and foap, till the pitch upon
the poliftier. had a fine furface and the true form of
the bruifer; and this he continued till they both grew
perfedly cold together: in this manner the polifher
was formed in about a quarter of an hour. But here
a difficulty arofe. For when he began to polifh the
metal, he found that the edge of the hole in the fpe¬
culum colleded the pitch towards the middle of the
poliffier:. hence, though in this method of working
b Part III. OPT
ikechanifm he could give an exquifite poli/li, as the putty lodged
1 °( . itfelf in the pitch exceedingly well, yet the figure of
llftiu'ments^1C meta' was injured in the middle; nor indeed did
|I—  the work go on with that equability which is the in-
I feparable attendant on a good figure, la order to
obviate this difficulty, he call fome metals with a con¬
tinued face, the holes not going quite through, within
perhaps the thicknefs of a fixpence. In this way he
iinifhed two or three metals, and the work went on
very well; but when he came to open the holes, even
though the utmoft caution was ufed, the metals were
found to be imperfeid. This he attributed to an al¬
teration of the figure from the removal of even that
fmall portion of metal after the fpeculum had been
finifhed. This he fuppofes to have been the caufe of
his fpoiling a very diftindl and perfedt two-foot metal,
which bore a charge of 200 times, only by opening
the (harp part of the edge of the hole, becaufe he
thought that it bounded the field: fo efientially ne-
ceflary is an exquifite corredtnefs of figure in the fpe¬
culum of a perfedt refledtor.
This experiment not fucceeding, inftead of calling
the metal without a hole, he made one quite through
I . the middle~of the polifher, a little lefs than that in the
fpeculum. This perfedtly anfwered the purpofe; no
more inconvenience arofe from the gathering of the
pitch, for it had now no greater tendency to colledt at
the centre than the fides; and thus he finiihed feveral
metals fucceffively, excellent both in figure and polifh.
One of thefe, of 2 inches diameter and 7.5 focal length,
bore a charge of 60 times and upwards.
In this method of working, the poliihing goes on
in an agreeable, uniform, and fmooth manner; and
the fmall degree of yielding in the pitch, which is
adtually not more than the wearing of the metal,
produces that mutual accommodation of furfaces fo
neceifary to a true figure. In the beginning of the
poliih, and indeed for fome time during the progrefs of
it, {always remembering now and then to move the
metal round its axis), he worked round and round,
not far from, and always equally diftant from, the
ir: centre; except that every time, previous to the fiiifting
the metal on its axis, he ufed a crofs ftroke or two;
and when the polifh was nearly completed, he ufed
moftly crofs ftrokes, giving a round ftroke or two
likewife every time he turned the metal on its axis.
In this method of working, he always obferved that
the metal poliihed fafteft in the middle ; infomuch
that one half or two thirds of it would be completely,
polifhed, when the circumference was fcarcely touched
by the tool. Obferving this in fome of the firlt me¬
tals, and not confidering that this way of polifhing
was in faft a fpecies of grinding, and as perfedt as
that upon the hones, he went on reludlantly with the
work, almoft defpairing of being able to produce a
good figure. However, he was always agreeably difap-
pointed; for when the polifh was extended to the edge,
or within a tenth of an inch of it, he almoft conftantly
found the figure good, and the performance of the
metal very diftindt. But this fame circumftance of
apparent defedt in the metals,, was in fadt that to
which their*perfediion was owing; for they all, con¬
trary to his expedlatiop, turned out parabolic. On
the other hand, when he chanced to find that a metal,
when firft applied to the poiilher, took the polifh
I C S. 5627
equally all over, and confeqDently the bufinefs didMechanifin
not take up above 10 minutes; yet the metal con-
flantly turned out good for nothing. From frequent fnftrum*nts
obfervations, however, he at laft found a method of  
giving a corredt parabolic figure and an exquifite polifh
at the fame time. 10J
In polifhing the fpecolum, in order to avoid the in-How to po-
trufion of any particles of emery, it would not be right li[h the fPe"
to polifh in the fame room where the metal and toolscu^um‘
were ground, nor in the fame cloths which were worn
in the former procefs; at leaf! it would be neceflary
to keep the bench quite wet, to prevent any dull from
rifing.
Having then made the polifher, by coating the brafs
convex tool equally with pitch, which we fuppofc
fmoothed and finifhed with the brafs tool in the man¬
ner before deferibed, and which is a very eafy procefs,
the whole operation is begun and finifhed in the fol¬
lowing manner.
The leaden weight, or handle, upon the back of the
metal, fhould be divided into eight parts, by fo many
deep ftrokes of a graver upon the upper furface of the
lead, marking each ftroke with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,
and fo on, that the turns of the metal in the hand may
be known to be uniform and regular.
To prevent any mifehief from coarfe particles of
putty, it muft be wafhed immediately before ufing.
In order to this, put about half an ounce of putty into
an ounce phial, and fill it two-thirds with water; then
having ftiaken the whole, let the putty fubfide, and
flop the bottle with a cork.
In a tea-cup with a little water, there fhould be a
full-fized camel’s-hair brufh, and a piece of dry clean
foap in a galley-pot: a foft piece of fponge will alfo
be neceflary. Thefe, as well as the metal bruifer and
polifher, fhould be con^antly covered from dull.
The polifher being fixed down, and the camel’s-hair
brufh being firft wetted and rubbed a little over the
foap, let every part of the tool be brufhed over there¬
with; then work the bruifer with fhort, ftraight, and
round ftrokes, lightly upon the tool, and continue to
do fo, now and then turning it, till the polifher have
a good face, and be fit for the metal. Then having
fhaken up the putty in the phial, and touched the po¬
lifher in five or fix places with the cork wetted with
that and the water, place the bruifer upon the toolr.
and give a few ftrokes upon the putty to rub down
any gritty particles; after which, having removed it,,
work the metal lightly upon the polifher round and
round, carrying the edges of the fpeculum, however,
not quite half an inch over the edge of the tool, and
now and then with a crofs ftroke.
The firft putty,, and indeed all the fucceeding ap¬
plications of it, fhould be wrought with a confiderable
while: for if time be not given for the putty to bed
itfelf in the pitch, and any quantity of it lie loofe up¬
on the polifher, it will accumulate into knobs, which
will injure the figure of the metal ; and therefore as
often as ever fuch knobs arile, they muft be carefully
feraped off with the point of a penknife, and the loofe
fluff taken away with the brufh. After the putty is
well wrought into the pitch, fome more may be added
in the fame manner, but never much at a time; and
always remembering to work upon it firft with the
bruifer, for fear any gritty particles may find their way
irpom
5628 OPT
Mcchanifm upon the polifher. If the bruifer be apt to ftick, and
°.f du not Aide fmoothly upon the pitch, the furface of
1 ftrumcmseither to°^ may be occafionaily brufhed over with the
_i foap and water, but it muft be remembered that the
wet brufli muft be but lightly rubbed upon the foap.
In the beginning of this procefs little effeffc is pro¬
duced, and the metal does not feem to polifh faft, in
fome meafure owing to its taking the polilh in the
middle, andf perhaps becaufe neither that nor the brui¬
fer move evenly upon the polifher: but a little perfe-
verance will bring the whole into a good temper of
working; and, when the pitch is well defended by the
coating of the putty, the procefs will advance apace,
and the former acquiring poflibly fome little warmth,
the metal moves more agreeably over it, with an uni¬
form and regular fridlion. All this while the metal
muft have no more prcffure than that which it derives
from its own weight and that of the handle ; and the
polifher muft never be fufftred to grow dry, but, as
often as it has any tendency to do fo, the edges of it
muft be moiftened with the hair-pencil; and now and
then, even when frefh putty is not laid on, the furface
of the polifher fhould be touched with the brttfh to
keep it moift.
When the polifh of the metal nearly reaches the edge
(for it always, as we fatd before, begins in the middle)
you muft alter your method of working; for now the
round ftrokes muft be gradually altered for the fhort
and ftraight ones. Suppofing then you are juft be¬
ginning to alter them; after having put on frefh putty,
and gently rubbed it with two or three ftrokes of the
bruifer, you place the metal on the tool, and after a
ftroke or two round and round, give it a few forward
and backward, and from fide to fide, but with the
edges very little over the tool; then having turned the
metal one-eighth round in your hand, and having mo¬
ved yourfelf as much round the block (which muft be
remembered throughout the whole procefs) you go on
again with a ftroke or two round, to lead you only to
the crofs ftrokes, which are now to be principally ufed,
and with more boldnefs. After this has been done
fome time, the metal will begin to move ftifly as the
fridlion now increafes, and the fpeculum polifhes very
beautifully and faft; and the whole furface of the po-
bfhing tool will be equally covered with a fine metal¬
lic Bronze. The tool, even now, muft not be fuffered
to become dry; a fingle round ftroke in each of your
fiat ions and turnings of the metal will be fufficient,
and the reft muft all be crofs ones, for we are comple¬
ting a circular figure. You muft now be very diligent;
for the polifher drying, and the frkftion increafing very
faft, the bufinefs of the fpherical figure is nearly at an
end. As the metal wears much, its furface muft be
now and then cleaned, with a piece of (hammy leather,
from the black fluff which colle&s upon it; and the
polifher likevvife from the fame matter, with a foft
piece of wet fponge. You will now be able to judge
of the perfed fpherical figure of the metal and tool,
when there is a perfed correfpondence between the
furfaces, by the fine equable feel there is in working,
which is totally free from all j.rks and inequalitiw.
Having proceeded thus far, you may put the laft fi-
rifnlng to this figure of the metal by bold crofs ftrokes,
only three or four in the diredions of each of the eight
diameters, turning the metal at the. fame time: this
I C S. Part lit
muft be done quickly; for it ought, in this part of the Mcchanj
procefs particularly, to be remembered, that, if you
permit the tool to grow quite dry, you will never be ic(irum^
able, with all your force, to feparate that and the me- i
tal, without deflroying the polifher by heat.
The metal has now a beautiful polifh and a true ;
fpherical figure, but will by no means make a (harp
diftind image in the telefcope: for the fpeculum (if it
be tried in the manner hereafter recommended) will
not be found to make parallel rays converge without ;
great aberration; indeed the deviation will be fo great,
as to be vtry fenfibly perceived by a great indiftind-
nefs in the image. ioS ; |
In order then to give the fpeculum the laft and fi- Howto) 1
nifhing figure, which is done by a few ftrokes, it muft *hc para)
be particularly remarked, that by working the metal
round and round, the fphere of the polifher by this
means growing lefs, it wears fafteft in the middle: and
as a fegment of a fphere may become parabolic, by
opening the extremes gradually from within outwards,
fo it may be equally well done by increafing the cur¬
vature in the middle, in a certain ratio, from without i 1
inwards.
Suppofing then the metal to be now truly fpherical,
flop the hole in the polifher, by forcing a cork into
it underneath, about an inch, fo that it do not reach
quite to the furface; and having wafhed off any mud
that may be on the furface of the tool with a wet foft '
piece of fponge, whilft the furface of it is a little moift,
place the centre of the metal upon the middle of the
polifher; then having, with the wet brufh, lodged as
much water round the edge of the metal as the pro¬
jecting edge will hold, fill the hole of the metal and
its handle with water, to prevent the evaporation of
the moifture, and the confequent adhefion between the
fpeculum and polifher, and let the whole reft in this :
ftate two or three hours: this will produce an inti¬
mate contafl between the two, and by parting with
any degree of warmth they may have acquired by the
vicinity of the operator, they will grow perfe&ly cold
together.
By this time you may pufh out the cork from the
polifher, to difeharge the water, and give the metal
the parabolic figure in the following manner.
Move the metal, gently and flowly at firft, a very
little round the centre of the *polifher (indeed after this
reft it will move ftifly); then increafing by degrees the
diameter of thefe ftrokes, and turning the metal fre¬
quently round its axis, give it a larger circular motion,
and this without any preffure but its own weight, and
holding it loofely between the fingers: this manner of
working may fafely be continued about two minutes,
moving yourfelf as ufual round the block, and carry¬
ing the round ftrokes in their increafed and largeft
ftate, not more than will move the edge of the mCtal
half an inch or five-eighths over the tool. The fpe¬
culum muft not all this while be taken off from the
poliiher; and confequently no frefh putty can be added.
It will not be fafe to continue this motion longer than
the time above mentioned; for if the parabolic ten¬
dency be carried the lead too far, it will be impoffible
to recover a true figure of that kind but by going
through the whole procefs for the fpherical'One1 in the
manner before deferibed, by the crofs ftrokes upon the
polifher, which takes a great deal of time. However,
when
Martin. OPT
tbanifm when there is occafion, it may be done; and Mr
°f Mudge has feveral times recovered the circular figure
gatrurnent; when he had inadvertently gone too far with the para.
- L bolic, and ultimately finiihed the metal on the poliflier
T; ao7 without the ufe of the hones.
t j. try the it w;n now be proper to try the figure of the fpe-
the me- cu^um» an<i *s always heft done by placing it in
| the telefcope it is intended for. In order to this, Mr
Mudgeufesthe inftrument asakindof microfcope; pla¬
cing the objefl, however, at fuch a diftance that the rays
may be nearly parallel. At about 20 yards, a watch-
paper, or fome fuch objedt, on which there are fome
very fine hair-ftrokes of a graver, is fixed up. The
lead mu ft then be taken off from the back of the fpe-
culutn ; which is beft done by placing the edge of a
knife at the jun&ion of the lead and metal, when, by
ftriking the back of it with a flight blow, the pitch
immediately feparates, and the handle drops off; the
remaining pitch may be fcraped off with a knife, ta¬
king care that none of the duft ftick to the poliflied
face of the metal.
Having placed the fpeculum in the cell of the tube,
and direAed^he inftrument to the objedt, make an an¬
nular kind of diaphragm with card-paper, fo as to co¬
ver a circular portion of the middle part of the metal
between the hole and the circumference, equal in
breadth to about ameighth part of the diameter of the
fpeculum: this paper ring Ihould be fixed in the mouth
of the telefcope, and remain fo during the whole ex¬
periment; for the part of the metal covered by it is
fuppofed to be perfedt, and therefore unemployed.
There muft likewife be two other circular pieces of
card-paper cut out, of fuch fixes, that one may cover
the centre of the metal by completely filling the hole
in the laft deferibed annular piece; and the other, fuch
a round piece as lhall exadtly fit into the tube, and fo
broad as that the inner edge may juft touch the out¬
ward circumference of the middle annular piece. It
would be convenient to have thefe two laft pieces fo
fixed to an axis that they may be put in their places,
or removed from thence, fo eafily, as not to difphce or
fhake the inftrument. All thefe pieces therefore to-
' gether will completely fhut up the mouth of the tele¬
fcope.
Let the round piece which covers the centre of the
metal, or that which has no hole in it, be removed }
and, by a nice adjuftment of the ferew, let the image
(which is now formed by the centre of the mirror) be
made as fharp and diftinA as poffible. This being done,
every thing elfe remaining at reft, replace the central
piece, and remove the outfide annular one, by which
means the circumference only of the fpeculum will be
expofed, and the image now formed will be from the
rays refiefted from the outfide of the metal. If there be
no occafion to move the ferew and the little metal, and
the two images formed by thefe two portions of the
metal be perfeftly fharp and equally diftinA, the fpe-
culutn is perfeA, and of the true parabolic curve ; or
at leaft the errors of the great and little fpeculum, if
there be any, are correAed by each other.
If, on the contrary, under ihe lait circumftance,
the image from the outfide of the metal fhouid not
be diftinA, and it fhouid become neceffary, in or¬
der to make it fo, that, the little fpeculum be brought
nearer, it is plain that the metal is- not yet brought
ICS. 5629
*0 the parabolic figure ; but if, on the other hand, in Mechai.um
order to procure diftinAnels, you be obliged to move o{.
the little fpeculum farther off, then the figure of the jnftji^nts
great fpeculum has been carried beyond the parabolic, 
and hath affumed an hyperbolic form. When the lat¬
ter is the cafe, the circular figure of the metal muft be
recovered (after having fixed on the handle with foft
pitch) by bold crofs ftrokes upon the poliflier, finifhing
it again in the manner above deferibed. If the fpeculum
be not yet brought to the parabolic form, it mull cau-
tioufly have a few more round ftrokes upon the po-
lifher; indeed a very few of them in the manner be¬
fore deferibed make in effeA a greater difference in the
fpeculum than would be at firft imagined. If a me¬
tal of a true fpherical figure were to be tried in the
above-mentioned manner in the tclefcope (which Mr
Mudge has frequently done) the difference of the foci
of the two fegments of the metal would be fo confi-
derable, as to require two or three turns of the ferew
to adjuft them; fo very great is the aberration of a
fpherical figure of the fpeculum, and fo improper to
procure that ftiarpnefs and precilion fo nectffary to a
good refleAing telefcope.
This is by no means the cafe with the objeA-glaffes
of refraAors ; for befides that they are in faA never
fo diftinA as well-finifhed refleAors, the apertures of
them are fo exceedingly fmall, compared to the latter,
and the number of degrees employed fo very fmall,
that the inconvenience of a fpherical figure is not fo
much perceived. Accordingly we obferve in the ge¬
nerality of refleAors, (whofe fpecula, unlefs by acci¬
dent, are always fpherical), that the only true rays
which form the diftinA image arife from the middle
of the metal: and unlefs the defeA be remedied by a
confiderable aperture, which deftroys much light, the
falfe refleAion from the infide of the metal produces a
grcyifh kind of hazinefs, which is never feen in Mr
Short’s, or indeed in any good telefcopes.
Suppofing that the two foci of the different parts of
the metal perfeAIy coincide; and that, by the union
of them when the apertures are removed, the telefcope
(hews the objeAs very ftiarp and diftinA, you are not,
however, even then to conclude that the inftrument is
not capable of farther improvement: for you will per¬
ceive a fenfible difference in the ftiarpnefs of the image,
under different pofitions of the great fpeculum with re-
fpeA to the little one, by turning round the great me¬
tal in its cell, and oppofing different parts of it to dif¬
ferent parts of the little mi tal, correAing by this means
the error of one by the other. This attempt ftiould be
perfevered in for fome time, burning round the great
fpeculum about one-fixteenth at a time, and carefully
obferving the moft diftinA fituation each time the eye¬
piece is ferewed on: when, by trying and turning the
great metal all round, the diftinAelt pofuion is difeo-
vered, the upper part of the metal fhould be marked
with a black ftroke, in order that it may always be
lodged in the cell in the fame pofitlen. This is the
method Mr Short always ufed ; and the caution is of
fa much confequence, that he thought it neceffary to
mention it very particularly in his printed direAions
for the ufe of the inftrument.
And, farther, Mr Short frequently correAed the
errors of the great by the little metal in another way.
If the great fpeculum did not anfwer quite well in the
te-
5630 OPT
Mechanifm telefcope, he cured that defeft fometimes by trying
°.{ the effeft of feveral metals fucceffively, by this means
:InftrPumentsC0?TC^‘n£ t^ie crrors one by the other; for in feveral
  .of his telefcopes which have paffed thro’ our author’s
•hands, when the fizes and powers have been the fame,
he has found that the great metals, tho’ very diftindt
in their proper telefcopes, yet have, when taken out and
changed from one to the other, fpoiled both telefcopes,
renderingthem exceedingly indiltind, which could arife
from no other circumftance. For this reafon he fup-
pofes it was, that Mr Short kept, ready furnilhed, a
great many large metals of the fame focal length, fo
that, when he wanted to mount a telefcope, he might
from a great choice be able to combine thofe metals
which foiled each other beft. Our author is ftrongly
inclined to believe this was the cafe, not only from the
above obfervation, but becaufe he fliewed him a box
of finifhed metals, in which he is fure there were a do¬
zen and a half of the fame focal length.
To return: A little ufe in working will make the
whole of the procefs of grinding and polifhing very
eafy and certain; for though we have endeavoured to
be as particular as poffible, it is yet fcarcely poffible
to fupply a want of dexterity, arifing from habit only,
by the moft laboured and minute defcription. And
though the above account may appear irkfome to the
reader, as it lies cold before the eye, it is hoped, who¬
ever attempts to make the inftrument, will not com¬
plain of it as tedioully particular.
It may, however, be farther remarked, that when the
metal begins to move ftifly upon the polifher, and par¬
ticularly when the figure is almoft brought to the pa¬
rabolic form, it will be necefiary to fix the elbows
againft the fides, in order to give momentum and equa¬
bility to the motion of the hand by that of the whole
body.
The fame polifher will ferve for feveral metals, if it
be fo me what warmed when you begin to ufe it.
There is another circumftance, and a material one
too, which mull not be omitted; it is this. For the
very fame reafon that the pitch ftiould not be too hard
or foft, the work will not proceed well in the heat of
fummer, or the,cold of winter: in the latter, it may
be poffible to remedy the defeat by having the room
warmed with a ftove ; and in the fummer, the other
inconvenience may perhaps be avoided by ufing a
harder kind of pitch; but our author much doubts in
either cafe whether the work will go on fo kindly:
he has himfelf always wrought in fpring and autumn.
The procefs of polifhing, and indeed grinding up¬
on the hones, will not go on fo well if it be not conti-
. nued uninterruptedly from beginning to end: for if the
work of either kind be left but for a quarter of an
hour, and you then return to it again, it will be fome
time before the tool and metal can get into a kindly
way of working ; and till they do, you are hurting
what was done before.
We have all along fuppofed that the metal we have
been working was about four inches diameter: if it
be either larger or fmaller, the fizes of the hones, brui-
fer, and pohfher, muft be proportionably different.
Our author fays he never found any ill ,coufequence a-
nfing from the different expanfion from heat and cold
m any of the tools, though they be made of different
metals and fubftances, unkfs the inconvenience, occa-
ICS. Part Ilf
fioned by the interruption before hinted at, be thought Mechaiiii3
to refult from thence ; for the alteration produced in 0 "yL
the furface of the fpeculum, both by grinding and po* inArunlfi:
lilhing, is fo much quicker than any that can be fup-  [-
pofed to arife from the former caufe, that it is never
attended with any pra&ical confequence. ao8 .
Magnifying very minute objedts, and particularly Teft ofl
reading at a diftance, have been generally confidered
as the fureft teft of the goodnefs of a telefcope; andf®***
indeed, when the page is placed at a great diftance, fo
that the letters fubtend but a very fmall angle at the
eye, if then they appear with great precifion and fliarp-
nefs, it is moft probable that the inftrument is a good
one. But we are, neverthelefs, fometimes apt to be
deceived by this method; nor is it always poffible to
determine upon the different merits of two inftrnments
of equal power, by this mode of examination ; for
when the letters are removed to the utmoft extent of
the powers of the two inftruments, the eye is apt to
be prejudiced by the imagination. If two or three
words can be here and there made out, all the reft are
gueffed at by the fenfe ; infomucb that an obferver,
zealous for the honour of his inftrument, is very apt
to deceive himfelf in fpite of his intentions. The furer
teft is by figures, where you can procure no aid from this
fort of deception. In order to examine reflefting tele¬
fcopes, our author made upon a piece of copper, and on
a black ground, fix lines confifting of about 12 pieces of
gold figures, and each line of figures differing in mag¬
nitude ; from the fmalleft that could be diftinftly made,
to thofe of about two-tenths of an inch long: more¬
over, the figures in the feveral lines were differently
difpofed, and the fum of each line alfo differed. It is
evident that by this method all guefs is precluded ;
and that of two inftruments, of the fame powers, that
which can make out the lead order of figures, which
will be known by the fum, is the beft telefcope. Such
a plate he caufed to be fixed up for experiments
againft the top of a fteeple, about 300 yards north of
his houfe; and it will ferve to give fome idea of the
diftindlnefs with which very fmall figures could be
made out at that diftance, by faying, that in a clear
ftate of the air, and with the fun behind him, with a
telefcope of 18 inches focal length, which count Bruhl
did him the honour to accept, and now has in his pof-
feffion, he has feen the legs of a fmall fly, and the
lhadows of them, with great precifion and exaftnefs.
“ I cannot conclude, (fays our author,) without
indulging myfelf in an obfervation on the amazing fa-
gacity of Sir Ifaac Newton in every fubjeft upon
which he thought fit to employ his attention. It was
he who firft propofed, and indeed praclifed, the po-
lifhing with pitch : a fubftance, which at firft fight,
perhaps, every one but himfelf would have thought
very improper, from its foftnefs, to produce that cor-
re&nefs of figure fo neceffary upon thefe occafions;
and yet I do believe, that it is the only fubftance in
nature that is perfectly calculated for the purpofe: for
at the fame time that it is foft enough to fuffer the
putty to lodge very freely on its furface, and for that
reafon to give a moft tender and delicate polifti; it is
likewife totally iuelaftic, and therefore never, from that
principle, fuffers any alteration in the figure you give
it. If the firft makers of the inftrument, therefore,
had given proper credit to, or had Amply followed the
hint
riatc CCXXJX
n ..nn«
/C
OrTiG
Hate ccxxrx:
11
fill
III
11111II
lilliliiiil
©
PartHI. OPT
Mecbanifm hint Sir Ifaac gave, it would have faved them infinite
°( trouble, and they would have produced much better
toftrumei]ts,*n^ruments ’ ^ut t^ie Preter‘ded refinement, of draw-
 ing a tinfture from pitch with fpirits of wine, affords
you only the refinous, hard, and untraftable part
of the pitch, divefted of all that part of its original
fiibftance, which is neceflary to give it that accom¬
modating pliability in which its excellence confifts.”
■ It is needlefs to fwell this account with a detail of
the procefs for polHhing the little fpeculum, as it mull
be conduced in the fame manner which has been al¬
ready defcribed in that of the large one • only obfer-
ving, that as the little metal has an uninterrupted face,
without a hole, fo there is no occafion for one in the
polilher; and likewife that, as a fpherical figure is
all that need here be practically attempted, fo the dif¬
ficulty in finilhing is infinitely fhort of that of the
i0!) °ther. _
Method of As it is always neceffary to folder to the back of the
foldering a little fpeculum a piece of brafs, as a fixture for the fcrew
piece of ^ to adju[t jts axJS) Mr Mudge mentions a fafe and neat
fmalVmlr-6 nieti10(i doing it, which may be very ufeful to the
ror> optical or mathematical inftrument-maker upon other
occafions. Having cleaned the parts to be foldered
very well, cut out a piece of tin-foil the exadt fize of
them ; then dip a feather into a pretty ftrong folu-
tion offal ammoniac in water, and rub it over the fur-
faces to be foldered ; after which place the tin-foil be¬
tween them as faff as you can (for the air will quickly
corrode their furfaces fo as to prevent the folder ta¬
king), and give the whole a gradual and fufficient heat
to melt the tin. If the joints to be foldered have been
made very flat, they will not be thicker than a hair:
though the furfaces be ever fo extenfive, the foldering
may be conduced in the fame manner ; only care
mull be taken, by general prefiure, to keep them
clofe together. In this manner, for inftance, a filver
graduated plate may be foldered on to the brafs limb
of a quadrant, fo as not to be difcernible by any thing
but the different colour of the metals. This method
was communicated to our author by the late Mr Jack-
fon, who during his life kept it a fecret, as he ufed
it in the cooftruftion of his quadrants.
In Plate CCXXVIII. are figured the fhape of the
leaden tool for rough-grinding ; the hones ; and the
apparatus to be applied in the mouth of the telefcope,
to afcertain the true figure of the fpeculum.
Fig. 7. The grinder for working off the rough face of
the metal: the black ftrokes reprefent deep grooves
made with a graver.
Fig. 8. The bed of hones, which is to complete the
fpherical figure of the fpeculum, and to render its
furface fit for the polilher.
Fig. 9. An apparatus for examining the parabolic fi¬
gure of the fpeculum.
AA, The mouth of the telefcope, or edge of the great
tube.
BB, A thin piece of wood faftened into and flulh
with the end of the tube ; to which is permanently
fixed the annular piece of pafteboard CC, intended
to cover and to prevent the aftion of the corre-
fponding part of the fpeculum.
D, Another piece of pafteboard, fixed by a pin to
the piece of wood BB, on which it turns as on a
centre; fo that the great annular opening HH,
Von. VIII. 3
I c S. 5631
maybe fhut up by the ring FF, or the aperture Medianifm
GG by the imperforate piece E, in fuch manner, .
that in the firft inftance the refleftion may be jnftrU[T)enti
from the centre, and in the latter from the circum 
ference, of the great fpeculum.
$ 6. Defcription of the different parts of ’which Refec¬
ting Telefcopes are compofed, and of fitting up an in-
frument of that kind; with the rectification of Tele-
fcopic fights of Quadrants, &c.
In Plate CCXXIX. all thefe are diftinftly repre-
fented.
Fig. 1. fliews the form of a pair of pincers necef¬
fary on feveral occafions, particularly for breaking off
the corners of a piece of glafs, in order to make the
eye-glafles.
Fig. 2. 3. Two wooden frames for confining the
fand in which the metalline fpecula are to be caft.
Fig. 6. 7. Two iron moulds in which are to be
caft two models of lead for the fpecula. Thefe mo¬
dels are afterwards to be turned as exaftly as poflible
to the gauges, and then ufed for giving the form ne¬
ceflary to the fand in the frames.
Having caft the fpecula, and poliflied them accord¬
ing to the diredtions already given, you muft next pro¬
vide a tube of plate brafs, well fmoothed, for the body
of your telefcope; and whofe length muft be deter¬
mined by the focal length of the large fpeculum. This
tube muft be painted black on the iniide, in order to
reflcdt as little extraneous light as poflible. When the
telefcopes are fmall, brafs is the ufual material of the
tube; but when large, the expence will be leflened by
making them of wood. This tube muft have a flit in
one of its fides, for allowing the fmall mirror to Aide
up and down.
AB is a circle of brafs, to be foldered round the
mouth of the tube CD, in order to keep on the co¬
ver. Of this cover EFHI thews one piece, which is
another brazen circle fitting the one AB fo clofely that
it cannot be taken off or put on without fome difficul¬
ty. G is a folid plate, which being fitted to the
middle vacancy of the former, completes the cover.
LM is another circle of the fame materials which
contains the large fpeculum, and to which is folcjered
the piece NO, having a hole in it to receive the eye¬
piece of the telefcope. xy z, Is a thin piece of cop¬
per, a little bent, on which the fpeculum is laid, and
which by its fpring keeps it ftiff in its place.
The eye-piece may be compofed of two tubes
and Y d7., of which the latter Aides upon the former.
KZ is the extremity of the eye-piece; and hath a
fmall hemifphere perforated, in order to admit the
light to the eye. The various parts of this extremity
are reprefented at b, c, and v, which will give a more
perfed idea of it than any defcription. In this eye¬
piece are placed the two lenfes which magnify the
image from the mirrors, and which are kept in their
proper places by the rings S, T, V, X.
The fmall mirror is now to be fixed exadly in the
middle of the tube, which is beft done by fuch a con¬
trivance as is fliewn at g h i, k and «. /" is a ruler of
brafs, which, Aiding along with the piece preferves,
by means of its crofs branches, the fmall mirror from
falling from fide to fide as the telefcope happens to be
turned. / is a round piece of brafs, faftened on the
31 U im-
5^32 OPT
Mechanifm Immoveable piece i, and wbicb holds the fmall fpecu-
°f lum. By means of a dove-tail flit it can be moved up
Optical ancj down ,jjj we finci tiie p0fition of the fpeculum is
.? rume-II-Sright, after which it is to be firmly fcrewrd on to the
piece /. m is a finall piece of brafs, having a female
fcrew, in which the rod is fcrewed, and which
moves the little fpeculum up or down, as it fliall be
4io found neceflary for procuring diftind vifion.
Method of Having now got all the parts of your telefcope, it
^ is neceffary in the firft place to fee that the tubes are
mirror?6 perfedly ftraight and round ; after which you may
proceed to place your mirrors in the telefcope, and to
Plate prove their fituation by the following method.—AB
C^XXIX. CD, fig. 8. is a circle drawn on a round piece of pafte-
board, having a fmall hole in the centre at E. FGHI
(fig- 9-) *3 another perforated circular piece of pafte-
board, having two hairs crofling each other as in the
figure. The former of thefe is placed juft behind the
large mirror; the latter in the place where the neareft
eye-glafs fhould ftand. If the light palling through
the fmall hole in the large circle falls exadly on the
interfedion of the hairs, it (hews that the large fpecu¬
lum is properly placed ; if not, its fituation muft be
altered till this is accomplifhed.
AB(fig. i o.) (hews the (hape of another piece ofpafte-
board,likewife perforated in the centre at C. The fmall
ari circle is to be of the diameter of the lefier fpeculum:
€>f adjufl:- and when the pafteboard is put exadly in its focus,
ing the the light will pafs ftraight through the little hole and
fmall fpe- eye.piece, fo as to be diftindfly vifible if the pofition
eulum. tjie fpeculum is exadly right; but if that is not the
cafe, the light will fall either to one fide or other, and
the pofnion of the fpeculum muft be altered accord-
ingly.
Fig. 12. Shews a telefcope of the Newtonian form,
in which the plane fpeculum is fomewhat nearer the
large one than in thofe formerly defcribed: in confe-
quence of which this requires a fmall eye-piece at the
ait fide, that the magnifying glafs may be placed at a fuf-
Of adjuft- ficient diftance from it. This telefcope is to be ad-
mfrrors of ju^ec^ 'n ^ following niann^r- Let there be provided
a Newtoni-^O circles °f pafteboard, reprefented fig. 13. and 14.
an tele- both of which are perforated in fuch a manner, that
fcope. the tube of the telefcope may juft enter the perfora¬
tion. The circle fig. 13. is divided into quadrants, at
each of which is pricked a hole with a pin. That re¬
prefented fig. 14. is alfo divided into quadrants; but,
inftead of pin-holes, has black lines drawn upon it.
The former is to be fixed on the open end of the tube,
and the latter on the end where the concave fpeculum
is placed. The telefcope is then to be turned towards
the fun, fo that the little fpecks of light palling thro’
the pin-holes of the circle fig. 13. fall upon the black
circular lines of fig. 14. Have then ready another piece
of pafteboard, fig. 15. perforated with pin-holes in five
different places as there reprefented. This piece muft
exa&ly fit the opening of the telefcope; and while the
tube continues thus turned ftraight to the fun, look
through the eye-piece. If all the fpecks of light co¬
ming through the holes in the pafteboard are feen di*
ftimft in the plane mirror, it is a fign that the mirrors
are in a proper pofition with regard to each other: but
if not, fome of them will not be feen at all, or will
appear confufed and indiftinft; in which cafe^ the fitu-
atioUiOf. the mirrors muft be altered till the light ap-
I C S. Part III.
pears bright and d!ftin&. Mechanifm
In the application of telefcopes to aflronomical in- Q •
ftruments and many other purpofes, it is abfolutelyjH^^yj
neceffary to fix the plane of the crofs-hairs exa&ly- -j
upon the plane of the pidture of an objeft ; which may of fl*fng
eafily be done from a knowledge of the following pro-crofs-hairs \
perties. Firft, let the interval between the two con-in the foci j
vex glaffes of the telefcope be adjufted to ftiew an °b-°fo ;
jeft diftin&ly ; and if the hairs appear confufed, they copes’ . '
will feem to dance upon the objeft, while the eye
moves fideways; and in dancing, if they feem to
move the fame way as the eye does, they lie behind
the pi&ure of the objedt; but if they move the con¬
trary way, they lie before it ; and muft be removed
accordingly, till they appear diftindl; and then they
will alfo feem fixed upon the objedt, notwithftanding
the motion of the eye. Secondly, let the interval be¬
tween the hairs and the eye-glafs be firft adjufted, till
the hairs appear diftindt : then, if the objedt appears
confufed, it will alfo appear to dance while the eye
moves fideways ; and in dancing, if it moves the fame
way as the eye does, its pidture is behind the hairs; if
the contrary way, its pidture is before them ; and to
bring it to the hairs, either the objedt-glafs muft be
moved, or elfe the hairs and eye-glafs both together.
In both thefe cafes, it is the confufed objedt (for the
hairs may alfo be called fo) that feems to move, and
the diftindtoneto ftand ftill; as in vifion with thema-
ked eye. For, to a perfon in motion, fuppofe hp be
walking, any objedt appears fixed that he fixes his
eyes upon and fees diftindtly, while the reft that are
nearer or farther off appear confufed and in motion ;
the reafon of it is too obvious to need an explanation.
But to (hew it in the telefcope, let A be the interfec- plate
tion of the crofs-hairs, and hik pencil of rays flow-CCXXV. j
ing from it, which, after refradtion through the eye-^S- *•t0 4!
glafs e a i, belong to the focus k, either at a finite or
an infinite diftance. Draw A e, the axis of this pen¬
cil, cutting theobjedl in and its pi&ure in q; and
let the emergent rays of the pencil q a A, flowing from
q, cut the emergent rays of the former pencil in the'
points />, and belong to the focus b, either at a finite
or an infinite diftance. Now, if the eye be placed at
any point 0 in the common axis of thefe pencils, the
points A, will both appear in the fame diredlion
0 e ; but if the eye be moved fideways from 0 to p, the
point Q_jwill appear in the diredlion pa, 'and the
point A in the diredlion p i. And from hence the rea¬
fon of the foregoing cafes will be fufficiently manifeft,
by attending to the figures. Laftly, while the focufes
A q are disjoined, the mutual inclination of the emer¬
gent rays in one pencil, muft be different from the
mutual inclination of the emergent rays in the other ;
and fo the humours of the eye cannot be adapted to
colledt the rays in both pencils to two diftindl points.
If one be diftindl, the other will be confufed, and iu
a different part of the retina; (except when the eye
is in the axis: ) but when the focufes A, q, are united*
the focufes k, b, of the emergent rays will alfo be
united ; and confequently the coinciding rays of both <
pencils will be united in the fame point of the re¬
tina, wherever the pupil of the eye be placed; and
therefore the correfponding points of the objedt and
crofs-hairs will appear fixed together without any j
parallax.
When.
PartHI. OPT
Wechanifm When the place of the hairs is thus determined, it
I °f . may be of ufe to meafure their diltance from the ob-
InftrumentJe("*'S^s» wh*ch >s exafteft way of finding its fo-
  cal dittance, if the object be very remote. And to keep
this diftance always the fame whenever the telefcope is
ufed, it is convenient to have marks or itops at the
end of each joint of the tube. For then, whatever eye-
glafs be applied, the objeft and hairs will both ap¬
pear diftinA at the fame time, and without parallax.
Inftead of hairs, the fineft filver wires are now made
1I4 ufe of, but are ftill called Awv.
Line of A line drawn from the interfe&ion of the hairs
collimation through the centre of refra&ions in the objetf-glafs,
de ned. whether it coincides with the axis of the glafs or
is inclined to it, is called the ef collimation or line
of fight; becaufe this line produced, falls upon the
objedl in that point whofe image falls upon the inter-
fedlion of the hairs: and therefore the flraight ray
that deferibes this line, anfwers to the vifual ray by
which we take aim at an objeft with plain-fights.
Hence, when the objeft-glafs and hairs are firmly fix¬
ed in a ftrong tube, or to a ftraight ruler, it is mani-
feft, that the line of fight is as immutable with re-
fpeft to the tube, as if two little holes or plain-
fights were fubftituted in the places of the interfec-
tion of the hairs, and of the centre of refradtions in
liJ the objedt-glafs.
JJow to ad- order to fet the line of fight parallel to a given
Kurt tele- line upon the plane of an inftrument, the objeft-glafs
Ifcopic mu ft be firmly fixed, and the ring or plate that carries
|r£ ts’ the crofs-hairs muft have two gradual motions in its
own plane by two ferews at right angles to each
other; for by this means the interfedlion of the hairs
may be moved to any given point in that plane. Thefe
motions are effedled by three brafs plates laid over
one another. The uppermoft, having a circular hole
in it, over which the hairs are ftrained, Aides over the
middlemoft in the dire&ion of an oblong hole cut in
it, whofe breadth is fomewhat greater than that of the
hole above it; and thefe two together Aide fideways
over the undermoft plate, in which there is a larger
Plate oval hole. We Aiall deferibe thefe plates more parti-
'pCXXVIII.cularly in a contrary order. On each fide of the oval
| 4- h0le in the middle of the plate R laft mentioned, two
brafs ledges m, n, are firmly riveted to receive the
dove-tailed fides of the plate S ; and the contiguous
ends of both thefe plates are turned up fquare at b and
e; and through a hole b, in the middle of the part
turned up in the larger plate R, there works a pretty
thick ferew a be, whofe fore-end c being filed to a
neck, goes through a hole e in the lip of the other
plate S ; and in the end of the neck c there is made a
fmall ferew hole to receive a ferew-pin d; fo that by
turning the ferew abc with a kind of a watch-key,
the plate S is moved backwards or forwards between
the ledges m, n. The figure T reprefents two more
ledges o, p, that are to be riveted upon the plate S;
thefe ledges are part of the plate T turned up at right
angles to them, in which part there is the like contri¬
vance of a ferew abed to move a third plate V be¬
tween the ledges o, p, at right angles to the former
motion. The filver wires are ftrained over the hole in
the plate V by four fmall peggs, that fix them in four
little holes. The other end of the plate R, oppofite
to the part b that carries the ferew, is bent fquare the
ICS. 5633
contrary way to the part b\ or, which anfwers the fameMechaaiim
purpofe, one ledge ef of the plate X bent fquare, is °.f .
riveted to the backfide of the plate R at the end op- inftmrnents
polite to the ferew b ; and its other ledge^ is ferew-  
ed to the fide of the tube of the telefcope ; and the
necks of the ferews go through long Aits in this ledge,
to give liberty of placing it accurately at the due di¬
ftance from the objeft-glafs : and for the purpofe of
letting this brafs work into the tube, two large Aits muft:
be cut in two contiguous fides of it: one of which
may heft be covered with a thin piece of horn, to ad¬
mit the light of a candle upon the hairs in obferving
fmall liars in the night time.
To make the line of fight through a moveable te¬
lefcope parallel to a given line YZ upon a fixed plane; Fig. 5-,
let the ends of the tube of the telefcope, whether
fquare or cylindrical, be put through two holes in two
fquare plates abedt and efgh, made exaftly equal
to each other, and fo fixed to the tube that the fides
of the one may be exaftly parallel to the fides of the
other ; which is eafily done by applying their corners
a,e, to the given line YZ, and by drawing two lines
a i, e k> perpendicular to it, upon the given plane, and
by making all the correfponding fides, a b,ef, coin¬
cide with thefe perpendiculars. Then obferve what
point of a remote objeft is covered by the interfec-
tion of the hairs when the corners a, e, touch the given
line YZ, and likewife what other point is covered by
them when the oppofite corners c, g, touch the fame
line in the fame places, that is, when the telefcope is
turned upfide down or half round. Then conceiving
thefe two points of the objefl to be connedled by a
ftraight line, move the crofs-hairs by the two ferews,
till you judge their interfedtion bifedts that line ; and
by repeating the fame pradtice, you may foon bring
the interfedlion of the hairs to cover one and the
fame point of the objedt, when the oppofite cor¬
ners of the fquares are fuccefiively applied to the line
YZ ; and then the line of fight will be parallel to it.
To ftiew the reafon of this pradtice, we may fup- pjg
pofe the centre of refradtion in the objedl-glafs to be 0
any point /of the fquare abed, and the interfedlion
of the hairs to be any point m of the fquare efgh.
Upon the plane of the firft fquare, and through its
centres, draw lo*, and take o* equal to 0/; alfo
upon the plane of the fecond fquare, and through its
centre p, draw mp y., and take p y equal to pm. Join
/wand x/q and fuppofing /«and xvparallel to the axis
0 p, join m n, n», v y. Then becaufe the r.efpedlive
fides about the equal angles mp n, yp v, are made equal,
the lines m n, y*, oppofite to them, are alfo equal and
parallel. Now the parallel lines «/, p 0, *x, produced
will fall upon a remote objedl in three points fo clofe
together as to appear like a fingle point thro’ the te¬
lefcope ; and confequently the planes of the parallel
triangles Imn, X/tcv, produced, will cut the fame ob¬
jedl in two parallel lines fo clofe together as to appear
but one line through the telefcope; and fince the
angles id ln, /«xv, are equal, the interfedtion of the
hairs, now at wand then turned half round to y, will
cover two points in that line equidiftant from the
point abovementioned, and on oppofite fides of it:
therefore, by removing the ir.terftdlion from m to n,
it will appear to bifedt the interval between thofe two
points; and then the line of fight«/ will be parallel
5634
° p T
Mechanifin to the axis p 0, and to the Tides of the parallelepiped,
and alfo to the given line YZ.
Optical ^ telefcope thus prepared, may be ufeful upon fe-
  veral occafions ; as if it be required to rectify the hairs
in a telefcdpe fixed to any inftrument, fo as to fet the
line of fight parallel to a given line upon the plane of
the inftrument. Apply the corners of the fquares of
the telefcope abovementioned to the given line, and
obferving what point of a remote objeft is covered by
its crofs hairs, move the crofs hairs of the fixed tele¬
fcope till they cover the fame point of the objeft, and
215 the bufinefs is done.
Of reflify- But tj,e telefcopic fights of quadrants and feftants,
ff*Ls of whofe planes may be readily placed in any given po-
quadrants fture, may be reftified by a plumb-line. We (hall
and feftantshere tranferibe an account of thefe le&ifications from
by a plumb. Mr Molyneux’s Dioptrics, p. 238. “ I come now
line' to the re&ification of thefe fights on quadrants and
fextants, for taking angles. This may be done either
before or after the divifion into degrees, &c. are made
on the limb of the quadrant. If it be done before,
Plate then we fuppofe the telefcope TL fixed to the qua-
CCXXIX. drant, which we fuppofe continued a little farther than
fig. 18.19. t}ie fourth part of a circle. Choofing then an objedt
pretty near the horizon ; let us look thro’ the tele-
fcope, in the ufual pollute of obfervation, and ob-
ferve the point in the objedl marked by the crofs-
bairs ; and at the fame time we are to note moft nice¬
ly the point £•, which the plumb-line fcg, hung from
the centre f of the quadrant, cuts on the limb. Then
we are to invert the quadrant into the pofture of fig. 19.
(which is eafily done by the ufual contrivances forma-
naging great quadrants, by toothed femicircles and
endlefs ferews) keeping ftill the telefcope TL nearly
tipon the fame height from the ground as before, un-
lefs the objedl we look at be fo far diftant, that the
breadth of the quadrant fubtends but an infenfible
angle. But yet for certainty, it is better to keep the
telefcope, as it is faid, upon the fame height from
the floor ; then diredl the telefcope TL, that the
crofs hairs may cover exadlly the fame point in the
objedl, as before in the pofture of fig. 18. And hang¬
ing now the plumb-line afg on the limb of the qua¬
drant, let us remove it to and fro, till we find out the
exadl point a, from which the plumb-line being hung,
(hall moft nicely hang over the centre of the quadrant
f Then carefully marking the point a, let us divide
the arch c a into two equal parts in b ; and drawing
b f the point b is the point from which we are to be¬
gin the divifions of the quadrant: and the line of col-
limation through the telefcopic fight, (lands exadlly at
right angles to the line bf. So that the quadrant
bfd being compleated and divided, the faid line of
light thro’ the telefcope runs exquifitely parallel to the
line fd.
“ In the next place, fuppofing the quadrant
truly compleated and divided; and that we defigned
to fix thereto the telefcopic fight TL, fo that the line
of fight may run exadlly at right angles to the line
bf or parallel to the line df ; we are to do as in the
foregoing praxis. And if, in dividing the arch ac,
we find its half exadlly coincident with the points, we
have our defire. But if it differs from the point bt
and falls between b and d> then the line of collimation
through the telefcope ftands at an obtufe angle with
I C S. Partin.
the line bf; and the inftritment errs in excefs : if this Meclianifm
half arch fall without b and d, then the line of colli- „ °f . ;
mation makes an acute angle with the line bf‘, andinftnimenti
the inftrument errs in defedl. And by often trials, we ' -
are to remove the crofs-hairs within the tube, fo much
as is requifite to corredl this error. And when we
have thus redlified them to their due place, there they
are to be ftrongly fixed. Or elfe, in obfervations ta¬
ken by this inftrument, we are to make allowance for
this error; by fubtradling from (if it be in excefs), or
by adding to (if it be in defedl), each obfervation, fo
much as we find the error to be.
“ The reafon of this redlification is moft plain; for
it is manifeft, that cfd wants of a full quadrant, as
much as afd exceeds a quadrant. So the difference
of the two arches in the two poftures being ac ; half
this difference be added in fig. 18. or a b fubtradled in
fig. 19. makes b d z complete quadrant.
“ If we find our Inftrument errs in taking angles, and
we defire to know the error more nicely than perhaps
the divifions of the inftrument itfelf will (hew it, we
are to do thus. Suppofing the quadrant bfd already
accurately divided, and that the plumb-line plays over
the point c\ and upon the inverfion of the inftrument,
we find that before we can get it to play exadlly over
the centre f we muft hang it over the point r, fo
that the arch eb exceeds bc by the arch er; it is
plain that the angle efa is the error of the inftrument:
for had the plumb-line hung over a, and over the
centre f in this latter pofture, the inftrument had been
exadl; becaufe a is as much on one fide b, as c is on
the other fide b. Wherefore efa being the angle by
which our inftrument errs in obfervation, let us turn
the inftrument into the ufual pofture of obfervation,
as infig. 18. and hanging the plumb-line on the centre
fy let us bring it to play nicely on the point e, and
obferve what diftant objedl is covered by the crofs-
hairs : then let us bring it to play exadlly on the
point a, and obferve likewife what diftant objedl is
pointed at by the telefcope-hairs. Laftly, by a large
telefcope and micrometer, let us meafure the angle
between tbefe two objedls, and we (hall have the angle
of error much more nicely than it is poflible the
angle efa (hould be given by the divifions on the limb
of the quadrant e a. And thus much for adjufting a
quadrant.
“ A fextant is redlified in like manner ; if we confi- pjg
der, that if from the centre f to the beginning of the
divifions there be drawn the radius f d, and it be di¬
vided equally in c, and from c there be fufpended the
plumb-line cb'. when the plumb-line hangs over the
60th degree at b, then the line f d lies horizontal; and
confequently, if the line of collimation thro’ the tube be
parallel tothis line alfo lies horizontal. To try which,
whilft the fextant ftands in this pofture, obferve the
'objedl marked by the crofs-hairs; then invert the fex¬
tant, and over the point b hang the plumb-line; and
when from the point b the plumb-line hangs over the
middle point ct then again is the line/VJiorizontal in
this pofture. Mark, then, whether the crofs-hairs co¬
ver the fame objedl as before: if they do, then the
line of collimation is parallel to f d; if they do not,
but the point in the objedl marked in this latter pofture
be higher than the point marked in the firft pofture,
the iuftrument errs in excefs ; if it be lower, the in¬
ftrument
*rt III. OPT
ichaniftn ftrument errs in defeft. And either we are to remove
| the crofs-hairs, till we bring all to rights, and there
fruments t^iem 5 or ^ t^ie meth°ds before laid down in the
 re&ification of the quadrant, we are to find the quan¬
tity of this erroneous angle, and to allow for it in ob-
fervation.
“ In inftrumentsfurnilhed with two pair of telefco-
pic fights, one on a fixed arm, and the other on a move-
able arm (by the ancients termed an alidade); it is
eafy reftifying the fights on the moveable arm, thus.
[ After the fights on the fixed arm are redified by what
foregoes, bring the index of the moveable arm, to the
t beginning of the divifions on the limb of the inftru-
ment, be it quadrant or fextant, &c. it is then mani-
feft, that the line of collimation through the moveable
telefcope (if it be right) fhould lie parallel to the line
of collimation through the fixed telefcope. Obferve,
therefore, whether the crofs-hairs in both telefcopes
do at the fame time cut the fame ftar, or fall on the
fame point in an objeft diftant three or four miles. If
they do, then the moveable telefcope agreeing with
the fixed, and the fixed being fuppofed re&ified to the
idivifions on the inftrument, the moveable is right like-
wife. But if the hairs in the moveable telefcope do not
agree in marking the fame point with the crofs-hairs in
the fixed telefcope, then the hairs in this moveable tele¬
fcope are to be removed (by whatever contrivance there
is for that purpofe) and brought to rights, and there
fixed.”
There are other methods propounded for reftifying
telefcopic fights on other forts of inftruments, by
means of obfervations towards the zenith, as our for¬
mer methods have been employed towards the horizon.
But it is fufficient here to lay down only what fore¬
goes, as being of the greateft and mod frequent ufe :
referring for the others to M. Picard’s “ Treatife of
the meafure of a degree of a great circle of the earth,”
publilhed at the end of the “ Memoirs of a Natural
Hiltory of animals, &c.” by the Royal Academy
at Paris; tranfiated into Englifh and printed at Lon¬
don 1688, folio.
Sect. VII. Of the different Merits of Microfcopes
and Telefcopes^ compared -with one another; how
far we may reafonably depend on the Difcoveries
made by themt and what hopes we may entertain
of further Improvements.
j Advantages t^HE advantages arifing from the ufe of microfcopes
tfrom the and telefcopes depend in the firft place upon their pro-
jfefe of mi- perty of magnifying the minute parts of obje&s, fo
wrofccpes t]13t they can by that means be more diftinelly viewed
Ifcopcs e" bY lbe eye ; and, fecondly, upon their throwing more
|| ' light into the pupil of the eye than what is done without
them. The advantages arifing from the magnifying
power would be extremely limited, if they were not
alfo accompanied by the latter : for if the fame quan¬
tity of light is fpread over a large portion of furface,
it becomes proportionably diminifhed in force; and
therefore the objects, though magnified, appear pro¬
portionably dim. Thus, though any magnifying glafs
firould enlarge the diameter of the cbjtft to times, and
confequer.tly magnify the furface too times, yet if the
focal diftai ce of the glafs was about eight inches, (pro¬
vided this was pofiible), and its diameter only about the
fize of the pupil of the eye, the objeft would appear 100
I G S. 5635
times more dim when we looked thro’ the glafs, than Mechanifnj
when we beheld it with our naked eyes; and this, even °f
on a fuppofition that the glafs tranfmitted all the light,
which fell upon it, which no glafs can do. But if the - -
focal diftance of the glafs was only four inches, tho*
its diameter remained as before, the inconvenience
would be vaftly diminilhed, becaufe the glafs could
then be placed twice as near the objeft as before, and
confequently would receive four times as many rays as
in the former cafe, and therefore we would fee it
much brighter than before. Going on thus, ftill di-
minifhing the focal diltance of the glafs, and keeping
its diameter as large as pofiible, we will perceive the
objeft more and more magnified, and at the fame time
very diftindl and bright. It is evident, however, that
with regard to optical inftruments of the microfcopic
kind, we mull fooner or later arrive at a limit which 117
cannot be pafled. This limit is formed by the follow- Limits of
ing particulars. 1. The quantity of light loft in pafs- 'bef®dya""e
ing through the glafs. 2. The diminution of the glafs
itfelf, by which it receives only a fmall quantity of crofcopcs,
rays. 3. The extreme fhortnefs of the focal di¬
ftance of great magnifiers, whereby the free accefs of
the light to the objeft which we wi(h to view is impe¬
ded, and confequently the refle&ion of the light from
it is weakened. 4. The aberrations of the rays, oc-
cafioned by their different refrangibility.
To underftand this more fully, as well as to fee how
far thefe obftacles can be removed, let us fuppofe the
lens made of fuch a dull kind of glafs that it tranfmits
only one half of the light which falls upon it. It is
evident that fuch a glafs, of four inches focal diftance,
and which magnifies the diameter of an objeft twice,
ftill fuppofing its own breadth equal to that of the
pupil of the eye, will (hew it four times magnified in
furface, but only half as bright as if it was feen by
the naked eye at the ufual diftance; for the light
which falls upon the eye from the objeft at eight inches
diftance, and likewife the furface of the objeft in its
natural fize, being both reprefented by 1, the furface
of the magnified objedf will be 4, and the light which
makes that magnified object vifible only 2 ; becaufe
though the glafs receives four times as much light as
the naked eye does at the ufual diftance of diftindt
vifion, yet one half is loft in pafiing through the glafs.
The inconvenience in this refpedt can therefore be re¬
moved only as far as it is pofiible to increafe the clear-
nefs qf the glafs, fo that it (hall tranfmit nearly all the
rays which fall upon it ; and how far this can be done,
hath not yet been afeertained.
The fecond obftacle to the perfedlion of microfcopic
glaffes is the fmall fize of great magnifiers, by which,
notwithftanding their near approach to the objedl, they
receive a fmaller quantity of rays than might be, ex-
pedled. Thus, fuppofe a glafs of only tV1 of an
inch focal diftance ; fuch a glafs would increafe the
vifible diameter 80 times, and the furface 6400 times.
If the breadth of the glafs could at the fame time be
preferved as great as that of the pupil of the eye,
which we (hall fuppofe Ath of an inch, the objedk
would appear magnified 6400 times, at the fame
time that every part of it would be as bright as it
appears to the naked eye. But if we fuppofe that
this magnifying glafs is only -jV11 of an inch in dia¬
meter, it will then only receive f111 of the light which
other-
5636 OPT
Mechanifm otherwife would have fallen upon it; and therefore, in-
°( Head of communicating to the magnified objedt a
Inftrunients <luant*ty of dhimination equal to 6400, it would com-
 municate only one equal to 1600, and the magnified
objedt would appear four times as dim as it does to
.the naked eye. This inconvenience however is ftill
capable of being removed, not indeed by increafing
the diameter of the lens, becaufe this mull be in pro¬
portion to its focal dillance, but by throwing a
greater quantity of light on the objedt. Thus, in
the above-mentioned example, if four times the quan¬
tity of light which naturally falls upon it could be
thrown upon the objedl, it is plain that the refledtion
from it would be four times as great as in the natural
way ; and confequently the magnified image, at the
fame time that it was as many times magnified as be¬
fore, would be as bright as when feen by the naked
eye. In tranfparent objedls this can be done very
effedtually by a concave fpeculum, as in the refledting
microfcope already defcribed : but in opaque objedls
the cafe is fomewhat more doubtful; neither do the
a,8 contrivances for viewing thefe objedls feem entirely to
Utmoft make up for the deficiencies of the light from the
magnifying fmallnefs cf the leps and (hortnefs of the focus,
microfcope ^ien a microfcopic lens magnifies the diameter of an
without di-°!)jc&4° times, it hath then the utmoll poffible mag-
piinifhing nifying power, without diminilhing the natural bright-
:the light, nefs of the objedl.
The third obllacle arifes from the fhortnefs of the
focal dillance in large magnifiers : but in tranfparent
objedls, where a fufficient quantity of light is thrown
on the objedt from below, the inconvenience arifes at
fall from llraining the eye, which mull be placed nearer
the glafs than it can well bear; and this entirely fuper-
fedes the ufeof magnifiers beyond a certain degree.
The fourth obllacle arifes from the diflerent refran-
gibility of the rays of light, and which frequently
caufes fuch a deviation from truth in the appearances
of things, that many people have imagined themfelves
to have made furprifing difcoveries, and have even pub-
lilhed them to the world ; when in fadt they have
been only as' many optical deceptions, owing to the
unequal refradlions of the rays. For this there feems
to be no remedy, except the introdudlion of achromatic
glafies into microfcopes as well as telefcopes. How
far this is pradlicable, hath not yet been tried ; but
.when thefe glalfes lhall be introduced, (if fuch intro¬
dudlion is pradlicable), microfcopes will then undoubt-
edly have received their ultimate degree of perfedlion.
Compara- With regard to telefcopes, thofe of the refrafting
tive good- kind have evidently the advantage of all others, where
nefs of the the aperture is equal, and the aberrations of the rays
kindsoPte-are correi^ed acc°rding to Mr Dollond’s method ; be-
ilefcopes. *cauk image is not only more perfedl, but a much
greater quantity of light is tranfmitted than what can
be refledted from the bell materials hitherto known.
Unluckily, however, the imperfedlions of the glafs fet
a limit to thefe telefcopes, as hath already been ob-
ferved, fo that they cannot be made above three feet
and an half long. On the whole, therefore, the reflec¬
ting telefcopes are preferable in this refpedl, that they
may be made of dimenfions greatly fuperior; by
which means they can both magnify to a greater de¬
gree, and at the fame time throw much more light in¬
to the eye.
I C S. Part 111
With regard to the powers of telefcopes, however, MechJ
they are all of them exceedingly lefs than what we 0|[
would be apt to imagine from the number of times
which they magnify the ohjedl. Thus, when we -
hear of a telefcope which magnifies 200 times,
are apt to imagine, that, on looking at any dillant ob¬
jedl through it, we Ihould perceive it as dillindlly as
we would with our naked eye at the 200th part of
the dillance. But this is by no means the cafe ;
neither is there any theory capable of diredling us in
this matter: we mull therefore depend entirely on ex¬
perience.
The bed method of trying the goodnefs of any
telefcope is by obferving how much farther off
you are able to read with it than you can with the
naked eye. But that all deception may be avoided,
it is proper to choofe fomething to be read where the
imagination cannot give aqy affillance, fuch as a table
of logarithms, or fomething which confilts entirely of
figures; and hence the truly ufeful power of the tele¬
fcope is eafily known. In this way Mr Short’s large
telcfcope, which magnifies the diameter of objedls x 200
times, is yet unable to afford fufficient light for read¬
ing at more than 200 times the dillance at which we
can read with our naked eye.
With regard to the form of refledling telefcopes, in
is now pretty generally agreed, that when the Gre¬
gorian ones are well conltrudled, they have the advan- J
tage of thofe of the Newtonian form. One advantage i
evident at firll fight is, that with the Gregorian tele- :l
fcope an objedl is perceived by looking diredlly thro*
it, and confequently is found with much greater eafe
than in the Newtonian telefcope, where we mull look
into the fide. The unavoidable imperfedlion of the fpe-
cula common to both, alfo gives the Gregorian an ad¬
vantage over the Newtonian form. Notwithftanding the
utmofl care and labour of the workmen, it is found im-
polfible to give the metals either a perfedlly fpherical,
or a perfedlly parabolical form. Hence arifes fome
indillindtnefs of the image formed by the great fpecu-
lum, which is frequently corredled by the little one, j
provided they are properly matched. But if this is not
done, the error will be made much worfe : and hence
many of the Gregorian telefcopes are far inferior to
the Newtonian ones ; namely, when the fpecula have !
not been properly adapted to each other. There is no
method by which the workman can know the fpecula
which will fit one another, without a trial; and there¬
fore there is a neceflity for having many fpecula ready
.made of each fort, that in fitting up a telefcope thofe
many be'chofen which bell fuit each other. ,
The brightnefs of any objedl feen through a telefcope, pAr“*_
incomparifon withits brightnefs when feen by the naked fordeterl
eye, may in all cafes be eafily found by the following mining t;
formula. Let « reprefent the natural dillance of
vifible objedt, at which it can be dillindlly feen; and”ie^,gjb*
let d reprefent its dillance from the objedt-glafs of the telefcopes
inftrument. Let m be the magnifying power of the or micro-
inllrument; that is, let the vilual angle fubtended fc0Pes' *
at the eye by the objedl when at the dillance n, and j
viewed without the inllrument, be to the vifual angle
produced by the inftrument as 1 to m. Let # be the :
diameter of the ohjedl-glafs, and p be that of the
pupil. Let the inllrument be fo conllrudled, that no \
parts of the pencils are intercepted for want of fuffi¬
cient I
firt III. OPT
tpanifm cient apertures of the Intermediate glafies. Laftly, let
lljtfcal t^le *n r^fleftion or refraftion be negletted.
^ 1 a The brightnefs of vifion through the inftrument will
be exprefled by the fra&ionl^?! , the brightnefs of
natural vifion being i. But although this fraction
may exceed unity, the vifion through the inftrument
will not be brighter than natural vifiom For, when
this is the cafe, the pupil does not receive all the light
ICS. 5637
tranfmitted through the Inftrument. Mechanifm
In microfcopes, n is the neareft limits of difilnft n °- 1
vifion, nearly 8 inches. But a difference in this cir- in ft foments
cumftance, arifing from a difference in the eye, makes 
no change in the formula, becaufe m changes in the
fame proportion with n.
In telefcopes, n and d may be accounted equal, and
the formula becomes 
m p*
ERIAL fpeculums men-
tioned by Mr Grey, n°46.
[A phenomenon fimilar to
what is exhibited by them
jexplained by M. le Cat, 61
'• ftrongly refle&s the rays
iroceeding from beneath the
iirface of water, 36
Wiline fait diminifhes the
mean refra&ion, but not the
difperfive powey, of glafs, 18
mmbert (M. d’), his difco-
veries concerning achromatic
telefcopes, p. 5485
lhazen’s difcoveries concern¬
ing the refraftion of the at-
mofphere, 6. His conjec¬
tures about the caufe of it,
ib. He gave the firft hint
of the magnifying power of
glaffes, ib
Uparent place of obje&s feen
by refleftion, firft difcovered
by Kepler, 26
\mofphere varies in its refrac¬
tive power at different times,
»19
hout (Mr), makes an objedf-
-glafs of an extraordinary fo-
" cal length, 85
B.
Xacon (Roger), his dlfcove-
rits, 8
VSffcoft (Lord), his miftakecon-
Bcerning the poffibility of
I making images appear in
j| the air, 25
\aea?/2s of light: remarkable
ffi! appearance of the bounda-
1 ries of two contiguous ones,
| p. 5499, col. 2.
peaume (Mr), cannot fire in-
I flammableliquids with burn-
| ing-glaffes, 43
perkley (Dr), his hypothefis
P.concerning the apparent
I place of objefts, p. 5570,
I col. 2. Objefted to by Dr
f Smith, ib
p/wca/tfr telefcope invented by.
[ Father Rheita, 83
. marble, in fome cafes re-
I N
fleiSs very powerfully, 35
Bouguer’s experiments con¬
cerning the quantity of light
loft by refledion, 32. His
obfervations concerning the
apparent place of obje&s,
p. 5572, col. 2.
Boyle’s experiments concerning
the light of differently co¬
loured fubftances, 27
Brijlle, curious appearance of
the (hadow of one, 55
A«r«/^-glaffesof the ancients
defcribed, 24
C.
Camera obfcura explained,
P- 5583-
Campani-, a celebrated maker
of telefcopes, 84. On what
the goodnefs of his tele¬
fcopes depended, ib
Candle, fometimes appears mul¬
tiplied when feen through a
chink, p. 5569, col. 2.
Cat (M. le), explains a Angu¬
lar phenomenon, 61
Cat, experiment with one plun¬
ged under water, p. 5535,
col. 1.
Celejlial obfervations: how to
make them, p. 5565
Clouds: why they caufe certain
motions in the lhadows of
bodies, 62
Cold, why moft intenfe on the
tops of mountains, 42
Colours difcovered to arife from
refra&ion, 15. Suppofed by
Dechales to arife from the
infledion of light, 49. Pro¬
duced by a mixture of ftia-
dows, 57
Concave glaffes for ftiort-fight-
ed people, when firft invent¬
ed, 67
Contaft of bodies in many
cafes apparent without be¬
ing real, 45
Cryjlal hath fome refledive
properties different from o-
ther tranfparent fubftances,
3^
D E X.
Cylinders: experiments by Ma-
raldi concerning their {ha-
do ws, 53
D.
Deception in vifion : a remark¬
able one explained by M. le
Cat, p. 5574, col. 2.
Dechales’s obfervations on the
infledion of light, 49
Defcartes: his difcoveries con¬
cerning vifion, 65
Dioptric inftruments; difficul¬
ties attending the conftruc-
tion of them, no
Dijlance of objeds not judged
of merely by the angle un¬
der which they are feen,
p. 5570, col. 2
Divini; a celebrated maker of
telefcopes, 84. Microfcopes
made by him, 98
Dollond (Mr), difcovers a me¬
thod of correding the errors
arifing from refradion, 17.
He difcovers a miftake in
one of Sir Ifaac Newton’s
experiments, p. 5483. Dif¬
covers the different refrac¬
tive and difperfive power of
glafs, p. 5483. Difficulties
occurring in the execution
of his plan, 5484. His im¬
provements in.the refrading
telefcope, 90
E.
Equatorial telefcope, or por¬
table obfervatory, n° 92. and
P- 56o3
Euler (Mr), firft fuggefted the
thought of improving re¬
frading telefcopes, 17. His
controverfy with Clairault,
&c. ib
Eye: the denfity and refradive
powers of its humours firft
afcertained by Scheiner, 64.
Defcription of it,it 15. Di-
menfions of the inienfible
fpot of it, 120
Eyes are feldom both equally
gpod, p. 5569, col. 2.
F.
Fontana claims the honour of'
inventing telefcopes, 72
Funk (Baron Alexander), hia
obfervation concerning the-
light in mines, 46
G.
Galilean telefcope of more dif¬
ficult conftrudion than o-
thers, 79
Galileo makes a telefcope with¬
out any pattern, 73. Ac¬
count of his difcoveries with
it, 74. Why furnamed Lyn-
ceeus, 75. W^s ignorant of
the true rationale of tele¬
fcopes, 77
Glafs globes: their magnify¬
ing powers known to the an¬
cients, 3. Different kinds of
them, ib. Table of the dif¬
ferent compofitions of glafs
for correding the errors in
refleding telefcopes, p.5486,.
Shew various colours when
fplit into thin laminae, n° 30.
Table of the quantities of
light refleded from glafs not
quick-filvered, at different:
angles of incidence, p. 5594'
Glaffes: difference in thdr
powers.of refradion and dif-
perfion of the light, p. 5483:
Globes have ftiorter (hadows
than cylinders, n° 54, 56.
Remarkable difference be¬
tween their fhadows and thofe:
of metalline plates, 56
Globules for microfcopes, how.
made by Adams, 101. See:
Microjcope.
Graphical perfpedive, p. 5584.
Grey (Mr), his temporary mi--
crofcopes, p. 5591
Grimaldi firft obferves that co¬
lours arife from refradion,,
15. Infledion of light fifft
difcovered by him, p. 5497>.
col. 2. His difcoveries con¬
cerning this infledion, n° 48-
H.
Hairs, remarkable appearance
of-
6538
of their fliadowss, 56
Hartfoekerh microfcopes, 98
Heliojlata defcribed, p. 5601
Hire (M. de la), his reafon
why rays of light feem to
proceed from luminous bo¬
dies, when viewed with the
eyes half-fhut, 50
Hooke (Dr), his difcoveries
concerning the inflexion of
light, 47. His obje&ion
againft Hevelius founded on
a miftake, 125
Horizon, its extent on a plane
furface, p. 5567, col. I.
Horizontal moon, Ptolemy’s
hypothefis concerning it, 5
Janfen (Zacharias), the firft
inventor of telefcopes, 70.
Made the firft microfcope,
95> 96
Images: Lord Bacon’s miftake
concerning the poffibility of
making them appear in the
air, 25. Another on the
fame fubjeft by Vitellio, ib.
B. Porta’s method of pro¬
ducing this appearance, ib.
Kircher’s method, ib. Ima¬
ges of objedts appear double
when a quantity of water is
poured into a veffel contain¬
ing quickfilver, p. 5494
Jnfledion of light, difcoveries
concerning it, p. 5497,001.2.
Dr Hooke’s difcoveries con¬
cerning it, 47. Grimaldi’s
obfervations, 48. Dechales’s
obfervations, 49. Sir Ifaac
Newton’s difcoveries, 51.
Maraldi’s difcoveries, 52
Inverjion, a curious inftance of
it obferved by Mr Grey, 46
Irradiations of the fun’s light
explained, 146, 147. Not
obferved by moon light, 148.
More frequent in fummer
than in winter, 149
yupiter’ffr fatellites difcovered
byjanfen, 71 • by Galileo, 74
K.
Kepler firft difcovered the true
reafon of the apparent place
of objefts, 26. His difco¬
veries concerning vifion, 63.
Improved the conftrudtion
of telefcopes, So. His me¬
thod firft put in practice by
Scheiner, 81
L.
■ Lead increafes the difperfive
power of glafs, p. 5485
Lenfes, their effefts firft ex¬
plained by Kepler, 77. Dif-
I N D
ferent kinds of them, p. 5530,
col. 2. How to find their
foci, n° 114. Of the appear¬
ances of objefts thro’ them,
p.544t—5444. The ufes of
havingfeveral lenfesinacom-
pound microfcope, p. 5577,
col. 2. How to grind them
for telefcopes and micro¬
fcopes, p. 5609—5617
Leeuwenhoek'’s microfcopes, 99
Light, its phenomena difficult
tobeaccountedfor, 1. Quan¬
tity of it abforbed by plafter
of Paris, 40. By the moon,
ib. Mr Melville’s obferva¬
tions on the manner in which
bodies are heated by it, 42.
No heat produced by it in a
tranfparent medium unlefs it
falls on the furface, ib. Of
its different refrangibility,
P- 5554—5558. M. Bou-
guer’s contrivances for mea-
furing it, n° 152. Of its ge¬
neral properties, p. 5519,
col. 2.
Lignum nephriticum, remark¬
able properties of its infu-
fion, 28
Lines can be feen under fmaller
angles than fpots, and why,
125
Liquid fubftances cannot be
fired by the folar rays con¬
centrated, 43
M.
Magic lanthorn, p. 5584
Magnitudes, ■why we are fo fre¬
quently deceived co icerning
them, p. 5571, col. 2.
Mairan (M.), his obfervations
on the infiedfion of light, 58
Maraldi’s difcoveries concern¬
ing the infleftion of light, 52
Maurolycus, his difcoveries, 9,
* 63
Media oi different kinds; ap¬
pearances of objedfs thro’
them, p. 5541
Mery (M.), ftrange experi¬
ment of his with a cat,
p. 5535, col. 1.
Melville (Mr), a curious phe¬
nomenon explained by him,
p. 5574, col. 2.
Microfcopes, their hiftory, 9.
Made by Janfen,95, 96. By
Divini, 97. By Hartfoecker,
98. By Leeuwenhoek, 99.
By Wilfon, 100. Tempo¬
rary ones by Mr Grey, 102.
Refledling microfcopes by
Dr Barker, 103. DrSmith’s
refiedting microfcope, 104.
E X.
Solar microfcope, 105. Mi¬
crofcope for opaque objedts,
ib. Refledted light introdu¬
ced into the folar microfcope,
106. Martin’s improvements
in it, 107. Microfcopes with
fix glaffes, 109. Microfcopes
of various kinds defcrilaed,
P* 5577- How to preferve
the diltindlnefs of objedls in
them, p. 5578. Mr Martin’s
method of increafing the
light on any objedf, n° 164.
The fingle one defcribed,
p. 5855. Single with reflec¬
tion, p. 5586. Double re-
fledling and refradling, ib.
For opaque objedts, p. 5587.
Solar, p. 5588. Univerfal,
p. 5589. Clark’s improved
pocket-microfcope, p*5590.
Extempore microfcopes, p.
5591. To find the magni-
fying power of microfcopes,
p. 5592. To find the real
fize of objedts feen by mi¬
crofcopes, p. 5594. Of the
field of view in microfcopes,
p.5595. Ofmicrofcopic ob¬
jedts and the method of pre¬
paring them, p. 5595. How
to make glafs-globules for
them, p. 5609. Advantages
arifing from the ufe of mi¬
crofcopes, p. 5635
Mines better illuminated in
cloudy than in clear weather,
46
Mirrors, plane ones defcribed,
P* 5575' Why three or four
images of objedls are fome-
times feen in them, 16c.
Concave and convex ones,
p. 5576. Aerial images for¬
med by concave ones, 161
Mijl caufes objedls to appear
larger than their natural fize,
p. 5569
Moon, Maraldi’s miftake con¬
cerning the ffiadow of it, 55.
Why flie appears more dull
when eclipfed in her perigee
than in her apogee, n° 151,
Variation of her light at dif¬
ferent altitudes, 152. Cal¬
culation of her light by M.
Bouguer, 156. By Dr
Smith, 157. By Mr Mi-
chell, 158.
Moon-tycd people, why fo
called, n° 120.
Mudge’s diredlions for grind¬
ing the fpecula of telefcopes,
p. 5623, col. 1.
Multiplying glafs . defcribed,
P- 5575-
N
Newton (Sir Ifaac), his
coveries concerning coloj
n° 15. Miftaken i
his experiments, p. 5.
His difcoveries couceri
the infledtion of light, n1.
Nollet (Abbe), cannot fire]
flammable liquids by bi
ing glaffes, 43
O.
Objetts appear magnified wj
viewed through fmall hq
78. Why feen upright, 1 I
Of their apparent pla [
magnitude, and diftaei
p. 5568. Why they « y'
pear fo fmall when feen fill
an high building, p. 55: ■■
Why a very long row- Q
them muft appear circuj a'
p. 5567.
05/V£?-glaffes of an extraotiK
nary focal length madelil
different perfons, 85. HI
to centre art objedf-gla
p. 5617.
Obfervatory (Portable).
Equatorial Telefcope.
Optic nerve infenlible of lig! ;i
117, 118.
Optical inftruments, difcoverj|'
concerning them, p. 55^
Different inftruments d
fcribed, 5575. Their m
chanifm, 5609.
Optics, the firft treatife on th
fcience written by ClaudI
Ptolemseus, 4. Account ’
Vitellio’s treatife on optr^
7. Of a treatife on opti
attributed to Euclid, 23
P.
Painters cannot perfedlly di
ceive the eye, p. 5569. ]
Parallel lines, why they feel
to converge when much ei
tended, p. 5572
Phenomena explained by th
theory laid down in th:
treatife, p. 5561
Planets more luminous at the’
edges than in the middle c
their dilks, n° 40
Plates, Maraldi’s experiment
concerning their lhadows, ^
Porta (Joannes Baptifta), hi
difcoveries, 10
Porterfield (Dr), his opiniot
of the methods of judgim
of the diftances of obje&t
p. 5571, col. 2.
Priftns in fome cafes refleft a
ftrongly as quickfilver, 38,
R
Index.
R.
Rainbow varioufly accounted
for, p. 5561. Explained on
the Newtonian principles,
p. 5562—5568
Rays of light, why they feem
to proceed from any lumi¬
nous objeft when viewed
with the eyes half (hut, 50
-Rejleiled light, table of its
quantity from different fub-
Hances, 39
Reflection of light, opinions of
the ancients concerning it,
22. Bouguer’s experi¬
ments concerning the quan¬
tity of light loft by it, 32.
Method of afcertaining the
quantity loft in all the va¬
rieties of refleftion, ib. Buf-
fon’s experiments on the
fame fubjeft, 33, Bou¬
guer’s difcoveries concerning
the reflexion of glafs, and
of polilhed metal, 34. Great
differences in the quantity
of light reflected at different
angles of incidence, 35. No
refle&ion but at the furface
of a medium, 42. Treatife
on reflection, p. 5544 Caufe
of reflection, ib. Is not per¬
formed by the light impin¬
ging on the folid parts ofbo
dies at the firft furface, n° 12 7.
Nor at the fecond, 128
Very great from a vacuum,
ib. Suppofed to a'rife from a
repulfive power, 129. Ob¬
jections to this hypothefis,
130. Attractive force fup-
pofed to be the caufe, 131.
Another hypothefis, 132.
Sir Ifaac Newton’s hypo¬
thefis, 133. Laws of re¬
flection, p. 5546—5551
Refra£ling telefcopes, how a-
mended by Mr Dollond,
n° 17-
Refraction known to the an¬
cients, n° 2. Its lawdifco-
vered by Snellius, n. Ex¬
plained by Defcartes, 12.
Fallacy of his hypothefis
difcovered, 13. Experiments
of the Royal Society for
determining the refraCtive
powers of different fubftan-
ces, ib. M. de la Hire’s
experiments on the fame
fubjeCt, ib. RefraCtion of
air accurately determined,
p. 5489. Miftake of the
OPTICS.
By other philofophers, ib.
Academy of Sciences con¬
cerning the refradion of air,
ib. Allowance for refraCtion
firft thought of by Dr
Hooke, n° 14, Colours dif¬
covered to arife from thence,
n° 15. Mr Dollond difco-
vers how to correct the errors
of reflecting telefcopes ari-
fing from refraCtion, n° 17.
RefraCtion defined, 3. Ex¬
plained by an attractive
power, 113. Sines of re¬
fraCtion by different fub-
ftances, p. 5521. Laws of
refraCtion particularly ex¬
plained and demonftrated,
p. 5521 5530.
Retina, its extreme fenfibility,
p. 5570.
Rheita invents the terreftrial
telefcope, n° 81. and the
binocular one, 83.
S.
Saturn’s ring difcovered by
Galileo, n° 74.
Schemer completes the difco¬
veries concerning vifion. 64;
Firft putsin praCtice Kepler’s
improvements in the tele¬
fcope, n° 81.
Shadows of bodies; obferva-
tions concerning them,47—
60. Bounded by fringes of
coloured light, p. 5502, eol.
2. Of green and blue ones,
n° 138 145. Of the
illumination of the ftiadow
of the earth by the atmo-
fphere, n° 150.
Sky, its concave figure ex¬
plained, p.5567, col. j. Why
the concavity of it appears
lefs than a hemifphere, 136.
Of its blue .colour, 137.
jS'tarA-fightednefs and long-
fightednefs defcribed, 123.
Spectacles, when firft invent¬
ed, 66.
Specula for reflecting tele¬
fcopes, the bed compofition
for them, p.5613. Method
of preparing the moulds,
calling and grinding the
metals, p. 5619.
Spots of the fun firft difcovered
by Galileo, n° 74. M. de
la Hire’s explanation of the
fpots which float before the
eyes of old people, ,p. 5579.
Stars, their twinkling ex¬
plained by Mr Michel, n° 20.
By Mr Mufchenbroek, ft.
A momentary change of co¬
lour obferved in fome ftars,
ib. Why vifible at the bot¬
tom of a well. How -ob¬
ferved in the day-time, n° 93
/S'#?; and planets; variation in
the light of different parts
of their difltS, n° 155.
Surfaces of tranfparem bodies
have the property of extin-
guilbing light, and why,
n° 37- Suppofed to confilt
of fmall tranfparent planes,
39, 40, 41. Of the appear¬
ance of bodies feen by light
refleded from plane and
fpherical furfaces, p. 5551.
T.
Telefcopes ; different accounts
of the invention of them,
n° 68-—70. The firft an
exceedingly good one, 71.
One made by Galileo .with¬
out a pattern, 73. The ra¬
tionale of them firft difco¬
vered by Kepler, 7.6. Ge¬
neral reafon of their effe&s,
78. Improved by Kepler,
80. Of the different con-
ftrudions of them, ,81. Vi¬
fion moft diftinCt :in thofe of
theGalilean kind, 82. Ter¬
reftrial telefcope invented
by Father Rheita, 81. Me¬
thod of managing them
without tubes, 84. Why
dioptric telefcopes muft be
made fo long, 87. Of the
apertures of refra&ing tele¬
fcopes, 88. Hiftory of the
reflecting telefcope, 89. Mr
Smith’s propofalforfhorten-
ing them, 91. ^ipinus’s
propofal to bend their tubes,
94. Several kinds of tele¬
fcopes defcribed, p. 5579.
Refra&ing telefcope,/^. Im¬
perfection in dioptric Tele¬
fcopes, n° 165, Remedied
by Mr Dollond, 166. Sir
Ifaac Newton’s reflecting
telefcope, p. 5582—5597.
Gregorian telefcope.p.yjSa,
'—5599* Dollond’s achro¬
matic telefcope, p. 5597.
Method of determining the
magnifying power of a tele¬
fcope, p. 5600. Solar te¬
lefcope, p. 5601. Equa¬
torial telefcope defcribed,
p.5603. Binocular telefcope
defcribed, 5604, Of the
5639
different parts of which a
reflecting telefcope is com-
pofed, n° 215. How to
adjuft the mirrors 210, 2 it.
Comparifon of the different
kinds of telefcopes with each
other, 219. Difference be¬
tween the magnifying and
truly ufeful power of a tek-
fcope, ib.
Telefcbpic inflruments formea-
furing time, p. 5607. Tele-
fcopic fights ; how to reClify
them, 215.
Thin plates; Mr Boyle’s ac¬
count of the colours obfer-
vable in them, n° 29. Dr
Hooke’s account, 30.
Torre (T. di) his extraordi¬
nary magnifiers for micro-
fcopes, 108.
Tour (M. du) his obfervations
on the inflection of light,
0° 59. His hypothefis by
which he accounted for the
phenomena, 60.
V.
Vacuum; ftrong reflections of¬
ten proceed from it, n° 120
-T-128.
Viflile motion of objeCts, Dr
Porterfield’s obfervations on
P- 5J73» col- 2-
Vifion; its nature firft difco¬
vered by Maurolycus, n° 9.
Difcoveries concerning it,
p. 55°7, col. 1. Treatife of
it, p. 5532. Difpute con¬
cerning its feat, n° 119,
Bright and obfcure, 121.
At different diftances, 122.
Lead angle of it, 124. Why
fingle with two eyes, 126.
Curious particulars relating
to deceptions, p. 5540.
Vijta; why a long horizontal
one feems toafcend,p.5672.
col. I.
W. «
Water in fome .cafes refleels
more powerfully than quick-
filver, n° 35. Table of the
quantity of light refleCled
from it at different angles,
p.5494. Remarkably ftrong
reflection into it from the
air, n° 36.
Windmill; why its apparent
motion is fometimes con¬
trary to the real one, p. 5572,
col. 2. p. 3574, col. 1.
ilfon's microfeope, n0 100.
31
Vo*. VIJI.
X
OPTI-
Optimate*
Oracle.
O R. A [ 5640 ] ORA
OPTIMATES, in Roman antiquity, were, ac¬
cording to Tully, the beft citizens, who defired that
their aftions might be approved of by the better fort;
as the Populares were thofe who, out of a third of
vain glory, did not fo much confider what was right,
as what would pleafe the populace.
OPUNTIA, Indian fig, or Prickly Pear. This
plant is by Linnseus joined to the genus of Caftus;
though, for reafons given under that article, we have
chofen to confider it as a genus by itfelf. There are
nine fpecies, all natives of warm climates. The mod
remarkable are, 1. The vulgaris, or common Indian
fig. This is found in the warm parts of Europe as
well as in America, and grows wild on the fides of the
roads in Sicily, Naples, and Spain; but it is probable
that the feeds of it may have been brought thither from
America. This has oval or roundifh branches, com-
prefied on their two fides flat, and have fmall leaves
coming out in knots on their furface, as alfo on their
upper edges, which fall off in a fhort time; and at the
fame knots are three or four fharp fpines, which do not
appear unlefs they are clofely viewed ; but, on being
handled, they enter the flefh, feparate from the plant,
and fo are very troublefome and difficult to get out.
The branches fpread near the ground, and frequently
trail upon it, putting out new roots; fo are extended
to a confiderable didance, and never rife in height:
thefe are flefhy and herbaceous while young; but, as
they grow old, become drier, of a tough contexture,
and have ligneous fibres. The flowers come out on
the upper edges of the branches, though fometimes
they are produced on their fides : thefe fit upon the
embryo of the fruit, and are compofed of feveral round¬
ifh concave petals, which fpread open. They are of
pale yellow colour, and appear in July and Augufl.
They are fucceeded by an oblong fruit, whofe fkin or
cover is fet with fmall fpines in cluders; and the infide
is flefhy, of a purple or red colour, in which are lodged
many black feeds. 1. The cochinilifera, or cochineal
fig; fo called from its being the food of the cochineal
infed. It hath oblong, fmooth, green branches, which
grow ere& to the height of 8 or to feet, with but very
few fpines, and thefe fo foft that they are not trouble¬
fome when handled. The flowers of this are of a
purple colour; and fit on the embryo of the fruit, like
thofe of the former fort, but do not expand like them.
This kind grows naturally in Jamaica; where it is pro¬
bable that the true cochineal might be difcovered if
perfons of fkill were to fearch for it. The vulga¬
ris is the only kind which can be raifed in this coun¬
try without great difficulty; and may be propagated
by flips, in a light mould.
OR, the French word for gold, by which this me¬
tal is exprefled in heraldry. In engraving it is deno¬
ted by fmall points all over the field or bearing. It
may be fuppofed to fignify of itfelf, gemrojity, fplen-
dor, or folidity ; according to G. Leigh, if it is com¬
pounded with
ORACH.
ORACLE,
Gul. ... rCourage.
Azu. Trud.
Vor. J Joy.
Pur. 5i Charity,
Sab. Condancy.
See Atriplex.
among the heathens, was the anfwer
which the gods were fuppofed to give to thofe who
confulted them upon'any affair of importance. It is'
alfo ufed for the god who was thought to give the an¬
fwer, and the place where it was given.
The credit of oracles was fo great, that in all doubts
and difputes their determinations were held facred and
inviolable : whence vad numbers flocked to them for
advice about the management of their affairs ; and no
' bufinefs of any confequence was undertaken, fcarce
any peace concluded, any war waged, or any new
form of government indituted, without the advice and
approbation of fome oracle. The anfwers were ufually
given by the intervention of the pried or priedefs of
the god who was confulted; and generally expreffed
in fuch dark and unintelligible phrafes, as might be
eafily wreded to prove the truth of the oracle, what¬
ever was the event. It is not, therefore, to be won¬
dered at, that the prieds who delivered them were in
the highed credit and edeem, and that they improved
this reputation greatly to their advantage. They ac¬
cordingly allowed no man to confult the gods, before
he had offered codly facrifices, and made rich prefents
to them. And to keep up the veneration for their
oracles, and to prevent their being taken unprepared,
they admitted perfons to confult the gods only at cer¬
tain dated times; and fometimes they were fo cau¬
tious, that the greated perfonages could obtain no an¬
fwer at all. Thus Alexander himfelf was perempto¬
rily denied by the pythia, or priedefs of Apollo, till
fhe was by downright force obliged to afcend the tri¬
pos; when, being unable to refitt any longer, (he cried
out, Thou art invincible: and thefe words were accep¬
ted indead of a farther oracle.
Of the ambiguity of oracles, the following, out of
a great many examples, may be mentioned. Croefus
having received from the pythonefs this anfwer, That
by paffing the river Halys, he would dedroy a great
empire; he underdopd it to be the empire of his ene¬
my, whereas he dedroyed his own.—The oracle con¬
fulted by Pyrrhus gave him an anfwer, which might
be equally underdood of the viftory of Pyrrhus, and
the vidtory of the Romans his enemies:
Aio te, JEacida, Romanos vincere pojfe.
The equivocation lies in the condru&ion of the La¬
tin tongue, which cannot be rendered in Englifli.—
The pythonefs advifed Crcefus to guard againd the
mule. The king of Lydia underdood nothing of the
oracle, which denoted Cyrus defcended from two dif-
fereht nations; from the Medes, by Mandana his mo¬
ther, the daughter of Adyages; and from the Perfians,
by his father Cambyfes, whofe race was by far lefs
grand and illuftrious.—Nero had for anfwer, from the
oracle of Delphos, that feventy-three might prove fa¬
tal to him. He believed he was fafe from all danger
till that age; but, finding himfelf deferted by every
one, and hearing Galba proclaimed emperor, who was
73 years of age, he was fenfible of the deceit of the
oracle.
When men began to be better indru&ed by the
lights philofophy had introduced into the world, the
falfe oracles infenfibly lod their credit. Chryfippus
filled an entire volume with falfe or doubtful oracles.
Oenomaus, to be revenged of fome oracle that had.
deceived him, made a compilation of oracles, to flievv
thiir ridicule and vanity. Eufebius has preferred.
fome
Oracle.
Oracle.
ORA [ 5541 ] ORA
fome fragments of this criticifra on oracles by Oeno-
' maus. “ I might (fays Orig.en) have recourfe to the
authority of Ariftotle and the Peripatetics, to make
the Pythonefs much fufpefied; I might extradf from
the writings of Epicurus and his fedtators an abun¬
dance of things to difcredit oracles; and I might fhew
that the Greeks themfelves made no great account of
them.”
The reputation of oracles was greatly leffened when
they became an artifice of politics. Themiftocles,
with a defign of engaging the Athenians to quit
Athens, and to embark, in order to be in a better
condition to refill Xerxes, made the Pythonefs deliver
an oracle, commanding them to take refuge in wooden
walls. Demofthenes faid, that the Pythonefs Pbilip-
pifed; to fignify that Ihe was gained over by Philip’s
prefents.
The ceffation of oracles is attefted by feveral pro-
phane authors; as Strabo, Juvenal, Lucan, and others.
Plutarch accounts for the caufe of it, either that the
benefits of the Gods are not eternal as themfelves are;
or that the genii, who prefided over oracles, are fub-
jedl to death; or that the exhalations of the earth had
been exhaufted. It appears that the laft reafon had
been alleged in the time of Cicero, who ridicules it in
his fecond book of Divination, as if the fpirit of pro¬
phecy, fuppofed to be excited by fubterraneous effluvia,
had evaporated by length of time, as wine or pickle by
being long kept.
Suidas, Nicephorus, and Cedrenus, relate, that Au-
guftus, having confulted the oracle of Delphos, could
obtain no other anfwer but this: “ The Hebrew
child whom all the Gods obey, drives me hence, and
fends me back to hell: get out of this temple without
fpeaking one word.” Suidas adds, that Auguftus
dedicated an altar in the Capitol with this infeription,
“ To the eldeft Son of God.” Notwithftanding thefe
teftimonies, the anfvver of the oracle of Delphos to
Auguftus feems very fufpicious. Cedrenus cites Eu-
febius for this oracle, which is not now found in his
works; and Auguftus’s peregrination into Greece was
18 years before the birth of Chrift.
Suidas and Cedrenus give an account alfo of an
ancient oracle delivered to Thulis, a king of Egypt,
which they fay is well authenticated. The king ha¬
ving confulted the oracle of Serapis, to know if there
ever was, or would be, one fo great as himfelf, re¬
ceived this anfwer: “ Firft, God, next the Word,
and the Spirit with them. They are equally eternal,
and make but one, whofe power will never end. But
thou, mortal, go hence, and think that the end of the
life of man is uncertain.”
Van Dale, in his treatife of oracles, does not be¬
lieve that they ceafed at the coming of Chrift. He
relates feveral examples of oracles confulted till the
death of Theodofius the Great. He quotes the laws
of the emperors Theodofius, Gratian, and Valentinian,
againft thofe who confulted oracles, as a certain proof
that the Cuperftition of oracles ftill fubfifted in the time
of thofe emperors.
According to others, the opinion of thofe who be¬
lieve that the demons had no (hare in the oracles, and
that the coming of the Meffiah made no change in
them,-and the contrary opinion of thofe who pretend
that the incarnation of the Word impofed a .general
filence on all oracles, ftiould be equally reje&ed. They Onclr,
allege, that two forts of oracles ought to be diftin-
guifhed: the one dhftated by the fpirits of darknefs,
who deceived men by their obfeure and doubtful an-
fwers; the other, the pure artifice and cheat of the
priefts of falfe divinities. As to the oracles given out
by demons, the reign of Satan was deftroyed by the
coming of the Saviour; truth (hut the mouth of lies;
but Satan continued his old craft among idolaters.
All the devils were not forced to filence at the fame
time by the coming of the Meffiah ; it was on parti¬
cular occafions that the truth of Chriftianity, and the
virtue of Chriftians, impofed filence on the devils. St
Athanafius tells the Pagans, that they have been wit-
ntffes themfelves that the fign of the crofs puts the
devils to flight, filences oracles, and diffipates enchant¬
ments. This power of filencing oracles, and putting
the devils to flight, is alfo attefted by Arnobius, Lac-
tantius, Prudentius, Minutius Felix, and feveral others.
Their teftimony is a certain proof that the coming of
the Meffiah had not impofed a general filence on
oracles.
Plutarch relates, that the pilot Thamus heard a
voice in the air, crying out, “ The great Pan is
dead;” whereupon Eufebius obferves, that the ac¬
counts of the death of the demons were frequent in
the reign of Tiberius, when Chrift drove out the
wicked fpirits.
The fame judgment, it is faid, may be pafled on
oracles as on pojfetfions. It was on particular occa¬
fions, by the divine permiffion, that the Chriftians caffc
out devils, or filenced oracles, in the prefence, and
even by the confeffion, of the Pagans themfelves. And
thus it is we fhould, it feems, underhand the paflages
of St Jerom, Eufebius, Cyril, Theodoret, Prudentius,
and other authors, who faid that the coming of Chrift:
had impofed filence on the oracles.
As to the fecond fort of oracles, which were pure
artifices and cheats of the priefts of falfe divinities,
and which probably exceeded the number of thofe
that immediately proceeded from demons, they did
not ceafe till idolatry was abolifhed, though they had
loft their credit for a confiderable time before the
coming of Chrift. It was concerning this more com¬
mon and general fort of oracles that Minutius Felix
faid, they began to difeontinue their refponfes, ac¬
cording as men began to be more polite. But, how¬
ever decried oracles were, impoftors always found dupes,
the grofleft cheats having never failed.
Daniel difeovered the impofture of the priefts of
Bel, who had a private way of getting into the temple
to take away the offered meais, and who made the
king believe that the idol confumed them.—Mundus,
being in love with Paulina, the eldeft of the priefteffes
of Ifis, went and told her, that the god Anubis, be¬
ing paffionately fond of her, commanded her to give
him a meeting. She was afterwards ftiut up in a
dark room, where her lover Mundus, whom ihe be¬
lieved to be the god Anubis, was concealed. This
impofture having been difeovered, Tiberius ordered
thole deteftable priefts and priefteffes to be crucified,
and with them Idea, Mundus’s free-woman, who had
conduced the whole intrigue. He alio commanded the
temple of Ifis to be levelled with the ground, and her
ffatue to be thrown into the Tiber; and, as to Mun-
31X2 dus,
ORA
Oracle
15
Oran.
dus, he contented himfelf with fending him into bani/h-
ment.
. Theophilus, bifhop of Alexandria, not only de-
ftroyed the temples of the falfe gods, but difcovered
the cheats of the priefts, by fliewing that the ftatues,
fome of which were of brafs, and others of wood, were
hollow within, and led into dark paflages made in the
wall.
Lucian, in difcovering the impoftures of the falfe
prophet Alexander, fays, that the oracles were chiefly
afraid of the fubtilties of the Epicureans and Chrifti-
ans. The falfe prophet Alexander fometimes feigned
himfelf feized with a divine fury, and by means of the
herb fopewort, which he chewed, frothed at the mouth
in fo extraordinary a manner, that the ignorant people
attributed it to the ftrength of the god he was pof-
feffed by. He had long before prepared a head of a
dragon made of linen, which opened and (hut its
mouth by means of a horfe-hair. He went by night
to a place where the foundations of a temple were
digging; and, having found water, either of a fpring,
or rain that had fettled there, he hid in it a goofe-
egg, in which he had inclofed a little ferpent that had
been juft hatched. The next day, very early in the
morning, he came quite naked into the ftreet, having
only a fcarf about his middle, holding in his hand a
fcythe, and tolling about his hair as the priefts of Cy-
bele; then getting a-top of a high altar, he faid that
the place was happy to be honoured by the birth of a
god.—Afterwards, running down to the place where
he had hid the goofe-egg', and going into the water,
he began to ling the praifes of Apollo and iEfcula-
pius, and to invite the latter to come and (hew himfelf
to men. With thefe words, he dips a bowl into the
water, and takes out a myfterious egg, which had a
god inclofed in it; and when he had it in his hand, he
began to fay that he held -/Efculapius. Whilft all
were eager to have a fight of this fine myftery, he
broke the egg, and the little ferpent darting out,
twifted itfelf about his fingers.
Thefe examples (hew clearly, that both Chriftians
and Pagans were fo far agreed as to treat the greater
number of iracles as purely human impoftures.—That,
in fad, all of them were fo, will be concluded by
thofe who give equal credit to demoniacal infpiration,
and demoniacal pojfeffion. See the article Possession
(Demoniacal).
ORAL, fomething delivered by word of mouth,
without being committed to writing; in which fenfe
we fay oral law, oral tradition, Sec.
ORANG outang. See Simia.
ORANGE peel. See Citrus and Orange-tree.
[ 5642 ]
ORA
manded by the adjacent hills. It was taken by the Orange
Spaniards in 1509, and retaken by the Algerines in Qra*)r;<)
1708 ; but in 1732 the Spainards become mafters of. —
it, and have continued fo ever fince. E. Long. ©. 5.
N. Lat. 37. 40.
ORANGE, a famous city, and capital of a pro¬
vince of the fame name, united to Dauphiny, with a
univerfity and a biflrop’s fee. It is feated in a fine
large plain, watered by a vaft number of little rivulets
on the eaft fide of the river Rhone. It is a very large
ancient place, and was confiderable in the time of the
Romans, who adorned it with feveral buildings, of
which there are ftill fome ruins left, particularly of an
amphitheatre, and a triumphal arch, which is almoft
entire. This town was formerly much larger than it
is at prefertt, as appears from the traces of the ancient
walls. The wall was in 1682 entirely demoliftied by
order of Lewis XIV. and the inhabitants were expofed
to the fury of the foldiers. The town was reftored to
king William by the treaty of Ryfwick; but after his
death the French took it again, and expelled the pro-
teftant inhabitants. By the treaty of Utrecht it was
confirmed to the crown of France, though the title is
ftill retained in the houfe of Naflau. The principality
is a very fmall diftrift, it being only twelve miles in
length and nine in breadth, and the revenue amount¬
ed to about 50001. a-year. The country is pleafant,
and abounds with corn and fruit, but is expofed to
violent winds. E. Long. 4. 51. N. Lat. 44. 21.
ORANGE tree, in botany. See the article
Citrus.—Orange-flowers are juftly efteemed one
of the fined perfumes; and though little ufed in
medicine, yet the water diftilled from them is ac¬
counted ftomachic, cordial, and carminative. The
fruit is cooling, and good in feverifti diforders, and
particularly in diarrhoeas. Orange-peel is an agreeable
aromatic, proper to repair and ftrengthen the ftomach,
and give a very grateful flavour to any infufions or
ti'n&ures into whofe compofitions they enter. It is
particularly ufeful in preparations of the bark ; gives
an agreeable warmth to the infufion ; and, according
to Dr Percival, confiderably increafes its virtue.
ORATION, in rhetoric, a fpeech or harangue,
compofed according to the rules of oratory, but
fpoken in public. Orations may be reduced to three
kinds, viz. the demonftrative, deliberative, and judi¬
cial. To the demonftrative kind belong panegyrics,
genethliaca, epithalamia, congratulations, &c. To
the deliberative kind belong perfuafion, exhortation,
&c. And to the judicial kind belong accufation, con¬
futation, &c.
ORATORIO, in the Italian mufic, a fort offacred
ORAN, a very ftrong and important town of drama of dialogues; containing recitatives, duettos,
Africa, in Barbary, and in the kingdom of Tremecen, trios, ritornellos, chorufes, &c. The fubjefts of thofe
w th fcveral forts, and an excellent harbour. It is pieces are ufually taken from feripture, cr the life of
feated partly on the fide of a hill, and partly on a f°me faint> &c- The mufic for the oratorios (honld be
plain, about a ftone-caft from the fea, almoft oppofite ln the fineft tafte and bed chofen (trains. Thefe
to Carthagena in Spain. It is about a mile and an oratorios are greatly ufed at Rome in the time of lent,
naif in circumference, and well fortified, but com- and of late in England.
ORA-
[ 6543 ]
ORATORY;
The art of fpeaking well upon any fubjeft, in order to perfuade.
INTRODUCTION.
$ i. Of the Rife and Progref of Oratory.
H E invention of oratory is by the Egyptians, and
the fables of the poets, afcribed to Mercury. And
it is well known, that the Greeks made their deities the
authors likewife of other arts, and fuppofed that they
prefided over them. Hence they gave Mercury the
titles of Aoj/j®- and both which names come
words that fignify “ to fpeak.” And Ariftides call?
eloquence the gift of Mercury; and for the fame rea-
fon anciently the tongue was confecrated to him. He
was likewife faid to be the interpreter or meffenger of
the gods; which office very well fuited him, as he ex¬
celled in eloquence. Hence we read in the Sacred Wri¬
tings, that when the people of Lyftra took Barnabas
and Paul for gods in human fhape, becaufe of that
fudden and furprifing cure which was wrought upon
the lame man, they called-Barnabas y«/>/Arr, and Paul
Mercury; for this reafon, as the infpired writer tells
us, ‘ becaufe he was the chief fpeaker,’that is (as the
fpeftators then thought) the interpreter or fpokefman
of Barnabas.
But to pafs over thefe fidh’ons of the heathen deities,
let us hear what Quintilian fays of the origin of this
art; who feems to give a very probable account of it
in the following paffage. ‘ The faculty of fpeech
(fays he) we derive from nature; but the art from
obfervation. For as in phyfic, men, by feeing that
fome things promote health and others deftroy it, form¬
ed the art upon thofe obfervations; in like manner, by
perceiving that fome things in difcourfe are faid toad-
vantage, and others not, they accordingly marked
thofe things, in order to imitate the one, and avoid
the other. They alfo added fome things from their
own reafon and judgment, which being confirmed by
ufe, they began to teach others what they knew
themfelves.’ But no certain account can be given
when, or by whom, this method of obfervation firft
began to take place. And Ariftotle fuppofes, not
without reafon, that the firft lineaments of the art were
very rude and imperfed. Paufanias, indeed, in his
Defcription of Greece, tells us, thatPittheus, the uncle
of Thefeus, taught it at Trezene a city of Peloponne-
fus, and wrote a book concerning it ; which he read
himfelf, as it was publifhed by one of Epidaurus. But
as Pittheus lived above 1000 years before Paufanias,
who flourifhed in the time of the emperor Hadrian,
fome are of opinion he might be impofed upon by the
Epidaurian, who publifhed this book under the name
of Pittheus. But be that as it will,itis veryreafonable to
believe, that the Greeks had the principles of this art fo
early as the time of Pittheus. For Thefeus his nephew
lived not long before the taking of Troy, which, accor-
dingto Sir liaacNewton,happened 904years before the
birth of Chrift; at which time Cicero thought it was in
muchefteem among them. ‘ Homer (lays he) would
never have given Ulyffes and Neftor in the Trojan wars
fo great commendations on account of their fpeechcs
(to one of whom he attributes force, and to the other
fweetnefs of expreffion) if eloquence had not in thofe
times been in great repute.’ And left any one ffiould
imagine, that in thofe days they made ufe only of
fuch helps as nature and pra&ice could afford them ;
the fame poet informs us, that Peleus fentPhenix with
his fon Achilles to the Trojan war, to inftrud him not
only in the art of war, but iikewife of eloquence. But
whcr were the profeffors of this art for fome ages fol¬
lowing, is not known. For Quintilian fays, that af¬
terwards Empedocles is the firft upon record, who at ¬
tempted any thing concerning it. And he, by Sir
Ifaac Newton’s account, flourifhed about 500 years af¬
ter Troy was taken. At which time, as Cicero ob-
ferves, men being now fenfible of the powerful charms
of oratory, and the influence it had upon the mind,
there immediately arofe feveral mafters of it; the chief
of whom are mentioned by Quintilian, who tells us,
that ‘ the oldtft writers upon this art are Corax and
Tifias, both of Sicily. After them came Gorgias of
Leontium in the fame ifland, who is laid to have been
the fcholar of Empedocles, and by reafon of his great
age (for he lived to be 109 years old) had many co¬
temporaries. Thrafymachus of Chalcedon, Prodicus of
Cea, Protagoras of Abdera, Hippias of Elis, and Al-
cidamus of Elea, lived in his time; as likewife Anti¬
phon, who firft wrote orations, and alfo upon the art,
and is faid to have fpoken admirably well in his own
defence ; and befides tkefe, Polycrates, and Theodore
of Byzantium.’ Thefe perfons contributed different
ways towards the improvement of the art. Corax and
Tifias gave rules for methodizing a difcourfe, and ad-
jufting its particular parts;- as may be conje&ured
from Cicero’s account of them, who fays, * Though
fome had fpoke well before their time, yet none with
order and method.’ But Gorgias feems to have ex¬
celled all the reft in fame and reputation: for he was
fo highly applauded by all Greece, that a golden
ftatue was ereded to him at Dtlphos, which was a di-
ftinguifhing honour conferred upon him only. And he
is faid to have been fo great a mafter of oratory, that
in a public affembly be would undertake to declaim
immediately upon any fubjeiSl propofed to him. He
wrote, as Cicero informs us, in the demonftrative or
laudatory way ; which requires molt of the fublime,
and makes what Diodorus Siculus fays of him the
more probable, that ‘ he firft introduced the ftrongeft
figures, members of periods oppofite in fenfe, of an
equal length, or ending with a like found, and other
ornaments of that nature.’ And hence thofe figures,
which give the greateft force and luftre to a difcourfe,
were anciently called by his name. Cicero tells us
further, that Thrafymaehus and Gorgias were the firft
who introduced numbers into profe, which Ifocrates
afterwards brought to perfeftion. Quintilian likewife
mentions Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, and Thra¬
fymachus, as the firft who treated of common-places,
and fiiewed the ufe of them for the invention of argu¬
ments. Nor mult we omit Plato, whole elegant dia¬
logue upon thje fubjed is ftill extant, which he entitles
Gorgias
5544
O R A T
Gorgias. For though he does not lay down the com¬
mon rules of the art-; yet he very well explains the
nature of it, and maintains its true end and ufeagainft
the generality of its profeffors, who had greatly per¬
verted the original defign of it. Thus by the ftudy and
induftryof fo many ingenious and great men, the art
of oratory was then carried to a confiderable height
among the Grecians. Though many of thofe, who
profeffed it in thofe times, employed their flcill rather
to promote their own reputation and applaufe, than to
ferve the realinterefts of truth and virtue,.. ‘ For they
propofed in an arrogant manner (as Cicero fays) to
teach how a bad caufe might be fo managed, as to
get the better of a good one.’ That is, they would
undertake to charm the ears and (trike the paffions of
their hearers in fo powerful a manner, by fophidical
reafonings, turns of wit, and fine language, as to
impofe falfebood upon them for truth ; than which
nothing could be either more difingenuous in itfelf, or
prejudicial to fociety.
But thofe who fucceeded them, feem to have con-
fulted better, both for their own honour, and that of
their profeffion. Ifocrates was the moft renowned of
all Gorgias’s fcholars, whom Cicero frequently ex¬
tols with the higheft commendations, as the greateft
mailer and teacher of oratory ; ‘ whofe fchool (as he
fays) like the Trojan horfe, fent forth abundance of
great men.’ Arittotle was chiefly induced to engage
in this province from an emulation of his glory ; and
would often fay in a verfe of Sophocles, fomewhat va¬
ried to his purpofe,
To be filent it is a (hame;
While liberates gets Inch fame.
Quintilian fays they both wrote upon the art, though
there is no fyftem of the former now extant. But that
of Ariftotle is efteemed the bed and mod complete
of any in the Greek language. In this age the Gre¬
cian eloquence appeared in its highed pcrfe&ion. De-
modhenes was an hearer both of Ifocrates and Plato,
as al o of Ifseus (ten of whofe orations are yet extant);
and by the affidance of a furprifing genius, joined
with indefatigable indudry, made that advantage of
their precepts, that he has been always edeemed by
the bed judges the prince of Grecian orators. His
great adverfary and rival iEfchines, after his baniih-
ment is faid to have gone to Rhodes, and employed
his time there in teaching of rhetoric. Theode&es and
Theophradus, both of them fcholars of Aridotle, imi¬
tated their mafier in writing upon the art. And from
that time the philofophers, efpecially the doics and
peripatetics, applied themfelves to lay down the rules
of oratory ; which Socrates had before fepafated from
the province of a philofopher. And there is yet pre-
ferved a treatife upon this fubjeCl, which fome have
aferibed to Demetrius Phalereus the peripatetic, and
fcholar of Theophradus, though others more probably
to Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus. Quintilian mentions fe-
veral other farrvms rhetoricians in the following ages,
who were likevvife writers ; as Hermagoras, Athe-
T.ssus, ApolloniurMolon, Areus Caecilius, Dionyfius
of Halicarnadus, Apollonius of Pergamus, and Theo¬
dore of Gadara. But of thefe nothing now remains
upon the fubje& of oratory, except fome tradls pf
Dionyfius, who flourilhed in the reign of Augudus
Casfar. Nor have there been wanting fome eminent
O R Y.
writers of this kind among the Greeks fince the time of
Quintilian ; two of whom we cannot omit to mention,
Hermogenes, and Longinus the author of the incom- t
parable treatife Of the Sublime,* book which can fcarce i
be too much commended or too often read.
It was long before Rome received this art, and not ;
without difficulty at fird. The reafon was, becaufe
the Romans were for feveral ages wholly addidted to ;
military affairs, and to enlarge their territories; fo
that they not only negledted to cultivate learning, but
thought the purfuit of it a thing of ill tendency, by j
diverting the minds of their youth from the cares and
toils of war, to a more foft and indolent kind of life.
Therefore fo late as the year of their city 592, when
by the indudry of fome Grecians the liberal arts be¬
gan to flourifh in Italy, a decree palled the fenate, by
which all philofophers and rhetoricians were ordered J
to depart out of Rome. But in a few years after,
when Carneades, Critolaus, and Diogenes, who were
not only philofophers but orators, came ambaffadors
from Athens to Rome; the Roman youth were fo
charmed with the eloquence of their harangues, that \
they could no longer be dopt from purfuingthe dudy
of oratory. And by a further acquaintance with the
Greeks, it foon gained fuch edeem, that perfons of
the fird quality employed their time and pains to ac¬
quire it. And a young gentleman, who was ambi¬
tious to advance himfelf in the fervice of his country,
could have little hopes of fuccefs, unlefs he had laid
the foundation of his future profpedls in that dudy.
Seneca tells us, that Lucius Plotius, a Gaul, was
the fird who taught the art of oratory at Rome in
Latin ; which Cicero fays, was while he was a boy ; ;
and when the mod dudious perfons went to hear him,
he lamented that he could not go with them ; being
prevented by the regard he paid to the opinion of fome
of his friends, who thought that greater improvements
were made by exercifes in the Greek language under
Grecian maders. Seneca adds, that this profdfion j
continued for fome time in the hands of freedmen*
and that the fird Roman who engaged in it was Blan-
dus of the equedrian order, who was fucceeded by j
others ; fome of whofe lives are yet extant, written by
Suetonius, as many of the Grecians are by Philodra-
tus and Eunapius. Quintilian likewife gives us the
names of thofe among the Romans, who wrote upon l
the art. ‘ The fird (fays fie) as far as I can learn,
who compofed any thing upon this argument, was M.
Cato the cenfor. After him Anthony the orator be¬
gan upon the fubjedl, which is the only work he has
left, and that imperfedl. Then followed fome of lefs
note. But he who carried eloquence to its highed {
pitch among us, was Cicero ; who has likewife by his -
rules given the bed plan both to pra&ife and teach the
art. After whom modedy would require us to men¬
tion no more, had he not told us himfelf, that his
books of rhetoric dipt out of his hands, while he was
but a youth. And thofe lefler things, which many
perfons want, he has purpofely omitted in his dif-
courfes of oratory. Cornificius wrote largely upon the
fame fubjecl; Stertinius and Gallic the father, each
of them fomething. But Celfus and Lenas were more
accurate than Gallio; and in our times Virginius,
Pliny, and Rutilius. And there are at this day fome
celebrated authors of the fame kind, who, if they had
taken
ntrod. ORATORY.
taken in every thing, might have faved my pains.’
Time has fince deprived us of moll of the writers men¬
tioned here by Quintilian. But we have the lefs rea-
fon to regret this lofs, fince it has preferved to us Ci¬
cero’s treatifes upon this fubjedl ; which we may well
fuppofe to have been chiefly owing to their own excel¬
lency, and the great efteem they have always had in
the world. Befides his Thw books of Invention, which
Quintilian here calls his Books of Rhetoric, there are
extant of his, Three books of an Orator; one Offasnous
Orators; and another, which is called The Orator; as
alfo his Topics, a preface Concerning the leji fort oj
Orators, and a treatife Of the parts of Oratory. Each
of which treatifes, whether we regard thejuftnefs and
delicacy of the thoughts, the ufefulnefs of the rules, or
the elegance and beatity of the flyle, deferve to be
frequently perufed by all who are lovers of eloquence.
For who can be thought fo well qualified to give the
rules of any art, as he who excelled all mankind in the
pra&ice of them ? But thofe Four books to Herennitts,
which are publilhed among Cicero’s works, feem with
good reafon to be attributed to Cornificius, whom
Quintilian here mentions. And Celfus is by fome af¬
firmed to have taught oratory, wdiom he alfo places
among the rhetoricians, and whofe Eight books of Me¬
dicine are yet extant, written in fo beautiful a ftyle as
plainly fhews him to be a mailer of eloquence. But
Quintilian himfelf outdid all who w’ent before him in
diligence and accuracy as a writer. His Inf'stations
are fo comprehenfive, and written with fuch great ex-
aftnefs and judgment, that they are generally allow¬
ed to be the moil perfeA work of the kind. With this
excellent author we fliall fini/h the account of the La¬
tin rhetoricians.
There were indeed fome others in the following
ages, whofe works are yet extant; but as they con¬
tain nothing of moment, which is not to be found in
thofe already mentioned, we fliall forbear to name
them. Much lefs fhall we defcend to that numerous
body of writers, who fince the revival of learning have
treated upon this fubjedl, for the fame reafon. And
UchbP. a very good judge* has not long fince given it as his
Cam- opinion, that the method of forming the bell fyftem
y, Lett. 0f oratory, is to colleft it from the fineft precepts of
J13' Ariftotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Longinus, and other
celebrated authors; with proper examples taken from
the choiceft parts of the pureft antiquity. And this
is the method attempted to be purfued in the follow¬
ing treatife.
$ 2. Of the Nature of Oratory.
The terms and oratory, having no other dif¬
ference but that one is taken from the Greek language
and the other from the Latin, may be ufed promifcu-
oufly; but the cafe is not the fame with refped to the
words rhetorician and orator. For although the Gre-
cians ufed the former, both to exprefs thofe who taught
'the art, and thofe who pradtifed it; yet the Romans
afterward, when they took that word into their lan¬
guage, confined it to the teachers of the art, and call¬
ed the reft orators. And there feems to have been a
fufficient reafon for this diftin&ion, fince the art was
the fam«s in both, and might therefore go by either
name ; but the different province of rhetoricians and
orators made it not improper they Ihould be called
by different names. Befides, anciently, before rheto¬
ric was made a feparate and diftindl art from philofo-
phy, the fame perfons taught both. And then they
were called not only rhetoricians, but fophifs. But
becaufe they often employed their art rather to vindi¬
cate what was falfe and unjuft, than to fupport truth
and virtue: this difingenuous conduS, by which they
frequently impofed upon weak minds, brought a dif-
credit both upon themfelves and their profeifion. And
therefore the name fophif, or fophifer, has been more
generally ufed in an ill fenfe, to fignify one fkilled ra¬
ther in the arts of cavilling, than qualified to fpeak
well and accurately upon any fubjeft.
It is not neceffary to ufe many words, to prove that
oratory is an art. For it is comprifed under certain
rules, agreeable to reafon, delivered in a regular me¬
thod, and fuited to attain the end it propofes; which
are chara&ers fufficient to denominate it an art. In¬
deed the cafe is the fame here, as in moft other things,
that a good genius is of itfelf more fcrviceable, than
the moft exa6l acquaintance with all the rules of art,
where that is wanting. But it is fufficient that art
help nature, and carry it farther than it can other-
wife advance without it. And he who is defirous to
gain the reputation of a good orator, will find the af-
fiftance of both very neceffary. Some perfons have
thought, that many of the common fyftems written up¬
on the fubjeft of oratory have been attended with this
inconvenience, that by burdening the mind with too
great a number of rules about things of lefs import¬
ance, they have oftentimes rather difcouraged than
promoted the ftudy of eloquence. This undoubtedly
is extreme which fhould be always carefully avoided.
But however, an indifferent guide in a ftrange road is
better than none at all. It may be worth while to
hear Quintilian’s opinion upon this head.. 4 I would
not (fays he) have young perfons think they are fuf-
ficiently inftrudted, if they have learned one of thofe
compends which are commonly handed about, and
fancy themfelves fafein the decrees, as it were, of thefe
technical writers. The art of fpeaking requires much
labour, conftant ftudy, a variety of exercife, many
trials, the greateft prudence, and readinefsof thought.
However, thefe treatifes are ufeful, when they fet
you in a plain and open way, and do not confine you
to one narrow trad, from which he who thinks it a
crime to depart muft move as flowly as one that walks
upon a rope.” We fee he is not for having us confine
ourfelves too clofely to fyftems, though he thinks they
are of fervice at firft,. till ufe and experience render
them lefs neceffary.
The bufinefs of oratory is to teach us to fpeak well;
which, as Cicero explains it, is to {peak jufly, metho¬
dically, floridly, and copioufly.
Now, in order to fpeak juflly, or pertinently, a per-
fon muft be mafter of his fubjcd, that he may be able
to fay all that is proper, and avoid whatever may ap¬
pear foreign and trifling. And he muft clothe his
thoughts with fuch words and expreffions, as are moft
fuited to the nature of the argument, and will give it
the greateft force and evidence.
And as it teaches to fpeak juftly, fo likewife metho¬
dically. This requires, that all the parts of a difcourfe
be placed in their proper order, and with fuch juft con¬
nection, as to relied a light upon each other, and;
thereby,
5645
5646
ORATORY.
thereby to render the whole both clear in itfelf, and
eafy to be retained. But the fame method is not pro¬
per for all difcourfes. Arid very frequently a different
manner is convenient in handling the fame fubjeft.
For it is plain, that art, as well as nature, loves va¬
riety ; and it difcovers the fpeaker’s judgment, when
the difpofttion of bis difcourfe is fo framed, as to ap¬
pear eafy and natural, rather than the effed of indu-
Itry and labour.
To fpeak floridly, is fo peculiar a property of this
art, that fome have wholly confined it to the pomp
and ornaments of language. But that it extends far¬
ther, and refpe&s things as well as words, we (hall
have occafion to Ihew hereafter. It contains indeed
the whole fubjed of elocution, but does not wholly
confift in it. True and folid eloquence requires not
only the beauties and flowers of language; but like-
wife the belt fenfe and cleareft reafoning. Befides, rhe¬
toric gives rules for the feveral forts of flyle, and di-
reds the ufe of them agreeably to the nature of the
fubjed.
But the force of oratory appears in nothing more,
than a oopioufnefs of expreffion, or a proper manner
of enlargement, fuited to the nature of the fubjed;
which is of great ufe in perfuafion, and forms the laft
property, required by Cicero, of fpeaking well. A
fhort and concife account of things is often attended
with obfcurity, from an omiffion of fome neceffary cir-
cumftances relating to them. Or, however, where that
is not the cafe, yet for want of proper embellilhments
to enliven the difcourfe, and thereby to excite and fix
the hearers attention, it is apt to flip through their
minds without leaving any impreffion. But where the
images of things are drawn in their full proportion,
painted iu their proper colours, fet in a clear light,
and reprefented in different views, with all the ftrength
and beauties of eloquence, they captivate the minds of
the audience with the higheft pleafure, engage their
attention, and by an irrefiftible force move and bend
them to the defign of the fpeaker.
The principal end and defign of oratory is to per-
fuade. For which reafon it is frequently called the art
ef perfuafion. Indeed the orator has often other fub-
ordinate views; as when he endeavours either to de¬
light his hearers with what is pleafant and agreeable,
©r to concilitate their good opinion by a fmooth and
artful addrefs: but ftill both thefe are in order to per-
fuade and excite them to action.
And while the orator employs his art in purfuing
only thofe ends for which it was at firft defigned, the
perfuading men to good and virtuous actions, and dif-
fuading them from every thing that is ill and vicious;
nothing can be more commendable in itfelf, or ufeful
to human focieties.
§ 3. Of the Divifon of Oratory.
Oratory confifts of four parts; invention, difpofi-
tion, elocution, and pronunciation. This will appear
by confidering the nature of each of them, and what
it contributes in forming an orator. Every one who
aims to fpeak well and accurately upon any fubjedt,
does naturally in the firft place inquire after and pur.
fue fuch thoughts as may feem molt proper to explain
and illuftrate the thing upon which he defigns to dif¬
courfe. And if the nature of it requires that he flrould
bring reafons to confirm what he fays, he not only
feeks the ftrongeft, and fuch as are like to be beft re¬
ceived; but alfo prepares to anfwer any thing which
may be offered to the contrary. This is invention.
After this he deliberates with himfelf in what method
to difpofe of thofe things which have occurred to his
mind, that they may appear in the plaineft light, and
not lofe their force by diforder and confufion. This
is the bufinefs of difpofttion. His ne^t concern is to
give his thoughts an agreeable drefs; by making
choice of the. fitteft words, cleareft expreffions, fmootU
and harmonious periods, with other ornaments of ftyle,
as may beft fuit the nature of his fubjeft, brighten his
difeourfe, and render it moft entertaining to his hear¬
ers. And this is called elocution. The laft thing he
attends to, is to deliver what he has thus compofed,
with a juft and agreeable pronunciation. And daily
experience convinces us, how much this contributes
both to engage the attention, and imprefs what is fpo-
ken upon the mind. This then is the method to which
.nature diredts, in order to qualify ourfelves fordifeour-
fing to the beft advantage: Though by cuftom and
habit thefe things become fo familiar to us, that we
do not always attend to them feparately in their na¬
tural order. However, it is the bufinefs of art to fol¬
low nature, and to treat of things in that manner which
Are di&ates.
PartI. Of INVENTION.
Chat. I. Of Invention in general; and particu¬
larly of Common Places, and State of a Caufe.
Nvention, confidered in general, is the difeovery
of fuch things as are proper to perfuade. And
in order to attain this end, the orator propofes to him¬
felf three things: To prove or iliuftrate the fubjeft up¬
on which he treats; to conciliate the minds of his hear¬
ers; and to engage their paffions in his favour. And
as thefe require different kinds of arguments or mo¬
tives, invention furnifhes him with a fupply for each
of them, as will be fhewn in their order.
An argument, as defined by Cicero, is a reafon,
which induces us to believe, what before we doubted
o£
And as different kinds of difcourfes require different
arguments, rhetoricians have confidered them two
ways; in general, under certain heads, as a common
fund for all fubje&s; and in a more particular manner,
as they are fuited to donor fir at ive, deliberative, or ju¬
dicial difcourfes. At prefent we (hall treat only upon
the former of tbefe. And now, that one thing may
receive proof and confirmation from another, it is ne¬
ceffary that there be fome relation between them; for
all things are not equally adapted to prove one ano¬
ther. Thus, in meafuring the quantity of two things
which we would ftrew, to be either equal or unequal,
if they are of fuch a nature that one cannot be applied
to the other, then we take a third thing, which may
be applied to them both; and that muft be equal at
leaft
Organ.
yLafe ( TTtXS:.
y. orrery.
Plate CCXXSIt.
Part I. ORATORY. 5^47
fnyention. lead to one of the two, which if applied to the other,
I and found equal to that alfo, we prefently conclude
that thofe two things are equal; but if it be unequal
to the other, we fay that thofe two things are un¬
equal. Becaufe it is the certain and known property
of all quantities, that whatfoever two things are equal
to a third, are equal to one another; and where one
of any two things is equal to a third, and the other
unequal, thofe two things are unequal to one another.
What has been faid of quantities, will hold true in all
other cafes, that fo far as any two things or ideas
agree to a third, fo far they agree to one another.
So likewife, on the contrary, as far as one of any two
things or ideas does agree to a third, and the other
does not, fo far they difagree with one another; in
which refpeft, one of them cannot be truly affirmed of
the other. Since, therefore, in every propofition, one
thing is fpoken of another, if we would find out whe¬
ther the two ideas agree to each other or not, where
this is not evident of itfelf, we muft find out fome
! . third thing, the idea of which agrees to one of them;
and then that being applied to the other, as it does
agree or difagree with it, fo we may conclude, that
the two things propofed do agree or difagree with
one another. This will be made more clear by an
example or two. Should it be inquired, Whether
virtue is to he loved; the agreement between virtue
and love might be found by comparing them fepa-
rately with happinefs, as a common meafure to both.
For fince the idea of happinefs agrees to that of love,
and. the idea of virtue to that of happinefs; it follows,
that the ideas of virtue and love agree to one another:
and therefore it may be affirmed, That virtue is to be
loved. But on the contrary, becaufe the idea of mi-
fery difagrees with that of love, but the idea of vice
agrees to that of mifery, the two ideas of vice and
love muft; confequentiy difagree with one another;
and therefore it would be falfe to affert, That vice is
to he loved. Now, this third thing logicians call the
mediusn, or middle term, becaufe it does as it were
connect two extremes; that is, both parts of a pro¬
pofition. But rhetoricians call it an argument, be¬
caufe it is fo applied to what was before propofed, as
to become the inftrument of procuring our affent to
it. Thus far as to the nature and ufe of arguments.
We Ihall next explain by what methods they are to be
fought.
A lively imagination, and readinefs of thought, are
undoubtedly a very great help to invention. Some
perfons are naturally endued with that quicknefs of
fancy, and penetration of mind, that they are feldom
at a lofs for arguments either to defend their own
opinions, or to attack their adverfaries. However,
thefe things being the ^ift of nature, and not to be
gained by art, do not properly fall under our prefent
confideration.
It will be readily granted, that great learning and
extenfive knowledge are a noble fund for invention.
An orator therefore fhould be furnilhed with a (lock of
important truths, folid maxims of reafon, and a variety
of knowledge, colle&ed and treafured up both from
obfervation, and a large acquaintance with the liberal
arts ; that he may not only be qualified to exprefs
himfelf in the moft agreeable manner, but likewife to
fupport what he fays with the ftrongeft and cleareft
arguments.
Vox.. VIII. 2
But becaufe all are hot born with a like happy Invention*
genius, and have not the fame opportunity to cultivate
their minds with learning and knowledge; and be¬
caufe nothing is more difficult than to dwell long
upon the confideration of one thing, in order to find
out the ftrongeft arguments which may be offered for
and againft it; upon thefe accounts, art has preferibed
a method to leffen, in fome meafure, thefe difficulties,
and help every one to a fupply of arguments upon any
fubjeft. And this is done by the contrivance of com¬
mon places, which Cicero calls the feats or heads of
arguments, and by a Greek name topics. They are
of two forts, internal and external.
I. Internal topics. Though things, with regard to 3
their nature and properties, are exceedingly various,
yet they have certain common relations, by means
whereof the truth of what is either affirmed or denied
concerning them in any refpeft may be evinced. The
ancient Greek rhetoricians therefore reduced thefe re¬
lations to fome general heads, which are termed com¬
mon places; becaufe the reafons or arguments fuited
to prove any propofition, are repofited in them, as a
common fund or receptacle. And they are called in¬
ternal heads, becaufe they arife from the fubjeft upon
which the orator treats; and are therefore diftinguilhed
from others named external, which he fetches from
without, and applies to his prefent purpofe, as will be
Ihewn hereafter. Cicero and Quintilian make them
16; three of which comprehend the whole thing they
are brought to prove, namely, definition, enumerationt
and notation; of the remaining 13, fome contain a
part of it, and the reft its various properties and cir-
cumftances, with other confiderations relating to it;
and thefe are, genus, fpecies, antecedents, confequents,
adjuncts, conjugates, caufe, effett, contraries, oppofites,
fmilitude, dijjmilitude, and comparifon.
Definition explains the nature of the thing defined,
and ffiews what it is. And to whatfoever the defini¬
tion agrees, the thing defined does fo likewife. If
therefore Socrates be a rational creature, he is a man;
becaufe it is the definition of a man, that he is a ra¬
tional creature.
Enumeration takes in all the parts of a thing. And
from this we prove, that what agrees to all the parts,
agrees to the whole; and what does not agree to any
one or more parts, does not agree to the whole: As
when Cicero proves to Pifo that all the Roman (late
hated him, by enumerating the feveral ranks and orders
of Roman citizens who all did fo.
Notation, or etymology, explains the meaning or
fignification of a word. From which we reafon thus:
“ If he cannot pay his debts, he is infolvent;” for
that is the meaning of the word insolvent.
Genus is what contains under it two or more forts
of things, differing in nature. From this head logi¬
cians reafon thus: “ Becaufe every animal is mortal,
and man is an animal, therefore man is mortal.” But
orators make a further ufe of this argument, which,
they call afeending from the hypothejis to the thejis; that
is, from a particular to a general: As ffiould a per-
fon, when fpeaking in praife of juftice, take occafion
from thence to commend and (hew the excellency of
virtue in general, with a view to render that particular
virtue more amiable. For fince^every fpecies contains
in it the whole nature of the genus to which it relates,
befides what is peculiar to.itlelf, whereby it is diftin-
31 Y guifhed
5648 O R A T
Invention. guHhed from it; what is affirmed of the genus, muft
— of neceffity be applicable to the fpecies.
Species is that which comprehends under it all the
individuals of the fame nature. From hence we may
argue, “ He is a man, therefore he has a rational
foul.” -And orators fometimes take occafion from
this head to defcend from the thefis to the hypothefis:
that is, in treating upon what is more general, to in¬
troduce fome particular contained under it, for the
greater illuftration of the general.
Antecedents are fuch things, as, being once allowed,
others neceffarily, or very probably, follow. From this
head an infeparable property is proved from its fubjeft:
as, It is material, and therefore corruptible.
Confeqiients are fuch things, as being allowed, ne-
ceflatily, or very probably infer their antecedents.
Hence the fubjedl is proved from an infeparable pro¬
perty in this manner: It is corruptible, and therefore
material.
Adjuncts are feparable properties of things, or cir^
cumftances that attend them. Thefe are very nume¬
rous, and afford a great variety of arguments, fome
of which ufually occur in every difcourfe. They do
not neceffarily infer their fubjeA; but, if fitly chofen,
render a thing credible, and are a fufficient ground for
affent. The way of reafoning from them we lhall fhew
prefently.
Conjugates are words deduced from the fame origin
■with that of our fubject. By thefe the habit is proved
from its a&s : as, He who does juftly is juft. He does
not a£t wifely, therefore he is not wife. But this infe¬
rence will not hold, unlefs the aftions appear continued
and conftant.
A caufe is that, by the force of which a thing does
exift. There are four kinds of caufes, matter, form,
efficient, and end, which afford a great variety of ar¬
guments. The way of reafoning from them is to in¬
fer the effeft from the caufe : as, Man is endued with
reafon, therefore he is capable of knowledge.
An effed is that which arifes from a caufe, there¬
fore the caufe is proved by it: as, He is endued with
knowledge, therefore with reafon.
Contraries are things, which under the fame genus
are at the utmoft diftance from each other. So that
what we grant to the one, we utterly deny the other :
as, Virtue ought to be embraced, therefore vice fhould
be avoided.
Qppofites are fuch things, which, though repugnant
to each other, yet are not dire&ly contradiflory : as,
To love and to injure, to hate and to commend. They
differ from contraries in this, that they do not abfo-
lutely exclude one another. An argument is drawn
from things repugnant, thus : He will do a man a mif-
chief, therefore he does not love him. He loves a man,
therefore he will not reproach him.
Similitude is an agreement of things in quality.
Thus Cicero proves, that pernicious citizens ought to
be taken out of the ftate; by the likenefs they bear to
corrupted members, which are cut off to prevent fur¬
ther damage to the body.
Dijfimilitude is a difagreeraent of things in quality.
From this head Cicero fhews the preference of his own
exile to Pifo’s government of Macedonia ; by the dif¬
ference between their conduit, and the people’s efteem
of them..
’ O R Y. Part II
Companion is made three ways: for either a thing Iiventk?; e
is compared with a greater, with a lefs, or with its
equal. This place, therefore, differs from that of
fimilitude on this account, that the quality was confi-
dered in that, but here the quantity. An argument
from the greater is thus drawn : If five legions could j|
not conquer the enemy, much lefs will two.
We (hall juft give one example of the manner of 4
reafoning from thefe heads, whereby the ufe of them '|
may further appear. If any one, therefore, fhould ; f
have endeavoured to perfuade Cicero not to accept of
his life upon the condition offered him by Antony, *
That he would burn his Philippic orations which had ||
been fpoken againft him, he might be fuppofed to 1
ufe fuch arguments as thefe; partly taken from the
adjun&s of Cicero, partly from thofe of Antony, and
partly from the thing itfelf. And firft with regard to i|
Cicero, it might be faid, That fo great a man ought >:|
not to purchafe his life at fo dear a price as the lofsof
that immortal honour which by fo great pains and
labour he had acquired. And this might be confirm- jB
ed by another argument, That now he was grown 1
old, and could not expeft to live much longer. And jl
frem the chara&er of Antony he might argue thus: 1
That he was very crafty and deceitful; and only de-
figned, by giving him hopes of life, to have the Phi¬
lippics firft burnt, which otherwife he knew would
tranfmit to pofterity an eternal brand of infamy upon 1
him ; and then he would take off the author. And 1
this might be ftiewn by comparifon. For fince he |!
would not fpare others, who had not fo highly exaf-
perated him, and from whom he had not fo much to
fear; cer*. inly he would not forgive Cicero, fince he
knew well enough, that fo long as he lived, he him- .)
fclf could never be in fafety. And, laftly, an argu¬
ment might alfo be fetched from the nature of the
thing itfelf in the following manner : That Cicero by ?
this adlion would fhamefully betray the ftate, and the
caufe of liberty, which he had through his whole life J
moft couragioufly defended, with fo great honour to
himfelf, and advantage to the public. Upon fuch an ;
account, a perfon might have ufed thefe or the like
arguments with Cicero, which arife from the fore- j
mentioned heads.
From this account of common places, it is eafy5—(l8i
to conceive what a large field of difcourfe they open
to the mind upon every fubjeft. Thefe different
confiderations furnilh out a great number and variety j
of arguments, fufficient to fupply the moft barren in¬
vention. He can never be at a lofs for matter, who
confiders well the nature of his fubjeA, the parts of
which it confifts, the circumftances which attend it,
the caufes from whence it fprings, the effe&s it pro¬
duces, its agreement, difagreement, or repugnancy to
other things ; and in like manner carries it through
all the remaining heads. But although this method
will affift us very much to enlarge upon a fubjeft, and
place it in different views ; yet a prudent man is not
fo defirous to fay a great deal, as to fpeak to the pur-
pofe; and therefore will make choice of proper ar¬
guments, and fuch only as have a direct tendency
to confirm or illuftrate his fubjedb. And for this end,
it is neceffary for him to gain, firft a thorough know¬
ledge of his fubjedt, and then arguments will naturally - ;
fpring up in his mind proper to fupport it: and if he
Parti. O R A T
Idvention. be ftil! at a loG, and find occafion to have recoiirfe to
P~- thefe heads, he will readily perceive from whence to
take thofe which are bed fuited to his pUrpofe.
' ig 11. Of external topics. When the orator reafons from
fuch topics as do not arife froth his fubjeft, but from
things of a different nature, thefe are called external.
They are all taken from authorities, and are by one
general name called TeJUmenies.
Now a teftimony may be exprefled by writing,
fpeech, or any other fign proper to declare a perfon’s
mind. And all teftimonies may be diftinguifhed into
two forts, divine and human. A divine teftirhony,
when certainly known to be fuch, is incortteftable,
and admits of no debate, but (hould be aCquiefeed in
without hefitation. Indeed the anciertt Greeks ahd
Romans efteemed the pretended oracles of their deities,
! the'anfwers of their augurs, and the like fallacies, di¬
vine teftimonies : but with us no one can be ignorant
of their true notion, though they do not fo direftly
come under our prefent confideration. Human tefti¬
monies, confidered as furnifhing the orator with ar¬
guments, may be reduced to three heads ; ’writings,
•witnejfes, and contrails.
i. By Writings, here, are to be underftood written
laws, wills, or other legal inftruments, exprefied and
conveyed in that manner. And it is not fo much the
force and validity of fuch teftimonies, confidered in
themfelves, that is here intended, as the occafion of
difpute which may at any time arife concerning their
true defign and import, when produced in proof upon
either fide of a controverfy. And thefe are five; Am¬
biguity, Difagreement between the Words and inten¬
tion, Contrariety, Reafoning, and Interpretation.
A writing is then faid to be ambiguous, when it is
capable of two or more fenfes, which makes the wri¬
ter’s defign uncertain. Now ambiguity may arife ei¬
ther from Angle words, Or the conftruftion of fenten-
ces. From Angle words ; as when either the fenfe of
a word, or the application of it, is doubtful. As,
fhould it be queftioned, whether ready money ought
to be included under the appellation of chattels left by
a will; or, if a teftator bequeath a certain legacy to
his nephew Thomas, and he has two nephews of that
name. But ambiguity is alfo fometimes occafioned
from the conftru&ion of a fentence ; as when feveral
things or perfofts having been already mentioned, it
is doubtful to Which of them that which follows ought
to be referred. For example, a perfon writes thus in
his will: ‘ Let my heir give as a legacy to Titius, an
horfe out of my ftable, which he pleafes.’ Here it
may be queftioned, whether the word be refers to the
heir or to Titius ; and confequently, whether the heir
be allowed to give Titius which horfe he pleafe, or
Titius may choofe which he likes beft. Now as to
controverfres of this kind, in the firft cafe above-men¬
tioned, the party who claims the chattels may plead,
that all moveable goods come under that name, and
therefore that he has a right to the money. This he
will endeavour to prove from fome inftances where
the word has been fo ufed. The bufinefs of the op-
pofite party is to refute this, by ihewing that money
is not there included. And if either fide produce
precedents in his favour, the other may endeavour to
fhew the cafes are not parallel. As to the fecond cafe,
arifing from an ambiguity in the name, if any other
O R Y. 5649
words or expreflions in the will fcem to countenance Invention,
either of the claimants, he will not fail to interpret ^
them to his advantage. So likewife, if any thing faid
by the teftator, in his lifetime, or any regard fhewn
to either of thefe nephews more than the other, may
help to determine which of them was intended, a
proper ufe may be made of it. And the fame maybe
laid with regard to the third cafe. In which the le¬
gatee may reafon likewife from the common ufe of
languige, and fhew, that in fuch expreffions, it is
ufual to make the reference to the laft or next antece¬
dent; and from thence plead, that it was the defign
of the teftator to give him the option. But in anfwer
to this, it may be faid, that allowing it to be very
often fo, yet in this inftance it feems more eafy and
natural to repeat the verb give after pleafes, and fo to
fupply the fentence, 'which be pleafes to give him, re¬
ferring it to the heir, than to bring in the verb choofe,
which was not in the fentence before ; and fo, by
fupplying the fenfe, •which he pleafes to choofe, to give
the option to Titius. But where controverfies of this
kind arife from a law, recourfe may be had to other
laws where the fame thing has been exprefled with,
greater clearnefs; which may help to determine the
fenfe of the paflage in difpute.
A fecond controverfy from writings is, when one
party adheres to the words, and the other to what he
aflerts was the writer’s intention. Now he who op-
pofes the literal fenfe, either contends, that what he
himfelf offers is the iimple and plain meaning of the
writing, or that it mull be fo underftood in the parti¬
cular cafe in difpute. An inftance of the former is
this, as we find it in Cicero. A perfon who died
without children, but left a widow, had made this
provifion in his will: “ If I have a fon born to me,
he fhall be my heir.” And a little after; “ If my
fon die before he comes of age, let Curius be my
heir.” There is no fon born : Curius therefore fues
for the eftate, and pleads the intention of the teftator,
who defigned him for his heir, if he fhould have no
fon who arrived at age ; and fays, there can be no
reafon to fuppofe he did not intend the fame perfon
for his heir if he had no fon, as if he fhould have one
Who afterwards died in his minority. But the heir
at law infifts upon the words of the will; which, as
he fays, require, that firft a fon fhould be born, and
afterwards die under age, before Curius can fucceed
to the inheritance ; and there being no fon, a fub-
ftituted heir, as Curius was, can have no claim where
the firft heir does not exift, from whom he derives his
pretcnfion, and was to fucceed by the appointment of
the will. Of the latter cafe, rhetoricians give this ex¬
ample : “ It was forbidden by a law to open the city-
gates in the night. A certain perfon notwithftand-
ing, in time of War, did open them in the night, and
let in fome auxiliary troops, to prevent their being
cut off by the enemy, who was pofted near the town.”
Afterwards, when the war was over, this perfon i$
arraigned, and tried for his life on account of this ac¬
tion. Now, in fuch a cafe, the profecutor founds hii
charge upon the exprefs words of the law ; and pleads,
that no fufficient reafon can be afligned for going
contrary to the letter of it, which would be to make
a new law, and not to execute one already made.
The defendant, on the other hand, alleges, That the
31 Y 2 fa&
5650 O R A 1
invention, fa&he is charged with cannot, however, come within
' the intention of the law ; fince he either could not, or
ought not, to have complied with the letter of it in
that particular cafe, which mull therefore neceffarily
be fuppofed to have been excepted in the defign of
that law when it was made. But to this the profe-
cutor may reply, That all fuch exceptions as are in¬
tended by any law, are ufually expreffed in it : and
inftances may be brought of particular exceptions ex~
preffed in fome laws ; and if there be any fuch excep¬
tion in the law under debate, it fliould efpecially be
mentioneJl. He may further add. That to admit of
exceptions not expreffed in the law itfelf, is to ener¬
vate the force of all laws, by explaining them away,
and in effeft to render them ufelefs. And this he
may further corroborate, by comparing the law under
debate with others, and confidering its nature and
importance, and how far the public intereft of the
flate is concerned in the due and regular execution of
it; from whence he may infer, that (hould exceptions
be admitted in other laws of lefs confequence, yet, how¬
ever, they ought not in this. Laftly, he may confi-
der the reafon alleged by the defendant, on which he
founds his plea, and lhew there was not that neceffity
of violating the law in the prefent cafe, as is pretended.
And this is often the more requifite, becaufe the party
who difputes againft the words of the law, always en¬
deavours to fupport his allegations from the equity of
the cafe. If, therefore, this plea can be enervated,
the main fupport of the defendant’s caufe is removed.
For as the former arguments are defigned to prevail
with the judge, to determine the matter on this fide
the queftion from the nature of the cafe; fo the in¬
tention of this argument is to induce him to it, from
the weaknefs of the defence made by the oppofite
party. But the defendant will, on the contrary, ufe
fuch arguments, as may bell demonftrate the equity
of his caufe, and endeavour to vindicate the faft from
his good defign and intention in doing it. He will
fay, That the laws have allotted punilhments for the
commiffion of fuch fafts as are evil in. themfelves, or
prejudicial to others ; neither of which can be char¬
ged upon the a&ion for which he is accufed : That no'
law can be rightly executed, if more regard be had to
the words and fyllables of the writing, than to the
intention of the legiflator. To which purpofe, he
may allege that direftion of the law itfelf, which
fays, “ The law ought not to be too rigorofly inter¬
preted, mor the words of it drained ; but the true in¬
tention and defign of each pan of it duly confidered:”
As alfo that faying of Cicero, “ What law may not
be weakened and deftroyed, if we bend the fenfe to
the words, and do not regard the defign and view of
the legiflator ?” Hence he may take occafion to com¬
plain of the hardfhip of fuch a procedure, that no dif¬
ference ftiould be made between an audacious and
wilful crime, and an honed or neceffary aftion, which
might happen to difagree with the letter of the law,
though not with the intent of it. And as it was ob-
ferved before to be of confiderable fervice to the ac-
cufer, if he could remove the defendant’s plea of
equity; fo it will be of equal advantage to the de¬
fendant, if he can fix upon any words in the law,
which may in the lead feem to countenance his cafe,
fince this will take off the main force of the charge.
POKY. Parti.
The third controverfy of this kind is, when two inventio|tn
writings happen to clalh with each other, or at leaft ~”
feem to do fo. Of this Hermogenes gives the fol-
lowing indance. One law enjoins: “ He who con- !
tinues alone in a (hip during a temped, fhall have the
property of the {hip.” Another law fays, “ A difin- i
herited fon fliall enjoy no part of his father’s edate.” |
Now a fon, who had been difinherited by bis father, «'
happens to be in his father’s fliip in a temped, and
continues there alone, when every one elfe had de-
ferted it. He claims the fliip by the former of thefe
laws, and his brother tries bis right with him by the
latter. In fuch cafes, therefore, it may fird be con¬
fidered, Whether the two laws can be reconciled.. j|
And if that cannot be done, then, Which of them ap¬
pears more equitable. Alfo, Whether one be pofi-
tive, and the other negative : becaufe prohibitions
are a fort of exceptions to pofitive injunctions. Or, If
one be a general law, and the other more particular,
and come nearer to the matter in quedion, JLikewife,
Which was lad made: fince former laws are often
abrogated, either wholly or in part, by fubfequent
laws; or at lead were defigned to be fo. Ladly, it
may be obferved, Whether one of the laws be not
plain and exprefs ; and the other more dubious, or
has any ambiguity in it. All, or any of which
things, that party will not omit to improve for his
advantage whofe intered is concerned in it.
The fourth controverfy is reafon'ing. As when
fomething, not exprefsly provided for by a law, is in¬
ferred by a fimilitude, or parity of reafon, from what
is contained in it. Quintilian mentions this indance
of it. “ There was a law made at Tarentum, to pro¬
hibit the exportation of wool, but a certain perfon
exports flieep.” In this cafe, the profecutor may
fird compare the thing which occafions the charge,
with the words of the law, and (hew their agreement,
and how unneceffary it was that particular thing
{hould have been exprefsly mentioned in the law, fince
it is plainly contained in it, or at lead an evident con¬
fequence from it. He may then plead, that many
things of a like nature are omitted in other laws for
the fame reaion. And, ladly, he may urge the rea-
fonabknefs and equity of the procedure. The de¬
fendant, on the other hand, will endeavour to fhew
the deficiency of the reafoning, and the difference be¬
tween the two cafes. He will infill upon the plain
and exprefs words of the law, and fet forth the ill
tendency of fuch inferences and conclufions drawn
from fimilitudes and comparifons, fince there is fcarce
any thing but in fome refpeft may bear a refemblance
to another.
The lad controverfy under this head is interpreta¬
tion, in which the difpute turns upon the true mean¬
ing and explication of the law in reference to that
particular cafe. We have the following indance of
this in the Pandedls : “ A man who had two fons,
both under age, fubditutes Titius as heir to him who
{hould die lad, provided both of them died in their
minority. They both perifli together at fea before
they came to age. Here arifes a doubt, whether the
fubditotion can take place, or the inheritance de¬
volves to the heir at law.” The latter pleads. That
as neither of them can be faid to have died lad, the
fubftitution cannot take place; which was fulpended,
upon
Parti. ORA':
Invention, upon the condition that one died after the other.
 " But to this it may be faid, It was the intention of the
teftator, that if both died in their nonage, Titius
fliould fucceed to the inheritance; and therefore it
makes no difference whether they died together, or
one after the other: and fo the law determines it.
2. The fecond head of external arguments are Wit-
vejfes. Thefe may either give their evidence, when ab-
fent, in writing fubfcribed with their name ; or pre-
fent, by word of mouth. And what both of them
teftify, may either be from hearfay; or what they
faw therafelves, and were prefent at the time it was
done. As the weight of the evidence may be thought
greater or lefs on each of thefe accounts, either party
will make fuch ufe of it as he finds for his advantage.
The characters of the witneffes are alfo to be confi-
dered ; and if any thing be found in their lives or be¬
haviour that is juftly exceptionable, to invalidate their
evidence, it ought not to be omitted. And how they are
affeCted to the contending parties, or either of them,
may deferve confideration ; for fome allowances may
be judged reafpnable in cafe of friendfhip, or enmity,
where there is no room for any other exception. But
regard Ihould chiefly be had to what they teftify, and
how far the caufe is affefted by it. Cicero is very large
upon mod of thefe heads in his defence of Marcus Fon-
teius, with a defign to weaken the evidence of the
Gauls againft hiip. And where witnefles are produ¬
ced on one, fide only, as orators fometimes attempt to
jeflen the credit of this kind of proof, by pleading,
that witnefles fir.e liable to be corrupted, or biafled by
fome prevailing intereft or paffion, to which argu¬
ments taken from the nature and circumftances of
things are not fubjeCf; it maybe anfwered on the
other hand, that fophiftical arguments and falfe co-
Jourjhgs are not expofed to infamy or punifhment,
whereas witnefles are reftrained by fhame and penal¬
ties, nor would the law require them if they were not
neceffary.
3. The third and laft head of external arguments are
Contracts; which may be either public or private. By
public are meant the tranfaflions between different
ftates, as leagues, alliances, and the like ; which de¬
pend on the laws of nations, and come more pro¬
perly unfler deliberative difcourfes, to which we
fhall refer them. Thofe are called private, which re¬
late to leffer bodies or focieties of men, and Angle
perfons1) and may be either written, or verbal. And
it is not fo much the true meaning and purport of
them that is here confidefed, as their force and obli¬
gation. And, as the Roman law declares, ‘ No¬
thing can be more agreeable to human faith, than that
perfops fhduld ftand to their agreements.’ Therefore,
in controverfies of this kind, the party, whofe inte¬
reft it is that the contradt fhould be maintained, will
plead, that fuch covenants have the force of private
laws, and ought religioufly to be obferved, fince the
common affairs of mankind are tranfatfed in that man-
nej^; and therefore to violate them, is to deftroy all
commerce and fociety among men. On the other
fide it may be faid, that juftice and equity are chiefly
to be regarded, which are immutable j and befides, that
the.publit laws are the common rule to determine fuch
differences, which are defigned to redrefs thofe who
are aggrieved. And, indeed, where a compaft has
been obtained by force or fraud, it is in itfelf void, and
r O R Y. 5651
has no effeft either in law or reafon. But on the other invention,
hand, the Roman lawyers feem to have very rightly
determined, that all fuch obligations as are founded in
natural equity, though not binding by national laws,
and are therefore called mida pafta, ought, however, in
honour and confcience to be performed.
Ill, Of the State of a Controverfy. The ancients, ob- 20
ferving that the principal queftion or point of dif-
pute in all controverfies might be referred to fome par¬
ticular head, reduced thofe heads to a certain number;
that both the nature of the queftion might by that
means be better known, and the arguments fuited to
it be difcovered with greater eafe. And thefe heads
they call fates.
By the ftate of a controverfy, then, we are to under-
ftand the principal point in difpute between contend¬
ing parties, upon the proof of which the whole caufe
or controverfy depends. Wc find it expreffed by feve-
ral other names in ancient writers: as, the confitu-
tion of the caufe, the general head, and the chief que-
fion- And as this is the principal thing to be attend¬
ed to in every fuch difcourfe ; fo it is what firft re¬
quires the confideration of the fpeaker, and fhould be
well fixed and digefted in his mind, before he proceeds
to look for arguments proper to fupport it. Thus An¬
thony, toe Roman orator, fpeaking of his own me¬
thod in his pleading, fays : “ When I underftand the
nature of the caufe, and begin to confider it, the firft
thing I endeavour to do is, to fettle with myfelf what
that is to which all my difcourfe relating to the mat¬
ter in difpute ought to be referred : then I diligently
attend to thefe other two things, How to recommend
myfelf, or thofe for whom I plead, to the good efteem
of my hearers ; and how to influence their minds, as
may beft fuit my defign.” This way of proceeding
appears very agreeable to reafon and prudence. For
what can be more abfurd, than for a perfon to attempt
the proof of any thing, before he has well fettled in
his own mind a clear and diftinft notion, what the
thing is which he would endeavour to prove? Quin¬
tilian deferibes it to be, ‘ That kind of queftion which
arifes from the firft conflift of caufes.’ In judicial cafes,
it immediately follows upon the charge of the plain¬
tiff, and plea of the defendant. Our common law ex-
preffes it by one word, namely, the ijfue. Which in¬
terpreters explain, by defcribing it to be, “ That
point of matter depending in fuit, whereupon the par¬
ties join, and put their caufe to the trial.” Examples
will further help to illuftrate this, and render it more
evident. In the caufe of Milo, the charge of the Cio-
dian party is, Milo Hilled Clodius. Milo’s pica or de¬
fence, 1 killed him, but jufly. From hence arifes this
grand queftion, or ftate of the caufe: Whether it nvas
lawful for Milo to kill Clodius P And that Clodius was
lawfully killed by Milo, is what Cicero in his defence
of Milo principally endeavours to prove. This is the
main fubjedl of that fine and beautiful oration. The
whole of bis difcourfe is to be confidered as centering
at laft in this one point. Whatever different matters
are occafionally mentioned, will, if clofely attended
to, be found to have been introduced tome way or
other the better to fupport and carry on this defign.
Now in fuch cafes, where the faft is not denied, but
fomething is offered in its defence, the ftate of the
caufe is taken from the defendant’s plea, who is obli¬
ged to make it good : As in the inftance here given.
5%2
Invention, the chief point in difpute was the lawfulnefs of Milovs
adtion, which it was Cicero’s bufinefs to demonftrate.
But when the defendant denies the fadt, the ftate of
the caufe arifes from the accufation; the proof of
which then lies upon the plaintiff, and not, as in the
former cafe, upon the defendant. So in the caufe of
Rofcius, the charge made againft him is. That he
killed his father. But he denies the fa ft. The grand
queftion therefore to be argued is: Whether or not he
killed his father ? The proof of this lay upon his ac-
cufers. And Cicero’s defign in his defence of him is
to fhew, that they had not made good their charge.
But it fometimes haippens, that the defendant neithet1
abfolutely denies the faft, nor attempts to juftify it j
but only endeavours to qualify it, by denying that it
is a crime of that nature, or deferves that name, by
which it is exprefled in the charge. We have an ex¬
ample of this propofed by Cicero: “ A perfon is ac-
cufed of facrilege, for taking a thing, that was facred,
out of a private houfe. He owns the faft, but denies
it to te facrilege ; fince it was committed in a private
houfe, and not in a temple.” Hence this queftion
arifes : Whether to take a facred thing out of a private
houfe, is to be deemed facrilege, or only fsmple theft? It
lies upon the accufer to prove what the other denies;
and therefore the ftate of the caufe is here alfo, as
well as in the preceding cafe, taken from the indift-
ment.
But befides the principal queftion, there are other
fubordinate queftions, which follow upon it in the
courfe of a difpute, and fhould be carefully diftin-
guifhed from it. Particularly that which arifes from
the reafon, or argument, which is brought in proof of
the principal queftion. For the principal queftion it-
fdf proves nothing, but is the thing to be proved, and
becomes at laft the conclufion of the difcourfe. Thus,
in the caufe of Milo, his argument is: I killed Clo-
dius jufly, becaufe he ajfajfmated me. Unlefs the Clo-
dian party be fuppofed to deny this, they give up their
caufe. From henpe therefore this fubordinate queftion
follows : Whether Clodius ajfajfinated Milo ? Now Ci¬
cero fpends much time in the proof of this, as the
hinge on which the firft queftion, and confequently
the whole caufe, depended. For if this was once made
to appear, the lawfulnefs of Milo’s killing Clodius,
which was the grand queftion or thing to be proved,
might be inferred as an allowed confequence from it.
This will be evident, by throwing Milo’s argument, as
ufed by Cicero, into the form of a fyllogifm.
Jin affajfinator is lawfully killed:
Clodius was an affafmator :
Therefore he was lawfully killed by Milo, whom he
ajfafinated.
If the minor propofition of this fyllogifm was granted,
no one would deny the conclufion : for the Roman
law allowed of felf-defence. But as Cicero was very
fenfible this would not be admitted, fo he takes much
pains to bring the court into the belief of it. Now
where the argument brought in defence of the fecond
queftion is contefted, or the orator fuppofes that it
may be fo, and therefore fupports that with another
argument, this occafions a third queftion confequent
upon the former ; and in like manner he may proceed
to a fourth. But be they more or fewer, they are to
be confidered but as one chain of fubordinate queftions
I
Part I
dependent upon the firft. And though each of them Invemioi
has its particular ftate, yet none of thefe is what rhe^  
toricians call The fate of the Caufe, which is to be un- f j
derftood only of the principal queftion. And if, as it
frequently happens, the firft or principal queftion is
itfelf diredlly proved from mott than one argument; •
this makes no other difference, but that each of thefe
arguments) fo far as they are followed by others to '
fupport them, become a diftimfl feries of fiibordinat^ |‘
queftions, all dependent upon the firft:. As when Ci- ,1
cero endeavours to prove, that Rofcius did not kill
his father, from two reafons or arguments: Becaufe he
had neither any caufe to move him to fuch a barbarout
aillion, nor any opportunity for it.
Moreover, befides thefe fubordinate queftions, there
are alfo incidental ones often introduced, which have
fome reference to the principal queftion, and contri- i I
bute towards the proof it, though they are not ntcef-
farily connedted with it, or dependent upon it. And
each of thefe alfo has its ftate, though different from
that of the caufe. For every queftion, or point of con- * I
troverfy, mu ft be ftated, before it can be made the ij
fubjedl of difputation. And it is for this reafon, that :l
every new argument advanced by an orator is'called a
queftion; becaufe it is confidered as a frefh matter of
controverfy. In Cicero’s deffertte of Milo, we rifteet
with feveral of this fort of queftions, occafioned by
fome afperfions which had been thrown out by thd I
Clodian party to the prejudice of Milo, As, “ That
he was unworthy to fee the light, who owned he had ;|
killed a man :” For Milo before his trial had openly
confeffed he killed Clodius. Sd likewrfe, “ That the
fenate had declared the killing of Clbdius was an ille¬
gal adtion.” And further, “ That Pcihjiey, by ma¬
king a new law to fettle the manner of Milo’s trial,
had given his judgment againft Milo.” Now to each |
of thefe Cicero replies, before he proceeds to the prin¬
cipal queftion. And therefore, though the queltiort,
in which the ftate of a controverfy confifts, is faid by
Quintilian to arife from “ the firft conflidl of caufes,”
yet we find by this inftance of Cicero, that it is not
always the firft queftion in order, upoft Which the bra- :
tor treats.
But it fometimes happens, that the fame ckufe of j
controverfy contains in it more than one ftate. Thus
in judicial caufes, every diftindl charge occafions a new ]
ftate. All Cicero’s orations againft Verres relate to
one caufe, founded upon a law of the Romans againft
unjuft exadlions made by their governors of provinces
upon the inhabitants; but as that profecution i's iilade j
up of as many charges as there are orations, every
charge, or indidment, has its different ftate. So like-
wife his oration in defence of Ccelius has two ftates, in - ;
anfwer to a double charge made againft him by his
adverfaries : one, “ for borrowing money of Clbdia, .
in order to bribe certain flaves to kill a foreign ambaf-
fador;” and the other, “ for an attempt afterward to
poifon Clodia herfelf.” Befides which, there were fe¬
veral other matters of a lefs heinous nature, which Had
been thrown upon him by his accufers, with a defign,
very likely, to render the two principal charges more
credible; to which Cicero firft replies, in the fame man¬
ner as in his defence of Milo.
Though all the examples we have hitherto brought
to illultrate this fubjed, have been taken from judicial
cafes;
ORATORY.
on
I. O R A T O
. cafes ; yet not only tiiefe, but very frequently dif.
“■courfes of the deliberative kind, and fometimes thofe
of the deraonftrative, are managed in a controverfial
way. And all controverfies have their ftate. And
therefore Quintilian very juftly obferves, that “ dates
belong both to general and particular queftions; and
to all forts of caufes, demonllrative, deliberative, and
judicial.” In Cicero’s oration for the Manilian law,
this is the main point in difpute between him, and
thofe who oppofed that law; “ Whether Pompey was
the fitted perfon to be intruded with the management
of the war againd Mithridate-sr” This is a fubjeft of
the deliberative kind. And of the fame nature was
that debate in the fenate, concerning the demolition
of Carthage. For the matter in difpute between Cato,
who argued for it, and thofe who were of the contrary
opinion, feems to have been this: “ Whether it was for
the intered of the Romans to demolifh Carthage?”
And fo likewife in thofe two fine orations of Cato and
Caefar, given us by Sallud, relating to the confpira-
tors with Catiline, who were then in cudody, the con-
troverfy turns upon this: “ Whether thofe prifoners
fhould be punidied with death, or perpetual impriion-
ment?” Examples of the demondrative kind are not fo
common; but Cicero’s oration concerning the ‘ An-
fwers of the foothfayers,’ may afford us an indance of
it. Several prodigies had lately happened at Rome,
upon which the fpothfayers being confulted, afligned
this as the reafon of them, Becaufc fome places confe-
crated to the gods had been afterwards converted to
civil ufes. Clodius charged this upon Cicero; whofe
houfe was rebuilt at the public expence, after it had
been demolifhed by Clodius, and the ground confe-
crated to the goddefs Liberty. Cicero in this ora¬
tion retorts the charge; and (hews, that the prodigies
did not refpeft him, but Clodius. So that the quedion
in difpute was: “ To which of the two thofe prodi¬
gies related ?” This oration does not appear to have
been fpoken in a judicial way, and mud therefore be¬
long to the demondrative kind. His inveftive againd:
Pifo is likewife much of the fame nature, wherein he
compares his own behaviour and conduft with that of
Pifo.
As to the number of thefe dates, both Cicero and
Quintilian reduce them to three. “ We mud (fays
Qumtilian) agree with thofe, whofe authority Cicero
follows, who tell us, that three things may be inqui¬
red into in all difputes : Whether a thing is; what it
is; and how it is. And this is the method which na¬
ture preferibes. For in the fird place, it is neceflary
the thing fhould exid, about which the difpute is: be-
caufe no judgment can be made either of its nature, or
quality, till its exidence be manifed; which is there¬
fore the fird quedion. But though it be manifed that
a thing is, it does not prefently appear what it is; and
when this is known, the quality yet remains: and af¬
ter thefe three are fettled, no further inquiry is necef-
fary.” Now the fitd of thefe three dates is called the
cmjetturalJlate; as if it be inquired, “ Whether one
perfon killed another?” This always follows upon the
denial of a fact, by one of the parties; as was the cafe
of Rofcius. And it receives its name from hence, that
the judge is left, as it were, to conjecture, whether
the fa£t was really committed or not, from the evi¬
dence produced, on the other fide. The fecond is call-
R Y. 5653
ed the definitive, fiate, when the faft is not denied; but Invention,
the difpute turns upon the nature of it, and what name”
is proper to give it: as in that example of Cicero,
“ Whether to take a facred thing out of a private houfe
be theft, or facrilege?” For in this cafe it is neceffary
to fettle the didinCt notion of thofe two crimes, and
(hew their difference. The third is called the Jlate of
quality; when the contending parties are agreed both
as to the fad, and the nature of it; but the difpute is,
“ Whether it be jud or unjud, profitable or unprofi¬
table, and the like;” as in the caufe of Milo.
From what has been faid upon this fubjeCI, the ufe
of it may in a good meafure appear. For whoever en¬
gages in a controverfy, ought in the fird place to cbn-
fider with himfelf the main quedion in difpute, to fix
it well in his mind, and keep it condantly in his view;
without which he will be very liable to ramble from
the point, and bewilder both himfelf and his hearers.
And it is no lefs the bufinefs of the hearers principally
to attend to this; by which means they will be help¬
ed to didinguifh and feparate from the principal que¬
dion what is only incidental, and to obferve how far
the principal quedion is affe&ed by it ; to perceive
what is offered in proof, and what is only brought in
for ilfudration; not to be mifled by digreffions, but to
difeern when the fpeaker goes off from his fubjedl,
and when he returns to it again ; and, in a word, to
accompany him through the whole difeourfe, and carry
with them the principal chain of reafoning upon which
the caufe depends, fo as to judge upon the whole, whe¬
ther he has made out his point, and the conclufion
follows from the premifes.
Chap. II. Of Arguments fuited to Demonjirative
Difcourjes.
These confid either in praife or difpraife; and, 21
agreeably to the nature of all contraries, one of them
will ferve to illudrate the other.
Now we either praife perfons or things.
I. In praifing or difpraifing perfor.s, rhetoricians
preferibe two methods. One is, to follow the order
in which every thing happened that is mentioned in
the difeourfe; the other is, to reduce what is faid un¬
der certain general heads, without a drift regard to
the order of time.
1. In purfuing the former method, the difeourfe
may be very conveniently divided into three periods-
The fird of which will contain what preceded the per-
fon’s birth ; the fecond, the whole courfe of his life;;
and the third, what followed upon his death.
Under the fird of thefe may be comprehended what
is proper to be faid concerning his country or family.
And therefore, if thefe were honourable, it may be
faid to his advantage, that he noways difgraced them,
but afled fuitably to fuch a defeent. But if they were
not fo, they may be either wholly omitted: or it may
be faid, that, indead of deriving thence any advantage
to his charafter, he has conferred a lading honour up¬
on them; and that it is not of fo much moment where,,
or from whom, a perfon derives his birth, as how he
lives.
In the fecond period, which is that of his life, the
qualities both of his mind and body, with his circum-
ftances in the world, may be feparately confidered.
Though, as Quintilian rightly obferves: “ All exter¬
nal
5^54
Invention.
ORATORY.
nal advantages are not pratfes for themfelves, but ac¬
cording to the ufe that is made of them. For riches,
and power, and intereft, as they have great influence,
and may be applied either to good or bad purpofes, are
a proof of the temper of our minds; and therefore we
are either made better or worfe by them.” But thefe
things are a juft ground for commendation, when they
are the reward of virtue, or induftry. Bodily endow¬
ments are health, ftrength, beauty, activity, and the
like; which are more or lefs commendable, according
as they are employed. And where thefe, or any of
them, are wanting, it may be (hewn, that they are a-
bundantly compenfated by the more valuable endow¬
ments of the mind. Nay, fometimes a defedt in thefe
may give an advantageous turn to a perfon's charac¬
ter; for any virtue appears greater, in proportion to
the difadvantages the perfon laboured under in exert¬
ing it. But the chief topics of praife are taken from
the virtues and qualifications of the mind. And here
the orator may confider the difpofttion, education,
learning, and feveral virtues, which (hone through the
whole courfe of the perfon’s life. In doing which,
the preference fhould always be given to virtue above
knowledge or any other accomplifhment. And in ac¬
tions, thofe are moft confiderable, and will be heard
with greateft approbation, which a perfon either did
alone, or firft, or wherein he had feweft affociates; as
likewife thofe which exceeded expeftation, or were
done for the advantage of others rather than his own.
And further, as the laft fcene of a man’s life generally
commands the greateft regard, if any thing remark¬
able at that time was either faid or done, it ought par¬
ticularly to be mentioned. Nor (hould the manner of
his death, or caufe of it, if accompanied with any com¬
mendable circumftances, be omitted; as if he died in
the fervice of his country, or in the purfuit of any other
laudable defign.
The third and laft period relates to what followed
after the death of the perfon. And here the public
lofs, and public honours conferred upon the deceafed,
are proper to be mentioned. Sepulchres, ftatutes,
and other monuments to perpetuate the memory of
the dead, at the expence of the public, were in com¬
mon ufe both among the Greeks and Romans. But
in the earlieft times, as thefe honours were more rare,
fo they were lefs coftly. For as in one age it was
thought a fufficient reward for him who died in the
defence of his country, to have his name cut in a
marble infcription, with the caufe of his death ; fo, in
others, it was very common to fee the ftatues of gladi¬
ators, and perfons of the meaneft rank, ere&ed in
public places. And therefore a judgment is to be
formed of thefe things from the time, cuftom, and
circumftances, of different nations ; fince the frequency
of them renders them lefs honourable, and takes off
from their evidence as the rewards of virtue. But, as
Quintilian fays, “ Children are an honour to their
parents, cities to their founders, laws to thofe who
compiled them, arts to their inventors, and ufeful
cuftoms to the authors of them.”
And this may fuffice for the method of praifing
perfons, when we propofe to follow the order of time,
as Ifocrates has done in his funeral oration upon Eva-
goras king of Salamis, and Pliny in his panegyric
upon the emperor Trajan. But as this method is
Part
very plain and obvious, fo it requires the more agree- InventMe
able drefs to render it delightful; left otherwife it '
feem rather like an hiftory, than an oration: For
which reafon, we find, that epic poets, as Homer, 1
Virgil, and others, begin with the middle of their
ftory, and afterwards take a proper occafion to intro- j
duce what preceded, to diverfify the fubjedt, and i
give the greater pleafure and entertainment to their
readers.
2. The other method above hinted was, to reduce
the difeourfe to certain general heads, without regard¬
ing the order of time. As if any one, in praifing the
elder Cato, (hould propofe to do it, by (hewing, that
he was a moft prudent fenator, an excellent orator,
and moft valiant general; all which commendations
are given him by Pliny. In like manner, the charac-
ter of a good general may be comprifed under four
heads ; (kill in military affairs, courage, authority, |
and fuccefs: from all which Cicero commends Pom-
pey. And agreeably to this method Suetonius has
written the lives of the firft twelve Csefars.
But in praifing of perfons, care (hould always be ■
taken, to fay nothing that may feem fi&itious, or out i
of charafter, which may call the orator’s judgment j
or integrity in qneftion. It was not without caufe,
therefore, that Lyfippus the ftatuary, as Plutarch \
tells us, blamed Apelles for painting Alexander the
Great with thunder in his hand ; which could never •
fuit his charadler as a man, however he might boaft of 1
his divine defeent: for which reafon Lyfippus himfelf
made an image of him holding a fpear, as thefign of a
warrior. Light and trivial things in commendations
are likewife to be avoided, and nothing mentioned ,!
but what may carry in it the idea of fomething truly
valuable, and which the hearers may be fuppofed to
wifh for, and is proper to excite their emulation. j
Thefe are the principal heads of praife with relation
to men. In difpraife, the heads contrary to thefe are
requifite ; which being fufficiently clear from what
has been faid, need not particularly be infilled on.
II. We proceed therefore to the other part of the
divifion, which refpefts things, as diftinguiftied from j
perfons. By which we are to underftand all beings
inferior to man, whether animate or inanimate ; as
likewife the habits and difpofitions of men, either good
or bad; when confidered feparately, and apart from ,
their fubjefls, as arts and fciences, virtues and vices,
with whatever elfe may be a proper fubjeft for praife i
or difpraife. Some writers, indeed, have, for their own
amufement and the diverfion of others, difplayed i
their eloquence in a jocofe manner upon fubjefts of
this kind. So Lucian has written in praife of a fly,
and Syncfiiis an elegant encomium upon baldnefs. {
Others, on the contrary, have done the like in a fa-
tyrical way. Such is Seneca’s apotheofis or confe-
cration of the emperor Claudius; and the Myfopogon
or beard-hater, written by Julian the emperor. Not
to mention feveral modern authors, who have imitated
them in fuch ludicrous compofitions. But as to thefe j
things, and all of the like nature, the obfervation of I
Antony in Cicero feems very juft : “ That it is not
neceffary to reduce every fubjed we difeourfe upon to
rules of art.” For many are fo trivial, as not to de- j
ferve it; and others fo plain and evidentPof themfelvcs, i"
as not to require it. But fince it frequently comes in
t O R A r
- the way both of orators and hlftorians to defcribe
countries, cities, and fadts, we rtiall briefly mention
the principal heads of invention proper to illuftrate
each of thefe.
Countries, then, may be celebrated from the plea-
fan tnefs of their fituation, the clemency and whole-
fomenefs of the air, and goodnefs of the foil; to which
laft may be referred the fprings, rivers, woods, plains,
mountains, and minerals. And to all thefe may be
added their extent, cities, the number and antiquity
of the inhabitants; their policy, laws, cuftoms, wealth,
charadler for cultivating the arts both of peace and
war ; their princes, and other eminent men they have
produced. Thus Pacatus has given us a very elegant
defcription of Spain, in his panegyric upon the em¬
peror Theodofius, who was born there.
Cities are praifed from much the fame topics, as
countries. And here, whatever contributes either to
their defence, or ornament, ought particularly to be
mentioned ; as the ftrength of the walls and fortifica¬
tions, the beauty and fplecdor of the buildings, whe¬
ther facred or civil, public or private. We have in
Herodotus a very fine defcription of Babylon, which
was once the ftrongeft, largeft, and moft regular city
in the world.' And Cicero has accurately defcribed
the city of Syracufe, in the ifland Sicily, in one of his
orations againtt Verres.
But fads come much oftener under the cognizance
of an orator. And thefe receive their commendation
from their honour, juftice, or advantage. But in de-
fcribing them, all the circumftances Ihould be related
in their proper order ; and that in the moft lively and
affcdting manner, fuited to their different nature.
Livy has reprefented the demolition of Alba by the
Roman army, which was fent thither to deftroy it,
through the whole courfe of that melancholy fcene, in
a ftyle fo moving and pathetic, that one can hardly
forbear condoling with the inhabitants, upon reading
bis account.
But in difcourfes of this kind, whether of praife or
difpraife, the orator Ihould (as he ought indeed upon
all occafions) well confider where, and to whom, he
fpeaks. For the wife men often think very differently
both of perfons and things from the common people.
And we find that learned and judicious men are fre¬
quently divided in their fentiments, from the feveral
ways of thinking to which they have been ac-
cuftomed. Befides, different opinions prevail, and
gain the afcendant, at different times. While the
Romans continued a free nation, love of their country,
liberty, and public fpirit, were principles in the
higheft efteem among them. And therefore, when
Cato killed himfelf, that he might not fall into the
hands of Casfar, and furvive the liberty of his country,
it was thought an inftance of the greateft heroic
virtue; but afterwards, when they had been ac-
cuftomed to an arbitrary government, and the fpirit
of liberty was now loft, the poet Martial could ven¬
ture to fay,
Death to avoid ’tis madnefs fure to die.
A prudent orator therefore will be cautious of op-
pofing any fettled and prevailing notions of thofe -to
whom he addreffes ; unlefs it be neceffary, and then
he will do it in the fofteft and moft gentle manner.
Vol. VIII. t
r ° ttil
Chap. III. Of Arguments fuited to Deliberative -nvei'■■■ -•
Difcourfes.
This kind of difcourfes mull certainly have been 22
very ancient} fince, doubtlefs, from the firft beginning
of mens converfing together, they deliberated upon
their common intereft, and offered their advice to each
other. But neither thofe of the laudatory nor judi¬
cial kind could have been introduced, till mankind
were fettled in communities, and found it neceffary to
encourage virtue by public rewards, and bring vice
under the reftraint of laws. The early pra&ice of
fuafory difcourfes appears from facred writ, where we
find, that when Mofes was ordered upon an embaffy
into Egypt, he would have excufed himfelf for want
of eloquence. And Homer reprefents the Greeks at
the fiege of Troy, as flocking like a fvvarm of bees to
hear their generals harangue them. Nor is this part
of oratory lefs confpicuous for its ufefulnefs to man¬
kind, than its antiquity; being highly beneficial
either in councils, camps, or any focieties of men.
How many inftances have we upon record, where the
fury of an enraged multitude has been checked and
appealed by the prudent and artful perfuafion of fome
particular perfon ? The ftory of Agrippa Menenius,
when the commons of Rome withdrew from the fena-
tors, and retired out of the city, is too well known,
to need reciting. And how often have armies been
animated and fired to the moft dangerous exploits, or
recalled to their duty, when ready to mutiny, by a
moving fpeech of their general? many inftances o£
which we find in hiftory.
All deliberation refpefts fomething future, for it is
in vain to confult about what is already paft. The
fubjedl-matter of it is, either things public or private,
facred or civil; indeed all the valuable concerns of
mankind, both prefent and future, come under its
regard. And the end propofed by this kind of dif¬
courfes is chiefly profit or intereft. But fince nothing
is truly profitable, but what is in fome refped good ;
and every thing, which is good in itfelf, may not in
all circumftances be for our advantage ; properly
fpeaking, what is both good and profitable, or bene¬
ficial good, is the end here defigned. And therefore,
as it fometimes happens, that what appears profitable,
may feem to interfere with that which is ftri&ly juft
and honourable ; in fuch cates it is certainly moft
advifeable to determine on the fafer fide of honour and
juftice, notwithftanding fome plaufible things may be
offered to the contrary. But where the difpute Ires
apparently between what is truly honed, and fome
external advantage propofed in oppofition to it, all
good men cannot but agree in favour of honefty.
Such was thecafe of Regulus, who, being taken prifoner
by the Carthaginians, was permitted to go to Rome
upon giving his oath, that unlefs he could perfuade
the fenate to fet at liberty fome young Carthaginian
noblemen, then prifoners at Rome, in exchange for
him, he fhould return again to Carthage. But Re¬
gulus, when he came to Rome, was fo far from en¬
deavouring to prevail with the fenate to comply with
the defirc of the Carthaginians, that he ufed all his
intereft to diffuade them from hearkening to the pro-
pofal. Nor could the moft earneft intreaties of his
31 Z neareft
<
5656
Invention.
ORATORY.
Part IJ
nearell relations and friends, nor any arguments they
were able to offer, engage him to continue at Rome,
and not return again to Carthage. He had then
plainly in his view, on the one fide, eafe, fecurity,
affluence, honours, and the enjoyment of his friends;
and on the other, certain death, attended with cruel
torments. However, thinking the former not con-
fiftent with truth and juftice, he chofe the latter.
And he certainly afled as become an honed and
brave man, in choofing death, rather than to violate
his oath. Though whether he did prudently in per-
fuading the fenate not to make the exchange, or they
in complying with him, we fhall leave others to deter¬
mine. Now, when it proves to be a matter of debate,
whether a thing upon the whole be really beneficial
or not ; as here arife two parts, advice and diffuafion,
they will each require proper heads of argument. But
as they are contrary to each other, he who is ac¬
quainted with one, cannot well be ignorant of the
other. We fhall therefore chiefly mention thofe pro¬
per for advice, from whence fuch as are fuited to
difluade will eafily be perceived. Now the principal
heads of this kind are thefe following, which are
taken from the nature and properties of the thing itfelf
under confideration.
1. Pleafnre often affords a very cogent argument in
difcourfes of this nature. Every one knows what an
influence this has upon the generality of mankind.
Though, as Quintilian remarks, pleafure ought not
of itfeif to be propofed as a fit motive for aftion in
ferious difcourfes, but when it is defigned to recom¬
mend fomething ufeful, which is the cafe here.- So,
would any one advife another to the purfuit of polite
literature, Cicero has furnifhed him with a very ftrong
inducement to it from the pleafure which attends that
Andy, when he fays: “ If pleafure only was propofed
by thefe ftudies, you would think them an entertain¬
ment becoming a man of fenfe and a gentleman. For
other purfuits neither agree with all times, all ages,
nor all places ; but thefe ftudies improve youth, de¬
light old age, adorn profperity, afford a refuge and
comfort in adverfity, divert us at home, are no hin¬
drance abroad, fleep, travel, and retire with us into the
country.”
2. Profit, or advantage. This has no lefs influence
upon many perfons than the former ; and when it re-
fpeiSs things truly valuable, it is a very juft and laudable
motive. Thus Cicero, when he fends his Boohs of of¬
fices to his fon, which he wrote in Latin for his ufe,
advifes him to make the beft advantage both of his
tutor’s inftru&ions, and the converfation at Athens,
where he then was; but withal to perufe his philofo-
pbical treatifes, which would be doubly ufeful to him,
not only upon account of the fubje&s, but likewife of
the language, as they would enable him to exprefs
himfelf upon thofe arguments in Latin, which before
had only been treated of in Greek.
3. Honour; than which no argument will fooner
prevail with generous minds, or infpire them with
greater ardour. Virgil has very beautifully defcribed
He&or’s ghoft appearing to JEneas the night Troy
was taken, and advifing him to depart from this mo¬
tive of honour:
O gofldefs-born, efcape Jiy timely flight
The flames, and horrors of this fatal night.
The foes already have poflefs’d the wall,
Troy nods from high, and totters to her fall.
Enough is paid to Priam’s royal name ;
More than enough to duty, and to fame.
If by a mortal hand my father’s throne
Cou’d be defended, ’twas by mine alone.
The argument here made ufe of to perfuade iEneas
to leave Troy immediately, is, that he had done all that
could be expe&ed from him, either as a good fubjedl
or brave foldier, both for his king and country;
which were fufficient to fecure his honour: and now
there was nothing more to be expefted from him,
when the city was falling, and impoffible to be faved ;
which could it have been preferved by human power,
he himfelf had done it.
But although a thing confidered in itfelf appear be¬
neficial if it could be attained, yet the expediency of
undertaking it may ftill be queftionable ; in which
cafe the following heads taken from the circumftances
which attend it, will afford proper arguments to en¬
gage in it.
(1.) The pojfibility of fucceeding may fometimesbe
argued, as one motive to this end. So Hannibal en¬
deavoured to convince king Antiochus, that it was
poflible for him to conquer the Romans, if he made
Italy the feat of the war; by obferving to him, not
only that the Gauls had formerly deftroyed their city ;
but that he had himfelf defeated them, in every battle
he fought with them in that country.
(2.) But an argument founded upon probability W\W
be much more likely to prevail. For in many affairs
of human life, men are determined either to profecute
them or not, as the profpeft of fuccefs appears more
or lefs probable. Hence Cicero, after the fatal battle
at Pharfalia, diffuades thofe of Pompey’s party, with
whom he was engaged, from continuing the war any
longer againft Caefar ; becaufe it was highly impro¬
bable, after fuch a defeat, by which their main ftrength
was broken, that they fliould be able to Hand their
ground, or meet with better fuccefs than they bad be¬
fore.
(3.) But further, fince probability is not a motive
ftrong enough with many perfons to engage in the
profecution of a thing which is attended with confi-
derable difficulties, it is often neceffary to reprefent
the facility of doing it, as a further reafon to induce
them to it. And therefore Cicero makes ufe of this
argument to encourage the Roman citizens in oppo-
fing Mark Anthony (who upon the death of Csefar had
affumed an arbitrary power), by reprefenting to them,
that his circumftances were then defperate, and that he
might eafily be vanquifhed.
(4.) Again, if the thing advifed can be (hewn to
be in any refpeft neceffary, this will render the mo¬
tive ftill much ftronger for undertaking it. And there¬
fore Cicero joins this argument with the former, to
prevail with the Roman citizens to oppofe Anthony,
by telling them, that “ The confideration before them
was, not in what circumftances they fhould live ; but
whether they fliould live at all, or die with ignominy
and difgrace.” This way of reafoning will fometimes
prevail when all others prove ineffeflual. For feme
perfons are not to be moved, til! things are brought
to an extremity, and they find themfelves reduced to
the utmoit danger.
(5.) To thefe heads may be added the confidera¬
tion
Part I. ORATORY. 5657
Hmation. tion of the event, which in fome cafes carries great
“ weight with it. As when we advife to the doing of
a thing from this motive, That whether it fucceed or
not, it will yet be of fervice to undertake it. So after
the great vi&ory gained by Themiftocles over the
” Perfian fleet at the {traits of Salamis, Mardoniusad-
vifed Xerxes to return into Afia himfelf, left the re¬
port of his defeat fhould occafion an infurreftion in his
|jj abfence : but to leave behind him an army of 300,000
men under his command ; with which, if he fhould
conquer Greece, the chief glory of the conqueft would
redound to Xerxes; but if the defign mifcarried, the
difgrace would fall upon his generals.
Thefe are the principal heads which furnifh the
orator with proper arguments in giving advice. Cicero,
in his oration for the Manilian law, where he endea¬
vours to perfuade the Roman people to choofe Pom-
pey for their general in the Mithridatic war, reafons
from three of thefe topics, into which he divides his
whole difcoprfe; namely, the neceffity of the war, the
greatnefs of it, and the choice of a proper general.
Under the firft of thefe he fhews, that the war was ne-
ceifary from four- confiderations ; the honour of the
Roman ftate, the fafety of their allies, their own reve¬
nues, and the fortunes of many of their fellow citi¬
zens, which were all highly concerned in it, and call¬
ed upon them to put a flop to the growing power of
king Mithridates, by which they were all greatly en¬
dangered. So that this argument is taken from the
head of necejjity. The fecond, in which he treats of
the greatnefs of the war, is founded upon the topic of
fojftbility. For though he fhews the power of Mithri¬
dates tobe very great, yet not fo formidable, but that
he might be fubdued ; as was evident from the many
advantages Lucullus had gained over him and his af-
fociates. In the third head, he endeavours to prevail
with them tointruftthe managment of the war in the
hands of Pompey, whom he defcribes as a confum-
mate general, for his fkill in military affairs, courage,
authority, and fuccefs; in all which qualities he re-
prefents him as fuperior to any other of their gene¬
rals whom they could at that time make choice of.
The defign of all which was, to perfuade them, that
they had very good reafon to hope for fuccefs, and
a happy event of the war, under his conduft. So that
that the whole force of his reafoning under this head
is drawn from probability. Thefe are the three gene¬
ral topics which make up that fine difcourfe. Each of
which is indeed fupported by divers other arguments
and confiderations, which will be obvious in perufing
the oration itfelf, and therefore need not be here enu¬
merated. On the contrary, in another oration he en¬
deavours to diffuade the fenate from confenting to a
peace with Mark Anthony, becaufe it was bafe, dan¬
gerous, and imprafticable.
But no fmall fkill and addrefs are required in giving
advice. For fince the tempers and fentiments of man¬
kind, as well as their circumftances, are very different
and various ; it is often neceffary to accommodate the
difcourfe to their inclinations and opinions of things.
And therefore the weightieft arguments are not al¬
ways the moft proper, and fitteft to be ufed on alloc-
cafions. Cicero, who was an admirable mafterof this
art, and knew perfeftly well how to fuit what he faid
to the tafte- and relifti of his hearers, in treating upon
3
this fubjeft, diftinguifhes mankind into two forts; the Invention,
ignorant and unpolifhed, who always prefer profit to-
honour ; and fuch as are more civilized and polite,
who prefer honour and reputation to all other things.
Wherefore they are to be moved by thefe different
views: Praife, glory, and virtue, influence the one;
while the other is only to be engaged by a profpeft of
gain and pleafure. Befides, it is plain, that the gene¬
rality are much more inclined to avoid evils than to
purfue what is good ; and to keep clear of fcandal and
difgrace, than to praftife what is truly generous and
noble. Perfons likewife of a different age aft from
different principles; young men for the moft part view
things in another light, from thofe who are older, and
have had more experience, and confequently are not to
be influenced by the fame motives.
Chap. IV. Of Arguments fuited to Judicial
Difcourjes.
In judicial controverfies there are two parties; the 23
plaintiff or profecutor, and the defendant or perfon
charged. The fubjeft of them is always fomething
paft. And the end propofed by them Cicero calls equi¬
ty, or right and equity; the former of which arifes
from the laws of the country, and the latter from rea¬
fon and the nature of things. For at Rome the prae¬
tors had a court of equity, and were empowered, in
many cafes relating to property, to relax the rigour of
the written laws. But as this fubjeft is very copious,
and caufes may arife from a great variety of things,
writers have reduced them to three heads, which they
call Jlates, to fome one of which all judicial proceed¬
ings may be referred ; namely, ’whether a thing is,
cwhat it is, or ho<w it is. By the Jlate of a caufe there¬
fore is meant the principal queftion in difpute, upon
which the whole affair depends. Which, if it flops in
the firft inquiry, and the defendant denies the faft, the
flate is called conjectural; but if the faft be acknow¬
ledged, and yet denied to be what the adverfary calls
it, it is termed definitive; but if there is no difpute
either about the faft or its name, but only the juftice
of it, it is called the Jlate of quality : as was /hewn
more largely before under n° 20. But we there con-
fidered thefe dates only in a genera] view, and deferred
the particular heads of argument proper for each of
them, to this judicial kind of difcourfes; where they
moft frequently occur, and from which examples may
eafily be accommodated to other fubjefts.
All judicial caufes are either private or public. Thofe
are called private, which relate to the right of parti¬
cular perfons; and they are likewife called civil caufes,
as they are converfant about matters of property.
Public caufes are thofe which relate to public jullice
and the government of the ftate ; which are alfo called
criminal, becaufe by them crimes are profecutcd, whe¬
ther capital, or thofe of a lefs heinous nature. We
fttall take the heads of the arguments only from this
latter kind, becaufe they are more copious, and eafy
to be illuftrated by examples ; from which fuch as a-
gree to the former, namely civil caufes, will fufficient-
ly appear.
1. The ftate. When the accufed perfon
denies the faft, there are three things which the pro-
feeutor has to confider; whether he ’would have done
it, whether he cou/d, and whether he did it. And
31 Z 2 hence
5658
Invention, hence arife three topics; from the tvill, the power,
 and the ftgns or circumltances which attended the
aftion. The affeftions of the mind difcover the will ;
as, pafiion, an old grudge, a defire of revenge, a re-
fentment of an injury, and the like. Therefore Ci¬
cero argues from Clodius’s hatred of Milo, that hede-
figned his death ; and from thence infers, that he was
the agreffor in the combat between them, wherein
Clodius was killed. This is what he principally en¬
deavours to prove, and comes properly under this ftate:
for Milo owned that he killed him, but alleged that he
did it in his own defence. So that in regard to this
point, Which of them aflaulted the other, the charge
was mutual. The profpeft of advantage may alfo be
alleged to the fame purpofe. Hence it is faid of L.
Caffius, that whenever he fat as judge in a cafe of
murder, he ufed to advife and move the court, to exa¬
mine, to whom the advantage arofe from the death of
the deceafed. And Cicero puts this to Anthony con¬
cerning the death of Csefar. “ If any one (fays he)
fhould bring you upon trial, and ufe that faying of Caf¬
fius, Cui bono ? “ Who got by it ?” look to it, I befeech
you, that you are not confounded.” To thefe argu¬
ments may be added, hope of impunity, taken either
from the circumftances of the accufed perfon, or of him
who fuffered the injury. For perfons, who have the
advantage of intereft, friends, power, or money, are
apt to tnink they may eafily efcape ; as likewife fuch,
■who have formerly committed other crimes with impu¬
nity. Thus Cicero reprefents Clodius as hardened in
vice, and above all the reftraint of laws, from having
fo often efcaped punilhment upon committing the
higheft crimes. On the contrary, fuch a confidence
is fometimes raifed from the condition of the injured
party, if he is indigent, obfcure, timorous, or defti-
tute of friends 5 much more if he has an ill reputa¬
tion, or is loaded with popular hatred and refentment.
It was this prefumption of the obfcurity of Rofcius,
who lived in the country, and his want of intereft at
Rome, which encouraged his accufers to charge him
with killing his father, as Cicero fhews in his defence
of him. Laftly, the temper of a perfon, his views,
and manner of life, are confiderations of great mo¬
ment in this matter. For perfons of bad morals, and
fuch as are addi&ed to vice, are eafily thought ca¬
pable of committing any wickednefs. Hence Salluft
argues from the evil difpofition and vitious life of Ca¬
tiline, that he affefted to raife himfelf upon the ruins
of his country. The fecond head is ihz power of do¬
ing a thing: and there are three things which relate
to this, the place,- the time, and opportunity. As if a
crime is faid to have been committed in a private place,
where no other perfon was prefent; or in the night ;
or when the injured perfon was unable to provide for
his defence. Under this head, may likewife be brought
in the circumftances of the perfons; as if the accufed
perfon was ftronger, and fo able to overpower the
other; or more aftive, and fo could cafily make his
efcape. Cicero makes great ufe of this topic in the
cafe of Milo, and (hews, that Clodius had all the advan¬
tages of/Arre, time, and opportunity, to execute jjis de-
fign of killing him. The third head comprehends the
Jigns and circumftances, which either preceded, ac¬
companied, or followed, the commiflion of the faft. So
threats, or the accufed perfon being teen at Or near the
Part I.
place before the faft was committed, are circumftances Inventions
that may probably precede murder; fighting, crying '•
out, bloodftied, are fuch as accompany it; palenefs,
trembling, inconfiftent anfwers, hefitation, or falter¬
ing of the fpeech, fomething found upon the perfon
accufed which belonged to the deceafed, are fuch as
follow it. Thus Cicero proves, that Clodius had threa¬
tened the death of Milo, and given out that he (hould
not live above three days at the fartheft. Thefe argu¬
ments, taken from conjedures, are called prefumptions,
which, though they do not dire&ly prove that the ac¬
cufed perfon committed the faft with which he is '
charged ; yet when, laid together, they appeared very
ftrong, fentence by the Roman law might fometimes
be given upon them, to convidt him.
Thefe are the topics from which the profecutor ]
takes his arguments. Now the bufinefs of the defen- i
dant is to invalidate thefe. Therefore fuch as are
brought from the will, he either endeavours to (hew
are not true, or fo weak as ta merit very little regard. j
And he refutes thofe taken from the power, by proving
that he wanted either opportunity or ability: as, if j
he can (hew, that neither the place nor time infifted j
on was at all proper; or that he was then in another
place. In like manner he will endeavour to confute
the circumjlances, if they cannot be diredtly denied, by i
(hewing that they are not fuch as do neceffarily ac¬
company the fadf, but might have proceeded from
other caufes, though nothing of what is alleged had j
been committed; and it will be of great fervice to j
aflign fome other probable caufe. But fometimes the
defendant does not only deny that he did the fadt, j
but charges it upon another. Thus Cicero, in his
oration for Rofcius, not only defends him from each
of thefe three heads, but likewife charges the fadt upon
his accufers.
2. The definitive ftate, which is principally con¬
cerned in defining and fixing the name proper to the
fadf: though orators feldom make ufe of exact defini¬
tions, but commonly choofe larger defcriptions, taken
from various properties of the fubjedt or thing de-
fcribed.
The heads of argument in this ftate are much the j
fame to both parties. For each of them defines the i
fadt his own way, and endeavours to refute the other’s
definition. We may illuftrate this by an example j
from Quintilian: “ A perfon is accufed of facrilege, j
for dealing money out of a temple, which belonged to
a private perfon.” The fadl is owned; but the que- ;l
ftion is. Whether it be properly facrilege? The profe- jl
cutor calls it fo, becaufe it was taken out of a temple.
But fince the money belonged to a private perfon, the
defendant denies it to be facrilege, and fays it is only
fimple theft. Now the reafon why the defendant
ufes this plea, and infifts upon the diftindlion, is, be- !|
caufe by the Roman law the penalty of theft was only I
four times the value of what was ftolen; whereas fa- ; J
crilege was puni(hed with death. The profecutor
then forms his definition agreeable to his charge, and [;
fays, “ To deal any thing out of a facred place is : I
facrilege.” But the defendant excepts againft this
definition, as defedlive; and urges, that it does not ]|
amount to facrilege, unlefs the thing ftolen was like¬
wife facred. And this cafe might once, perhaps, have
been a matter of controverfy, fuice we find it exprefsly I
deter- , JI
ORATORY.
ORATORY. 5659
determined in the Pandefls, that u An adion of fa-
crilege ihould not lie, but only of theft, againft any
one who ihould ileal the goods of private perfons de-
pofited in a temple.”
The fecond thing is the proof brought by each
party each party to fupport his definition; as in the
example given us by Cicero, of one “ who carried his
caufe by bribery, and was afterwards profecuted again
upon an adtion of prevarication.” Now, if the defen¬
dant was caft upon this adtion, he was, by the Ro¬
man law, fubjedted to the penajty of the former pro-
fecution. Here the profecutor defines prevarication
to be, Any bribery or corruption in the defendant, ’with
a defign to pervert jujlice. The defendant therefore,
on the other hand, reftrains it to bribing only the pro¬
fecutor.
And if this latter fenfe agrees better with the com¬
mon acceptation of the word, the profecutor in the
third place pleads the intention of the law, which
was to comprehend all bribery in judicial matters
under the term of prevarication. In anfwer to which
the defendant endeavours to (hew, either from the
head of contraries, that a real profecutor and a pre¬
varicator are ufed as oppofite terms in the law; or
from the etymology of the word, that a prevaricator
denotes one who pretends to appear in the profecution
of a caufe, while in reality he favours the contrary
fide; and confequently, that money given for this end,
only can, in the fenfe of the law, be called prevarica¬
tion.
Laftly, the profecutor pleads, that it is unreafonable,
that he who does not deny the faft, (hould efcape by
a cavil about a word. But the defendant infifts upon
his explication as agreeable to the law; and fays, the
fail is mifreprefented and blackened, by affixing to it
a wrong name.
3. The third (late is that of quality, in which the dif-
pute turns upon the juftice of an aftion. And here
the defendant does not deny he did the thing he is
charged with; but afierts it to be right and equitable,
from the circumftances of the cafe, and the motives
which induced him to it.
And, firft, he fometimes alleges, the reafon of doing
it was in order to prevent fome other thing of worfe
confequence, which would otherwife have happened.
We have an inftance of this in the life of Epaminon-
das, who, with two other generals joined in the com¬
mand with him, marched the Theban army intoPelo-
ponnefus againft the Lacedemonians; but by the in¬
fluence of a contrary faction at home, their commif-
fions were fuperfeded, and other generals fent to com¬
mand the army. But Epaminondas, being fenfible
that, if he obeyed this order at that time, it would be
attended with the lofs of the whole army, and confe¬
quently the ruin of the date, refufed to do it; and
having perfuaded the other generals to do the like,
they happily finifired the war in which they were en¬
gaged ; and upon their return home, Epaminondas
taking the whole matter upon himfelf, on his trial
was acquitted. The arguments proper in this cafe
are taken from the juftice, ufefulnefs, or neceffity, of
the adtion. The accufer therefore will plead, that the
fadl was not juft, profitable, nor neceflary, confidered
either in itfelf, or comparatively with that for the
fake of which it is laid to have been done; and he
will endeavour to (hew, that what the defendant af- Invention,
figns for the reafon of what he did, might not have
happened as he pretends. Befides, he will reprefent
of what ill confequence it muft be, if fuch crimes go
unpuniftied. The defendant, on the other hand, will
argue from the fame heads,, and endeavour to prove
tbe faft was juft, ufeful, or neceflary. And he will
further urge, that no juft eftimate can be made of
any adlion, but from the circumftances which attend
it; as the defign, occafion, and motives for doing it:
which he will reprefent in the mod favourable light
to his own caufe, and endeavour to fet them in
fuch a view, as to induce others to think they could
not but have done the fame in the like circum¬
ftances.
Again, the caufe of an a&ion is fometimes charged
by the defendant upon the party who received the
damage, or fome other perfon, who either made it
neceflary, or injoined him to do it. The firft of thefe
was Milo’s plea for killing Clodius, becaufe he af-
faulted him with a defign to take away his life. Here
the fa6t is not denied, as in the cafe of Rofcius above-
mentioned, under the cenjeftural (late; but jnftified
from the reafon of doing it. For that an aflaffinator
might be juftly killed, Cicero (hews both from law
and reafon. The accufer, therefore, in fuch a cafe,
will, if there be room for it, deny the truth of this
allegation. So the friends of Clodius affirmed that
Milo was the aggreflbr, and not Clodius; which Ci¬
cero, in his defence of Milo, principally labours to
refute. In the fecond cafe, the profecutor will fay.
No one ought to offend becaufc another has offended
firft; which defeats the courfe of public juftice, ren¬
ders the laws ufelefs, and deftroys the authority of
the magiftrate. The defendant, on the other hand,
will endeavour to reprefent the danger and neceffity of
the cafe, which required an immediate remedy, and
in that manner; and urges, that it was vain and im¬
practicable to wait for redrefs in the ordinary way,
and therefore no ill confequence can arife to the
public. Thus Cicero, in defending Sextius, who was
profecuted for a riot in bringing armed men into the
forum, (hews that his defign was only to repel force
with fpree; which was then neceffary, there being no
other means left for the people to affemble, who were
excluded by a mob of the contrary party. Of the
third cafe we have alfo an example in Cicero, who
tells us, that, “ in making a league between the
Romans and Samnites, a certain young nobleman was
ordered by the Roman general to hold the fwine (de-
figned for a facrifice); but the fenate afterwards dif-
approving the terms, and delivering up their general
to the Samnites, it was moved. Whether this young
man ought not likewife to be given up.” Thole who
were for it might fay, that, to allege the command of
another, is not a fufficient plea for doing an ill aftion;
and this is what the Roman law now exprefsly de¬
clares. But in anfwer to that, it might be replied,.
that it was his duty to obey the command of his
general, who was anfwerable for his own orders, and
not thofe who were obliged to execute them ; and
therefore, to give up this young nobleman would be
to punifh one perfon for the fault of another.
Laftly, a fad is fometimes rather excufed than de¬
fended, by pleading that it was not done defignedly,
or
5660
Invention.
O R A 1
or with any ill intent. This is called conceflion ; and
'confifts of two parts, apology and intreaty. The former
reprefents the matter as the effe& of inadvertency,
chance, or necefllty. Ariftotle gives us an example
of inadvertency or imprudence in a woman at Athens,
who gave a young man a love-potion, which killed
him; for which (lie.was tried, but acquitted: though
afterwards this was made criminal by the Roman
law. The cafe of Adraftus, as related by Herodotus,
is an inftance of chance; who being intruded by
Croefus with the care of his fon, as they were hunting,
killed hinu accidentally with a javelin which he threw
at a boar. It is neceffity, when a perfon excufes his
making a default, from ftrefs of weather, ficknefs, or
the like. Thus Cicero pleaded his illnefs, contra&ed
by the fatigue of a long journey, as an excufe for not
appearing in the fenate ^npon the fummons of Mark
Antony, who threatened to oblige him to it by pulling
bis houfe down. But what the defendant here attri¬
butes to inadvertency, chance, or necefiity, the oppo-
fite party will attribute to detign, negligence, or fome
other culpable reafon; and reprefent it as a matter in¬
jurious to the public to introduce fuch precedents;
and alfo produce inftances, if that can be done, where
the like excufes have not been admitted. On the
other hand, the defendant wilt infill; on his innocence,
and Ihew the hardlhip and feverity of judging mens
adions rather by the event, than from the intention:
that fuch a procedure makes no difference between
the innocent and the guilty; but mufl neceffarily in¬
volve many honeft men in ruin and deftruftion, dif-
courage all virtuous and generous defigns, and turn
greatly to the prejudice of human fociety. He will
alfo confider the inllances alleged by the accufer, and
fhew the difference between them and his own cafe.
And, laftly, he will have recourfe to intreaty, or a
fubmiffive addrefs to the equity and clemency of the
court, or party offended, for pardon; as Cicero has
done in his oration to Caefar, in favour of Liga-
rius.
Chap. V. Of the CharaBer and. Addrefs of an
Orator.
Having confidered and explained the fir ft part of
invention, which furnifhes the orator with fuch argu¬
ments as are neceffary for the proof of his fubjeft,
we are next to fhew what are the proper means to con¬
ciliate the minds of his hearers; to gain their affec¬
tion ; and to recommend both himfelf, and what he
fays, to their good opinion and efteem. For the parts
of invention are commonly thus diftinguifhed; that the
firft refpefts fubject ol the difeourfe, the fecond the
fpeaker, and the third the hearers. Now the fecond
of thefe, what we have at prefent to explain, is by
Qujntilian called a propriety of manners. And in or¬
der to exprefs this, it is neceffary, as he tells us, “ that
every thing appear eafy and natural, and the difpafi-
tion of the fpeaker be difeovered by his words.” We
may form an eafy conception of this from the condu&
of fuch perfons who are moft nearly concerned in each
others welfare. As when relations or friends converfe
together upon any affairs of importance, the temper
apd difpofition of the fpeaker plainly (hews itfelf by
his words and manner of addrefs. And what nature
here dire&s to without colouring or difguife, the ora-
O R Y. Part
tor is to endeavour to perform by his art. Though Inventi
indeed, if what a perfon fays, be inconfiftent with his "
ufual conduft and behaviour at other times; he can¬
not expeft it fhould gain much credit, or make any
deep impreffion upon his hearers: which may be one
reafon, why the ancient rhetoricians make it fo necef¬
fary a qualification in an orator, that he be a good
man; fince he fhould always be confiftent with Tiim-
felf, and, as we fay, talk in chara&er. And there¬
fore it is highly requifite, that he fhould not only gain
the fkill of affuming thofe qualities which the nature
and circumftances of his difeourfe require him to ex¬
prefs ; but likewife, that he fhould ufe his utmoft en¬
deavours to get the real habits implanted in his mind.
For as by this means they will be always expreffed
with greater eafe and facility; fo, by appearing con-
ftantly in the courfe of his life, they will have more
weight and influence upon particular occafions.
Now there are four qualities, more efpecially fuited
to the chara&er of an orator, which fhould always ap¬
pear in his difeourfes, in order to render what he fays
acceptable to his hearers; and thefe are, nvifdom, in¬
tegrity, benevolence, and modejly.
1. Wifdom is neceflary; becaufe we eafily give into
thofe whom we efteem wjfer and more knowing than
ourfelves. Knowledge is very agreeable and pleafant
to all, but few make very great improvements in it ;
either by reafon they are employed in other necefTary
affairs, and the mind of man cannot attend to many
things at once ; or becaufe the way to knowledge at
firft is hard and difficult, fo that perfons either do not
care to enter upon the purfuit of it, or, if they do, they
are many times foon difeouraged, and drop it, for want
of fufficient refolution to furmount its difficulties.
Such, therefore, as either cannot, or do not care to
give themfelves the trouble of examining into things
themfelves, muft take up with the reprefentation of
others ; and it is an eafe to them to hear the opinion
of perfons whom they efteem wifer than themfelves.
No one loves to be deceived ; and thofe who are fear¬
ful of being mifled, are pleafed to meet with a perfon,
in whofe wifdom, as they think, they can fafely truft.
The charafter of wifdom therefore is of great fervice
to an orator, fince the greater part of mankind are
fwayed by authority rather than arguments.
2. But this of itfelf is not fufficient, unlefs the opi¬
nion of integrity be joined with it. Nay, fo far from
it, that the greater knowledge and underftanding a
man is fuppofed to have, unlefs he likewife have the
charadter of an honeft man, he iVoften the more fuf-
pedled. For knowledge without honefty, is generally
thought to difpofe a perfon, as well as qualify him, to
deceive.
3. And to both thefe qualities the appearance of
kindnefsand benevolence fhould likewife be added. For
though a perfon have the reputation of wifdom and
honefty, yet if we apprehend he is either not well af-
fefted to us, or at leaft regardlefs of our intereft; we
are in many cafe&apt to be jealous of him. Mankind
are naturally fwayed by their affedions, and much in¬
fluenced through love or friendfhip; and therefore no¬
thing has a greater tendency to induce perfons to cre¬
dit what is faid, than intimations of affeftion and kind-
nefs. The beft orators have been always fenfible,
what great influence the expreffions of kindnefs and
bene-
Part I. ORA
^Invention, benevolence have Upon the minds of others, to induce
them to believe the truth of what they fay; and there¬
fore they frequently endeavour to imprefa them with
the opinion of it. Thus Demofthenes begins his cele¬
brated oration for Ctefipbon. “It is my hearty prayer
(fays he) to all the deities, that this my defence may
be received by you with the fame affedtion which I
have always expreffed for you and your city.” And
it is a very fine image of it which we have in Cicero,
where, in order to influence the judges in favour of
Milo, he introduces him fpeaking thus, as became a
brave man, and a patriot, even upon the fuppofition he
fhould be condemned by them: “ I bid my fellow ci¬
tizens adieu ; may they continue flourifliing and prof-
perous; may this famous city be preferved, my moft
dear country, however it has treated me; may my fel¬
low citizens enjoy peace and tranquillity without me,
fince I am not to enjoy it with them, though I have
procured it for them; I will withdraw, I will be
gone.”
4. Modejly. It is certain, that what is modeflly
fpoken, is generally better received than what carries
in it an air of boldnefs and confidence. Moft perfons,
though ignorant of a thing, do not care to be thought
fo; and would have fome deference paid to their un-
derftanding. But he who delivers himfelf in an arro¬
gant and affumiag way, feems to upbraid his hearers
with ignorance, while he does not leave them to
judge for themfelves, but dictates to them, and as it
were demands their aflent to what he fays; which is
certainly a very improper method to win upon them.
For not a few, when convinced of an error in fuch a
way, will not own it; but will rather adhere to their
former opinion, than feem forced to think right, when
it gives another the opportunity of a triumph. A
prudent orator therefore will behave himfelf with mo-
defty, that he may not feem to infult his hearers; and
will fet things before them in fuch an engaging man¬
ner, as may remove all prejudice either from his pcr-
fon or what he afftrts. But at the fame time, firm-
nefs and refolution is as neceflary as modefty, that he
may appear to confide in the juftice and truth of his
caufe. For to fpeak timoroully, and with hefitation,
deftroys the credit of what is offered; and fo far as the
fpeaker feems to diftruft what he fays himfelf, he of¬
ten induces others to do the like.
But, as has been faid already, great care is to be
taken, that thefe charafters do not appear feigned and
counterfeit. For what is fiftitious can feldom be long
concealed. And if this be once difcovered, it makes
all that is faid fufpe&ed, how fpecious foever it may
H. otherwife appear.
It is further neceffary, that the orator fhould know
the world, and be well acquainted with the different
tempers and difpofitions of mankind. Nor indeed can
any one reafonably hope to fucceed in this province,
without well confidering the circumftances of time and
place, with the fentiments and difpofitions of thofe to
whom he fpeaks; which, according to Ariftotle, may
be diftinguifhed four ways, as they difcover themfeives
by the feveral affe{lions, habits, ages, and fortunes of
mankind. And each of thefe require a different con-
duft and manner of addrefs.
The affeftions denote certain emotions of the mind,
which, during their continuance, give a great turn to
TORY. 5661
the difpofitiou. For love prompts to one thing, and Invention,
hatred to another. The like may be laid of anger, ”
lenity, and the reft of them.
Perfons differ likewife according to the various ha¬
bit* of their mind. So a juft man is inclined one way,
and an unjuft man another; a temperate man to this,
and an intemperate man to the contrary.
And as to the feveral ages of men, Ariftotle has
defcribed them very accurately; and how perfons are
differently affe&ed in each of them. He divides the
lives of men, confidered as hearers, into three ft ages;
youth, middle age, and old age.—Young men, he fays,
have generally ftrong paffions, and are very eager to
obtain what they defife; but are likewife very mutable,
fo that the fame thing does not pleafe them long.
They are ambitious of praife, and quick in their re-
fentments. Lavifh of their money, as not having ex¬
perienced the want of it. Frank and open, becaufe
they have not often been deceived; and credulous for
the fame reafon. They readily hope the beft, becaufe
they have not fuffered much, and are therefore not fo
fenfible of the uncertainty of human affairs; for which
reafon, they are likewife more eafily deceived. They
are modeftfrom their little acquaintance with the world.
They love company and cheerfulnefs, from the brilknefs
of their fpirits. In a word, they generally exceed in
what they do ; love violently, hate violently, and aft
in the fame manner through the reft of their con-
duft.—The difpoiition of old men is generally con¬
trary to the former. They are cautious, and enter up¬
on nothing haftily; having in the courfe of many years
been often impofed upon; having often erred, and ex¬
perienced the prevailing corruption of human affairs;
for which reafon they are likewife fufpicious, and mo¬
derate in their affeftions either of love or hatred.
They purfue nothing great and noble, and regard
only the neceffaries of life. They love money; having
learnt by experience the difficulty of getting it, and
how eafily it is loft. They are fearful, which makes
them provident. Commonly full of complaints, from
bodily infirmities, and a deficiency of fpirits. They
pleafe themfelves rather with the memory of whatispaft,
than any future profpeft; having fo fhort a view' of life
before them, in comparifon of what is already gone:
for which reafon alfo, they love to talk of things paft;
and prefer them to what is prefent, of which they have
but little relifti, and know they muft fhortly leave
them. They are foon angry, but not to excefs. Laft-
ly, they are compaffionate, from a fenfe of their own
infirmities, which makes them think themfelves of all
perfons moft expofed.—Perfons of a middle age, be¬
twixt thefe two extremes, as they are freed from the
ralhnefs and temerity of youth, fo they have not yet
fuffered the decays of old age. Hence in every thing
they generally obferve a better conduft. They are
neither fo hafty in their aflent as the one, nor fo mi¬
nutely fcrupulous as the other, but weigh the reafons
of things. They regard a decency in their aftions;
are careful and induftrious ; and as they undertake
what appears juft and laudable upon better and more
deliberate confideration than young perfons, fo they
purfue them with more vigour and refolution than,
thofe who are older.
As to the different fortunes of mankind, they may
be conlidered as noble, rich, or powerful; and the con¬
trary
5662 O R A 1
Invention, trary to thefe.—-Tliofc of high birth, and noble ex-
1 1 traftion, are generally very tender of their honour,
and ambitious to increafe it; it being natural for all
perfons to defire an addition to thofe advantages, of
which they find themfelves themfelves already poflef-
fed. And thoy are apt to confider all others as much
their inferiors, and therefore expeft great regard and
deference fhould be fhewn them.—Riches, when ac¬
companied with a generous temper, command refpeft
from the opportunities they give of being ufeful to
others; but they ufually elate the mind, and'Occafion
pride. For as money is commonly faid to command
all things, thofe who are poffefled of a large {hare of
it, expeft others fhould be at their beck; fince they
enjoy that which all defire, and which moft perfons
make the main purfuit of their lives to obtain.—But
nothing is more apt to fwell the mind than power.
This is what all men naturally covet, even when per¬
haps they would not ufe it. But the views of fuch
perfons are generally more noble and generous, than
of thofe who only purfue riches and the heaping up
of money. A Hate contrary to thefe gives a contrary
turn of mind ; and in lower life, perfons difpofitions
ufually differ according to their ftation and circum-
flances. A citizen and a courtier, a merchant and a
foldier, a fcholar and a peafant, as their purfuits are
different, fo is generally their turn and difpofition of
mind.
It is the orator’s bufinefs, therefore, to confider thefe
feveral characters and circumftances of life, with the
different bias and way of thinking they give to the
mind; that he may fo conduct himfelf in his beha¬
viour and manner of fpeaking, as will render him mod
acceptable, and gain him the good efteem of thofe to
whom he addreffes.
Chap. VI. Of the Paflions.
25 As it is often highly neceffary for the orator, fo it
requires his greateft {kill, to engage the paffions in his
intereft. Quintilian calls this "the foul and fpirit of his
art. And, doubtlefs, nothing more difcovers its em¬
pire over the minds of men, than this power to excite,
appeafe, and fway their paffions, agreeably to the de-
fign of the fpeaker. Hence we ‘meet with the charac¬
ters of admirable, divine, and other fplendid titles,
afcribed to eloquence by ancient writers. It has in¬
deed been objefted by fome, that whatever high enco¬
miums may be given of this art by the admirers of it,
it is however difingenuous to deceive and impofe upon
mankind, as thofe feem to do, who, by engaging
their paffions, give a bias to their minds, and take
them off from the confideration of the truth; whereas
every thing fhould be judged of from the reafons
brought to fupport it, by the evidence of which it
ought to {land or fall. But in anfwer to this, it may
be confidered, that all fallacy is not culpable. We
often deceive children for their good ; and phyficians
fometimes impofe on their patients, to come at a cure.
And why, therefore, when perfons will not be pre-
vailecf with by reafon and argument, may not an ora¬
tor endeavour, by engaging their paffions, to perfuade
them to that which is for their advantage? Befides,
Quintilian makes it a neceffary qualification of an ora-
_ tor, that he be an honeft man, and one who will not
abufe his art. But fince thofe of a contrary charac-
’ O R Y. Part l
ter will leave no methods untried in order to carry Invemioi n;
their point, it is requifite for thofe who defign well, ; |
to be acquainted with all their arts, without which 1
they will not be a match for them ; as in military
affairs it is highly advantageous for the general of an ; L
army to get himfelf informed of all the defigns and j
ftratagems of the enemy, in order to counteraft them.
Indeed this part of oratory is not neceffary at all times,
nor in all places. The better prepared perfons are to
confider truth, and aft upon the evidence of it, the T?
lefs occafion there appears for it. But the greater part
of mankind, either do not duly weigh the force of ar- j||
guments, or refufe to aft agreeably to their evidence. . j-
And where this is the cafe, that perfons will neither
be convinced by reafon, nor moved by the authority
of the fpeaker, the only way left to put them upon ac- si
tion^ is to engage their paffions. For the paffions are t|
to the mind, what the wind is to a fhip: they move, |i
and carry it forward; and he who is without them, is
in a manner without aftion, dull and lifelefs. There j |
is nothing great or noble to be performed in life,
wherein the paffions are not concerned. The Stoics, SI
therefore, who were for eradicating the paffions, both 11
maintained a thing in itfelf impoffible, and which, if it
was poffible, would be of the greateft prejudice to man¬
kind. For while they appeared fuch zealous affertors
of the government of reafon, they fcarce left it any J
thing to govern; for the authority of reafon is prin- ■: 1
cipally exercifed in ruling and moderating the paffions, : J
which, when kept in a dne regulation, are the fprings
and motives to virtue. Thus hope produces patience,
and fear induftry; and the like might be fhewn of the I
reft. The paffions therefore are not to be extirpated,
as the Stoics afferted, but put under the direftion and
conduft of reafon. Indeed where they are ungovern- 11
able, and inftead of obeying command, they are, as
fome have fitly called them, difeafes of the mind; and
frequently hurry men into vice, and the greateft mif-
fortunes of life: Juft as the wind, when it blows mo¬
derately, carries on the fhip ; but if it be too boifte- |
rous and violent, may overfet her. The charge there- i
fore brought againft this art, for giving rules to in- ;
fluence the paffions, appears groundlefs and unjuft;
fince the proper ufe of the paffions is, not to hinder the j I
exercife of reafon, but to engage men to aft agreeably *41
to reafon. And if an ill ufe be fometimes made of |l
this, it is not the fault of the art, but of the artift.
We fhall here confider the paffions, as they may be
feparately referred, either to demonjlrative, delibera- j!
tive, or judicial difeourfes; though they are not i|
wholly confined to any of them.
1. To the demonjlrative kind, we may refer joy and l
forrow, love and hatred, emulation and contempt.
Joy is an elation of the mind, arifing from a fenfe
of iome prefent good. Such a refleftion naturally
creates a pleafant and agreeable fenfation, which ends
in a delightful calm and ferenity. This is heightened •}
by a defeription of former evils, and a domparifon be¬
tween them and the prefent felicity. Thus Cicero
endeavours to excite in the minds of his fellow-citizens
the higeft fenfe of joy and delight at Catiline’s de¬
parture from Rome, by reprefenting to them the im¬
minent danger which threatened both them and the
city while he continued among them.
Sorrow, one the contrary, is an uneafinefs of mind
arifing i
Parti. ORA
Invention, an'llng from a fenfe offome prefent evil. This paffion
" has generally a place in funeral difcourfes. And it
may be heightened, like the former, by comparifon,
when any pail happinefs is fet in oppofition to a pre¬
fent calamity. Hence Cicero aggravates the forrow at
Rome occafioned by the death of Metellus, from
his chara&er, and great fervices to the public, while
living.
Love excites tis to efteem one another for fome ex¬
cellency, and to do him all the good in our power. It
is diftinguifhed from friendjhip, which is mutual; and
therefore love may continue where friendihip is loft :
that is, the affeftion may remain on one fide. And
when we aflift a perfon from no other motive but to
do him a kindnefs, Ariftptle calls this good-will. Love
takes its rife from a variety of caufes. Generofity, be¬
nevolence, integrity, gratitude, courtefy, and other
focial virtues, are great incitements to love any one
endued with fuch qualities. And perfons generally
love thofe who are of a like difpofition with them-
felves and purfue the fame views. It is therefore the
chief art of a flatterer to fuit himfelf in every thing to
the inclination of the perfon whofe good graces he
courts. When the orator would excite this affe&ion
towards any perfon, it is proper to ihew, that he is
poffefled of at leaft fome, if not all, of thefe agreeable
qualities. When the confpirators with Catiline were
to be brought to juftice, Cicero was very fenfible of
the envy he Ihould contraft on that account, and how
neceflary it was for him to fecure the love of the Ro¬
man fenate for his fupport and proteftion in that cri¬
tical juncture. And this he endeavours to do in his
fourth oration againft Catiline, by reprefenting to
them, in the moft pathetic manner, that all the la¬
bours he underwent, the difficulties he conflidled with,
and the dangers to which he was expofed on that ac¬
count, were not for his own fake, but for their fafety,
quiet, and happinefs.
Hatred is oppofed to love, and produced by the
contrary difpofitions. And therefore perfons hate
thofe, who never did them any injury, from the ill
opinion they have of their bafe and vitious inclina¬
tions. So that the way to excite this paffion is, by
fhewing that any one' has committed fome heinous
fadl with an ill intent. And the more neatly affefted
perfons are by fuch a&ions, in what they account of
the greateft concern, the higher in proportion their ha¬
tred rifes^. Since life therefore is efteemed the moft
valuable good, Cicero endeavours to render Mark An¬
thony odious to the citizens of Rome, by defcribing
his cruelty*
Emulation a difquiet, occafioned by the felicity
of another, not becaufe he enjoys it, but becaufe we
defire the like for ourfelves. So that this paffion is in
itfelf good and laudable, as it engages men to purfue
♦ thofe things which are for For the proper objetfts of
emulation are any advantages of mind, body, or for-
'tune, acquired by ftudy or labour.
Emulation therefore is excited by a lively reprefen-
tation of any defirable advantages which appear to be
attainable, from the example of others who are or
have been pofleffed of them. But where the felicity of
another occafions an uneafinefs, not from the want of
it, but becaufe he enjoys it, this paffion is called envy,
which the ancients defcribe as an hideous monfter,
Vol. VIII. I
TORY. 5663
feeding upon itfelf, and being its owri tormentor. A- Invention.
riftotle obferves, that it moft ufually affe&s fuch per-  
fons as were once upon a level with thofe they envy.
For moft men naturally think fo well of themfelves,
that they are uneafy to fee thofe who were formerly
their equals, advanced above them. But, as this is a
bafe and vitious paffion, the orator is not to be in¬
formed how to excite it, but how to leffen or remove
it. And the method prefcribed by Cicero for this
purpofe is, to ftiew that the things, which occafioned
it, have not happened to the envied perfon undeferved-
ly, but are the juft reward of his induftry or virtue ;
that he does not fo much convert them to his own pro¬
fit or pleafure, as to the benefit of others; and that
the fame pains and difficulties are neceflary to pre-
ferve them, with which they were at firft acquired.
Contempt is oppofed to emulation, and arifes from
mifconduCl in things not of themfelves vitious: As
where a perfon either adds below his ftation and cha-
rafter, or affefts to do that for which he is not qua¬
lified. Thus Cicero endeavours to expofe Csecilius,
and bring him into contempt of the court, for pre¬
tending to rival him in the accufation of Verres, for
which he was altogether unfit.
2. To deliberative difcourfes may be referred feart
hope, and Jhame.
Fear arifes from the apprehenfion of fome great and
impending evil. For the greateft evils, while they
appear at a diftarice, do not much affeA us. Such
perfons occafion fear, who are poffeffed with power,
efpecially if they have been injured, or apprehend fo.
Likewife thofe who are addi&ed to do injuries, or who
bear us an ill will. And the examples of others, who
have fuffered in a like cafe, or from the fame perfons,
help to excite fear. From the circumftances therefore
either of the thing, or perfon, it will not be difficult
for the orator to offer fuch arguments as may be pro-
er to awaken this paffion. So Demofthenes, when
e would perfuade the Athenians to put themfelves in
a condition of defence againft king Philip, enumerates
the feveral afts of hoftility already committed by him
againft the neighbouring ftates. And becaufe mens
private concerns generally more affedt them than
what relates to the public; it is proper fometimes
to ihew the neceffary connexion thefe have with each
other, and how the ruin of one draws the other af¬
ter it. .
The contrary paffion to fear is hope; which arifes,
either from a profpedl of fome future good, or the ap¬
prehenfion of iafety from thofe things which occaiion
our fear. Young perfons are eafily induced to hope
the beft, from the vigour of their fpirits. And thofe
who have efcaped former dangers, are encouraged to
hope for the like fuccefs for the future. The examples
of others alfo, efpecially of wife and confiderate men,
have often the fame good effedt. To find them calm
and fedate when expofed to the like dangers, natu¬
rally creates confidence and the hopes of fafety. But
nothing gives perlons that firmnefs and fteadinefs of
mind, under the apprehenfion of any difficulties, as a
confcioufnefs of their own integrity and innocence.
Let dangers come from what quarter they will, they
are beft prepared to receive them. They can calmly
view an impending tempeft, obferve the way of its ap¬
proach, and prepare themfelves in the beft manner to
32 A avoid
5664 ORATORY. Parti.
Invention, avoid it. In Cicero’s oration for the Manilian law,
he encourages the Roman citizens to hope for fuccefs
againft Mithridates, if they chofe Pompey for their
general, from the many inftances of his former fuc-
ceffes, which he there enumerates.
Shame arifes from the apprehenfion of thofe things
that hurt a perfon’s charafter. Modejly has been wife¬
ly implanted in mankind by the great Author of na¬
ture, a^. a guardian of virtue, which ought for this
reafon to be cherifhed with the greateft care ; becaufe,
as Seneca has well obferved, “ if it be once loft, it is
fcarce ever to be recovered.” Therefore the true caufe
or foundation of fhame is any thing bafe or vitious;
for this wounds the chara&er, and will not bear re¬
flexion. And he muft arrive at no fmall degree of
infenfibility, who can ftand againft fuch a charge, if
he be confcious to himfelf that it is juft. Therefore, to
deter perfons from vitious aftions, or to expofe them
for the commiffion of them, the orator endeavours to
fet them in fuch a light as may moft awaken this paf-
fion, and give them the greateft uneafinefs by the re¬
flection. And becaufe the bare reprefentation of the
thing itfelf is not always fufficient for this purpofe ;
he fometimes enforces it by enlarging the view, and
introducing thofe perfons as witnefles of the faX for
whom they are fuppofed to have the greateft regard.
Thus, when fome of the Athenians, in an arbitration
about certain lands which had been referred to them
by the contending parties, propofed it as the ftiorteft
way of deciding the controverfy, to take the poflef-
fion of them into their own hands ; Cydias, a member
of the aflembly, to dilfuade them from fuch an unjuft
aXion, defired them to imagine themfelves at that
time in the general afl’embly of the ftates of Greece
(who would all hear of it Ihortly), and then confider
how it was proper to aX. But where perfons labour
under an excefs of modefty, which prevents them from
exerting themfelves in things fit and laudable, it may
fometimes be neceffary to Ihew, that it is faulty and ill
grounded. On the other hand, immodejiy, or impu¬
dence, which confifts in a contempt of fuch things as
affeX the reputation, can never be too much difcou-
raged and expofed. And the way of doing this is,
to make ufe of fuch arguments as are moft proper to
excite ftrame. We have a very remarkable inftance of
it in Cicero's fecond Philippic, wherein he affixes this
charaXer upon Mark Anthony, through every fcene
of his life.
3. To judicial difcourfes, may be referred anger and
lenity, pity and indignation.
Anger is a refentment, occafioned by fome affront,
or injury, done without any juft reafon. Now men
are more inclined to refent ftrch a conduX, as they
think they lefs deferve it. Therefore perfons of di-
ftinXion and figure, who expeX a regard fhould be
paid to their charaXer, can the lefs bear any indica¬
tions of contempt. And thofe Vvho are eminent in
any proftffion or faculty, are apt to be offended, if
refieXions are caft either upon their reputation or art.
Magiftrates alfo, and perfons in public ftations, fome¬
times think it incumbent on them to refent indigni¬
ties, for the fupport of their office. But nothing
fooner inflames this paffion, than if good fervices are
rewarded with flights and negleX. The inftance of
Narfites, the Roman general, is remarkable in this
kind ; who, after he had been fuceefsful in his wars Invention.]
with the Goths, falling under the difpleafure of the “
emperor Juftin, was removed from the government of
Italy, and received by the emprefs with this taunt.
That he mufl be fent to weave among the girls ; which
fo provoked him, that he faid he would weave fuch ,
a web as they fhould never be able to unravel. And
accordingly, he foon after brought down the Longo-
bards, a people of Germany, into Italy 5 where they
fettled themfelves in that part of the country, which
from them is now called Lombardy. The time and
place in which an injury was done, and other circum*
ftances that attended it, may Hkewife contribute very
much to heighten the faX. Hence Demofthenes, in
his oration againft Midias, endeavours to aggravate the
injury of being ftruck by him, both as he was then a
magiftrate, and becaufe it was done at a public fefti-
val. From hence it appears, that the perfons, who
moft ufually occafion this paffion, are fuch as ne¬
gleX the rules of decency, contemn and infult others,
or oppofe their inclinations ; as likewife the ungrate- ’
ful, and thofe who violate the ties of friendfhip, or
requite favours with injuries. But when the orator
endeavours to excite anger, he fhould be careful not
to exceed due bounds in aggravating the charge, left
what he fays, appear rather to proceed from pre¬
judice, than a ftriX regard to the demerit of the ac¬
tion.
Lenity is the remiffion of anger. The defigns of
mens aXionsare principally to be regarded; and there¬
fore what is done ignorantly, or through inadvertency,
is fooner forgiven. Alfo to acknowledge a fault, fub-
mit, and afk pardon, are the ready means to take off
refentment. For a generous mind is foon cooled by fub-
miffion. Befides, he who repents of his fault, does real¬
ly give the injured party fome fatisfaXion, by punifh-
ing himfelf; as all repentance is attended with grief
and uneafinefs of mind, and this is apt very much to
abate the defire of revenge. As, on the contrary, no¬
thing is more provoking, than when the offender ei¬
ther audacioufly juftifies the faX, or confidently de¬
nies it. Men are likewife wont to lay afide their re¬
fentment, when their adverfaries happen by fome
other means to fuffer what they think a fufficient fa-
tisfaXion. Laftly, eafy circumftances, a lucky inci¬
dent, or any thing which gives the mind a turn to
mirth and pleafure, has a natural tendency to remove
anger. For anger is accompanied with pain and un¬
eafinefs, which very ill fuit joy and cheerfulnefs. The
orator therefore, in order to affuage and pacify the
minds of his auditors, will endeavour to leffen their
opinion of the fault, and by that means to take off
the edge of their refentment. And to this purpofe, it
will be proper eitfer to reprefent that the thing was
not defigned, or that the party is forry for it; or to
mention his former fervices ; as alfo to ftiew the credit
and reputation which will be gained by a generous
forgivenefs. And this laft topic is very artfully
wrought up by Cicero, in his addrefs to Csefar, in fa¬
vour of Ligarius.
Pity arifes from the calamities of others, by reflec¬
ting, that we ourfelves are liable to the like misfor¬
tunes. So that evils, confidered as the common lot of
human nature, are principally the caufe of pity. And
this makes the difference between pity and good-will,
which
Part II. ORA*;
Difpofi-.ien which arifcs merely from a regard to the circumftan-
ces of thofe who want our affiftance. But confidering
the uncertainty of every thing about us, he muft feetn
in a manner diverted of humanity, who has no com-
paffion for the calamities of others; fmce there is no
affliction which happens to any man, but either that,
or Tome other as great, may fall upon himfelf. But
thofe perfons are generally fooneft touched with this
paffion, who have met with misfortunes themfelves.
And by how much greater the diftrefs is, or the per-
fon appears lefs deferring it, the higher pity does it
excite : for which reafon, perfons are generally moil
moved at the misfortunes of their relations and friends,
or thofe of the beft figure and chara&er. The orator
therefore, in order to excite the greater pity, will en-
; deavour to heighten the idea of the calamity, from the
feveral circumftances both of the thing itfelf and the
perfon who labours under it. A fine example of this
may be feen in Cicero’s defence of Muraena, cap. 40.
&c.
Indignation, as oppofed to pity, is an uneafinefs at
the felicity of another who docs not feem to deferve
Part II. Of DI
AS Invention fupplies the orator with neceffary ma¬
terials, fo Difpofition dire&s him how to place
them in the mo ft proper and fuitable order. Difpofi-
tion therefore, confidered as a part of oratory, natu¬
rally follows invention. And what is here chiefly in¬
tended by it is, the placing the feveral parts of a dif-
courfe in a juft method and dependence upon one
another.
Writers are not all agreed in determining the parts
of an oration j though the difference is raiher in the
manner of confidering them, than in the things them¬
felves. But Cicero, whom we fliall here follow, men¬
tions fix, namely, Introduction, Narration, Propoji-
tion. Confirmation, Confutation, and Conclufion.
Chap. I. Of the IntroduBion.
26 The defign of this is to prepare the minds of the
hearers for a fuitable reception of the remaining parts
that are to follow. And for this end, three things
are requifite ; that the orator gain the good opinidn of
his hearers, that he fecure their attention, and give them
fome general notion of his fubjedt.
1. Good opinion. When the orator introduces his
difeourfe with his own perfon, he will be careful to do
it with modefty, and feem rather to extenuate his vir¬
tues and abilities, than to magnify them. And where
the nature of the fubjedl may feem to require it, he
will endeavour to fhew, that fome juft and good rea-
fon induced him to engage in it. We have a very fine
example of this in Cicero’s oration for the poet iiu-
lus Licinius Archias, which begins thus: “ If I have
any natural genius, which I am fenfible how fmall it
is ; or any ability in fpeaking, wherein I own I have
been very converfant; or any fkill acquired from the
ftudy and precepts of the beft arts, to which my whole
life has been devoted: this Aulus Ificinius has, in a
particular manner, a right to demand of me the fruit
of all thefe things. For as far back as 1 can re¬
member, and call to mind what pafled in my youth,
*
' O R Y. 5665
it. But this refpedls only external advantages, fitch Difpofitioa
as riches, honours, and the like ; for virtues cannot be '
the objeft of this paffion. Ariftotle therefore fays,
“ that pity and indignation are generally to be found
in the fame perfons, and are both evidences of a good
difpofition.” Now the orator excites this paffion, by .
fflewing the perfon to be unworthy of that felicity
which he enjoys. And as, in order to move compaf-
fion, it is fometimes of ufe to compare the former hap¬
py ftate of the perfon with his prefent calamity ; fo
here, the greater indignation is raifed, by comparing
his former mean circumftances with his prefent ad¬
vancement : as Cicero does in the cafe of Vatinius.
Thefe are the paffions with which an orator is
principally concerned. In addreffing to which, not
only the greateft warmth and force of expreffion is of¬
ten neceffary ; but he muft likewife firft endeavour to
imprefs his own mind with the fame paffion he would
excite in others, agreeably to that of Horace:
My grief with others juft proportion bears;
To make me weep, you mult be firft in tears.
S P O S I T I O N.
to the prefent time, he has been my chief advifer and
encourager both to undertake and purfue this courfc
of (Indies.” When the orator fets out with the per¬
fons of thofe to whom the difeourfe is made, it is not
unufual to commend them for their virtues, and thofe
efpecialiy which have a more immediate relation to the
prefent fubjeft. Thus Cicero begins his oration of
thanks for the pardon of Marcellos, with an enco¬
mium upon the mildnefs, clemency, and wifdom of
Caefar, to whom it was addrtffed. But fometimes he
exprefles his gratitude for pad favours; as Cicero has
done in his orations, both to the people and fenate of
Rome, after his return from banilhment. And at
other times he declares his concern for them and their
intereft 5 in which manner Cicero begins his fourth
oration againft Catiline, which was made in the fe¬
nate. “ I perceive (fays he) that all your countenan¬
ces and eyes are turned on me; 1 perceive that you are
felicitous, not only for your own danger, and that of
the ftate, but for mine likewife, if that (hould be re¬
moved. Your affedtion for me is pleafant in misfor¬
tunes, and grateful in forrow ; but I adjure you to
lay it afide, and, forgetting my fafety, confider your-
felves and your children.” But injudicial cafes, both
the chara&er of the perfon whofe caufe he efpoufes,
and that of the adverfe party likewife, furnifhes the
orator with arguments for exciting the good-will of
his hearers: The former, by commemorating his vir¬
tues, dignity, or merits, and fometimes his misfor¬
tunes and calamities. So Cicero in his defence of
Flaccus, begins his oration in commending him on the
account of his fervices done to the public, the dignity
of his family, and his love to his country. And De-
mofthenes, in his ora'ion againft Midias, fets out with
a recital of his vices, in order to recommend his own
caufe to the favourable opinion of the court.
2. Attention. On this head, Cicero fays, “ We
fhali be heard attentively-by one of thefe three things;
if we propofe what is great, neceffary, or for the in-
32 A 2 tereft
5666 O R A 1
Difpofition terefl of thofe to whom thedifcourfe isaddreffed.” So
  that, according to him, the topics of attention are
much the fame with thofe of good opinion, when ta¬
ken from the fubjeft. And indeed, people are natu¬
rally led to attend either to thofe things or perfons
of which they have entertained a favourable opinion.
But in order to gain this point, the orator fometimes
thinks it proper to requeft the attention of his au¬
dience. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Cluentius, af¬
ter having fhewn the heinoufnefs of the charge againft
him, concludes his introduftion in the following man¬
ner, fpeaking to the judges: “ Wherefore I intreat,
that while I briefly and clearly reply to a charge of
many years Handing, you will, according to your
ufual cuftom, give me a kind and attentive hearing.”
And again, in his fecond Philippic, addrefling him-
felf to the fenate: “ But as I mud fay fomething for
. myfelf, and many things againft Mark Anthony ; one
of thefe I beg of you, that you will hear me kindly,
while I fpeak for myfelf; and the other I will under¬
take for, that when I fpeak againft him, you (hall
hear me with attention.” But though the introduftion
be the moft ufual.and proper place for gaining atten¬
tion, yet the orator finds it convenient fometimes to
quicken and excite his hearers in other parts of his
difcourfe, when he obferves they flag, or has fome¬
thing of moment to offer.
3. Some general aceomt of the fubjeft of the dif¬
courfe. This is always neceffary, which the two others
are not. And therefore it muff be left to the pru¬
dence of the orator, when to ufe or omit them, as he
fhall judge proper, from the nature of his difcourfe,
the circumftances of his hearers, and how he Hands
■with them. But fome account of the fubjeft is what
cannot be neglefted. For every one expefts to be
foon informed of the defign of the fpeaker, and what
he propofes to treat of. Nor when they are all made
life of, is it neceffary they fliould always ftand in the
order we have here placed them. Cicero fometimes
enters immediately upon his fubjeft,and introduces the
other heads afterwards. As in his third oration
againft Catiline, made to the body of the Roman
people, which begins thus : “ You fee that the ftate,
all your lives, eftates, fortunes, wives and children,
and this feat of the greateft empire, the moft flourifh-
ing and beautiful city, having by the favour of hea¬
ven towards you, and my labours, counfels, and dan¬
gers, been this day refcued from fire and fword and
the very jaws of deftruftion, are preferved and reftored
to you. ’ And then he proceeds to recommend him-
felf to their efteem and benevolence, from the confide-
ration of thefe benefits.
Thefe are the heads which commonly furnifh mat¬
ter for this part of a difcourfe. But orators often
take occafion from the time, place, largenefs of the
affembly, or fome other proper circumftancc, to com¬
pliment their hearers, recommend themfelves, or in¬
troduce the fubjeft upon which they are about to treat.
Inftances of each of thefe may be met with in feveral of
Cicero’s orations. And fometimes they fet out with fome
comparifon, fimilitude, or other ornament, which they
accommodate to the occafion of their difcourfe. Thus
Ifocrates enters upon his celebrated panegyric in praife
of his countrymen the Athenians, with the following
somparifon t “ I have often wondered, what could
O R Y. Part II.
be their defign, who brought together thefe affemblieSjDifpofnio* bh
and inftituted the gymnical fports, to propofe fo
great rewards for bodily ftrength ; and to vouchfafe
no honour to thofe, who applied their private labours
to ferve the public, and fo cultivated their minds as
to be ferviceable to others, to whom they ought to
have (hewn greater regard. For although the ftrength
of a champion was doubled, no benefit would from
thence accrue to others; but all enjoy the prudence of
one man, who will hearken to bis advice.” In fome
cafes, orators have recourfe to a more covert and art¬
ful way of opening their fubjeft, endeavour to remove
jealoufies, apologize for what they are about to fay,
and feem to refer it to the candour of the hearers to
judge of it as they "pleafe. Cicero appears to have
been a perfect mailer of this art, and ufed it with
great fuccefs. Thus his feventh Philippic, where he
feems to exprefs the greateft concern, left what he
was about to fay fhould give any oft’ence to the fe¬
nate to whom he was fpeaking : “ I,” fays he,
“ who always declared for peace, and to whom peace
among ourfelves, as it is wiflied for by all good men,
was in a particular manner defirable ; who have em¬
ployed all my induftry in the forum, in the fenate, and
in the defence of my friends, whence I have arrived
to the higeft honours, a moderate fortune, and what
reputation I enjoy; I therefore, who owe what I am
to peace, and without it could not have been the per-
fon I am, be that what it will, for I would arrogate
nothing to myfelf; I fpeak with concern and fear,
how you will receive what I am going to fay ; but I
beg and intreat you, from the great regard I have
always expreffed for the fupport and advancement of
your honour, that if any thing faid by me Ihould at
firft appear harlh or unfit to be received, you will
notwithftanding pleafe to hear it without offence, and
not rejeft it till I have explained myfelf: I then,
for I muft repeat it again, who have always ap¬
proved of peace, and promoted it, am againft a peace
with Mark Antony.” This is called injinuation; and
may be neceffary, where a caufe is in itfelf doubtful,
or may be thought fo from the received notions of the
hearers, or the impreffions already made upon them
by the contrary fide. An honeft man would not
knowingly engage in a bad caufe ; and yet, though
prevail:ng prejudice, that may be fo efteemed which
is not fo in itfelf. In thefe cafes, therefore, great cau¬
tion and prudence are neceffary to give fuch a turn to
things, and place them in that view, as may be leaft
liable to offence. And becaufe it fometimes happens,
that the hearers are not fo much difpleafed at the
fubjeA as the perfon, Quintilian’s rule feems very
proper, when he fays : “ If the fubjeft difpleafes,
th^- charafter of the perfon fhould fupport it; and
when the perfon gives offence, he fhould be helped by
the caufe.”
Chap. II. Of Narration.
The orator having prepared his hearers to receive zy
his difcourfes with candour and attention, and ac¬
quainted them with his general defign in the intro-
du&ion, before he proceeds direftly to his fubjeft,
often finds it neceffary to give fome account of what
preceded, accompanied, or followed upon it. And
this he does in order to enlarge the view of the parti¬
cular
'Part II. ORA
iifpofition cular point in difpute, and place it in a clearer light.
This is called narration; which is a recital of fome»
thing done, in the order and manner in which it was
done. Hence it is eafy to perceive, what thofe things
| are which properly enter into a narration. And
' fuch are the caufe, manner, time, place, and confe-
quences of an adtion ; with the temper, fortune, views,
ability, afibciates, and other circumftances of thofe
concerned in it. Not that each of thefe particulars is
neceffary in every narration ; but fo many of them at
| lead, as are requifite to fet the matter in a juft light,
and make it appear credible. Befides, in relating a
fadt, the orator dots not content himfelf with fuch an
account of it as is barely fufficient to render what he
| fays intelligible to his hearers; but deferibes it in fo
ftrong and lively a manner, as may give the greateft
| evidence to his relation, and make the deepeft im-
preffion upon their minds. And if any part of it ap¬
pears at prefent lefs probable, he promifes to dear up
and remove any remaining doubts in the progrefs of
his difeourfe. For the foundation of his reafoning
afterwards is laid in the narration, from whence he
takes his arguments for the confirmation. And there-
J fore it is a matter of no fmall importance, that this
part be well managed ; fince the fuccefs of the whole
difeourfe fo much depends upon it.
There are four properties required in a good nar-
v ration ; that it be ihort, clear, probable, and pleafant.
1. The brevity of a narration is not to be judged
of barely from its length : for that may be too long,
which contains but a little; and that too (hort,
which comprehends a great deal. Wherefore this de¬
pends upon the nature of the fubjed, fince fome
things require more words to give a juft reprefentation
l« of them, and others fewer. That may properly
therefore be called a Jhort narration, which contains
nothing that could well have been omitted, nor omits
any thing which was neceffary to be faid. Now, in
order to avoid both thefe extremes, care fliould be
taken not to go further back in the account of things,
^or to trace them down lower, than the fubjed rc-
' quires ; to fay that only in the general, which does
not need a more particular explication ; not to affign
the caufes of things, when it is enough to (hew
they were done; and to omit fuch things as are
fufficicntly underftood, from what either preceded, or
was confequent upon them. But the orator ihould be
careful, left, while he endeavours to avoid prolixity,
he run into obfeurity. Horace was very fenfible of
this danger, when he faid:
By ftriving to be fhort, I grow obfeure.
2. Perfpicuity. This may juftly be efteemed the
chief excellency of language. For as the defign of
fpeech is to communicate our thoughts to others, that
muft be its greateft excellence, which contributes moft
to this end ; and that, doubtlefs, is perfpicuity. As
| perfpicuity therefore is requifite in all difeourfe, fo it
is particularly ftrviceable in a narration, which con-
[ tains the fubftance of all that is to be faid afterwards.
Wherefore, if this be not fufficiently underftood, much
lefs can thofe things which receive their light from
it. Now the following things render a narration clear
and plain: Proper and fignificant words, whofe mean¬
ing is well known and determined; fhort fentences,
though full and explicit, whofe parts arc not per ‘
TORY. 5667
plexed, but placed in their juft order; proper particles Difpofition
to join the fentences, and (hew their connexion and
dependance on each other ; a due reward to the order
of time, and other circumftances neceffary to be ex-
prefied ; and laftly, fuitable tranfitions.
3. Prolability. Things appear probable, when the
caufes affigned for them appear natural; the manner
in which they are deferibed is eafy to be conceived ;
the confcquences are fuch as might be expe&ed;
the characters of the perfons are juftly reprefented;
and the whole account is well attefted, confiftent with
itfelf, and agreeable to the general opirtion. Simpli¬
city likewife in the manner of relating a faCt, as well
as in the ftyle, without any referve or appearance of
art, contributes very much to its credibility. For
truth loves to appear naked and open, flript of all
colouring or difguife. The confpiracy of Catiline
was fo daring and extravagant, that no one, but fuch
a defperado, could ever have undertaken it with any
hopes of fuccefs. However, Cicero’s account of it to
the fenate was fo full and exaft, and fo well fuited to
the character of the perfon, that it prefently gained
credit. And therefore, when, upon the conclufion of
Cicero’s fpeech, Catiline, who was prefent, imme¬
diately ftood up, and defired they would not entertain
fuch hard thoughts of his, but confider how much his
family had always been attached to the public in-
tereft, and the great fervices they had done the ftate ;
their refentments rofe fo high, that he could not be
heard : upon which he immediately left the city, and
went to his afibciates.
4. The laft thing required in a narration is, that it
be pleafant and entertaining. And this is more diffi¬
cult, becaufe it does not admit of that accurate com-
pofition, and pompous drefs, which delight the ear,
and recommend fome other parts of a difeourfe. For
it certainly requires no fmall /kill in the fpeakcr,
while he endeavours to exprefs every thing in the moft
natural, plain, and eafy manner, not to grow flat
and tirefome. For Quintilian’s remark is very juft,
that, “ the moft experienced orators find nothing in
eloquence more difficult, than what all, who hear it,
fancy they could have faid themfelves.” And the
reafon of this feems very obvious. For as all art is an
imitation of nature, the nearer it refembles that, the
more perfed it is in its kind. Hence unexperienced
perfons often imagine that to be eafieft, which fuita
belt with thofe natural ideas to which they have been
accuftomed ; till, upon trial, they are convinced of
their miftake. Wherefore, to render this part of a
difeourfe pleafant and agreeable, recourfe muft be
had to variety, both in the choice of words, and turns
of the expreffion. And therefore queftions, admira¬
tions, interlocutions, imagery, and other familiar
figures, help very much to diverfify and enliven a nar¬
ration, and prevent it from becoming dull and te¬
dious, efpecialiy when it is carried on to any confider-
able length.
Having given a brief account of the nature and
properties of a narration, wc fhall now proceed to con¬
fider the ufes of it.
Laudatory orations are ufually as it were a fort of
continued narration, fet off and adorned with florid
language and fine images proper to grace the fubjeft,,
which is naturally fo well fitted to afford pleafure and
entertainment.
r
5668 O R A 1
Difpofition entertainment. Wherefore a feparate narration is
more fuited to deliberative and judicial difcourfes. In
Cicero’s oration for the Manilian law (which is
of the former kind), the defign of the narration is
to (hew the Roman people the neceffity of giving
Pompey the command of the army againft king Mi-
thridates, by reprefenting the nature of tha^ war,
which is done in the following manner. “ A great
and dangerous war (fays he) threatens your revenues
and allies from two very powerful kings, Mithridates
and Tigranes; one of whom not being purfued after
his defeat, and the other provoked, they think they
have an opportunity to feize Afia. Letters are daily
brought from thofe parts to worthy gentlemen of the
equeilrian order, who have large concerns there in
farming your revenuest they acquaint me, as friends,
with the ftate of the public affairs, and danger of their
own; that many villages in Bichynia, which is now
your province, are burnt down; that the kingdom of
Ariobarzanes, which borders upon your revenues, is
entirely in the enemy’s power; that Lucuilus, after
feveral great victories, is withdrawn from the war;
that he who fucceeds him is not able to manage it;
that all the allies and Roman citizens wifh and defire
the command of that war may be given to one parti¬
cular perfon ; and that he alone, and no other, is
dreaded by the enemies. You fee the date of the
cafe; now confider what ought to be done.” Here
is .an unhappy fcene of affairs, which feemed to call
for immediate redrefs. The caufes and reafons of it
are affigned in a very probable manner, and the ac¬
count well attefted by perfons of chara&er and figure.
And what the confequences would be, if not timely
prevented, no one could well be ignorant. The only
probable remedy fuggefted in general is, the com¬
mitting that affair to one certain perfon, which he
afterwards {hews at large could be no other than
Pompey. But in Cicero’s defence of Milo, (which is
of the judicial kind), the defign of the narration,
which is greatly commended by Quintilian, is to prove,
that, in the combat between Clodius and Milo, the
former was the aggreflfor. And in order to make this
appear, he gives a fummary account of the cohdudl of
Clodius the preceding year; and from the courfe of
his a&ions and behaviour, {hews the inveterate hatred
he bore to Milo, who obftru&ed him in his wicked
defigns. For which caufe he had often threatened to
kill him, and given out that he {hould not live be¬
yond fuch a time: and accordingly he went from
Rome without any other apparent reafon, but that he
might have an opportunity to attack him in a conve¬
nient place near his own houfe, by which he knew
Milo was then obliged to pafs. Milo was in the fe-
nate that day, where he ftaid till they broke up, then
went home, and afterwards fet forward on his journey.
When he came to the place in which he was to be
affaulted, Ciodins appeared every way prepared for
fuch a defign, being on horfeback, and attended with
a company of defperate ruffians ready to execute his
commands; whereas Milo was with his wife in a cha¬
riot, wrapped up in his cloak, and attended with fer-
vants of both fexes. Thefe were all circumftances
which preceded the fa&. And as to the aftion itfelf,
with the event of it, the attack, as Cicero fays, was
begun by the attendants of Clodius from an higher
O R Y. Parti!
ground, who killed Milo’s coachman: upon whichDifpofiiL
Milo, throwing off his cloak, leaped out, and made a T
brave defence againft Clodius’s men, who were got f
about the chariot. But Clodius, in the heat of the
{kirmifil, giving out that Milo was killed, was himfelf ;
{lain by the lervants of Milo, to avenge, as they ;S
thought, the death of their matter. Here feems to
be all the requifites proper to make this account cre¬
dible. Clodius’s open and avowed hatred of Milo,
which proceeded fo far as to threaten his life ; the
time of his leaving Rome; the convenience of the
place; his habit and company fo different from thofe |
of Milo, joined with his known charafter of a moft 1
profligate and audacious wretch, could not but render
it very probable that he had formed that defign to
kill Milo. And which of them began the attack, I
might very reafonably be credited from the advanced 1
ground on which Clodius and his men were placed; I
the death of Milo’s coachman at the begining of the
combat; the fkirmilh afterwards at the chariot; and I
the reafon of Clodius’s own death at laft, which does I
not appear to have been intended, till he had given out 1
that Milo was killed.
But a diftinft and feparate narration is not always
neceflfary in any kind of difcourfe. For if the matter
was well known before, a fet and formal narrative will
be tedious to the hearers. Or if one party has done J
it already, it is needlefs for the other to repeat it. \
But there are three occafions efpecially, in which it :|
may feem very requifite: when it will bring light to
the fuhjedf; when different accounts have already been
given out concerning it; or when it has been mifre- I
prefented by the adverfc party. If the point in con-
troverfy be of a dubious nature, or not fufficiently
known to the hearers, a diftinft account of the matter, I
with the particular circumftances attending it, muft
be very ferviceable, in order to let them into a true
ftate of the cafe, and enable them to judge of it with l
greater certainty.
Moreover, where the oppofite party has fet the ;|
matter in a faife light by fome artful and invidious
turn, or loaded it with any odious circumftances, it
feems no lefs neceffary that endeavours {hould be ufed il
to remove any ill impreffions, which otherwife might ||
remain upon the minds of the hearers, by a different
and more favourable reprefentation. And if any :l
thing can be fixed upon to make the contrary account ; I
appear abfurd or incredible, it ought particularly to
be remarked. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Sextus 11
Rofcius, {hews that he was many miles diftant from il
Rome at the time he was charged to have killed his
father there. “ Now (fays he), while Sextus Rofcius
was at Ameria, and this Titus Rofcius accufer'J j I
at Rome, Sextus Rofcius [tbe father^ was killed at
the baths on Mount Palatine, returning from fupper. ] •
From whence I hope there can be no doubt who ought I
to be fufpe&ed of the murder. And, were not the j I
thing plain of itfelf, there is this further fufpicion to 1
fix it upon the profecutor; that, after the faff was
committed, one Manlius Glaucia, an obfcure fellow,
the freedman, client, and familiar of this Titus Rof¬
cius, firft carried the account of it to Ameria, not to
the fon of the deceafed, but to the houfe of Titus
Capito his enemy;” with more to the fame purpofe.
But what we bring it for is, to {hew the u»e which
Cicero jl
iPart II.
ORATORY.
5669
|ifpol:tion Cicero makes of this narration for retorting the crime
* upon the profecutors.
But the orator fhould be very careful, in condufting
this part, to avoid every thing which may prejudice the
eaufe he efpoufes. Falfehood, and a mifreprefentation
of fafts, are not to be juftified; but no one is obliged
to fay thofe things which may hurt himfelf. We lhall
juft mention one inftance of this from Cicero, where
he has (hewn great (kill in this refpedt, in pleading
before Csefar for the pardon of Ligarius, who had
joined with Pompey in the civil war. For Ligarius,
having been reprefen ted by the adverfe party as an
enemy to Csefar, and fo efteemed by Caefar himfelf;
Cicero very artfully endeavours in his narratipn to
take off the force of this charge, by (hewing, that,
when the war firft broke out, he refufed to engage in
it; which he would not have done, had he borne any
perfonal hatred to Caefar. “ Quintus Ligarius (fays
he), before there was any fufpicion of a war, went into
I Africa as a legate to the proconful Caius Confidius;
in which he fo approved bimfelf, both to the Roman
I citizens and allies, that, when Confidius left the pro¬
vince, the inhabitants would not be fatisfied he (hould
leave the government in the hands of any other per-
fon. Therefore Quintus Ligarius having excufed
himfelf in vain for fome time, accepted of the govern¬
ment againft his will; which he fo managed during
the peace, that both the citizens and allies were greatly
pleafed with his integrity and juftice. The war broke
out on a fudden, which thofe in Africa did not hear
of till it was begun: but upon the news of it, partly
through inconfiderate hafte, and partly from blind
fear, they looked out for a leader, firft for their own
fafety, and then as they were affefted; when Ligarius,
thinking of home, and defirous to return to his friends,
would not be prevailed on to engage in any affairs.
1;-. In the mean time, Publius Accius Varus, the pretor,
who was formerly governor of Africa, coming to Utica,
recourfe was immediately had to him, who very eagerly
took upon himfelf the government; if that can be
called * government) which was conferred on a private
man by the clamour of the ignorant multitude, with¬
out any public authority. Ligarius, therefore, who
endeavoured to avoid every thing of that kind, ceafed
to aft foon after the arrival of Varus.?, Here Cicero
ends his narrative. For, though Ligarius afterwards
joined with Pompey’s party, yet to have mentioned
that, which was nothing more than what many others
bad done, whom Caefar had already pardoned, could
have ferved only to increafe bis difpleafure againft
him. And therefore he doubtlefs (hewed great (kill
in fo managing his account as to take off the main
force of the accufation, and by that means make way
for his pardon, which he accordingly obtained.
Chap. III. Of the Propofition*
1 jg In every juft and regular difeourfe, the fpeaker’s
intention is to prove or illuftrate fomething. And
when he lays down the fubjeft upon which he defigns
to treat, inadiftinft and exprefs manner, this is called
the propoftion.
Orators ufc feveral ways in laying down the fubjeft
I - of their difeourfes. Sometimes they do it in one ge¬
neral propofition. We have an inftance of this in
Cicero’s fpeech to the fenate, the day after Caefar was
killed, (as it is given us by Dion Caflius), in which Bifpofition
his defign was to perfuade them to peace and unani-
mity. “ This (fays he) being the date of our
affairs, I think it neceffary that we lay afide all the
difeord and enmity which have been among us, and
return again to our former peace and agreement.”
And then he proceeds to offer his reafons for this
advice.
At other times, to give a clearer and more diftinft
view of their difeourfe, they fubjoin to the propofition
the general heads of argument by which they endea¬
vour to fupport it. This method Cicero ufes in his
feventh Philippic, where he fays, “ I who have al¬
ways commended and advifed to peace, am againft a
peace with Mark Antony. But why am I averfe to
peace?, Becaufe it is bafe, becaufe it is dangerous,
and becaufe it is imprafticable. And I befeech you
to hear me with your ufual candor, while I make out
thefe three things.”
But when the fubjeft relates to feveral different
things, which require each of them to be feparately
laid down in diftinft propofitions, it is called a parti¬
tion; though fome have made two kinds of partition)
one of which they call feparation, and the other enu¬
meration. By the former of thefe, the orator (hews
in what he agrees with his adverfary, and wherein he
differs from him. So, in the cafe formerly mentioned,
of a perfon accufed of facrilege for dealing private
money out of a temple, he who pleads for the defen¬
dant fays, “ He owns the faft; but it being private
money, the point in queftion is. Whether this be facri¬
lege?” And in the caufeof Milo, Cicero, fpeaking of
Clodius, fays, “ The point which now comes before
the court, is not, Whether he was killed, or not; that
we confefs; but, Whether juftly or unjuftly.” Now
in reality here is no partition, fince the former branch
of the propofition is what is agreed upon, and given up;
and confequently it is only the latter that remains to
be difputed. It is called enumeration, when the orator
acquaints his hearers with the feveral parts of his dif¬
eourfe, upon which he defigns to treat. And this
alone, properly fpeaking, is a partition. Thus Cicero
dates his plea in his defence of Muraena : “ I perceive
the accufation confifts of three parts: the firft refpefts
the conduft of his life; the fecond, his dignity; and
the third contains a charge of bribery.”
There are three things requilite in a good parti¬
tion ; that it be fioort, complete, and confift but of a
fe’w members.
A partition is faid to be Jhort, when each propofi¬
tion contains in it nothing more than what is neceffary.
So that the brevity here required is different from that
of a narration ; for that confifts chiefly in things, this
in words. And, as Quintilian juftly obferves, brevity
feems very proper here, where the orator does not
(hew what he is then fpeaking of, but what he defigna
to difeourfe upon.
Again, it ought to be complete and perfeft. And
for this end, care muft be taken to omit no neceffary
part in the enumeration.
But, however, there (hould be as fe’w heads as is
confident with the nature of the fubjeft. The ancient
rhetoricians preferibe three or four at the moft. And
we do not remember that Cicero ever exceeds that
number. But it is certain, the fewer they are, the,
better,
5670
Difpofition
O R A 1
better, provided nothing neceffary be omitted. For
too large a number is both difficult of retention, and
apt to introduce that confufion, which partition is de-
figned to prevent.
Hitherto we have been fpeaking only of thofe
heads into which the fubjeft, or general argument of
the difcourfe, is at firft divided. For it is fometimes
convenient to divide thefe again, or at lead fome of
them, into feveral parts or members. And when this
happens, it is beft done, as the fpeaker comes to each
of them in the order at firft laid down ; by which
means the memory of the hearers will be lefs burden¬
ed, than by a multitude of particulars at one and the
fame time. Thus Cicero, in his oration for the Ma-
nilian law, comprifes what he defigns to fay under
three general heads. “ Firft (fays he) I fhall fpeak
of the nature of the war, then of its greatnefs, and
laftly about the choice of a general.” And when he
comes to the firft of thefe, he divides it again into
four branches; and (hews, “ how much the glory of
the Romans, the fafety of their allies, their greateft
revenues, and the fortunes of many of their citizens,
were all concerned in that war.” The fecond head, in
which he confidersthe greatnefs of the war, has nodi-
fion. But when he comes to the third head, concern¬
ing the choice of a general, he divides that likewife
into four parts ; and fhews, that fo many virtues are
neceffary in a confummate general, fuch an one as was
proper to have the management of that war, namely,
Jkill in military affairs, courage, authority, and fuc-
cefs: all which be attributes to Pompey. And this is
the fcheme of that celebrated oration.
Further, fome divide their fubjeft into two parts,
and propofe to treat upon it negatively and pojitively ;
by (hewing firft what it is not, and then what it is.
But while they are employed to prove what it is not,
they are not properly treating upon that, but fome-
thing elfe ; which feems as irregular, as it is unnecef-
fary. For he who proves what a thing is, does at the
fame time fhew what it is not. However, in faft,
there is a fort of divifion by affirmation and negation,
which may fometimes be conveniently ufed. As if a
perfon, charged with killing another, fhould thus ftate
his defence : I had done right if I had killed him, but
J did not kill him. Here indeed, if the latter can be
plainly made to appear, it may feem needlefs to infill
upon the former. But if that cannot be fo fully pro¬
ved, but there may be room left for fufpicion, it may
be proper to make ufe of both : for all perfons do
not fee things in the fame light, and he who believes
the fadl, may likewife think it juft ; while he who
thinks it unjuft, may not believe it, but rather fup-
pofe, had it really been committed by the party, he
would not have denied it-, fince he looked upon it as
defenfible. And this method of proceeding, Quinti¬
lian compares to a cuftom often ufed in traffic, when
perfons make a large demand at firft, in order to gain
a reafonable price. Cicero ufes this way of reafoning,
in his defence of Milo; but in the contrary order:
that is, he firft anfwers the charge; and then juftifies
the fadl, upon the fuppofition that the charge was
true. For he proves firft, that Clodius was the ag-
greffor; and not Milo, as the contrary party had af-
ferted : and then to give the greater advantage to his
caufe, he proceeds to fhew, that if Milo had been the
'CRY. Parti
aggteffor, it would however have been a glorious ac« iJifpop
tion to take off fuch an abandoned wretch, who was ’—■*’“
not only a common enemy to mankind, but had like¬
wife often threatened his life.
A good and juft partition is attended with confide-
rable advantages. For it gives both light and orna- j
ment to a difcourfe» And it is alfo a great relief to
the hearers, who, by means of thefe Hops and refts,
are much better enabled to keep pace with the fpeaker
without confufion, and by catting their thoughts ei¬
ther way, from what has been faid, both know and
are prepared for what is to follow. And as perfons,
in travelling a road with which they are acquainted,
go on with greater pleafure and lefs fatigue, becaufe
they know how far it is to their journey’s end; foto
be apprifed of the fpeaker’s defign, and the feveral
parts of his difcourfe which he propofes to treat on,
contributes very much to relieve the hearer, and keep
up his attention. This mull appear very evident to
all who confider how difficult it is to attend long and
clofely to one thing, efpecially when we do not know ;
how long it may be before we are like to be releafed.
Whereas, when we are before-hand acquainted with
the fcheme, and the fpeaker proceeds regularly from
one thing to another, opportunity is given to cafe the
mind, by relaxing the attention, and recalling it again
when neceffary.
Chap. IV. Of Confirmation.
The orator having acquainted his hearers, in the 35
propofition, with the fubjeft on which he defigns to
difcourfe, ufually proceeds either to prove or illuftrate
what he has there laid down. For fome difcourfes
require nothing more than an enlargement or illuftra-
tion, to fet them in a proper light, and recommend
them to the hearers; for which reafon, likewife,
they have often no diftindl propofition. But where
arguments are brought in defence of the fubjeft, this
is properly confirmation. For, as Cicero defines it,
“ confirmation is that which gives proof, authority,
and fupport to a caufe, by reafoning.” And for this
end, if any thing in the propofition feems obfcure, or ■
liable to be mifunderftood, the orator firft takes care
to explain it, and then goes on to offer fuch arguments ' j
for the proof of it, and reprefent them in fuch a
light, as may be moft proper to gain the affent of his
hearers.
But here it is proper to obferve, that there are
different ways of reafoning fuited to different arts.
The mathematician treats his fubjeft after another ' i
manner than the logician, and the orator in a me¬
thod different from them both. The forms of reafon- ,
ing ufed by orators are four; Syllogifm, Enthytnem,
Induction, and Example.
I. By Syllogifrn. A fyllogifm is a form of reafon¬
ing which conlifts of three propofitions, the laft of
which is deduced from the two former. The firft of
thefe is called the major propofition, or, for brevity,
the major ; the fecond, the minor propofition, ox minor;
and the third, the conclufion. But as the laft is op- •
pofed to the other two jointly, they are called the |
premifes, and this the conclufion. So we may reduce
Cicero’s argument, by which he endeavours to prove, j
that Clodius affaulted Milo, and not Milo Clodius, to 1
a fyllogifm in this manner ;
He
Part IT. ORA'
:,D;fpofition He ‘was the <xggre]Jort •whofe advantage it ‘was to
— ■ ^7/ the other.
But it was the advantage of Clodius to kill Milo, and
not Milo's to kill him.
Therefore Clodius was the aggrejfor, or he ajfaulted
Milo.
The thing to be proved was, that Clodius aflaulted
Milo, which therefore comes in the cOnclufion: and
the argument, by which it is proved, is taken from
the head of profit or advantage. Thus the logician
would treat this argument ; and if either of the pre-
mifes was queftioned, he would fupport it with ano¬
ther fyllogifm. But this ftiort and dry way of rea-
fonihg does not at all fuit the orator: who not only
for variety changes the order of the parts, beginning
fometimes with the minor, and at other times with the
conclufidn, and ending with the major ; but likewife
clothes each part with fuch ornaments of expreffion,
as are proper to enliven the fubjed, and render it
more agreeable and entertaining. And he frequently
fubjoins, either to the major propofition, or minor,
and fometimes to both, one or more arguments to fup¬
port them ; and perhaps others to confirm or illuftrate
them, as he thinks it requifite. Therefore, as a logi¬
cal fyllogifm conftft's of three parts or propofitions,
a rhetorical fyllogifm frequently contains four, and
many times five parts. And Cicero reckons this lad
the moft complete. But all that is faid in confirma-
B tion of either of the premifes, is accounted but as one
part. This will appear more evident by examples.
By a fhort fyllogifm Cicero thus proves, that the
Carthaginians were not to be trufted : “ Thofe who
have often deceived us, by violating their engage¬
ments, ought not to be trufted. For if we receive
any damage by their treachery, we can blame no
body but ourfelves. But the Carthaginians have often
fo deceived us. Therefore it is madnefs to truft them.”
Here the major propofition is fupported by a reafon.
The minor needed none j becaufe the treachery of the
Carthaginians was well known. So that this fyllogifm
confifts of four parts. But by a fyllogifm of five parts he
proves fomewhat more largely and elegantly, that the
world is under the dire&ion of a wife governor. The
majoris this: “ Thofe things are better governed which
are under the dire&ion of wifdom, than thofe which are
not.” This he proves by feveral inftances: “ A houfe
managed with prudence has everything in better order,
and more convenient, than that which is under no
regulation. An army commanded by a wife and
Ikilful general, is in all refpe&s better governed, than
one which has a fool or a madman at the head of it.
And the like is to ,be faid of a fhip, which per¬
forms her courfe beft under the direction of a fkilful
pilot.” Then he proceeds to the minor thus : “ But
nothing is better governed than the univerfe.” Which
he proves in this manner: “ The rifing and fetting
of the heavenly bodies keep a certain determined or¬
der; and the feveral feafons of the year do not only
neceflarily return in the fame manner, but are fuited
to the advantage of the whole ; nor did the viciffi-
tudes of night and day ever yet become prejudicial,
by altering their courfe.” From all which he con¬
cludes, “ That the world muft be under the direftion
of a wife governor.” In both thefe examples, the
regular order of the parts is obferved. We fhall
Vol. VIII, 2
r O R Y. 5671
therefore produce another, in which the order is di-Bifpofiuon
redtly contrary ; for beginning with the conclufion,
he proceeds next to the minor propofition, and fo
ends with the major. In his defence of Coelius, his
defign is to prove that Coelius had not led a loofe and
vicious life, with which his enemies had charged
him. And this he does, by (hewing he had clofely
followed his (Indies, and was a good orator. This
may probably at firft fight appear but a weak' argu¬
ment; though to him who confiders, what Cicero
every where declares neceftary to gain that charafter,
it may perhaps be thought otherwife. The fenfe of
what he fays here may be reduced to this fyllogifm.
Thofe who have purfued the fudy of oratory, fo as
to excel in it, cannot have led a loofe and vicious
Hfe-
But Coslius has done this.
Therefore his enemies charge him wrongfully.
But let us hear Cicero himfelf. He begins with the
conclufion, thus: “ Coelius is not chargeable with
profufenefs, extravagancy, contra&ing of debts, or
intemperance, a vice which age is fo far from abating,
that it rather increafes it. Nay, he never engaged in
amours, and thofe pleafures of youth, as they are
called, which are foon thrown off, as rea'fon prevails.”
Then he proceeds to the minor, and (hews from the
effe&s, that Coelius had clofely applied himfelf to the
beft arts, by which he means thofe neceffary for an
orator: “ You have now heard him make his own
defence, and you formerly heard him engaged in a
profecution (I fpeak this to vindicate, not to applaud
him), you could not but perceive his manner of
fpeaking, his ability, his good fenfe, and command
of language. Nor did he only difcover a good genius,
which will oftentimes do much of itfelf when it is
not improved by induftry ; but what he faid (if my
affe&ion for him did not bias my judgment) appeared
to be the effeft of learning, application, and ftudy.”
And then he comes to the major: “ But be affured, that
thofe vices charged upon Coelius, and the ftudies upon
which I am new difeourfing, cannot meet in the fame
perfon. For it is not poffible that a mind, difturbed by
fuch irregular pafiions, fhould be able to go through
what we orators do, I do not mean only in fpeaking,
but even in thinking.” And this he proves by an
argument ta^en from the fcarcity of good orators.
“ Can any other reafon be imagined, why fo few,
both now, and at all times, have engaged in this
province, when the rewards of eloquence are fo.mag-
nificent, and it is attended with fo great delight,
applaufe, glory, and honour ? All pleafures muft be
negle&ed; diverfions, recreations, and entertainments
omitted; and even the converfation of all our friends
muft in a manner be laid afide. This it is which de¬
ters perfons from the labour and ftudy of oratory ; not
their want of genius, or education.”
II. Ys'f Enthymem. But orators do not often ufe
complete fyllogifms, but moft commonly enthymems.
An enthymem is an imperfeCl fyllogifm, confiding of
two parts; the conclufion, and one of the premifes.
And in this kind of fyllogifm, that propofiuon is
omitted, whether it be the major or minor, which is
fufficieutly manifeft of itfelf, and may eafily be fup-
plied by the hearers. But the propofuion that is
exprdfed, is ufually called the antecedent, and the
32 B con-
ORATORY.
5672
Difpofition conclufioH the CQnfequtnty So if the major of .that
fyllogifm be omitted, by which Cicero endeavours io
prove that Clodius affaulted Milo, it will make this
enthymem :
The death of Milo ’would have been an advantage to
Clodius.
Therefore Clodius •was the aggrejfor; ort therefore
he ajfaidted Milo.
la like manner that other fyllogifm above-mentioned,
by which he fhews that the Carthaginians ought not
to be trufted, by omitting the minor, may be reduced
to the following enthymem :
Thofe ’who have often broke their faith, ought not to
be trujjed.
For ‘which reafon the Carthaginians ought not to be
trufled.
Every one would readily fupply the minor, fince ;the
perfidioufnefs of the Carthaginians was known to a
proverb. But it is reckoned a beauty in enthymems,
when they confift of contrary parts: becaufe the
turn of them is moft acute and pungent. Such is that
of Micipfa in Salluft : “ What ftranger will be faith¬
ful to you, who are an enemy to your friends ?” And
fo likewife that of Cicero for Milo, fpeaking of Clo¬
dius : “ You fit as avengers of his death ; whofe life
you would not reftore, did you think it in your
power.” Orators manage enthymems in the fame
manner they do fyllogifms ; that is, they invert the
order of the parts, and confirm the propofition by one
or more reafons: and therefore a rhetorical enthymem
frequently confifts of three parts, as a fyllogifm does
of five. Though ftri&ly fpeaking, a fyllogifm can
confill of no more than three parts, and an enthymem
but of two: and the arguments brought to fupport
either of the propofitions conftitute fo many new
enthymems, of which the part they are defigned to
prove is the conclufion. To illuftrate this by an
example:
■dn honejl man thinks himfelf under the highejl obliga¬
tion to his country.
Therefore he fbould fhun no danger to ferve it.
In this enthymem the major is wanting, which would
run thus: “ He who is under the higheft obligations
to another, fhould (hun no danger inorder to ferve him.”
This laft propofition is founded upon the common
principle of gratitude; which requires, that, to the
utmoft of our power, a return fhould be made in pro¬
portion to the kindnefs received. And this being a
maxim generally allowed, it is omitted by the orator.
But now this enthymem, confiding of the minor and
conclufion, might be managed in fome fuch manner
as this, beginning with the conclufion: “ An honeft
man ought to ftiun no danger, but readily expofe his
life for the fafety and prefervation of his country.”
Then the reafon of this conduft might be added,
which is the antecedent of the enthymem, or minor
of the fyllogifm : “ For he is fenfible, that bis obliga¬
tions to his country are fo many, and fo great, that
he can never fully requite them.” And this again
might be confirmed by an enumeration of particulars:
“ He looks upon himfelf as indebted to his country for
every thing he enjoys; for his friends, relations, all
the pleafures of life, and even for life itfelf.” Now
the orator calls this one enthymem, though in reality
there are^ two: For the fecond reafon, or argument,
addedto the jkil, becomes the antecedent of a
enthymem, of which the firft reafon is the cogfeqi
And ifthefe 'Xwo enthymems were exprefied feparattly
in the natural order of the pRffs, the former would
ft and thus: “ An boned man think? bimfeif under
the highed obligations to his country: therefore he
ought to ihuu no danger for its prefervation.” The
latter thus: “ An .boned man edeems hiffvfelf in¬
debted to his country for every thing he enjoys;
therefore he thinks he is under the highed obligation*
to it.” The farce thing might be proved in the like
way of reafoning, by arguments of a different kind.
From camparifon, thus: “ As it would be thought
bafe and ungrateful in a fon not to hazard himfelf for
the prefervation of his father ; an honed man muft
certainly edeem it fo when his country is in danger.”
Or from an example, in this manner: “An honeft
man in like circuavdances would propofe to bimfeif
the example of Decius, who freely gave up his life
for the fervice of his country. He gave up bis life
indeed, but did not lofe it; for he cannot be faid to
have lod his life, who lives in immortal honour.” And
orators frequently intermix fuch arguments to adorn
and illuftrate their fjubjeft, with others taken from the
nature and circumdances of things.' And now, if we
confider a little this method of reafoning, we fiiall
find it the mod plain and eafy imaginable. For when
any pvopofition is laid down, and one or more reafons
fubjoined to prove it, each reafon joined tfuth the pro-
pofitian makes a didinA entbymem, of which the pro-
pefition is the conclufion. Thus Cicero, in his feventh
Philippic, lays down this as the foundation of his dif-
courfe, “ That he is againd a peace with Mark An¬
tony for which he gives three reafons: “ Becaufe
it is bafe, becaufe it is dangerous, and becaufe it is
impra&icable.” Thefe feverally joined with the pro¬
pofition, form three enthymems ; and upon each of
tbefe he difeourfes feparately, which make up that
oration. And this method is what perfons for the
mod part naturally fall into, who know nothing of
the terms fyllogifm or enthymem. They advance fome-
thing, and think of a reafon to prove it, and another
perhaps to fupport that; and, fo far as their invention
will affid them, or they are maders of language, they
endeavour to fet what they fay in the plained light,
give it the heft drefs, embellifli it with proper figure*
and different turns of expreffion; and, as they think
convenient, illudrate it with fimilitudes, comparifons,
and the like ornaments, to render it mod agreeable,
till they think what they have advanced fufficiently
proved. As this method of arguing therefore is the
mod plain, eafy, and natural; fo it is what is moft
commonly ufed in oratory. Whereas a fttift fyllo-
gidieal way of difeourfing is dry and jejune, cramp*
the mind, and does not admit of thofe embellifhments
of language which are a great advantage to the ora¬
tor: for which reafon he feldom ufes complete fyllo¬
gifms ; and when he does, it is with great latitude.
—However, fyllogiftical reafoning is very ufeful,
though not in popular difeourfes : for every argu¬
ment may be reduced to a fyllogifm; and if it will
not hold in that form, there is certainly fome flaw
in it, which by that means will moft eafily be dif-
covtred.
Ill, By indudlion; That is, when one thing is in-
ferred
jEtfpefki;
£ Part II. ORA
f fitrsdi froTa feveral atbers, by reafan of the fimilrtiide
between them. And this way of reafbning is often
very ufrfol in popular difcourfes. For many perfons
are footia' moved by examples and finvilitucks, than
by arguments taken fitom the nature of things.
Every one either endeavours to think right* or at
lealt would be efteemed fo to do. But it is often no
eafy matter to take in the force of an argument, efpe-
ciaily for thofe who have not been accuilomcd to exa¬
mine things clofely, and weigh them duly in their
minds. And therefore, when, this cannot be done
without Come pain and uneaCnefs to the mind* till it
become habitual by pra£lice, it is not to be wondered
at if inch perfons are bed pleafe.d wkh that way of
reafoning by which they imagine they can form a
judgment: of things withthe great eft eafe and facility.
But though indudiions are made from all kinds of
fimilitudes, yet thofe ufually carry the greateft force
with them which are drawn from like facts. Such is
that of Cicero in his oration for the Maniliau law:
for when fome perfons objected to Pompey’s being
entrufted with the Mithrcdatic war, as a thing not
cuftomary to put fuch an acceffion of power into the
hands of one man; Cicero removes that objection, by
producing feveral iuftances of the like nature, and
particularly (hews that more new honours had al¬
ready been conferred on Pompey than upon any other
Roman citizen before him, which had all been em¬
ployed to the advantage of the ftate. “ I will not
(fays he) take notice that two very great wars, the
Punic and the Carthaginian, were both managed by
one general ; and two very powerful cities* which
threatened this empire moft, Carthage and Numantia,
both deftroyed by the fame Scipia. I will not ob-
ferve, that both you and your fathers thought fit to
place the fafety of the government alone in Cains
Msrius; and that the fame perfon fliould carry on the
war with Jugurtha, with the Cimbrians, and with the
Teutones. You remember bow many new powers
have already been conferred on Pompeywhich he
then proceeds to enumerate, and from thence infers,
that the objeftion of novelty was no juft reafon againft
his being entrufted with the conduct of that impor¬
tant war. And as to other fimilitudes, it may thus
be ftiewn by indufition, that virtuous habits are gained
and improved by practice. Bodily ftrength is increafed
and confirmed by daily exercife : All manual arts are
acquired by repeated trials and experiments: The
liberal fciences are alfo attained by conftant ftudy and
^application : And in like manner the mind is formed
to virtue, and improved in it, by the continued pra&ice
©f right a (ft ions.
But there is one particular form of indodtion called
Socratic, becaufe Socrates very frequently ufed that
way of reafoning. It proceeds by feveral queftions,
which being feparately granted, the thing defigned to
be inferred is afterwards put, which, by reafon of its
fimilitude with the fevtral cafes allowed before, cannot
be denied. But this is a captious way of reafoning;
for while the refpondent is not aware of what is dc-
figned to be inferred, he is eafily induced to make
thofe conceflions, which otherwife he would not. Be-
fides, it is not fo well foiled to continued difeourfts,
as to thofe which are interlocutory; and therefore
we meet with it ofteneft in the Socratic dialogues
TORY. 5673
both of Plato and Xenophon. However, it may be Difpofitioa
made ufe of in oratory by a figure called fubjettion, ‘
when the fame perfon firft puts the qudlion, and then
makes the anfwer. So in the famous caufe of Epamr-
nondas, general of the Thebans, who was accuftd for
refuting to furrender his command to his fucceflbr ap¬
pointed by the ftate, till after he had engaged the
enemy, and given them a total defeat, Cicero thus
reprefenta his accufer pleading for the words of the
law againft Epaminondas, who alleged the intention
of it in his defence: “ Should Epaminondas add that
exception to the law, which, he fays, was the inten¬
tion of the writer, namely, Except any one refufe to
give ap hie command when it is for the interejl of the
public he Jhould not; would you admit of it ? I believe
not. Should you yourfelves, which is a thing moft re¬
mote from your juft ice and wifdom, in order to fereen
him,order this exception to be added to the law, without
the command of the people; would the Thebans fuffer
it to be done? No certainly. Can it be right then
t© come into that, as if it was written, which it would
be a crime to write? I know it cannot be agreeable to
your wifdom to think fo.”
IV. By Example. Rhetoricians ufe this word in a 33
different fenfe from the common acceptation. For
that is ufually called an example, which is brought ei¬
ther to prove or illuftrate fome general aflertion : As
if any one fhoold fay, that human bodies may be brought
to fuftain the greateft labours by ufe and exercife ; and
in order to prove this fhould relate what is faid of Mi¬
lo of Croton, that “ by the conftant practice of
carrying a calf feveral furlongs every day, he could
carry it as far after it was to its full fize.” But in ora¬
tory the word example is uled for any kind of fimili¬
tude ; or, as Voffius defines it, “ When one thing is
inferred from another, by reafon of the likenefs which
appears between them.” Hence it is called an imper-
fe£l induction, which infers fomething from feveral
others of a like nature. But, as was obferved before,
in fpeaking of indu&ion, fo likewife in examples,
thofe have the greateft force in reafoning, which are
taken from fafts. Now fa<fts may be compared with
refpeift to fome agreement or limilitude between them,
which in themfelves are either equal or unequal. Of
the former kind this is an inftance : “ Cato aifted as
became a patriot and a lover of his country’s liberty,
in oppofing the arms of Casfar: and therefore fo did
Cicero.” The reafon of the inference is founded in the
parity of the cafe, which equally concerned all good
fubjects of the Roman government at that time. For
all were alike obliged to oppofe a common enemy, who
endeavoured to fubverl the conftitution, and fubjeft
them to his own arbitrary power. But though an ex¬
ample confitts in the comparifoo of two fingle fads,
yet feveral perfons may be concerned in each faift. Of
this kind is that which follows: “ As Pompey, Cse-
far, and Craffus, afttd illegally in the firft triumvi¬
rate, by engrafting the foie power into their own
hands, and by that means violating the public liber¬
ty ; fo likewife did Auguftus, Mark Anthony, and
Lepidus, in the fecond triumvirate, by purfuing the
fame meafures.” But when Cicero defends Milo for
killing Clodius, from the like inftances of Ahala Ser-
vilius, Scipio Nafica, Lucius Optmius, and others ;
that is not an example, but an induction : becaufe one
32 B 2 thing
5674 O R A T
Difpofuion thinp; is there inferred from its fimilitude to feveral
others. But when a comparifon is made between two
fads that are unequal, the inference may be either
from the greater to the lefs, or from the lefs to the
greater. From the greater to the lefs in this manner:
“ Csefar had no juft pretenfions to the Roman govern¬
ment, and therefore much lefs had Anthony.” The
reafon lies in the difference between the two perfons.
Csefar had very much enlarged the bounds of the Ro¬
man empire by his conquefts, and greatly obliged the
populace by bis generofity ; but as he had always ac¬
ted by an authority from the fenate and people of
Rome, thefe things gave him no claim to a power
over them. Much lefs then had Anthony any fuch
pretence, who always afted under Caefar, and had ne¬
ver performed any fignal fervices himfelf. Cicero has
deferibed the difference between them in a very beauti¬
ful manner in his fecond Philippic, thus fpeaking to
Anthony : “ Are you in any thing to be compared to
him ? He had a genius, fagacity, memory, learning,
care, thought, diligence ; he had performed great
things in war, though detrimental to theftate; he had
for many years defigned to get the government in¬
to his hands, and obtained his end by much labour
and many dangers ; he gained over the ignorant mul¬
titude by public fhows, buildings, congiaries, and
feafts; obliged his friends by rewards, and his ene¬
mies by a fhew of clemency. In a word, he fubje&ed
a free ft ate to flavery, partly through fear, and partly
compliance. I can liken you to him for ambition of
power; but in other things you are in no refpe& to be
compared with him.” By a comparifon from the lefs
to the greater, Cicero thus argues againft Catiline :
“ Did the brave Scipio, when a private man, kill Ti¬
berius Gracchus, for attempting to weaken the Rate;
and (hall we confuls bear with Catiline endeavouring
to deftroy the world by fire and fword ?” The cir-
cumftances of thefe two cafes were very different; and
the comparifon runs between a private man, and a
conful intrufted with the higheft authority ; between
a defign only to raife a tumult, and a plot to deftroy
the government : whence the orator juftly infers, that
what was efteemed lawful in one cafe, was much more
fo in the other. The like way of reafoning is fome-
times ufed from other fimilitudes, which may be taken
from things of all kinds, whether animate or inani¬
mate. Of the former fort is that of Cicero fpeaking
of Muraena, when candidate for the confullhip, after
he had himfelf gone through that office : “ If it is
ufual (fays he) for fuch perfons as are fafely arrived
in port, to give thofe who are going out the heft ac¬
count they can with relation to the weather, pirates,
and coafts; becaufe thus nature direfts us to affift
thofe who are entering upon the fame dangers which
we ourfelves have efcaped : how ought 1, who now
after a great ftorm am brought within a near profpeft
of land, to be affe&ed towards him, who, I perceive,
muft be expofed to the greateft tempefts of the Hate?”
He alludes to the late difturbances and tumults occa-
fioned by the confpiracy of Catiline, which had been
fo happily fuppreffed by him in the time of his confu-
late. Of the latter kind is that of Quintilian : “ As
the ground is made better and more fruitful by culture,
fo is the mind by inftru&ion.” There is both a beau¬
ty and juftnefs in this fimile.
O R Y. PartH.
But comparifons are fometimes made between fa£b Difpofitior j
and other things, in order to infer fome difference or '
oppofition between them. In comparing two fafts,
on account of fome difagreement and unlikenefs, the
inference is made from the difference between one and
the other in that particular refped only. As thus :
“ Though it was not efteemed cruelty in Brutus to
put his two fons to death, for endeavouring to betray
their country ; it might be fo in Manlius, who put
his fon to death, only for engaging the enemy with¬
out orders, though he gained the vidfory.” The dif¬
ference between the two fadts, lies in the different na¬
ture of the crime. The fons of Brutus entered into a
confpiracy to betray their country ; and though they
mifearried in it, yet the intention and endeavours they
ufed to accomplifh it were criminal in the higheft de¬
gree. But young Manlius could only be charged
with rafhnefs. His defign was honourable, and in¬
tended for the intereft of his country ; only it was ir¬
regular, and might have proved of ill confequence to
military difeipline. Now in all fuch cafes, the force
of the argument is the ttronger, the greater the diffe¬
rence appears. But the fame fadls which differ in one
refpedl, may agree in many others; as in the ex¬
ample here mentioned. Brutus and Manlius were both
magiftrates as well as fathers; they both killed their
fons, and that for a capital crime by the Roman law.
In any of which refpedls they may be compared in a
way of fimilitude: as, “ If Brutus might lawfully
put his fon to death for a capital crime, fo might Man¬
lius.” But now contrary fa&s do not only differ in
fome certain refpeft, but are wholly oppofite to each
other ; fo that what is affirmed of the one, muft be de¬
nied of the other ; and if one be a virtue, the other is
a vice. Thus Cicero compares the conduct of Mar-
cellus and Verres in a way of oppofition. “ Marcel¬
los (fays he), who had engaged, if he took Syracufe,
to eredt two temples at Rome, would not beautify
them with the fpoils he had taken : Verres, who had
made no vows to Honour and Virtue, but to Venus and
Cupid, endeavoured to plunder the temple of Miner¬
va. The former would not adorn-the gods with the
fpoils of other deities: the latter carried the ornaments
of Minerva, a virgin, into the houfe of a ftrumpet.”
If therefore the condudt of Marcellus was laudable
and virtuous, that of Verres muft bear the contrary
chara&er. But this way of reafoning has likewife
place in other refpeds. Thus Cicero, in the quarrel
between Caefar and Pompey, advifed to peace from
the difference between a foreign and domeftic war:
“ That the former might prove beneficial to the (late;
but in the latter, whichever fide conquered, the pub¬
lic muft fuffer.” And thus the ill effe&s of intempe¬
rance may be fhewn in a way of oppofition : “ That
as temperance preftrves the health of the body, keeps
up the vigour of the mind, and prolongs life; fo excefs
rouft neceffarily have the contrary effefts.”
Thus we have given a brief account of the principal
ways of reafoning commonly made ufe of by orators.
As to the difpofition of arguments, or the order of pla¬
cing them, fome advife to put the weaker, which can¬
not wholly be omitted, in the middle : And fuch as are
ftronger, partly in the beginning, to gain the efteem
of the hearers and render them more attentive ; and
partly at the end, becaufe what is laft heard is likely
to
Part II. ORA
ijifpofition to be retained longeft: But if there are but two argu-
’’ ’ ments, to place the ftronger firft, and then the wea¬
ker ; and after that to return again to the former, and
infill principally upon that. But this muft be left to
the prudence of the fpeaker, and the nature of the
fubjedt. Though to begin with the ftrongeft, and fo
gradually defcend to the weakeft,can never be proper
for the reafon laft mentioned. Nor ought arguments
to be crowded too clofe upon one another ; for that
takes off from their force, as it breaks in upon the at¬
tention of the hearers, and does not leave them luffi-
cient time duly to confider them. Nor indeed (hould
more be ufed than are neceffary ; becaufe the fewer
they are, the more eafily they are remembered. And
the obfervation of a great mailer of eloquence upon
I this fubjedt is certainly very juft, that arguments
ought rather to he weighed than numbered.
Chap. V. Of Confutation.
The forms of reafoning here are the fame as have
been already explained under confirmation. Confuta¬
tion, however, is often the more difficult talk: be¬
caufe he who is to prove a thing, comes ufually pre¬
pared ; but he who is to confute it, is frequently left
to a fudden anfwer. For which reafon, in judicial
cafes, Quintilian fays, “ It is as much eafier to accufe
than defend, as it is to make a wound than to heal
it.” Therefore, not only a good judgment, but a
readinefs of thought alfo, feems neceflary for this pro¬
vince. But, in all difputes, it is of the greateft confe-
quence to obferve where the ftrefs of the controverfy
lies. For without attending to this, perfons may cavil
about different matters without underftanding each
other, or deciding any thing. And in confutation,
what the adverfary has advanced ought carefully to be
confidered, and in what manner he has exprefi'ed him-
felf. As to the things themfelves; whether they im¬
mediately relate to the matter in difpute, or are fo¬
reign to it. Thofe things that are foreign to the fub-
je£l, may either be paft over in filence, or in a very
few words (hewn to be infignificant. And there ought
likewife to be a diftin&ion made between fuch things
as relate to the fubjeift, according to their importance.
Thofe that appear to have no great weight, (hpuld be
flightly remarked. For to infill largely upon fuch
matters is both tirefome to the hearers, and apt to
bring the judgment of the fpeaker into queftion. And
therefore things of that nature are generally better
turned off with an air of negletft, a pungent queftion,
or an agreeable jell, than confuted by a ferious and
laboured anfwer. 2. But thofe things, which relate
to the merits of the caufe, may be confuted either by
contradicting them, or by (hewing fome miftahe in the
reafoning, or their invalidity when granted.
Things may be contradicted feveral ways. What is
apparently falfe may be exprefsly denied. Thus Cicero
in his defence of Cluemius : “ When the accufer had
faid, that the man fell down dead after he had drunk
off his cup, denies that he died that day.” And things
which the adverfary cannot prove, may likewife'be
denied. Of which we have alfo an inftance in Cicero,
who firft upbraids Mark Anthony as guilty of a breach
not only of good breeding, but likewife of frieud-
fhip, for reading publicly a private letter he had fent
him. And then adds: “ But what will you fay now,
r O R Y. 5675
if I fhould deny that ever I fent you that letter ? How Difpofniou
will you prove it? By the hand-writing? In which I “
confefs you have a peculiar fkill, and have found the
benefit of it. But how can you make it out ? For it
is in my fecretary’s hand. I cannot but envy your
mafter, who had fo great a reward for teaching you to
underftand juft nothing. For what can be more unbe¬
coming not only an orator, but even a man, than for
any one to offer fuch things, which if the adverfary
denies, he has nothing more to fay ?” It is an hand-
fome way of contradifling a thing, by (hewing, that
the adverfary himfelf maintained the contrary. So
when Oppius was charged with defrauding the fol-
diers of their provifions, Cicero refutes it, by proving,
that the fame perfons charged Oppius with a deljgn
to corrupt the army by his liberality. An adverfary
is never more effeftualiy filenced than when you can
faften contradiflions upon him ; for this is dabbing
him with his own weapon. Sometimes a thing is not
in exprefs terms denied, but reprefented to be utterly
incredible. And this method expofes the adverfary
more than a bare denial. So when fome perfons re¬
proached Cicero with cowatdice, and a (hameful fear
of death ; he recites their reafons in fuch a manner,
that any one would be inclined to think the charge en¬
tirely falfe. “ Was it becoming me (fays he) to ex-
peft death with that compofednefs of mind as fome
have imagined ? Well, and did I then avoid it ? Nay,
was there any thing in the world that I could appre¬
hend more defirable: Or when I had done the greateft
things in fuch a crowd of ill-minded perfons about me,
do you think banifhment and death were not always
in my view, and continually founding in my ears aa
my certain fate, while I was fo employed ? Was life
defirable, when all my friends were in fuch forrow,
and myfelf in fo great diftrefs, deprived of all the gifts
both of nature and fortune ? Was I fo unexperienced,
fo ignorant, fo void of reafon and prudence ? Had I
never feen nor heard any thing in my whole life? Did
all I had read and (ludied avail nothing? What! did
not I know that life is fhort, but the glory of gene¬
rous aflions permanent ? When death is appointed for
all, does it not feem eligible, that life, which muft be
wrefted from us, fhould rather be freely devoted to the
fervice of our counti y, than referved to be worn out by
the decays of nature ? Was not I fenfible, there has
been this controverfy among the wifeft men, that fome
fay, the minds of men and their confcioufnefs utterly
perilh at death; and others, that the minds of ^wife
and brave men are then in their greateft ftrength and
vigour, when they are fet free from the body ? The
firft (late is not greatly to be dreaded, to be void of
fenfe ; but the other, of enjoying larger capacities, is
greatly to be defired. Therefore, fince I always aimed
at dignity, and thought nothing was worth living for
without it; how fhould I, who am paft the conful-
fhip, and did fo great things in it, be afraid to die?”
Thus far Cicero. There is likewife an ironical way of
contradifling a thing, by retorting that and other
things of the like nature upon the adverfe party. Thus
Cicero, in his oration againfl Vatinius, fays : “ You
have objefled to me, that I defended Cornelius, my
old friend, and your acquaintance. But pray why
fhould I not have defended him ? Has Cornelius car¬
ried any law contrary to the omens ? Has he violated
. any
J®76 . .
Dirpofition any law ? Has he a {faulted the conful ? Did he take
' pofieffion of a temple by force of arms? Did he drive
away the tribune, who oppofed the paffing a law ? Has
he thrown contempt upon religion ? Has he plunder¬
ed the treafury ? Has he pillaged the ftate ? No, thefe,
all thefe, are your doings?” Such an unexpe&ed re¬
turn is fometimes of great fervice to abate the confi¬
dence of an adverfary.
A fecond way of confutation is, by obferving fome
fldnu in the reafoning of the adverfe party. We (hall
endeavour to illuftrate this from the feveral kinds of
reafoning treated of before uAder confirmation. And
firft, as to fyllogifms ; they may be refuted, either by
(hewing fome miftake in the premifes, or that the
conclufion is not juftly deduced from them. So wheii
the Clodian party contended, that Milo ought to fuf-
fer death for this reafon, Becaofe he had confeffed that
he had killed Clodius; that argument, reduced fo a
fyllogifm, would (land thus:
He who confejfes he has killed another, ought not to he
allowed to fee the light.
But Milo confeffes this.
therefore he ought not to live.
Now the force of this argument lies in the major
or firft propofition; which Cicero refutes, by proving,
that the Roman people had already determined con¬
trary to what is there afierted: “ In what city (fays
he) do thefe men difpute after this weak manner? In
that wherein the firft capital trial was in the cafe of the
brave Horatius, who, before the city enjoyed perfect
freedom, was faved by the fuffrages of the Roman
people, though he confefied that he killed his After
with his own hand.” But when Cicero accufed Ver¬
ves for mal-adminiftration in his government of Sici¬
ly, Horteflfius, who defended him, being fenfible the
allegations brought againft him could not be denied,
had no other way left to1 bring him off, but by plead¬
ing his military virtues in abatement, which at that
time were much wanted, and very ferviceable to the
flate. The form of the argument was this :
'That the Romans then wanted good generals.
'That Verres was finch.
Jnd confequently, that it was for the interefil of the
public that he fihould not be condemned.
But Cicero, who knew his defign, ftates the argument
for him in his charge ; and then anfwers it by deny¬
ing the confequence, fince the crimes of Verres were
of fo heinous a nature, that he ought by no means to
be pardoned on the account of any other qualifica¬
tions : Though indeed he afterwards refutes the mi¬
nor or fecond propofition, and (hews that he had not
merited the charafter of a good general. Enthymems
may be refuted, either by (hewing that the antecedent
is falfe, or the confequent not juftly inferred from it.
As thus, with refpeft to the former cafe :
A jlri ft adherence to virtue has often proved detriment
tal.
'Therefore virtue ought riot conflantly to be embra¬
ced.
Here the antecedent may be denied. For virtue is al¬
ways beneficial to thofe who ftri&Iy adhere to it, both
in the prefent fatisfa&ion it affords them, and the fu¬
ture rewards they may certainly expeft from it. And
as to the latter cafe, in this manner:
She is a mother.
Part IV
'Therefore fhe loves her children. Difpofitic^!
Now as the certainty of that inference depends upon ""
this general affertion, That all mothers love their chil- |
dren, which is not true, the miftake of the reafoning
may be (hewn from the inftance of Mkdea and others,
who deftroyed their own children. As to induction
and example, by which the truth or equity of a thing
is proved from its likenefs to one or more other things;
the reafoning in either is invalid, if the things fo com¬
pared can be (hewn not to have that fimilitude or
agreement on which the inference is founded. One in¬
ftance therefore may ferve for both. As when Cicero',
after the death of Casfar, pleaded for the continuance
of his laws, but not of thofe which were made after¬
wards by Mark Anthony: Becaufe, though both were
in themfelves invalid, and impofitions upon the public
liberty ; yet fome of Gaefar’s were ufeful, and others
could not be fetafide without difturbance to the ftate,
and injuring particular perfbns; but thofe of Anthony
were all detrimental to the public.
The laft method of confutation before-mentioned
was, when the orator does in fome fzaft grant the ad¬
verfary his argument, and at the fame time {hews its
invalidity. And this is done by a variety of ways, ac¬
cording the different nature of the fubjeft. Some¬
times he allows what was faid maybe true; but pleads*
that what he contends for is neceffary. This was the
method by which Hortenfius propofed to bring off
Verres, as we have already {hewn from Cicero, whofe
words are thefe, addreffing himfelf to the judges:
What (hall I do? which way (hall I bring in my
accufation ? where {hall I turn myfelf? for the charac¬
ter of a brave general is placed like a wall againft all
the attacks I can make. I know the place, I per¬
ceive where Hortenfius intends to difplay himfelf. He
will recount the hazards of war, the neceffities of the
ftate, the fearcity of commanders; and then he will
rntreat you, and do his utmoft to perfuade you, not
to fuffer the Roman people to be deprived of fuch a
commander upon the teftimony of the Sicilians, notr
the glory of his arms to be fullied by a charge of ava¬
rice.” At other times the orator pleads, that altho’
the contrary opinion may feem to be attended with;
advantage, yet that his own is more juft or honour¬
able. Such was the cafe of Regulus, when his friends
endeavoured to prevail with him to continue at Rome,
and not return to Carthage, where he knew he mult
undergo a cruel death. But as this could not be done
without violating his oath, he refufed to hearken to
their perfuafions. Another way of confutation is, by
retorting upon the adverfary his own argument. Thus
Cicero, in his defence of Ligarius, fays: “ You have,
Tubero, that which is molt defirable to an accufer, the
confeffion of the accufed party; but yet fuch a con-
feffion, that he was on the fame fide that you, Tu¬
bero, chofe yourfelf, and your father too, a man wot- h
thy of the higheft praife. Wherefore, if there was any
crime in this, you ought firft to confefs your own be¬
fore you attempt to fatten any upon Ligarius.” The
orator takes this advantage where an argument proves
too much, that is, more than the perfon defigned it
for, who made ufe of it. Not much unlike this is
what they call inverfion, by which the orator (hews,
that the reafons offered by the oppofite party make for
him. So when Csecilius urged, that the province of
8C-
ORATORY.
Part II. ORATORY.
nftwfcton accufing Verres ought to be granted to him, and not
f to Cieero, becaufe he had been his treafurer in Sicily
at the time thofe crimes were committed with which
he was charged, and confequently knew rooft of that
sffair ; Cioero turns the argument upon him, and
•fhews, for that very reafon he was the moit unfit of
sny man to be intruded with his profecution; fince
having been concerned with him in his crimes, he
would certainly do all in his power to conceal or lefien
them. Again, fometimes the charge is acknowledged,
but the crime (hifted off to another. Thus, when Sex-
tius was aceufed pf Sedition, becaufe he had got toge¬
ther a body of gladiators, and brought them into the
forum, where a warm engagement happened between
them and Clodius’s faction ; Cicero owns the faft, but
charges the crime of fedition upon Clodius’s party in
being the aggneflors. Another method made ufe of
for the fame purpofe is, to alleviate the charge, *and
take off the force of it, by fhewing, that the thing
was not done with that intention which the adverfary
mfinuates. Thus Cicero, in his defence of king De-
jotarus, owns be had raifed fome forces, though not
to invade the Roman territories, as had been alleged,
but only to defend his awn borders, and fend aid to
the Roman generals.
We have hitherto been fpeaking pf the methods of
confutation ufed by orators, in anfweriog thofe argu¬
ments which are brought by the contrary party. But
fometimes they raife fuch objeflions themfelves to
what they have fa id,, as they imagine maybe made by
others ; which they afterwards anfwer, the better to
induce their hearers to think, that nothing confiderr
able can be offered againft what they have advanced,
but what will admit of an eafy reply. Thus, when Ci¬
cero, at the requeft of the Sicilians, had undertaken
the accufation of Verres, it came under debate, wher
ther he, or Csecilius, who had been Verres’s quseftor in
Sicily, fhotlld be admitted to that province. Cicero,
therefore, in order to fet him afide, among other ar¬
guments, (hews his incapacity for fuch an underta-
iking, and for that end recounts at large the qualifica¬
tions neceffary for an orator. Which he reprefents to
be £o many and great, that he thought it neceffary to
ftart the following objection to what he had himfelf
faid upon that fubjeft* “ But you will fay perhaps,
Have you all tbefe qualifications ?” To which he thus
replies : “ I wi(h I had ; but it has been my conftant
Rudy from my youth to gain them. And if, from
their greatnefs and difficulty, I have not been able
to attain them, who have done nothing elfe through
my whole life; how far, do you imagine, you muft
be from it, who never thought of them before; and
.-even now, when you are entering upon them, have
no apprehenfinn, what, and how great, they are ?”
This is an effefihial way of defeating an adverfary,
when the objeftion is well founded, and clearly an-
fwered. But we (hall have occafion to confider this
matter more largely hereafter, under the figure prolep-
Jk, to which it properly relates.
Chap. VI. Of the Conclufion.
33 Rhetoricians make ihi conekifiou of a difeourfe to
confift df two parts; recapitulation, and an addrefs to the
paffiom.
i. Recapitulation is a fummary account i»f what the
fpeaker has before offered in maintenance of his fub-
jeft; and is defigned both to .refrelh the memory of
the liearer.s, and to bring the principal arguments to¬
gether into a narrow compafs, that they may appear
in a ftromger light. Now there are feveral things ne-
Cefiary to a good repetition.
And firft, it mud be (hort and concife; fin.ee it is
defigned to refrefh the memory, and mot to burden it.
For this end, therefore, the chief things only are tp
be touched upon ; thofe on which the caufe principal¬
ly depends, and which the orator is mod defirous
fhould be regarded by his bearers. Now thefe are, The
general heads of the difeourfe, with the main argu¬
ments brought to fuppprt them. But either to infid
particularly upon every minute circumftance, or to en¬
large upon thofe heads which it may be thought proper
to mention, carries in it not fo much the appearance of
a repetition, as of a new difeourfe.
Again, it is convenient in a repetition to recite
things in the fame order in which they were at firft
laid down. By this means the hearers will be enabled
much better to keep pace with the fpeaker as he goes
along ; and if they happen to have forgot any thing,
they will the more readily readily recal it. And be-
fides, this method appears mod fimple and open, when
the fpeaker reviews what he has faid in the fame man¬
ner it was before delivered, and fets it in the cleared
light for others to judge of it. But though a repeti¬
tion contains only the fame things which had been
more largely treated of before ; yet it is not neceflary
they (hould be expreffed in the fame words. Nay, thia
would many times be tirefome and unpleafant to the
hearers ; whereas a variety of expreffion is grateful,
provided the fenfe be the fame. Befides, every thing
ought now to be reprefented in the ftrongeft terms,
and in fo lively manner, as may at the fame time both
entertain the audience, and make the deeped impref-
iion upon their minds. We have a very exadl and ac¬
curate example of repetition in Cicero’S oration for
Qmntius. Cicero was then a young man, and feems
to have kept more clofely to the rules of art, than af¬
terwards, when by ufe and praftice he. had gained a
greater freedom of fpeaking. We formerly cited the
partition of this fpeech, vipnn another occafion, which
runs thus : “ We deny, Sextus Nevius, that you was
put imp the pofleffipn of the eftate of P.Quiatius,by the
prsetor’s edidt. This is the difpute between us. I will
therefore (how, firft, that you had no juft caufe to apply
to the praetor for poffeffion of the eftate of P. Quintius;
then, that you could not pofiefs it by the edidt ; and
laftly, that you did not poffefs it. When I have pro¬
ved thefe three things, I will conclude. Now Cicero
begins his conclufion with a repetition of thofe three
heads, and a fummary account of the feveral argu¬
ments h,e made ufe of under each of them. But they
are too long to be here.exhibited. In his oration for
the Manilian law, his repetition is very (hort. He pro-
pofed in the partiiion to fpeak to three things: The
nature of the war againft king Mithridates, the great¬
nefs of it, and what fort of general was proper to be
intruded with it. And when he has gone thro’ each
of thefe heads, and treated upon them very largely,
he redoces the fubftance of what he has faid to this
general and (hort accopnt,: “ Since therefore the war
is fo neeeffary, that it ctpicot be negledled; and fo
great,.
5677
Difpoiition
5678 O R A T
Difpofition great, that it requires a very careful management ;
and you can intruft it with a general of admirable (kill
in military affairs, of Angular courage, the greatelt
authority, and eminent fuccefs: do you doubt to
make ufe of this fo great a bledrng, conferred andbe-
ftowed upon you by heaven, for the prefervation and
enlargement of the Roman ftate ?” Indeed this repe¬
tition is made by Cicero, before he proceeds to the
confutation; and not at the end of his difcourfe, where
it is ufually longer and more particular: however, this
may ferve to (hew the nature of fuch a recital.
But fometimes a repetition is made, by running a
comparifon between the fpeaker’s own arguments, and
thofe of the adverfe party; and placing them in op-
pofition to each other. And this method Cicero takes
in the conclufion of his third oration upon the Agra¬
rian law. And here fometimes the orator takes ocealion
to find fault with his adverfary’s management, in thefe
and fuch like expreflions : “ This part he has entirely
dropt. To that he has given an invidious turn, or a
falfe colouring. He leaves arguments, and flies to in¬
treaties ; and not without good reafon, if we confider
the weaknefs of his caufe.”
But when the difcourfe is very long, and the argu¬
ments infifted on have been many, to prevent the
hearers growing out of patience by a more particular
recital, the orator fometimes only juft mentions fuch
things, which he thinks of leaft confequenee, by fay¬
ing, that he omits or pafles over them, till he comes
to what is of greater moment, which he reprefents
more fully. This method Cicero has taken in his
defence of Cluentius; where, having run over feveral
Idler heads in the manner now deicribed, he then
alters his expreffion, and introduces what was of more
importance, by faying: “ What I firft complain of,
is that wickedriefs, which is now difcovered.” And
fo he proceeds more particularly to recite thofe things
which immediately related to Cluentius. And this is
what the writers upon this art call pretention. But thus
much may ferve for repetition or recapitulation.
2. We now proceed to the other part of the conclufion,
which confifts 'in an addrefs to the pafwns. Indeed
the orator fometimes endeavours occafionally to work
upon the paffions of his hearers in other parts of
his difcourfe, but more efpecially in the conclufion,
where he is warmed himfelf, and labours to make
them fo. For the main defign of the introduftion is
to conciliate the hearers, and gain their attention ; of
the narration, propofition, and confirmation, to inform
them; and of the conclufion, to mow them. And
therefore, to ufe Quintilian’s words, “ Here all the
‘fprings of eloquence are to be opened. It is here we
fecure the minds of the hearers, if what went before
was well managed. Now we are pad the rocks and
(hallows, all the fails may be hoifted. And as the
greateft part of the conclufion confifts in illuftration,
the moft pompous language and ftrongeft figures have
place here.” Now the paffions, to which the orator
more-particularly addreffes, differ according to the
nature of the difcourfe. In demonftrative orations,
when laudatory,—love, admiration, and emulation, are
ufually excited ; but in inve&ives,—hatred, envy,
and contempt. In deliberative fubjeAs, either the
hope of gratifying fome defire is fet in view, or the
fear of fome impending evil. And in judicial dif-
O R Y. Part III
courfes, almoft all the paffions have place, but more Difpofitl:
efpecially refentment and pity ; infomuch that moft of f
the ancient rhetoricians mention only thefe two. But I
having treated upon the nature of the paffions, and 1
the methods fuited both to excite arid allay them, in
a former chapter, we (hall at prefent only add a few |
general obfervations, which may not be improper in
this place, where the (kill of the orator in addreffing 1;
to them is more efpecially required.
The orator will obferve what circumftances either f
of things, or perfons, or both, will furnifh him with I
motives proper to apply to thofe paffions he defires to
excite in the minds of his hearers. Thus Cicero, in 1
his orations for Plancus and Sylla, moves his hearers T
from the circumftances of the men ; but in his accufa- I|
tion of Verres, very frequently from the barbarity and
horrid nature of his crimes; and from both, in his de* T
fence of Qmntius.
But the fame.paffion may be excited by very diffe¬
rent methods. This is plain from the writings of
thofe Roman fatyrifts which are yet extant; for they !■
have all the fame defign, and that is to engage men |
to a love of virtue, and hatred of vice: but their
manner is very different, fuited to the genius of each
writer. Horace endeavours to recommend virtue, by
laughing vice out of countenance; Perfius moves us
to an abhorrence and deteftation of vice, with the
gravity and feverity of a philofopher ; and Juvenal, 1
by open and vehement inve&ives. So orators make :|
ufe of all thefe methods in exciting the paffions ; as ifl
may be feen by their difcourfes, and particularly thofe 1
of Cicero. But it is not convenient to dwell long
upon the fame paffion. For the image thus wrought I
up in the minds of the hearers, does not laft a great
while, but they foon return to refle&ion. When the
emotion therefore is once carried as high as it well 1
Can be, they fliould be left under its influence, and
the fpeaker proceed to fome new matter, before it de¬
clines again.
Moreover, orators fometimes endeavour to raiie I
contrary paffions to each other, as they are concerned
for oppofite parties. So the accufer excites anger and H
refentment, but the defendant pity and compaffion.
At other times, one thinks it fufficient to allay and 1
take off that paffion which the other has raifed, and
bring the hearers to a calm and fedate confideration of B
the matter before them.
But this efpecially is to be regarded, that the
orator exprefs the fame paffion himfelf with which he
endeavours to affeA others; and that not only in his 9
adtion and voice, but likewife in his language: and
and therefore his words, and manner of expreffion, I
(hould be fuited to that perturbation and diforder of
mind which he defigns to reprefent. However, a
decency and propriety of chara&er is always carefully
to be obferved; for, as Cicero very well remarks, “A
negleft of this is not only very culpable in life, but
likewife in difcourfe. Nor do the fame things equally
become every fpeaker, or every audience; nor every |
time, and every place.” And therefore he greatly I
commends that painter, who, defigning to1 reprefent
in a pidture the facrifice of Iphigenia, Agamemnon’s |
daughter, drew Calchas the prieft with a fad counte- :|
nance; Ulyffes, her father’s great friend, more de-
jedted ; .md her uncle Menelaus, moft difconfolate;
but
Part I.
lifpoiition but threw a veil over the face of Agamemnon himfelf,
as being unable to exprefs that excefs of forrow which
he thought was proper to appear in his countenance.
And this juftnefs of charafler is admirably well ob-
ferved by Cicero himfelf, in his defence of Milo; for
as Milo was always known to be a man of the greateft
refolution, and moll undaunted courage, it was very
improper to introduce him (as the ufual method then
was in capital cafes) moving pity, and begging for
mercy. Cicero therefore takes this part upon himfelf;
and what he could not do with any propriety in the
perfon of Milo, he performs in his own, and thus ad-
drefles the judges: “ What remains, but that I in¬
treat and befeech you, that you would fhew that com¬
panion to this brave man, for which he himfelf does
not folicit, but I, againll his inclination, earneftiy
implore and requetl. Do not be lefs inclined to ac¬
quit him, if in this our common forrow you fee no
tear fall from Milo’s eyes; but perceive in him the
fame countenance, voice, and language, as at other
times, Heady and unmoved. Nay, I know not whe¬
ther for this reafon you ought not much fooner to fa¬
vour him: For if, in the contefts of gladiators, (per-
fons of the lowell condition and fortune in life), we
are wont to be difpleafed with the timorous and fup-
pliant, and thofe who beg for their life; but inter-
pofe in favour of the brave and courageous, and fuch
as expofe themfelves to death; and we fliew more
compaffion to thofe who do not fue for it, than to
thofe who do: with how much greater reafon ought
we to a£l in the fame manner towards the braveft of
our fellow-citizens?” And as thefe words were agree¬
able to his own charafter, while foliciting in behalf of
another; fo, immediately after, he introduces Milo
fpeaking like himfelf, with a generous and undaunted
air: “ Thefe words of Milo (fays he) quite fink and
difprrit me, which I daily hear from him. Farewel,
farewel, my fellow-citizens, farewel! may you be
happy, flourifh, and profper; may this renowned city
be preferved, my mod dear country, however it has
treated me; may it continue in peace, though I can¬
not continue in it, to whom it owes its peace. I will
retire; I will be gone.”
But as perfons are commonly more affefled with
what they fee than what they hear, orators fome-
times call in the affiilance of that fenfe in moving the
palfions. For this reafon it was ufual among the Ro¬
mans, in judicial cafes, for accufed perfons to appear
with a dejefted air and a fordid garb, attended by
their parents, children, or other relations and friends,
with the like drefs and afpedl; as iikewife to fhew their
fears, wounds, bloody garments, and other things of
the like nature, in open court. So when, upon the
death of Caefar, Mark Antony harangued the popu¬
lace, he at the fame time expofed to their view the
garment in which he was dabbed, fixed upon a pole;
at which fight they were fo enraged, that immediately
they ran with lighted torches to fet fire to the houfes
of the conipirators. But this cudom at lad became
fo common, and was fometimes fo ill conduced, that
the force of it was greatly abated, as we learn from
Quintilian. However, if the Romans proceeded to
an excefs on the one hand, the ftri&nefs of the Areo-
pagites at Athens may perhaps be thought too rigid
on the other; for in that court, if the orator began to
Vol. VIII. l
5679
fay any thing which was moving, an officer immedi- Difpofition
ately flood up, and bade him be filent. There is cer- ——~
tainly a medium between thefe two extremes, which
is fometimes not only ufeful, but even neceffary: for,
as Quintilian very judly fays, “ It is neceffary to ap¬
ply to the paffions, when thofe things which are true,
jud, and of common benefit, cannot be come at any
other way.”
Chap. VII. Of Digrcjfwn, Tranfition, and
Amplification.
The number, order, and nature of the parts which
conditute a complete and regular oration, we have en¬
deavoured to explain 'n feveral preceding chapters.
But there are two or three things yet remaining, very
neceflary to be known by an orator, which feem mod
properly to come under the fecond branch of his
art.—And thefe are, Digrejjicn, Tranfition, and Am¬
plification.
1. Digreffion, as defined by Quintilian, is, “ A jy
going oft from the fubjecl we are upon to fome diffe¬
rent thing, which may however be of ftrvice to it.”
We have a very beautiful inflance of this in Cicero’s
defence of Coelius, who was accufed of having fird
borrowed money of Clodia, and then engaging her
fervants to poifon her. Now, as the proof of the fadl
depended upon feveral circumffantes, the orator ex¬
amines them feparately ; and fliews them to be all
highly improbable. “ How,” fays he, “ was the
defign of this poifon laid ? Whence came it ? how did
they get it ? by whofe affidance, to whom, or where,
was it delivered ?” Now to the fird of thefe queries
he makes the accufer give this anfwer : “ They fay
Coelius had it at home, and tried the force of it upon
a flave provided on purpofe, whofe fudden death
proved the flrength of the poifon.” Now as Cicero
reprefents the whole charge againd Ccelius as a fidlion
of Clodia, invented out of revenge for fome llights he
had put upon her ; to make this the more probable, he
inlinuaies that (he had poifoned her hufband, and
takes this opportunity to hint it, that he might fliew
how eafy it was for her to charge another with poifon-
ing a fervant, who had done the fame to her own
hufband. But not contented with this, he fteps out
of his way, and introduces fome of the lafl words of
her hufband Metellus, to render the fa£t more bar¬
barous and fhocking, from the admirable charafter of
the man. “ O immortal gods ! why do you fome¬
times wink at the greateft ciimes of mankind, or de¬
lay the punifhment of them to futurity ? For I faw, I
myielf faw (and it was the mod doleful icene of my
whole life) when Q^ Metellus was taken from the
bofom of his country; and when he,-who thought
himltlf born to be ferviceabie to this date, within
three days after he had app.-ared with fuch advantage
in the lenate, in the forum, and every wherein public,
was fnatched from us in ihc flower of his age, and
prime of his ftreugth and vigour. At which time,
when he was about to expire, and his mind had loft
the fenfe of other things, flill retaining a concern for
the public, he lookeci upon me, as I was all in tears,
and intimated in broken and dying words, how great
a florin hung over the city and threatened the whole
ftate; often linking the wall which feparated his
houfe from that of Quintus Catulus, and frequently
32 C calling
ORATORY.
5680 O R
Difpofition calling both upon him and me, and feeming to grieve
c not fo much at the approach of his own death, as that
both his country and I (hould be deprived of his
affiftance. Had he not been wickedly taken off on a
fudden, how would he after his confuHhip have with-
ftood the fury of his kinfman Publius Clodius, who,
while in that office, threatened, in the hearing of the
fenate, to kill him with his own hand, when he firft
began to break out. And will this woman dare to
come out of thofe doors, and talk of the force of poifon ?
will not (he fear, left the houfe itfelf ffiould fpeak the
villany ? will not fhe dread the confcious walls, nor
that fad and mournful night ? But I return to the
accufation.” And then he proceeds to confider and
refute the feveral circumftances of the accufation. All
this was no part of his argument ; but having men¬
tioned the charge of poifon, he immediately takes
©ccafron to introduce it, in order to excite the indig¬
nation of the hearers againft Clodia, and invalidate the
profecution as coming from a perfon of her character.
Digrcffion cannot properly be faid to be a neceffary
part of a difconrfe ; but it may fometimes be very con¬
venient, and that upon feveral accounts.
As firft, where a fubjeft is of itfelf flat and dry, or
requires clofe attention, it is of ufe to relieve and un¬
bend the mind by fomething agreeable and entertain¬
ing. For which reafon Quintilian obferves, that the
orators of his time generally made an excurfionin their
harangues upon fome pleafing topic, between the nar¬
ration and the proof. But he condemns the practice,
as too general ; for while they feemed to think it ne¬
ceffary, it obliged them fometimes to bring in things
trifling and foreign to the purpofe. Befides, a di-
. greffion is confined to no one part of a difcourfe, but
may come in any where, as occafion offers; provided
it fall in naturally with the fubjedt, and be made fome
way fubfervient to it. We never meet with it in
Cicero, without fome evident and good reafon. So
in his profecution of Verres for his barbarous and in¬
human outrages againft the Sicilians, he takes an oc¬
cafion to launch out in a beautiful defcription of the
ifland, and to recount the advantages which accrued
from it to the Romans. His fubjedf did not ne-
ceffarily lead him to this, but his view in it was to
heighten and aggravate the charge againft Verres.
Again, as a digreflion ought not to be made with¬
out fufficient reafon, fo neither fhould it be too fre¬
quent. And he who never does it but where it is
proper and ufeful, will not often fee occafion for it.
Frequently to leave the fubjeft, and go off to other
things, breaks the thread of the difcourfe, and is apt
to introduce confufion. Indeed fome kinds of writing
admit of a mtfPe frequent ufe of digreffions than others.
In hiftory they are often very ferviceable. For as
that confifts of a feries of fads, and a long continued
narrative without variety is apt to grow dull and
tedious ; it is neceffary at proper diftances to throw
in fomething entertaining, in order to enliven it, and
keep up the attention. And accordingly we find the
heft hiftorians often embellifli their writings with de-
fcriptions of cities, rivers, and countries, as likewife
with the fpeeches of eminent perfons upon important
occafions, and other ornaments, to render them the
more pleafing and delightful. Poets take a (fill
greater liberty in this refped : for as their principal
o R Y. Part II.
view is moft commonly to pleafe, they do not attend DHpofuie
fo clofely to connedion ; but as an image offers itfelf, ^"
which maybe agreeably wrought up, they bring it in, ]
and go off more frequently to different things, than
others writers.
Another property of a digreflion is, that it ought !
not to be too long, left the hearers forget what pre- !
ceded, before the fpeaker returns again to his fubjed.
For a digreffion being no principal part of a di^-
courfe, nor of any further ufe than as it ferves fome
way or other to enforce or illuftrate the main fubjed; j
it cannot anfwer this end, if it be carried to fuch a j
length, as to caufe that either to be forgotten, or ne- ]
gleded. And every one’s memory will not ferve him
to conned together two parts of a difcourfe, which
lie at a wide diftance from each other. The better
therefore to guard agaiuft this, it is not unufual with
orators, before they enter upon a digreffion of any
confiderable length, to prepare their hearers, by
giving them notice of it, and fometimes defiring leave
to divert a little from the fubjed. And fo likewife at
the conclufion they introduce the fubjed again by a ;
fliort tranfition. Thus Cicero in the example cited ]
above, when he has finilhed his digreffion concerning
the death of Metellus, proceeds to his fubjed again
with thefe words : “ But I return to the accufation.”
Indeed we find orators fometimes, when fore preffed,
and the caufe will not bear a clofe fcrutiny, artfully :<|
run into digreffions with a defign to divert the at¬
tention of the hearers from the fubjed, and turn
them to a different view. And in fuch cafes, as they
endeavour to be unobferved, fo they do it tacitly
without any tranfition or intimation of their defign {
their bufinefs being only to get clear of a difficulty,
till they have an opportunity of entering upon fome I
frelh topic.
II. 'Tranfitions are often ufed not only after a di- 38 c
greffion, but likewife upon other occafions. A tran¬
fition is, “ A form of fpeech, by which the fpeaker
in a few words tells his hearers both what he has faid ;
already, and what he next defigns to fay.” Where a
difcourfe confifts of feveral parts, this is often very j;
proper in palling from one to another, efpecially j (
when the parts are of a confiderable length; for it <1
affifts the hearers to carry on the feries of the difcourfe
in their mind, which' is a great advantage to the me-» ; \
-mory. It is likewife a great relief to the attention, if
to be told when an argument is finifhed, and what is
to be expeded next. And therefore we meet with it j \
very frequently in hiftory. But we confider it at pre- j|
fent only as made ule of by orators. Cicero, in his
fecond oration againft Catiline, who had then left . I
Rome,having at large defcribed his condu&and defigns,
he adds: But why do I talk fo long concerning
one enemy, and fuch an one; who owns himfelf an
enemy, and whom I do not fear, fince, what I always
deftred, there is now a wall between us; add fays no- il
thing of thofe, who conceal themfelves, who remain
at Rome, and among us.” And then he proceeds to
give an account of the other confpirators.
But fometimes, in palling from one-thing to another, I
a general hint of it is thought fufficient to prepare
the hearers, without particularly fpecifying what has
been faid, or is next to follow. Thus Cicero in his
iecond Philippic fays: “ But thofe things are old,
■ this J
Part II. ORA:
>ifpo!ition this is yet frefli.” And again: “ But I have infifted
too long upon trifles, let us come to tilings of greater
moment.” And at other times, for greater brevity,
the tranfition is imperfefl, and mention made only
of the following head, without any intimation of what
has been faid already. As in Cicero’s defence of
Muraena, where he fays : “ I muft now proceed to
the third part of my oration concerning the charge of
bribery.” And foon after : “ I come now to Cato,
who is the fupport and ftrength of this charge.”
III. The third and la!t head is, Amplification. Now
by amplification is meant, not barely a method of eu-
larging upon a thing, but fo to reprefent it in the
fulleft and moil comprehenfive view, as that it may in
the livelieft manner ftrike the mind, and influence the
paffions. Cicero fpeaking of this, cz\\s\t the greatejl
commendation of eloquence; and obferves, “ that it
confifts not only in magnifying and heightening a thing,
but likewife in extenuating and lefiening it.” But
though it coniifts of thefe two parts, and may be ap¬
plied either way; yet to amplify, is not to fetthings
in a falfe light, but to paint them in their juft pro-
.portion and proper colours, fuitable to their nature
and qualities. Rhetoricians have obferved feveral ways
of doing this.
One is to afcend from a particular thing to a gene¬
ral. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Archias, having
commended him as an excellent poet, and likewife ob¬
ferved, that all the liberal arts have a connexion with
each other, and a mutual relation between them, in
order to raife a juft efteem of him in the minds of his
hearers, takes occafion to fay many things in praife
of polite literature in general, and the great advantages
that may be received from it. “ You will aflt me,”
fays he, “ why we are fo delighted with this man ?
Becaufe he fupplies us with thofe things, which both
refrefh our minds after the noife of the forum, and
delight our ears when wearied with contention. Do
you think we could either be furnifhed with matter for
fuch a variety of fubjeCls, if we did not cultivate our
minds with learning ; or bear fuch a conftant fatigue,
without affording them that refrefhment ? I own I
have always purfued thefe ftudies; let thofe be afhamed,
who have fo given up themfelves to learning, as
neither to be able to convert it to any common benefit,
nor difcover it in public. But why fhould it fhame
me, who have fo lived for many years, that no ad¬
vantage or cafe has ever diverted me, no pleafure
allured me, nor fleep retarded me, from this purfuit.
Who then can blame me, or who can juftly be dif-
pleafed with me, if I have employed that time in re¬
viewing thefe ftudies, which has been fpent by others
in managing their affairs, in the celebration of fefti-
vals, or other diverfions, in refrefhments of mind
and body, in unfeafonable banquets, in dice, or
tennis ? And this ought the rather to be allowed me,
becaufe my ability as an orator has been improved by
thofe purfuits, which, fuch as it is, was never want¬
ing to aflift my friends. And if it be efteemed but
fmall, yet I am fenfible from what fpring I muft
draw thofe things, which are of the greateft impor¬
tance.” With more to the fame purpofe; from which
he draws this inference: “ Shall I not therefore love
this man ? (hall I not admire him ? fhall I not by all
means defend hitja ?”
' O It Y. 5681
A contrary method to the former is, to defcend DifpofitioM
from a general to a particular. As if any one, while
fpeaking in commendation of eloquence, (hould illu-
ftrate what he fays from the example of Cicero, and
(hew the gieat fervices he did his country, and the
honours he gained to himfelf, by his admirable Ikill in
oratory. Our common way of judging of the nature
of things is from what we obferve in particular in-
ftances, by which we form general notions concerning
them. When therefore we confider the charadter of
Cicero, and the figure he made in the world, it leads
us to conclude, there muft be fomething very admi¬
rable in that art by which he became fo celebrated.
And this method he has taken himfelf in his oration
for the Manilian law, where having firft intimated the
fcarcity of good generals at that time among the Ro¬
mans, he then defcribes the virtues of a complete com¬
mander as a proof of it, and {hews how many and
great qualifications are neceffary to form fuch a cha-
radler, as courage, prudence, experience, and fuccefs;
all which he afterwards applies to Pompey.
A third method is by an enumeration of parts. So
when Cicero, upon the defeat of Mark Antony before
Mutina, propofed that a funeral monument {hould be
eredted in honour of the foldiers who were killed in
that battle, as a comfort to their furviving relations;
he does it in this way, to give it the greater weight:
“ Since (fays he) the tribute of glory is paid to the
beft and moft valiant citizens by the honour of a mo¬
nument, let us thus comfort their relations, who will
receive the greateft confolation in this manner: their
parents, who produced fuch brave defenders of the
ftate; their children, who will enjoy thefe domeftic
examples of fortitude ; their wives, for the lofs of
fuch hufbands, whom it will be more fitting to extol
than lament ; their brethren, who will hope to re¬
ferable them no lefs in their virtues, than their afpedt.
And I with we may be able to remove the grief of all
thefe by our refolutions.” Such reprefentations greatly
enlarge the image of a thing, and afford the mind a
much clearer view of it than if it were contradted into
one fingle propofition.
Again, another method not much unlike the former
is, when any thing is illuftrated from a variety of
caufes. Thus Cicero juftifies his behaviour in retiring,
and not oppofing his enemies, when they fpirited up
the mob in order to banilh him, from the following
reafons, which at that time determined him to fuch a
condudl: “ When (fays he) unlefs I was given up,
fo many armed fleets feemed ready to attack this fingle
{hip of the ftate, toffed with the tempefts of feditions
and difcords, and the fenate was now removed from
the helm ; when banifliment, murder, and outrage,
were threatened; when fome, from an apprehenfion of
their own danger, would not defend me; others were
incited by an inveterate hatred to all good men, others
thought I Hood in their way, others took this oppor¬
tunity to exprefs their refentment, others envied the
peace and tranquillity of the ftate; and upon all thefe
accounts I was particularly ftruck at: {hould I have
chofen rather to oppofe them, (I will not fay to my
own certain deftrudtion, but to the greateft danger
both of you and your children), than alone to fubmit
to and undergo what threatened us all in common?”
Such a number of reafons brought together, muft fet a
32 C z thing
5682 ORA'
Difpofition thing in a very ftrong and clear light.
The like may be faid of a number and variety of
effe&s. Thus Cicero defcribes the force and excel¬
lence of oratory from its great and furprifing effects,
when he fays, “ Nothing feems to me more excellent,
than by difcourfe to draw the attention of a whole
aflembly, delight them, and fway their inclinations
different ways at pleafure. This, in every free ftate,
and efpecially in times of peace and tranquillity, has
been always in the higheft efteem and reputation.
For what is either fo admirable, as for one only, or a
very few, out of a vaft multitude, to be able to do
that which all have a natural power of doing? or fo
delightful to hear, as a judicious and folid difcourfe
in florid and polite language? or fo powerful and
grand, as to influence the populace, the judges, the
lenate, by the charms of eloquence? Nay, what is fo
noble, fo generous, fo munificent, as to afford aid to
fupplicants, to fupport the afflifted, give fafety, deliver
from dangers, and preferve from exile? Or what is fo
neceffary as to be always furnifhed with arms to guard
yourfelf, affertyour right, or repel injuries? And, not to
confine our thoughts wholly to the courts of juftice or
the fenate, what is there in the arts of peace more
agreeable and entertaining than good language and a
fine way of fpeaking? For it is this efpecially where¬
in we excel other animals, that we can difcourfe toge¬
ther, and convey our thoughts to each other by words.
Who therefore would not efteem, and in a particular
manner endeavour to furpafs others in that wherein
mankind principally excels brute hearts? But to pro¬
ceed to itschief advantages: What elfe would have drawn
men into focieties, or taken them off from a wild and
favage life, and foften them into a polite and civilized
behaviour; or, when fettled in communities, have re-
llrained them by laws?” Who but, after fuch a de-
fcription, mu ft conceive the ftrongeft paflion for an
art attended with fo many great and good effeds?
A thing may likewife be illuftrated by its oppofite.
So the blefiings and advantages of peace may be re¬
commended from the miferies and calamities of war;
and thus Cicero endeavours to throw contempt upon
Catiline and his party, by comparing them with the
contrary fide: “ But if, omitting all thefc things
with which we abound, and they want, the fenate, the
knights, the populace, the city, treafury, revenues, all
Italy, the provinces, and foreign nations; if, I fay,
r O R Y. PartlH
omitting thefe things, we compare the canfes them-Dhpolinik
felves in which each fide is engaged, we may learn F
from thence how defpicable they are.—For on this |'
fide modefty is engaged, on that impudence; on this
chaftity, on that lewdnefs; on this integrity, on that
fraud; on this piety, on that profanenefs; on this 1
conftancy, on that fury; on this honour, on that bafe-
nefs; on this moderation, on that unbridled pafiion: j
In a word, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence, I
and all virtues, contend with injuftice, luxury, cow¬
ardice, rafttnefs, and all vices; plenty with want; rea-
fon with folly; fobriety with madnefs; and, laftly, |
good hope with defpair. In fuch a conteft,’ did men
defert us, would not heaven ordain that fo many and
fo great vices ftiould be defeated by thefe moft excel¬
lent virtues?”
Gradation is ansther beautiful way of doing this.
So when Cicero would aggravate the cruelty and bar¬
barity of Verres for crucifying a Roman citizen, which
was a fort of punifhment only inflifted upon flaves,
he choofes this way of doing it. “ It is a crime (fays
he) to bind a Roman citizen, wickednefs to whip him,
and a fort of parricide to kill him; what then muft I
call it to crucify him? No name can fufficiently ex-
prefs fuch a villany.” And the images of things may
be thus heightened, either by afcending, as in this in-
ftance; or defcending, as in that which follows, re¬
lating to the fame adtion of Verres: “ Was I not to
complain of or bewail thefe things to Roman citizens,
nor the friends of our ftate, nor thofe who had heard
of the Roman name; nay, if not to men, but beafts;
or, to go yet further, if in the moft defert wildernefs
to (tones and rocks ; even all mute and inanimate
creatures would be moved by fo great and heinous
cruelty.”
And, to name no more, fadts may be amplified from
their circumftances ; as time, place,, manner, event,
and the like. But inftances of this would carry us
too far; and therefore we (hall only add, that, as the
defign of amplification is not barely to prove or evince
the truth pf things, but alfo to adorn and illuftrate
them, it requires a florid and beautiful ftyle, confiding
of ftrong and emphatical words, flowing periods, har¬
monious numbers, lively tropes, and bright figures.
But the confideratioti of thefe things come under the
third part of oratory, upon which we are now to
enter.
Part III. Of E
ELOCUTION dire&s us to fuit both the words
and expreffions of a difcourfe to the nature of the
fubjedf, or to fpeak with propriety and decency. This
faculty is in one word called eloquence; and thofe per-
fons who are pofleffed of it are therefore ftyled elo~
quent.
Elocution is twofold ; general, and particular. The
former treats of the feveral properties and ornaments
of language in common ; the latter confiders them
as they are made ufe of to form different forts of
ftyle.
I. GENERAL ELOCUTION.
This, according to rhetoricians, confifts of three
LOCUTION.
parts; Elegance, Compofition, and Dignity. A difcourfe
which has all thefe properties fuitably adjufted, muft,
with refpedt to the language, be perfedt in its kind,
and delightful to the hearers.
Chap. I. Of Elegance.
Elegance confifts in two things; Purity, and/Vr-
fpicuity: And both thefe, as well with refpedl to fingle
words, as their conftrudtion in fentences. Thefe pro¬
perties in language give it the name of elegant, for a like
reafon that we call other things fo which are clean
and neat in their kind. But in the common ufe of
our tongue, we are apt to confound elegance with elo¬
quence i and fay, a difcourfe ij elegant, when we mean
Part III.
locution, by the expreffion, that it has all the properties of fine
" language.
§ I. Purity.
41 By this we are to underftand the choice of fuch
words and phrafes as are fuited and agreeable to the
ufeof the language in which we fpeak: And fo gram¬
marians reduce the faults they oppofe to it to two
forts, which they call barbarifm and folccifm; the
former of which refpedts Angle words, and the latter
their conftru&ion. But we lhall confider them jointly,
and in a manner different from grammarians; for
with them all words are efteemed pure, which are
once adopted into a language, and authorifed by ufe.
And as to phrafes, or forms of expreffion, they allow
them all the fame claim, which are agreeable to the
analogy of the tongue. But in oratory, neither all
words nor all expreffions are fo called, which occur in
language; but fuch only as come recommended by the
authority of thofe who fpeak or write with accuracy
and politenefs. Indeed it is a common faying, that
•we Jhould think •with the learned, and fpeak ivith the
vulgar. But the meaning of that expreflion is no
’ more than that we fhould fpeak agreeably to the com¬
mon ufage of the tongue, that every one may under¬
ftand us; and not choofe fuch words or expreffions as
are either difficult to be underftood, or may carry in
them an appearance of affe&ation and Angularity.
But in order to fet this matter in a clearer light, we
{hall here recount the principal things which vitiate
the purity of language.
And firff, it often happens, that fuch words and
forms of fpeaking as were introduced by the learned,
are afterwards dropped by them as mean and fordid,
from a feeming baienefs coritrafted by vulgar ufe.
For polite and elegant fpcakers diftinguiffi themfelves
by their difcourfe, as perfons of figure do by their
garb; one being the drefs of the mind, as the other
is of the body. And hence it comes to pafs, that
both have their different fafhions, which are often
changed; and as the vulgar affefl to imitate thofe
above them in both, this frequently occafions an alte¬
ration when either becomes too trite and common. But
beiide thefe fordid words and expreffions, which are
rendered fo by the ufe of the vulgar ; there is another
fort firft introduced by them, which is carefully to be
avoided by all thofe who are defirous to fpeak well.
For the vulgar have their peculiar words and phrafes,
fuited to their circumftances, and taken from fuch
things as ufually occur in their way of life. Thus in
the old comedians, many things are fpoken by fer-
vants, agreeable to their eharaSer, which would be
very unbecoming from the mouth of a gentleman.
And we cannot but daily obferve the like inftanccs
among ourfekes.
Again, this is common to language with all other
human produftions, that it is in its own nature liable
to a conftant change and alteration. For, as Horace
has juftly obferved,
All human works (hall wafte,
Then how can feeble words pretend to laft?
Nothing could ever pleafe all perfons, or at lead for
any length of time. And there is nothing from which
this can lefs be expefted than language. For as the
thoughts of men are exceedingly various, and words
5683
are the figns of their thoughts; they will be eondant- Elocnt on.
ly inventing new figns to exprefs them by, in order to
convey their ideas with more clearnefs, or greater
beauty. If we look into the different ages of the La¬
tin writers, what great alterations and changes do we
find in their language ? How few now underftand the
remaining fragments of the twelve tables ? Nay, how
many words do we meet with even in Plautus, the
meaning of which has not yet been fixed with certain¬
ty by the fkill of the bell critics ? And if we confidtr
our own language, it will appear to have been in a
manner entirely changed from what it was a few ages
fince. To mention no others, our celebrated Chaucer
is to moft perfons nowalmoft unintelligible, and wants
an expofitor. And even fince our own memory, we
cannot but have obferved, that many words and ex¬
preffions, which a few years ago were in common ufe,
are now in a manner laid afide and antiquated ; and
that others have conftantly fucceeded, and daily do fuc-
ceed, in their room. So true is that obfervation of
the fame poet:
Some words that have or elfe will fee! decay,
Shall be reftor’d, and come again in play;
And words now fam’d, (hall not be fancied long.
They (ball not pleafe the ear, nor move the tongue :
As ufe (hall thefe approve, and thofe condemn;
Ufe, the foie rule of fpeech, and judge fuprenie.
We muff therefore no lefs abftain from antiquated or
obfolete words and phrafes, than from fordid ones.
Though all old words are not to be thought antiqua¬
ted. By the former we mean fuch as, though of an
ancient Handing, are not yet entirely difufed, nor their
fignification loft. And from the ufe of thefe we ate
not to be wholly debarred, efpecially when they appear
more fignificant than any others we can fix upon. But
as to phrafes or expreffions, greater caution feems
ftill neceffary ; and fuch as are old, fhould doubtlefs,
if at all, be ufed more fparingly. The Latin tongue
was brought to its greateft perfedion in the reign of
Auguftus, or fomewhat fooner ; and he himfelf ftu-
died it very carefully. For, as Suetonius tells ins,
“ He applied himfelf to eloquence, and the ftudy of
the liberal arts, from his childhood, with great dili¬
gence and labour. He chofe a manner of fpeaking
which was fmooth and elegant: he avoided the ill fa¬
vour, as he ufed to call it, of antiquated words ; and
he was wont to blame Tiberius for his affedation of
them.” In our own language, fuch words are to be
efteemed antiquated, which the moft polite perfons
have dropped, both in their difcourfe and writings ;
whofe example we ftiould follow, unlefs we would be
thought to converfe rather with the dead than the li¬
ving.
But further: As on the one hand we muft avoid ob¬
folete words and phrafes; fo on the other, we fhould
refrain from new ones, or fuch whofe ufe has not been
yet been fufficiently eftablifhed, at leaft among thofe
of the beft tafte. Words may be confidered as new
in two refpeds; either when they are firft brought in¬
to a language, or when they are ufed in a new fenfe.
As the former of thefe may fometimes leave us in the
dark by not being underftood, fo the latter are moft
apt to miflead us; for when we hear a word that has
been familiar to us, we are prefently led to fix that
idea to it with which it has ufually been attended.
And
ORATORY.
I
5684 ORATORY* Part III.I
Elocution. And therefore, in both cafes, fome previous intima- fenfe. And tropes fuch words as are applied to E!ocution|iji]
tion may be neceffary. Cicero, who perhaps enlarged fome other thing than what they properly denote, |
the furniture of the Roman tongue more than any one by reafon of fome fimilitude, relation, or contrariety
perfon befides, appears always very cautious how he between the.two things. So, when a fubtle artful man I
introduces any thing new, and generally gives notice is called a fox, the reafon of the name is founded in a
of it when he attempts it, as appears in many inftan- fimilitude of qualities. If we fay, Cicero •will always |
ces fcattered through his works. What bounds we //w,'meaning the caufe is transferred to the
are now to fix to the purity of the Latin tongue in effeft. And when we are told, Cafar conquered the ;j
the ufe of it, the learned are not well agreed. It iscer- Gauls, we underlland that he did it with the affiftance
tain, our furniture is much lefs than when it was a li- of his army ; where a part is put for the whole, from
ving language, and therefore the greater liberty muft the relation between them. And when Cicero calls
of necefiity be fometimes taken. So that their opi- Anthony a fine guardian of the Jlate, every one per-
nion feems not unadvifable, who diredf us to make ceives he means the contrary. But the nature and ufe
choice principally of what we are furnifiied with from of tropes will be explained more fully hereafter in
the writers of the Auguftan age ; and, where we can- their proper place. All words mnft at firft have had
not be fupplied from them, to make ufe of fuch au- one original and primary fignification, which, ftri&ly
thors as lived neareft to them, either before or fince. fpeaking, may be called their proper fenfe. But it
And as to our own tongue, it is certainly prudent to fometimes happens through length of time, that words
be as careful how we admit any thing into it that is lofe their original fignification, and affume a new one,
uncouth or difagreeable to its genius, as the ancient which then becomes their proper fenfe. So hojlis in
Romans were into theirs; for the perfeftion of a lan- the Latin tongue at firft fignified * Jlranger; but af-
guage does in a great meafure confift in a certain ana- terwards that fenfe of the word was entirely laid afide,
logy, and harmony running through the whole, by and it was ufed to denote a public enemy. And in our
which it may be capable of being brought to a ftan-
dard.
But befides thofe things already mentioned, any mi-
ftake in the fenfe of words, or their conftrudlion, is op-
language, it is well known, that the word knave an¬
ciently fignified a fervant. The reafon of the change
feems to be much the fame, as in that of the Latin
word latro; which firft fignified a foldier, But after-
pofed to purity. For to fpeak purely, is to fpeak wards a robber. Befides, in all languages it has fre^
corre&ly. And fuch is the natnre of thefe faults in quently happened, that many words have gradually
elocution, that they are often not fo eafy to be obfer- varied from their firft fenfe to others fomewhat diffe-
ved by hearing as by reading. Whence it is, that rent ; which may, notwithftanding, all of them, when
many perfons are thought to fpeak better than they rightly applied, be looked upon as proper. Nay, in
write ; for while they are fpeaking, many flips and in- procefs of time, it is often difficult to fay which is the
accuracies efcape difregarded, which in reading would original, or moft proper fenfe. Again, fometimes
prefently appear. And this is more efpecially the cafe two or more words may appear to have the fame fig-
ofperfons unacquainted with arts and literature; who, nification with each other, and may therefore be ufed
by the affiftance of a lively fancy and flow of words, indifferently ; unlefs the beauty of the period, or fome
often fpeak with great eafe and freedom, and by that other particular reafon, determine to the choice of
means pleafe the ear ; when, at the fame time, what one rather than another. Of this kind are the words
they fay, would not fo well bear reading. enfis zndgladius in the Latin tongue; and in oms, pity
We fhall only add, that a diftindh’on ought likewife cornpafiion. And there are other words of fo near
to be made between a poetic didtion, and that of an affinity to each other, or at lead appear fo from
profe writers. For poets in all languages have a fort vulgar ufe, that they are commonly thought to be fy-
of peculiar dialed!, and take greater liberties, not only nonymdus. Such are the words mercy and pity; tho*
in their figures, but alfo in their choice and difpofition mercy in its ftridl fenfe is exercifed towards an offen-
of words; fo that what is a beauty in them would of- der, and pity refpedts one in diftrefs. As this pecu-
ten appear unnatural and affedted in profe. liar force and difiindtion of words is carefully to be
r n/r of.. attended to, fo it may be known feveral ways. Thus
y - J erjpicut y. tj)e pr0per fignification of fubftantives may be feen
Perspicuity, as well as purity, confifts partly in by their application to other fubftantives. As in the
fmgle words, and partly in their conjlruttion. inftance juft now given, a perfon is faid to (hew mercy
I. As to fingle words, thofe are generally cleared to a criminal, and pity to one in dijlrefs. And in the
and beft underitood which are ufed .in their proper like manner verbs are diftinguiflied, by being joined to
fenfe. ^But it requires no fmall attention and fkill to fome certain nouns, and not to others. So a perfon is
be well acquainted with the force and propriety of {z\& to comspand an inferior, 10 intreat a fuperior, and
words ; which ought to be duly regarded, fince the to defire an equal. Adjedives alfo, which denote the
perfpicuity of a difcourfe depends fo much upon it. properties of things, have their fignification determi-
Csefar feems plainly to have been of this mind, when ned by thofe fubjedts to which they moft properly re-
he tells us, “ The foundation of eloquence cbnfifts in late. Thus we fay, an honefi mind, and a healthful
the choice of words. ’ It may not be amifs, therefore, body, a wife man, and * fine houfe. Another way
to lay down fome few obfervations, by which the di- of diftinguifliing the propriety of words, is by their
ftma notions of words and their peculiar force may ufe in gradations. As if one fhould fay, Hatreds,
more eafily be perceived. All words may be divided grudges, quarrels, tumults, feditions, wars, fpring
into proper words and tropes. Thofe are called proper from unbridled pafiions. The proper fenfe of words
words, which are exprdfed in their proper and ufual may likewife be known by obferving to what other
words
Partin. O R A 1
jjlocution. words they are either oppofed, or ufed as equivalent.
~t—— in that paflage of Cicero, where he fays, “ I can¬
not perceive why you fhould be angry with me: If it
be becaufe I defend him whom you accufe, why may
not I be difpleafed with you for accufing him whom
I defend ? You fay, I accufe my enemy ; and I fay, I
defend my friend.” Here the words accufe and defend,
friend and enemy, are oppofed ; and to be angry and
difpleafed, are ufed as terms equivalent. Lattly, the
| derivation of words, contributes very much to deter¬
mine their true meaning. Thus becaufe the word
mannen comes from the word man, it may properly
be applied either to that, or any other put for it.
And therefore we fay, • the manners of men, and
the manners of the age; becaufe the word age is there
ufed for the men of the age. But if we apply the word
manners to any other animal, it is a trope. By thefe,
and fuch like obfervations, we may perceive the pro¬
per fenfe and peculiar force of words, either by their
connection with other words, diftinftion from them,
oppofition to them, equivalency with them, or deri¬
vation. And by thus fixing their true and genuine fig-
nification we fhall eafily fee when they become tropes.
But though words, when taken in their proper figni-
eation, generally convey the plained and cleared fenfe}
yet fome are more forcible, fonorous, or beautiful
than others. And by thefe confiderations we mud
often be determined in our choice of them. So whe¬
ther we fay, he got, or he obtained, the vittory, the fenfe
is the fame; but the latter is more full and fonorous.
In Latin, timeo fignifies / fear; pertimeo is more full
and fignificant, and pertimefco more fonorous than ei¬
ther of the former. The Latin and Greek languages
have much the advantage of ours in this refped, by
reafon of their compofnions ; by the help of which
they can often exprefs that in one word, for which we
are obliged to put two words, and fometimes more.
So pertimeo cannot be fully exprefled in our language
by one word ; but we are forced to join one or two
particles to the verb, to convey its jud idea, and fay,
I greatly, or very much fear: and yet even then, we
fcarce feem to reach its full force. As to tropes, tho*
generally fpeaking they are not' to be chofen where
plainnefs and perfpicuity of expreflion is only defign-
ed, and proper words may be found ; yet through
the penury of all languages, the ufe’of them is often
made neceflary. And fome of them, efpecially meta¬
phors, which are taken from the fimilitude of things,
may, when cudom has rendered them familiar, be
confidered as proper words, and ufed in their dead.
Thus, whether we fay, I fee your meaning, or, 1 un-
derftand your meaning, the fenfe is equally clear, tho’
the latter expreflion is proper, and the former meta¬
phorical, by which the aftion of feeing is transferred
from the eyes to the mind.
II. Ibux. perfpicuity arifes not only from a choice
of ftngle •vjords, but likewife from the confruftion
of them in fentences. For the meaning of all the
. words in a fentence, confidered by themfelves, may be
R!> very plain and evident; and yet, by reafon of a difor-
derly placing them, or confufion of the parts, the
fenfe of the whole may be very dark and obfeure.
Now it is certain, that the mod natural order is the
plained ; that is, when both the words and parts of a
fentence are fo difpofed, as bed agrees with their mu-
o It Y. 5685
tual relation and dependence upon each other. And Elocution,
where this is changed, as is ufually done, efpecially
in the ancient languages, for the greater beauty and
harmony of the periods; yet due regard is had by the
bed writers to the evidence and perfpicuity of the ex-
preffion.
But to fet this fubjedt in a clearer light, on which
the perfe&ion of language fo much depends, we fhall
mention fome few things which chiefly occafion obfeu-
rity; and this either with refpedi to Angle words, or
their conflruftion.
And firfl, all ambiguity of expreflion is one caufe
of obfeurity. This fometimes arifes from the different
fenfes in which a word is capable of being taken. So
we are told, that upon Cicero’s addrefling himfelf to
Oedavius Caefar, when he thought himfelf iu danger
from his refentment, and reminding him of the many
fervices he had done him, Ociavius replied. He came
the laf of his friends. But there was a defigned am¬
biguity in the word laf, as it might either refpedf the
time of his coming, or the opinion he had of his
friendfhip. And thisufe of ambiguous words we fome¬
times meeet with, not only in poetry, where the turn
and wit of an epigram often refts upon it; but like¬
wife in profe, either for pleafantry or ridicule. Thus
Cicero calls Sextus Clodius, the light of the fenate;
which is a compliment he pays to feveral great men,
who had diftinguifhed themfelves by their public fer¬
vices to their country. But Sextus, who had a con¬
trary chara&er, was a relation of P. Clodius, whofe
dead body, after he had been killed by Milo, he car¬
ried in a tumultuous manner into the fenate-houfe, and
there burnt it with the fenators benches, in order to
inflame the populace againft Milo. And it is in allu-
fion to that riotous action, that Cicero, ufing this am-
guous expreflion, calls him the light of the finale. In
fuch inftances, therefore, it is a beauty, and not the fault
we are cautioning againft ; as the fame thing may be
either good or bad, as it is differently applied. Tho’
even in fuch defigned ambiguities, where one fenfe is
aimed at, it ought to be fufficiently plain, otherwife
they lofe their intention. And in all ferious difeourfes
they’ought carefully to be avoided. But obfeurity more
frequently arifes from the ambiguous conftruction of
words, which renders it difficult to determine in what
fenfe they are to be taken. Quintilian gives us this
example of it: “ A certain man ordered in his will,
that his heir fhould erett for him a ftatue holding a
fpear made of gold.” A queftfon arifes here, of great
confequence to the heir from the ambiguity of the ex¬
preflion, whether the words made of gold, to be
applied to the fatue or the fpear ; that is, whether it
was the defign of the teftator by this appointment,
that the whole ftatue, or only the fpear, fhould be
made of gold. A fmall note of dillinftion, different¬
ly placed between the parts of this fentence, would
clear up the doubt, and determine the fenfe either way.
For if one comma be put after the word fatue, and
another after fpear, the words made of gold muft be
referred to the ftatpe, as if it had been faid, a fatue,
made of gold, holding a fpear. But if there be only
the fir ft comma placed after fatue, it will limit the
words snade of gold to the fpear only ; in the fame
fenfe as if it had been faid, A fatue holding a golden
fpear. And either of thefe ways of expreffion would
1
5686 O R A 1
Elocution. In this cafe have been preferable, for avoiding theam-
~ biguity, according to the intention of the teftator.
The ancient heathen oracles were generally delivered
in fuch ambiguous terms. Which, without doubt,
were fo contrived on purpofe, that thofe who gave out
the anfwers might have room left for an evafion.
Again, obfcurity is occafioned either by too fhort
and concife a manner of fpeaking, or by fentences too
long and prolix ; either of thefe extremes have fome-
times this bad confequence. We find an inftance of
the former in Pliny the elder, where, fpeaking of hel¬
lebore, he fays, “ They forbid it to be given to aged
perfons and children, and lefs to women than men.”
The verbis wanting in the latter part of the fentence,
and lefs to •women than men: which in fuch cafes being
ufually fnpplied from what went before, would here
Hand thus ; and they forbid it to be given lefs to •wo¬
men than men. But this is direftly contrary to the
fenfe of the writer, whofe meaning is, either that it is
ordered to given in a lefs quantity to women than
men, or not fo frequently to women as men. And
therefore the word order is here to be fupplied, which
being of a contrary fignification to forbid, expreffed in
the former part of the fentence, occafions the obfcu¬
rity. That long periods are often attended with the
fame ill effefl, muft be fo obvious to everyone’s expe¬
rience, that it would be entirely needlefs to produce
any examples in order to evince the truth of it. And
therefore we (hall only obferve, that the bed way of
preventing this feems to be by dividing fuch fentences
as exceed a proper length, into two or more ; which
may generally be done without much trouble.
Another caiife of obfcurity, not inferior to any yet
mentioned, is parenthefis, when it is either too long
or too frequent. This of Cicero, in his oration for
Sylla, is longer than we ufually find in him : “ O im¬
mortal gods! (for I muft attribute to you what is your
own ; nor indeed can I claim fo much to my own abi¬
lities, as to have been able of myfelf to go through fo
many, fo great, fuch different affairs, with that ex¬
pedition, in that boifterous tempeft of the date), you
inflamed my mind with a defire to fave my country.”
But where any obfcurity arifes from fuch fentences,
they may frequently be remedied by much the fame
means as was juft now hinted concerning long and
prolix periods; that is, by feparating the parenthefis from
the reft of the fentence, and placing it either before or
after. So in this fenttnee of Cicero, the parenthefis
may (land laft, in the following manner: “ O immor¬
tal gods! you inflamed my mind with a defire to fave
my country: for I muft attribute to you what is your
own; nor indeed can I claim fo much to my own abi¬
lities, as to have been able of myfelf to go through fo
many, fo great, fuch different affairs, with that expe¬
dition, in that boifterous tempeft of theftate.” This
order of the fentence is very plain, and lefs involved
than the former.
Chap. II. Of Compofition.
44. Composition, in the fenfe it is here ufed, gives
^ rules for the ftrufiure of fentences, with the feveral
members, w'ords, and fyllables, of which they con-
lift, in fuch a manner as may belt contribute to the
force, beauty, and evidence of thewhole.
Compofition confifts of four parts, which rhctori-
O R Y. Partin.
clans call period, order, junfture, and number. The Elocutionl
firft of thefe treats on the ftruddure of fentences; the
fecond, of the parts of fentences, which are words and f
members; and the two laft, of the parts of words,
which are letters and fyllables. For all articulate
founds, and even the moil minute parts of language,
come under the cognizance of oratory.
§ 1. Of Period.
In every fentence or propofition, fomething is faid 4^
of fomething. That of which fomething is faid, logi¬
cians call the fubjett; and that which is faid of it, the
predicate: but in grammatical terms, the former is a
noun fubjlantive of the nominative cafe, and the latter
a finite verb. Thefe two parts may of themfelves
conftitute a fentence: As when we fay, The fun
fhines, or The clock Jlrikes, the words fun and clock
are the fubjedt in thefe exprefiions, Jhines andftrikes
the predicate. But moft commonly they are accom¬
panied with other words, which in grammatical con-*
ftrudtion are faid either to be connedfed with or to
depend upon them ; but in a logical confideration
they denote fome property or circumftance relating
to them. As in the following fentence : A good man
loves virtue for itfelf. The fubjedt of this fentence is
a good man ; and the predicate, or thing affirmed of
him, that he loves virtue for itfelf. But the two prin¬
cipal or neceffary words, on which all the reft depend,
are, man and loves. Now a fimple fentence confifts of
one fuch noun and verb, with whatever elfe is joined » j
to either or both of them. And a compound fen¬
tence contains two or more of them ; and may be di¬
vided into fo many diftindf propofitions, as there are
fuch nouns and verbs, either expreffed or underftood.
So in the following fentence, Compliance gains friends,
but truth procures hatred, there are two members, each
of which contains in it an entire propofition. For,
Compliance gains friends, is one complete fentence ;
and, Truth procures hatred, is another; which are
connedted into one compound fentence by the particle
but. Moreover, it frequently happens, that com¬
pound fentences are made up of fuch parts or mem¬
bers, fome if not all of which are themfelves com¬
pounded, and contain in them two or more fimple
members. Such is that of Salluft : “ Ambition has
betrayed many perfons into deceit; to fay one thing,
and to mean another ; to found friendfhip and enmity,
not upon reafon, but intereft; and to be more careful
to appear honeft, than really to be fo.” This fentence
confifts of four members; the laft of which three, con-
fifting of oppofite parts, are all compounded, as will
appear by expreffing them at length in the following
manner: Ambition has betrayed many perfons into deceit;
[that is, ambition] has betrayed them to fay one thing, it
and to mean another; it has betrayed them to found
friendfhip and enmity, not upon reafon, but interef;
and it has betrayed them to be more careful to appear
honejl, than really to be fo. The three laft of thefe
members, beginning with the words it betrays, are ail
of them compounded, and confift of two oppofite
members; which might each of them be expreffed at
length in the fame manner, by fupplying the ellipfis.
As, Ambition has betrayed many perfons to fay one
thing, and it has betrayed them to mean another. And
fo of the reft. From this inftance we fee how much is
left
c Part III. ORA1
3, EU'cutioii. left to be fupplied by the mind In all difcourfe, which
J ' if expreffed would both deftroy its harmony and ren¬
der it exceedingly tedious. But ftill regard muft be
had to that which is omitted, fo as to render what is
faid confident with it; otherwife there can be no pro¬
priety in what is fpoken. Nor can the members of a
fentence be didinguifhed and duly ranged in their pro¬
per order, without this. But to proceed: Some fen-
tences confift-either wholly, or in part, of fuch mem-
' bers as contain in them two or more compound ones,
which may therefore, for diftindion’s fake, be called
decompound jnembers. Of this kind is that of Cicero
in his defence of Milo : Great is the force of con-
fcience, great either way: that thofe perfons are not
afraid who have committed no offence ; and thofe who
have offended, always think punifhment prefent be¬
fore their eyes.” The latter member of this fentence,
which begins with the word that, contains in it two
compound members, which reprefent the different
ftate of mind between innocent and guilty perfons.
And it is in the proper diftin&ion, and feparation of
the members in fuch complex fentences, that the art
of pointing chiefly confifts. For the principal ufe of
a comma is to divide the fimple members, a femicolon
the compound ones, a colon fuch as are decompound¬
ed, and a period the whole from the following fen¬
tence. We mention this the rather, to fhew the dif¬
ferent acceptation of thefe terms by grammarians,
from that of the ancient writers upon oratory. For
thefe latter apply them to the fenfe, and not to any
points of diftin&ion. A very ftiort member, whether
fimple or compound, with them is a comma, and a
longer a colon ; for they have no fuch term as a femi-
colon. Befides, they call a very (liort fentence, whether
fimple or compound, a comvia ; and one of fomewhat
a greater length, a colon. And therefore, if a perfon
expreffed himfelf either of thefe ways in any confider-
able number of fentences together, he was to fpeak
by commas or colons. <But a fentence containing
more words than will confift with either of thefe
terms, they call a fimple period; the leaft compound
period with them requiring the length of two colons.
However, this way of denominating fentences, and
the parts of them, rather from their length than the
nature of them, appearing not fo fuitable, we have
chofen rather to make ufe of the terms fimple and com¬
pound members; and to call all thofe compound pe¬
riods, which contain two or more members, whether
fimple or compounded.
B t to proceed: Sentences with refpedt to their
form or crompofuion, are diftinguiflied into two forts,
called by Cicero tratta, “ ftraight or drredf and
contorta, “ bent or winding.” By the. former are
meant thofe whofe members follow each other in a di¬
rect order, without any infle&iori; and by the latter,
thofe which ftridtly fpeakiug are called periods. For
■aifioSQr in Greek fignities a circuit or circle. And fo
the Latins call licircuitus and ambitus. By which both
of them mean a fentence confiding of correfpondent
parts, *fo framed, that the voice in pronouncing them
may have a proper elevation and cadency, and diftin-
guifli them by its inflexion ; and as the latter part
returns back, and unites with the former, the period,
like a circle, furrounds and inclofes the whole fenfe.
This elevation of the voice in the former part of the
Vql. VIII. i
r O R Y. 5687
period, is by the Greeks called Uforsnc, and by the Elocution
L.uias propeftio ; and the depreffion of it in the lat- ' J
ter part, by the one axofoai{, and by the other red-
ditio.
Now as fimple fentences have not thefe correfpon¬
dent parts, which require any inflexion of the voice ;
nor a circular form, by reafon of their brevity; they
are not properly periods, in the ftridt fenfe of the
word : though in common fpeech, the words fentence
and period are often ufed as equivalent terms. Thus,
if we fay, Generous minds are incited to the performance
of noble exploits from motives of glory; here is no di-
.ftin&ion of parts, nor inflexion of the voice in this
fentencs. And indeed there is not any thing which
relates to the ftrufture of thefe fentences, but what
will more properly be taken notice of in the fecond
part of compoftion, which is order.
And as to thofe compound fentences, whofe mem¬
bers follow each other in a direft order, without any
inflexion, there is little art required in their compo-
fition. We fhall produce one example of this kind
from Cicero : “ Natural reafon inclines men to mu¬
tual converfe and fociety ; and implants in them a
ftrong affedfion for thofe who fpring from them ; and
excites them to form communities, and join in public
affemblies ; and, for thefe ends, to endeavour to pro¬
cure both the neceffaries and conveniences of life; and
that not for themfelves only, but likewife their wives,
children, and others who are dear to them, and have
a right to their affiftance.” Here are five fhort mem¬
bers in this fentence, placed in a feries, without any
inflexion of the parts, or orbit of the whole. And as
fuch fentences have no other boundary but the concla-
fion of the fenfe, fuited to-the breath of the fpeaker,
he may either contraft or lengthen them at pleafure,
without offending the ear. So, fhould the fentence
laft mentioned conclude with the firft member in this
manner, Ndtural reafon inclines men to mutual con¬
verfe and fociety ; the fenfe would be perfedt, and the
ear fatisfied. The cafe would be the fame at the end
of the fecond member, thus: Natural reafon in¬
clines men to mutual converfe and fociety, and implants
in them a Jlrong affection for thofe 'who fpring from them.
And the like may be faid of the reft. Since fuch fen-
tences therefore may be thus limited at pleafure, it
feems more convenient both for the fpeaker and hear¬
ers to confine them to a moderate length.
But becaufe the principal art relating to this part
of compofition lies in the frame and ftrufture of fuch
compound fentences as are properly called periods^ we;
(hall treat upon thefe fomev.hat more largely. In the
formation of thefe periods, two things are chiefly to
be regarded ; their length, and cadency. As the length
ought to be fuited to the breath of the fpeaker, the
ancient rhetoricians fcarce admit of more than four
colons; by which we may here underftand compound
members of a moderate fize, which will be generally
found a fuitable-and proportionate length. For to ex¬
tend them farther than the voice can well manage muft
be painful to the fpfcaker, and of confequence unplea-
.fant to the hearers. As to the cadency, what Cicero
has obferved, is found true by experience, that the
ears judge what is full and what is deficient; and di¬
rect us to fill up our periods, that nothing be want¬
ing, of what they exped. When the voice is railed
3 2 D at
5688
Elocution.
!
ORATORY.
at the beginning of a fentence, they are in fufpence
'till it be finiflied ; and are pleafed with a full and juft
cadency, but are fenfible of any defeft, and are dil-
pleafed with redundancy. Therefore care muft be ta¬
ken that periods be neither deficient, and as it were
maimed, that is, that they do not drop before their
time, and defraud the ears of what feemed to be pro-
mifed them; nor, on the other hand, offend them by
too long and immoderate excurfions. This rife and
cadency of the voice in pronunciation, depend on the
nature and fituation of the members, as we (hall en¬
deavour to (hew by particular inftances ; in the expli¬
cation of which, by the word members, are to be un-
derftood fuch as are compounded. In a period of two
members, the turn of the voice begins with the latter
member. Of this kind is the following fentence of
Cicero : “ If impudence prevailed as much in the fo¬
rum and courts of juttice, as infolence does in the
country and places of lefs refort; AulusCascina would
fubmit as much to the impudence of Sextus Ebutius in
this caufe, as he did before to his infolence when af-
faulted by him.” Here the cadency begins at the
words Aulus Cuccina, If a fentence confift of three
members, the inflexion is beft made at the end'of the
feeond member: for if it begin immediately after the
firft, the voice will either be apt to fink too low, and
not be heard, before it reach the end ; orelfe be pre¬
cipitated, iri order to prevent it. Cicero begins his
oration for Milo with a fentence of this form : “ Al¬
though I fear, it may be a fhame to be difmayed at
the entrance of my difcourfe in defence of a moft va¬
liant man ; and that it noways becomes me, while Mi¬
lo is more concerned for the fafety of the date than for
himfelf, not to (hew the fame greatnefs of mind in his
behalf: yet this new form of profecution terrifies my
eyes, which, whatever way they turn, want the an¬
cient cuftom of the forum, and former manner of
trials.” Here the cadency beginning at the third
member with the word_y<?/, makes a proper divifion of
the fentence, and eafy for the fpeaker. But a period
of four members is reckoned the moft complete and
perfetft, where the inflexion begins at the middle,
that is, with the third member.' Nor is it the fame
cafe here, as if, in a fentence of three members, the
cadency be made at thefecond. For in proportion to
the time of raifing the voice, may the fpace be allow¬
ed for its finking. The following fentence of Cicero
gives us an inftance of this, where he fpeaks to his
fon : “ Although, fon Mark, having now been an
hearer of Cratippus for a year, and this at Athens,
you ought to abound in the precepts and dodfrines of
philofophy, by reafon of the great charadler both of
your inltru&or and the city ; one of which can fur-
ni(h you with knowledge, and the other with ex¬
amples : yet, as I always to my advantage joined the
Latin tongue with the Greek, and have done it not
only in oratory, but likewife in philofophy; I think
you ought to do the fame, that you may be equally
converfant in both languages.” The turn in this pe¬
riod begins at the woxiyet; which (landing near the
middle, the voice is railed to that pitch in pronoun¬
cing the former part, as to admit of a gradual caden¬
cy, without being loft before the conclufion of the
fentence. But where the fenfe does not fuit with this
divifion at the entrance upon the third raembsrj it is
Part III.
beft made at the fourth. Such is the following fen-Elocution,
tence of Cicero : “ If I have any genius, which I
am fenfible how fmall it is; or any readinefs in fpeak-
ing, wherein I do hot deny But I have been much
converfant; or any (kill in oratory, from an acquaint¬
ance with the beft arts, to which I confefs I have been
always inclined: no one has a bettet right to demand
of me the fruit of all thefe things, than this Aulus
Laecinius.’, The cadency of this fentence does not
begin till the words no,one; yet it ends handfomely,
and without difappointing the ear. Though indeed
the three firft members having each of them an inflec¬
tion, check the elevation of the voice, and by that va¬
riety in the pronunciation add to the harmony of the
fentence. An equality of the membeis (hould like¬
wife be attended to in the compofition of a period, the
better to adjuft their rife and cadency. And for this
reafon, in fentences of three members, where the ca¬
dency begins with the third; or in thofe of four mem¬
bers, where it begins at the fourth ; it promotes the
harmony to make the laft member longeft. This is
properly the nature of rhetorical periods, which when
rightly formed have both an equal beauty and digni¬
ty in their compofition.
But as all difcourfe is made up of diftinfl fenten¬
ces, and whenever we exprefs our thoughts it is in
fome of the forms above-mentioned; fo the ufe of them
is not promifcuous, but fuited to anfwer different de-
figns in fpeaking. And in this view they are confider-
ed and made ufe of by the orator, as will be (hewn
hereafter.
§ 2. Of Order.
By order, rhetoricians mean the placing each word [4j3
and member of a fentence in fuch a manner as will
moft contribute to the force,x beauty, or evidence of
the whole.
Order is of two kinds, natural and artificial. And
each of thefe may be confidered with refpeft to the
parts either of fimple or compound fentences.
As to fimple fentences, we may call that order na¬
tural, when all the words in a fentence are fo placed,
as they are conneiffed with or follow each other in a
grammatical conftru&ion. And it may properly
enough admit of this name, as it is founded in the na¬
ture of a propofition, and the relation of the feveral
words of which it confifts to each other. Th s wc
explained in the laft chapter, and illuftratedby proper
examples; and (hall therefore only give one inftance
of it here, to introduce the fubjeft we are now upon.
And it is this: The fame of Ifocrates excited Arifotle to
the profefion of oratory. Here thefe words, the fame
of Ifocrates, contain the fubjeA of this femence, with
what relates to it; and all thofe which follow, excited
Ariftotleto the profefion of oratory, make up the predi¬
cate and its dependants. And in both parts each word
grammatically confidered (lands in its proper order of
conftru&ion. And this feems agreeable to the natu¬
ral way of conveying our thoughts, which leads us
firft to exprefs the fubjcft or thing of which fome other
thing is faid, before the predicate or that which is faid
concerning it; and with refpecf to both, as every idea
fucceeds another in the order of our conceptions, to
range it in the fame order when we communicate
them to others, Our language iu the general keeps
pretty
Part III. ORA
I Elocution, pretty much to this method. But in one thing parti-
‘ " “ cularly it recedes from it; and that is, in placing ad-
je&ives, which denote the properties of things, be¬
fore their fubftantives or fubje&s, whofe properties
they are: As when it is faid, Evil communication
corrupts -good manners. And this we always do, except
fomething follows which depends upon the adje&ive.
So we fay, He was a man eminent for his virtue; not,
I an eminent man.
Artificial order, as it refpe&s fimple fentences, has
little or no" regard to the natural conftru&ion of
words ; but difpofes them in fuch a manner, as will be
moft agreeable to the ear, and belt anfwer the defign
of the fpeaker. The Latins take a much greater li¬
berty in this refpe£t than we do, or than thenatyre of
!our language will permit. Quintilian fays, it is beft for
the verb to (land laft, when there is no particular rea-
fon to the contrary. And he gives this reafon for it,
lecaufe the force of the fentence lies in the verb. So
that, according to him, they feem to have had this
view in potting the verb at the end ; that as the whole
fentence is-imperfed without the verb, the mind be¬
ing thus held in fufpence might receive the deeper im-
preffion from it at laft. They iikewife feparate fuch
words as have an immediate relation between them or
dependence one upon another, and place any of them
firft or laft as they pleafe. In fliort, their order feems
in a manner arbitrary, if it does not break in upon
perfpicuity, to which they ufually attend. But moft
of thefe things are unfuitable to the genius of our lan¬
guage. One might fay indeed, Convince him you
cannot; inftead of faying, Tou cannot convince him:
Or, With my own eyes I faw it; for, I faw it with
my own eyes. And again : In proportion to the in-
creaje of luxury the Roman fate declined; for, The Ro¬
man fate declined in proportion to the increafe of luxury.
But the inverfion of the words in the former order of
thefe expreffions, doth not found fo kindly to an Eng-
lifh ear, which is not accuftomed to fuch a manner of
fpeaking.
As to compound fentences, that is, fuch as confift
of two or more members, either fimple or compound-
Ied ; what relates to the words in each member fepa-
rately, is the fame as in fimple fentences. But with
regard to the difpofition of the feveral members, that
may be called the natural order, which fo places them
as they mutually depend on each other. Thus the an¬
tecedent member naturally precedes the relative; as
in this expreffion, Men are apt to forgive them-
felves, what they blame in others. In hypothetical
fentences the conditional member naturally ftands firft.
Thus : If Socrates be a rational creature, he is a man.
That member which exprefles the effedt of an adtion
naturally comes laft ; as, Though you offer ever Jo
good reafons, you will not prevail with him. The like
may be faid of time, with regard to things done in it;
as, The Roman eloquence foon declined, when Cicero
was dead. And to name no more, the reafon of a
thing naturally follows that of which it is the reafon ;
as thus: All the pleafures of life mufi be uncertain,
fnce life itfelf is not fecure.
When this order is inverted, it maybe ftyled artifi¬
cial. So to keep to the inftances already giyen, the
two members in the firft fentence may be thus invert¬
ed ^ What they blame in others, men arc apt to forgive
i
TORY. 5689
themfelves. In the fecond, in this manner : Socrates is Elocution.
a man, if he be a rational creature. In the third, '
thus: Tou will not prevail with him, though you offer
ever fo good reafons. And fo in the- reft: As,
When Cicero was dead, the Rota an eloquence foot: de¬
clined; and, Since life itfelf is not fecure, all the
pleafures of life mufi be uncertain. The variety of in-
verfions in a fentence may generally be greater or lefs
in proportion to the number of its members. In the
following fentence of Cicero, the natural order feems
to be this: If thatgreatnefs of mind be void of jufiice,
which Jbews itfelf in dangers and labours, it is blame-
able. Which may be varied by changing the place of
the firft and third member, in the following manner :
That greatnefs of mind is blameable which feews itfelf
in dangers and labours, if it want jufiice. Or by al¬
tering the place of all the three members thus : That
greatnefs of mind is blameable, if it be void of jufiice,
which Jhews itfelf in dangers and labours. But often¬
times one member may be included in another, as in
the inftance here given : If that greatnefs of mind,
which Jbews itfelf in dangers and labours, be void of
jufiice, it is blameahle. Here the relative member is
included in the conditional, which is placed firft, and
the antecedent member follows both. But in Cicero
it ftands thus: That greatnefs of mind, which fioews
itfelf in dangers and labours, if it want jufiice, is
blameable; where the relative and conditional mem¬
bers are both included in the antecedent member. The
Latin tongue commonly admits of a much greater va¬
riety in the tranfpofition of members, as well as in
that of fingle words, than fuits with our idiom. In
the following fentence the natural order is much pre¬
ferable, as it beft fuits with the proper elevation and
cadency of the voice in its pronunciation : I asn wil¬
ling to remit all that is paft, provided it may be done
with fafety. But fhould we invert the members, and
fay, Provided it may be done with fafety, I am willing
to remit all that is paft: the harmony of the cadency
would be loft. And if the latter member be included
in the former, the alteration will ftill be worfe ; as,
I am willing, provided it may be done with fafety, to
forgive all that is paft. Here the infle&ion of the
voice falls upon the fame member as before, and de-
ftroys the beauty of the period by its elevation after¬
wards. Some fentences admit of no involution of
their members. Such are thofe whofe members are
eonnefted by conjundive or disjunftive particles. As:
Virtuefurnijhes the mind with the truefi pleafure in
profperity, and affords it the great eft comfort in adver-
fity. And: A wife man is neither elated by profperity,
nor deprejj'ed by adverfsty. And the like may be faid
of thofe where the latter member begins with fome il¬
lative or redditive particle. As in thefe inftances: The
chief thing to be regarded in life is virtue, for all other
things are vain and uncertain. And : Though fortune
is always inconfiant, yet Jbe has many votaries. Nei¬
ther of the members in any of thefe ways of expreflion,
and fome others which might be named, can be in¬
cluded one in the other. In all the examples hitherto
given, the fentences confift only of fimple members ;
and indeed compound members are not fo often invert¬
ed, nor included one in another, by reafon of their
length. However, we ftiall here produce one inftance
of each : Whoever conftders the uncertainty of human
32 D 2 affairs
56go G R A T
Elocution, affairs, and how frequently the greatejl hopes are fru-
Jlrated; he will fee juft reafon to be always on his guard,
and not place too much dependence upon things fo pre¬
carious. This fentence confifts t>f two compound mem¬
bers, which here (land in their natural order, but may¬
be thus inverted : He will fee juft reafon to be always
on his guard, and not place too much dependence on
things fo precarious ; whoever conftders the uncertainty
of human affairs, and how often the greateft hopes are
fruftrated. In the following fentence one compound
member is included in another: Let us not conclude,
while dangers are at a diftance, and do not immediate¬
ly approach us, that we are fecure; unlefs we ufe all
neceffary precaution to prevent them. Here the natural
order would be : While dangers are at a diftance, and
do not immediately approach us ; let us not conclude, that
we^are fecure, unlefs we ufe all neceffary precaution to
prevesit them.
But there are fome other confiderations relating to
order, which, being taken from the nature of things,
equally fuit all languages. So in amplifying, there
{hould be a conftant gradation from a lefs to a greater;
as when Cicero fays, Ambition creates hatred, Jhy-
nefs, difcords, feditions, and wars. On the contrary,
in extenuating, we fhould defcend from a greater to a
lefs ; as if, fpeaking of the ancient laws of Rome, one
Ihould fay, They were fo far from fuffering a Roman
citizen to be put to death, that they would not allow him
to be whipt, or even to be bound. In conftituting any
whole, we put the parts firft ; as, Invention, difpo-
Jition, elocution, and pronunciation, make up the art of
oratory. But in feparating any whole, the parts fol¬
low ; as, The art of oratory may be divided into thefe
four parts; invention, difpoftticn, elocution, and pronun¬
ciation. In every enumeration care mull be taken not
to mix the whole with the parts ; but if it be men¬
tioned at all, it mud either be put firft or laft. So it
would be wrong to fay, He was a man of the greateft
prudence, virtue, juftice, and modefty : for the word
virtue here contains in it the other three, and there¬
fore Ihould not be inferted among them.
§ 3. Of ffuntture and Number.
Quintilian, fpeaking of compofition, reprefents
a difcourfe as very happy in that refped, when the
order, junfture, and number, are all juft and proper.
.The firft of thefe, which gives rules for the due pla¬
cing of the words and members of a fentence, has
been already explained. We now proceed to the other
two, which relate to letters and fyllables; the former
treating of their conneftion, and the latter of their
quantity.
46 I. As toyW?are. A due attendance is to be given
to the nature of the vowels, confcnants, ^and fyl¬
lables in the conne&ion of words, with regard to the
found.
As to the firft, when a word ends with a vowel,
and the next begins either with a different vowel, or
the fame repeated, it ufually renders the pronunciation
hollow and unpleafant. For, as Quintilian has juftly
obferved, “ This makes a chafm in the fentence, and
and Hops the courfe of it.” For there mull be fome
paufe, in order to pronounce them both, or other-
wife the found of one will 'be loft. So, for inftance,
in pronouncing thefe words, the other day, uulefs you
O It Y. Tart III.
flop a little after the word the, the found ofe will not Elocutions
be heard; and if it is dropt, it will cccafion
rougher found, from the afpiration of th twice re¬
peated fo near together, as th' other day. Therefore
to prevent both thefe inconveniences, we ufually fay,
t' other day. But the different confonants, which
together with the vowels make up thofe fyllables, of¬
ten caufe a confiderable difference in the pronouncia-
tion, fo as to fender it more or lefs agreeable. As,
if we fay, he overdid it, the words he over have not
fo h?r(h a found, as the other; though dill they re¬
quire fome paufe to keep them diftindl. Befides, fome
vowels meet more amicably, and admit of a fofter pro¬
nunciation, than others. Thofe which have the weak-
eft and fmalleft found, follow bed ; becaufe they oc-
cafion the lead alteration of the organ in forming the
two founds. Such are e and i; and therefore, without
any chafm in the found, or hefitation of the voice, we
fay, he is. But where the adljon of the organs is
greater, and the found llronger, the pronunciation is
more difficult: as when we fay, tho' all. For here is
a contrary motion of the lips, which are firft put for¬
ward in founding the 0, and then drawn backward to
pronounce the a; and therefore the found is much fofter
to fay, tho' every, where their a&ion is lefs. And the
like ill effedt commonly happens from the repetition of
the fame vowel : as if we fay, go on; ae^you ufually
alt thus. There is a confiderable difference between
thefe two expreffions, in repeating the found of the
vowel, and where either of them is doubled in a fingle
word. For then the famedbund only is protra&ed by
one continued motion of the organ; as in the words
good, and deem. But here the found is repeated again
by a new aftion of the organ; which, if precipitated,
obfeures the found of one of the vowels ; and, if too
much retarded, makes a chafm in the pronunciation ;
either of which is unpleafant to the ear.
But as the coalition of two vowels occafions an
hollow and obfeure found, fo the the meeting of fome
confonants renders it very harfti and rough. Thus the
words king Xerxes, and public good, when fo placed,
have not only a roughnefs, but likewife a difficulty
in their pronunciation, from the country adftion of the
lips ; which in the former are firft drawn back and
then forward, but in the latter the contrary way, and
in both of them with fome eonfiderable force. But
this may very eafily be avoided, by faying, with a
little alteration in the words, Xerxes the king, and the
the good of the public. So likewife the words ill company,
have a fofter found, than bad compamy, for the fame
reafon. To multiply inftances of this kind feems un-
neceffary, which fo frequently occur in all difcourfe.
The repetition of the fame fyllable, at the end and
beginning of words, is the laft thing to be confidered.
And a little obfervation will convince us, that where
this happens, it generally renders the found either
confufed, or unpleafant. Cicero was often rallied oa
account of this verfe :
0 fortunatam natam me confule-Romam.
Every one will eafily perceive a difagreeable found in
the following expreffion : “ A man many times does
that unadvifedly, of which he afterwards repents.”
The chime of the words man many both feems affec
ted, and difpleafes the ear. But this will foon be re 1
medied, if we feparate thofe two word, and fay, “ A
man
PartUI. ORATORY. 569 r
^locution, man does that many times unadvifedly.’, word admiralky where none but the firft fyllabje ^Elocution.
“ From the fhort account here given of this part of is pronounced long; though that is only rendered fo
compofition, it is eafy to perceive what thit\gs are
neceffary to render it moft complete and accurate ;
which are thefe following. If a word end with a vowel,
the next ought to begin with a confonant, or fuch a
vowel whofe found may agree well with the former.
But if a word conclude with a confonant, either a
vowel Ihould follow, or fuch a confonant whofe pro¬
nunciation will fuit with it. And laftly, the fame
fyllable ought not to be repeated at the end of one
word, and the beginning of the next. It has been
obferved by fome critics, that the following verfe at
the beginning of Virgil’s iEneid, has all thefe pro¬
perties:
Arma virumque cano, Trojae-qui primus at oris.
Where any word in this verfe ends with'a vowel, the
next begins with a confonant; and where any one
ends with a confonant, the next begins with a vowel;
and there is no repetition of the fame found through¬
out the whole. But this is what rarely happens,
efpecially in our language, which abounds with con-
fonants. And what Quintilian fays of the coalition
of vowels, in treating upon this fubjeft, feems ap¬
plicable to the whole. “ This” fays he, “ is a thing
not much to be dreaded; and I know not whether the
negleft of it, or too great a concern about it, be
worfe. It necefiarily checks the vigour of the mindj
by pofition, and the two following are fo by nature.
And again, in the word avarice, we found the firft a
long for the fame reafon, and the fecond (hort; con¬
trary to the nature of both thofe vowels. However,
we (hall offer a few things that may be of fome ufe
to modulate our periods and adjuft their cadency.
A great number of monofyllables do not ttand well
together. For as there ought to be a greater diftance
in the pronounciation between one word and another,
than between the fyllables of the fame word ; fuch
paufes, though (hort, yet, when too frequent, make
the found rough and uneven, and by that means fpoil
its harmony. And this may feem more neceffary to
be attended to, becaufc the Englifti language abound*
fo much with monofyllables. On the contrary, a con¬
tinuation of many long words makes a fentence move
too flow and heavily. And therefore fuch periods
generally run beft, which have a proper mixture of
words of a different length. Befides, as every word
has its accent, which with us Hands for quantity ; a
number either of monofyllables, or long words, coming
together, fo far abates the harmony, as it leflens the
variety.
Again, feveral words of the fame ending do not
Hand well together, efpecially where the accent falls
upon the fame fyllable in each of them. For this
and diverts it from matters of great importance. And creates too great a jingle by the fimilitude of found ;
therefore, as it (hews negligence to permit it, fo to and is apt to difpleafe, from an appearance of affec-
be in conftant fear of it difeovers a low genius.” This tation. Of this kind is the following fentence: iVa-
was the opinion of that judicious writer. And as thing is snore ’welcome, delighifome, or •wh'olefome, than
thefe things cannot always be attended to, it may be rejt to a ’wearied man. In fuch expreflions therefore,
fufficient to avoid them, where they prove very offen- if the order of the words cannot well be altered,
five to the ear, and it may be done without fome fome other word (hould be fubftituted in the room of
greater inconvenience. So in this fentence, Honejiy one of them at leaft, to diverfify the found. So in
is the bejl policy, the coalition of t and p in the two laft the example here given, the found might be varied
words heji policy produces a roughnefs in their pro- by faying : Nothing is more ’welcome, pleafant, or
nunciation ; but as the expreflion is ftrong, and can- ’whulefome.
not perhaps be well altered for the better, the found But to add no more, if a fentence end with a mo-
here ought to give way to the fenfe. nofyllable, it is apt to hurt the cadency, and difap-
II. Number. This refpe&s the quantity of fyl- point the ear; whereas words of a moderate length
lables, as Junfture does their quality. In the Greek carry a greater force with them, by the fulnefs of
and Roman languages every fyllable has its diftinft their found, and afford the ear what it expefted. And
quantity; and is either long, (hort, or common : two there is one fort of monofyllables more efpecially,
or more of which joined together in a certain order which never (land well at the conclufion of a period,
make a foot, and a determinate number of thefe in a tho’ we frequently find them there; and thefe are the
different order conftitute their feveral forts of metre, figns of cafes. Thus we fay : Avarice is a crime,’which
This variety of founds gives a much greater harmony ’wife men are too often guilty of But the cadency
to their poetry, than what can arife only from the would doubtlefs be more agreeable if it was altered
feat of the accent, and the fimilitude of found at the thus :. Avarice is a crime, of ’which ’wife men are too'
end of two verfe's, which chiefly regulate our metre, often guilty. Every one mult perceive, when the ac-
And although their profe was not fo confined wi»h cent falls upon the laft fyllable in the fentence, as it
regard to the feet, either as to the kind or place of does if it end with o/, the found is not fo pleafant, as
them, as their metrical compofitions; yet it had a fort when it refts upon the preceding fyllable in the word
of meafure, more efpecially in the rife and cadency of guilty. Nor are very long words well fuited either
their periods. ,YX\\% xhey cv\\ rhetorical number. And to the beginning or coficlufion of a period ; for they
accordingly the ancient writers upon this art acquaint retard the pronunciation at firft, and faff too heavy at
us, what feet are beft fuited to the beginning, middle, the end.
or conclufion of a fentence. Such rules are not ap- „ ttt /■)/• re
plicable to our language, which has not tjiat accurate HAP. . / ignity.
diftin&ion of quantity in its fyllables. For we are Dignity, confifts in the right ufe of tropes and
apt to confound accent with quantity, and pronounce figure*. It is not fufficient for an orator to exprefs
thofe fyllables longeft, on which we lay the accent, himfelf with propriety and clearnefs,‘or in fmooth and
though in their nature they are not fo. As in the harnvsniouS periods; but his language muft likewrfe
be
&
be fulled to tbe nature and importance of the fubjeft.
And therefore, as elegance gives rules for the firft of
tbefe, and compofition for the fecond; fo does dignity for
the lad of them. It is very evident, that different fub-
jedts require a different ftyle and manner of expreffion;
iince, as Quintilian fays, “ What is magnificent in
one difcourfe, would be tm'gid in another; and thofe
exprefiions, which appear low upon a fublime fubjeft,
would fuit leffer matters: and as in a florid harangue a
mean word is remarkable, and like a blemifh ; fo any
thing lofty and bright upon a trivial argument is dif-
proportionate,and like a tumour upon an even furface.”
Now this variety in the manner of expreffion arifes in
a great meafure from tropes and figures, which not
only enliven and beautify a difcourfe, but give it like-
wife force and grandeur; for which reafon this part
of elocution feems to have been called dignity.
Tropes and figures are diftinguifhed from each other
in feveral refpedts. Tropes moftly affedf fingle words,
but figures whole fentences. A trope conveys two
ideas to the mind by means of one word; but a figure
throws the fentence into a different form from the com¬
mon and ufual manner of expreflion. Befides, tropes
are chiefly defigned to reprefent our thoughts, but fi¬
gures our pafiions.
$ i. Tropes.
A trope ks it has been ufually defined, \%, the change
of a ’word from its proper fignification to fome other’with
advantage. The words, nxiith advantage, are added in
the definition, becaufe a trope ought not to be cho-
fen, unlefs there is fome good reafon for ufing it ra¬
ther than the proper word. But in what manner, or
how far, it can be faid of all tropes in general, that
they change the proper fignification of words, will
beft appear by confidering the nature of each kind of
them leparately. Now in every trope a reference is
had to two things, which occafions two ideas, one of
the thing expreffed, and another of that thing to which
it has a refpedt, and is fupplied by the mind. For all
tropes are taken either from things internally related,
as the whole and a part; or externally, as caufe and
tff<-(ff, fubjeA and adjunct; or from fome fimilitude
that is found between them; or from a contrariety. The
firft of thefe is called fynecdoche, the fecond metonymy,
the third metaphor, and the laft irony. We (hall endea¬
vour to illuftrate this by examples. When we fay,
Hannibal heat the Romans; the meaning is, that Han¬
nibal and his army did this. So that altho’ in fome fenfe
a part may here be faid to Hand for the whole, which
makes it a fynecdoche; yet llrifily fpeaking, the word
Hannibal does not alter its fenfe, but there is an el-
lipfis in the expreffion, Hannibal being put for him-
felf and his army. But if we fay, Cicero Jhould be
read by all lovers of eloquence; here indeed the word
.Cicero appears to be changed from its proper fenfe,
and to fignify the books of Cicero ; which is a meto-
vvrny, the author being put for his works; and there¬
fore fuch expreffions need not be deemed elliptical.
Again, if any one fpeaking of a fubtle and crafty man,
fhould fay he is a fox; the meaning is, he is like a
fox; which is a snetaphor, where the word fix retains
its proper fenfe, and denotes that animal, to which the
man is compared on account of his craft. Laftly, if
a_perfon fay to another, Well done; meaning that the
thing was HI done, the word •well keeps its own fenfe ;Elocutioi
but from the manner of its pronunciation, or fome :
other circumftance attending the expreffion, it will be j
evident that the contrary is intended : which is called j
an irony. From thefe inftances it may appear in what
latitude we muff underftand the common definition of i
a trope, which makes it to confift in the change of a
word from its proper fenfe into fome other. But tho’
in reality there are but four kinds of tropes, which are
diftinguiihed by fo many different refpedts which
things bear one to another ; yet as thefe feveral re-
fptfts are found in a variety of fubjedls, and attended
with different circumftances, the names of tropes have
from hence been greatly multiplied; which, however, <
may all be referred to-fome or other of thofe already
mentioned, as will be ffiewn when we come to treat of
them in their order. And for diftinftion fake we (hall J
calljthe former primary, and the latterfecondary, tropes.
We now proceed to confider the rea-fons which have • j
occafioned the introduction of tropes. And thefe, as
Quintilian obferves, are three; necefity, emphafu, and
beauty.
1. Tropes were firft introduced from necefiity, be¬
caufe no language contains a fufficient number of pro¬
per words to exprefs all the different conceptions of
our minds. The mind confiders the fame thing vari¬
ous ways ; views it in different lights; compares it with
other things; and obferves their feveral relations and •
affeCtions; wherein they agree, and in what they dif¬
fer. From ail which reflections, it is furniftied with
almoft an infinite number of ideas; which cannot all j
of them be diftinguilhed and expreffed by proper
words, fince new ones occur daily. And were this
poffibie, yet would it be impracticable ; becaufe the
multitude of words muft be fo vaftly great, that the
memory could not retain them, and be able to recall
them as occafion required. Tropes have in a good
meafure redreffed both thefe inconveniencies; for by
means of them the mind is not burdened with a num-
berlefs flock of different words, and yet nothing feems
.to want a name. Thus fometimes, where a word is |
wanting to exprefs any particular thing, it is clearly
enough reprefented by the name of fome other thing,
by reafon of the fimilitude between them. At other
times, the caufe is fignified by the effeCt; the fubjeCt
by the adjunCl; or the contrary. And the whole is
often underftood by a part, or a part by the whole.
And thus by the ufe of tropes, the mind is helped
to conceive of fomething not expreffed, from that which
is expreffed. It is much the fame cafe, as when we
have occafion to fpeak of a perfon, whofe name we are
either unacquainted with, or have forgot; for by de-
fcribing his perfon, abode, or fome other circumftances
relating to him, thofe we converfe with as well under¬
ftand whom we mean, as if we mentioned his name. So
the fhepherd in Virgil, when he could not think of the
name of Archimedes, deferibes him by his works:
And what’s his name who form’d the fphere,
And (hew’d the feafons of the Aiding year?
Befides, it fometimes happens in a difcourfe, that thofe
things are necefiary to be faid, which, if expreffed in
their proper terms, would be o'ffenfive; but being clo¬
thed with metaphors, may be conveyed to the mind
with decency.
2. A fecond reafon above-mentioned for the ufe of
trope*
Part IIL O R A 1
locution, tropes was, emphafis. Tropes do many times exprefs
things with greater force and evidence, than can be
done by proper words. We receive much the greater
part of our knowledge by our fenfes. And fimilitudes
taken from fenfible things, as in metaphors, very much
aflift the mind in its reflections upon thofe things which
do not come under the cognizance of the fenfes. For
it is certain, that we are fooner and more ftrongly af-
feCted with fenfible objects, than with things of
which we can have no ideas but from the internal ope¬
rations of our own minds. Nay, fometimes one bright
and lively trope fliall convey a fuller and more juft
idea of a thing, than a large periphrafis. So when
Virgil calls the Scipios tnm thunderbolts of 'war, he
gives a more lively image of the rapid force and fpeedy
fuccefs of their arms, than could have been conveyed
by a long defcription in plain words. And in many
cafes the tropical ufe of words is fo emphatical, and
fuited to the idea we defign to excite ; that in this re-
fpeCt it may be juftly efteemed the moft proper. So,
incenfed 'with anger, inflamed 'with defire, fallen into
an error, are all metaphorical expreffions, ufed in a
way of fimilitude ; and yet perhaps no proper words
can be made ufe of, which will convey a more lively
image of the thing we defign to reprefent by them.
But beauty and ornament, as was obferved before,
have been another caufe of the ufe of tropes. Some fub-
je&s require a more florid and elegant drefs than
others. When we defcribe or applaud, ornaments of
fpeech and a gaiety of expreffion are requifite. And
it is the bufinefs of an orator to entertain his hearers
at the fame time that he inftruCts them. Now Cice¬
ro, who was an admirable judge of the force and power
of eloquence, has obferved, that tropical expreffions
give the mind the greateft delight and entertainment.
“ I have often wondered (fays he) why tropes fhould
give greater pleafure than proper words. I imagine
the reafon muft be, either that there is an appearance
of wit in negleCting what is. at hand, and making
choice of fomething at a diftance ; or that the hearer
is furnifhed with a different thought, without being
led into a miftake, which affords a very agreeable
pleafure ; or that a whole fimilitude is conveyed to the
mind by a Angle word ; or that, particularly in the
belt and moft lively metaphor, the image is prefented
to our fight, which is the quickeft of our fenfes.” And
therefore he fuppofes, that “ as garments were firft
invented from neceffity, to fecure us from the injuries
of the weather, but improved afterwards for ornament
and diftinftion; fo the poverty of language firft intro¬
duced tropes, which were afterwards increafed'for de1-
light.” Befides, a variety of expreffion is pleafing in
a difcourfe. It is many times neceffary that the fame
things fliould be repeated ; and if this be done in the
fame words, it will grow tirefome to the hearers, and
fink their efteem of the fpeaker’s ability. Therefore,
to prevent this, it is proper the expreffion fhould be
varied, that although the fenfe be the fame, it may
give the mind a new pleafure by its different drefs.
We come now, in the laft place, to lay down fome
directions proper to be obferved in the choice of tropes.
And firft, as every trope gives us two ideas; one, of
the word expreffed; and another, which, by means of
that, the mind conne&s with it; it is neceffary, that
the relation between thefe two appear very plain and
’ O R Y. j693
evident. For an obfeure trope is always faulty, un-Elocution,
lefs where fome particular reafon makes it neceffary.
And therefore tropes ought not to be too far-fetched,
left that fhould render them dark. For which reafon
Cicero fays, he fhould not choofe to call any thing
deftrufttve to a perfon’s fortune, the Syrtis of his pa~
trimony, but rather the rock of it; nor the Charybdis
of his eflate, but the gulph of it. For thofe, who ei¬
ther did not know that the Syrtes were two quick-
fands upon the coaft of Africa, or that Charybdis was
a gulph in the ftreight of Sicily, both of them very
■ deftruClive to mariners, would be at a lofs to under-
ftand the meaning of the metaphor. Befides, meta¬
phors taken from things we have feen, affeCi the
mind more forcibly than thofe which are taken from
fuch things as we have only heard. Now there is
fcarce any one who has not feen a rock or a gulph;
but there are very few perfbns, comparatively, who
have been either at Charybdis or the Syrtes. It is
neceffary therefore in a good trope, not only that there
be a near affinity between the two ideas, but likewife,
that this affinity be very obvious and generally known,
fo that the word be no fooner pronounced, but both
images do immediately prefent themfelves to the mind.
Again, as a trope ought to be very plain and evi¬
dent, fo likewife fhould it bear a due proportion to
the thing it is defigned to reprefent, fo as neither to
heighten nor diminifh the juft idea of it. Indeed,
fometimes, when we fpeak of things indefinitely, we
fay too much, left we fhould feem to fay too little.
And this manner of fpeaking is called an hyperbole;
which is not uncommon in the facred writings. So,
for inftance, Saul and Jonathan are faid to be fwifler
than eagles, andJlronger than lions. But even in this
way of expreffion a proportion is to be obferved. For
fome very confiderable and unufual excefs of the thing
in its kind is at leaft defigned by it; which perhaps
cannot, or however is not ntceffary to be defined. And
therefore Quintilian blames Cato for calling the top
of an hill a 'wart; becaufe the proportion between
the two ideas is no ways adequate. And fo, on the
contrary, Ariftotle cenfures Euripides for calling row¬
ing, the empire of the oar. Poets indeed are allowed
a greater liberty in this refped. But an orator fhould
be modeft in his expreffions, and take care that he
neither fo heighten nor diminifh the natural ideas of
things by tropes, as to lead his hearers into miftakes.
But further : As a moderate ufe of tropes, juftly ap¬
plied, beautifies and enlivens a difcourfe; fo an excefs
of them caufes obfeurity, by running it into abftrufe
allegories and riddles. Tropes are not the common
and ordinary drefs of our thoughts, but a foreign ha¬
bit : And therefore he who fills his difcourfe with a
continued feries of them, feems to aft like one who
appears in public in a ftrange drefs; which no man of
charafter would choofe to do.
Moreover, as one ufe of tropes is pleafure and en¬
tertainment, we fhould endeavour to make choice of
fuch as are fmooth and eafy. But if at any time we
think in neceffary to ufe a harfh trope, it is proper to
foften it by fome precaution. For, as Cicero very
handfomely fays, a trope Jhould be modeJ},flnce itJlands
in a place '•which does not belong to it; for 'which reafon
it Jhould feem to come thither by permiflion, and not by
force. And therefore, when he thought it harfh to
'
5694 O R A 1
Elacution. fay, The death of Cato made the fenate an orphan; he
"* guards the expvefllon by faying, The death of Cato has
(if I may he allo’wed to fay ft>) rendered the fenate an
orphan.
And, to add no more, care fliould be taken how
we transfer tropes from one language into another.
For as they are frequently taken not only from natural
things, or fuch notions as are common to the gene¬
rality of mankind, but likewife from the manners, cu-
(loms, and occurrences of particular nations; fo they
may be very plain and obvious to thofe among whom
they took their rife, but altogether unintelligible to
others who are unacquainted with the reafon of them.
It was cuftomary for the Roman foldiersto carry their
money in their girdles; hence it was the fame thing
with them to fay, a perfon had loft bis girdle, as that
he had loji his money. And becauie the Romans wore
the toga, which was a long gown, in time of peace,
and a different garb when engaged in war, their Wri¬
ters fometimes ufe the •vjoxA toga to fignify peace. But
as neither of thefe cuftoms is in ufe among us, fo nei¬
ther would the tropes fuit our language, or be gene¬
rally underftood by us. And even in fuch tropes as
are taken from the common nature of things, lan¬
guages very much differ. There is a very beautiful
trope in the account of St Paul’s fhipwreck, where it
is laid. The Jhip was caught, and could not bear up
into the wind. The original word, that we tranflate
bear up, is ; and properly fignifies, to look,
or keep its eyes againjl it; which is a very Itrong and
lively image, taken from animate beings, and when
applied to men often fignifies to withf and or reftjl:
as, av1c?9KXy.e<, torefft an enemy; and Plutarch
fays of Demofthenes, that he could not ou/lopSaxyeiv tu
ufyvjnu, look againjl or refift the power of money. No¬
thing is more common with Latin writers, than to call
men of a public fpirit and true patriots, lumina ct or-
namenta reipublicee, that is, the lights and ornaments of
the Jlate: And we have borrowed from them the ufe
of both thefe metaphors. But becaufe tropes and fi-
figures illuftrate and heighten the ftyle, they call them
alfo, lumina orationis, or, the lights of a difeourfe. It
fometimes happens, that only the tropical fenfe of a
word is taken from one language into another, and not
the proper fignification of the fame word. So ferupu-
lus in Latin properly fignifies a little Jlone, which get¬
ting into the foe hurts a perfon as he walks ; hence it
it is applied to the mind, and ufed to exprefs a doubt,
or uneafy thought that gives it pain. We have borrowed
this latter fenle of the word, but not the former.
Art. I. Primary Tropes.
s° Metaphor. A metaphor, as ufually defined, is:
A trope, which changes words from their proper fgnifi-
cation to another different from it, by reafon of fome f-
militude between them. But that a word, when ufed
metaphorically, does not alter its fignification, but re¬
tains its proper fenfe, was (hewn above. However,
it may not be amifs to explain this matter more ful¬
ly, and fet it in a clearer light. Every metaphor,
then, is nothing- elfe but a fhort fimilitude. Cicero
calls it, a fmilitude reduced to a ftngle word. And
Quintilian to the fame purpofe fays, that, “ a meta¬
phor is a (hort fimilitude, and differs from it only in
this; that the former is compared to the thing we de-
1 O R Y. Part III
fign to exprefs, and the latter is put for it. It is a fi- Elocutiol
militude, when I fay of a man, he has afted like a
lion ; and a metaphor, when I fay, he is a lion.” J
Thus far Quintilian. Now in every fimilitude three i
things are requifite : two things that are compared to¬
gether ; and a third, in which the fimilitude or like- 4
nefs between them confifts. And therefore, to keep to
this example, when Horace calls a Roman foldier a
lion, if the word /few did not retain its proper fenfe,
there could be no fimilitude ; becaufe there would not
be two things to be compared together with refpeft |
to a third, which is neceffary in every fimilitude, and
was defigned by this expreflion. The fenfe of which
is plainly this : That as a lion feizes his prey with the -jy
great eft fiercenefs, fo a Roman foldier with like rage fi
and fury attacked his enemies. In the fame manner, |
when Cicero calls Pifo the vulture of the province, his I
meaning is, that he was like a vulture, or afted in
fuch a manner as a vulture a&s, that is, rapacioufly.
So that the real difference between a metaphor and a
fimilitude confifts in this ; that a metaphor has not |
thofe figns of comparifon which are expreffed in a fi¬
militude. But fome perfons have run into miftakes in ]
reafoning from tropes of this kind. For they have ]
fo argued from metaphorical words, as if all the af- j'
feftions and properties of the things expreffed by
them might be attributed to thofe other things to
which they are applied, and by that means have ftrain- :
ed the comparifon (which has ufually but one parti- |l
cular view), in order to make it tally in other refpe&s, !'
where there is not that fimilitude of ideas. We Will
endeavour to make this evident by another example
from Cicero, where he calls M. Anthony the torch of
theftate. The fimilitude between Anthony and a torch
lay in this : That as a torch hums and deftroys every
thing within its reach, fo Anthony brought devaftation ■ I
and ruin wherever he came. Now a torch has not on¬
ly a property to burn, but alfo to give light; but the
fimilitude would not hold in this refpeft, nor was it j I
at all defigned. For Cicero never calls a wicked pro¬
fligate man, as Anthony was, the light of the ftate ; j |
though he often gives that chara&er to good and vir¬
tuous men, who by their examples do as it were en¬
lighten others, and (hew them the way to be happy
themfelves and ufeful to others. But though meta- ;|
phors are ufually taken from a fimilitude between two
things, as in the inftances here mentioned ; yet fome- ^1
times they are founded in the fimilitude which two . ;|
things bear to two others in fome particular refpedt,
by means whereof what properly belongs to one of
them is transferred to the others the former of which il
are called Jimple metaphors, and the latter analogous. . I
Hence the rudder of a ihip may be called its reins; for |‘
what the reins are to a horfe, that the rudder is to a i
(hip in guiding and directing it. So that here is a |
double fimilitude, one between a (hip and an horfe, I
and another between the rudder of the former and the
reins of the latter ; and from the analogy-between the ]
ufe of the rudder to the one and reins to the other, I
the reins, which belong properly to the horfe, are ap- I
plied to the (hip. Again, fome metaphors are recipro¬
cal, in which the fimilitude holds either way. Thus to
fteer and to govern are ufed reciprocally both of a (hip
and a ftate: the proper expreffions being, to fteer a
Jhip, mb govern a ftate ; and the contrary metaphori- I
cal. “ I
Partin.
/Elocution, cal. But though we fay, the foot of a mountain, bor-
' rowing the fimilitude from animals ; yet we do not fay,
on the contrary, the bottom of an animal, meaning his
feet; and therefore that metaphor is not reciprocal.
From this account therefore of the nature of a meta¬
phor, it maybe faid to be: The application/of a •word
by way of fimilitude to feme other thing than what it
properly fignifies. And the plainer this fimilitude ap¬
pears, the greater beauty there is in the trope.
The ufe of metaphors is very extenfive, as large as
univerfal nature. For there are fcarce any two things
which have not fome fimilitude between them. How¬
ever, they may all be reduced to four kinds; which was
the fecond thing propofed to be confidered.
The firft kind of metaphors therefore may be taken
from fimilitudes between animate beings. As where
thofe things, which properly relate to brutes, are ac¬
commodated to men ; or thofe which belong to men
are applied to brutes. Of the former fort is that joke
of Cicero : My brother being ajked by Philip, why he
barked fe; anfwered, Becaufe he faw a thief. Here
larking, the property of a dog, is applied to a man :
And the reply does not feem to carry more feverity, or
harfhnefs with it, than the queftion. By the latter fort
we fay, a crafty fox, and a generous horfe; which are
affections that properly relate to men. And to this
kind of metaphors may thofe likewife be referred, when
that which properly belongs to the fenfes is applied
to the mind. Thus we often fay that we fee a thing,
when we mean that we underfeand or apprehend it.
And in the fame fenfe we fay, that we hear fetch a
thing, or perfeon. And by the like manner of expref-
fidn, a perfon is faid to frnell out a thing. And thofe
who have a genius or difpofition for any art or
fcience, are faid to have a tafee for it; and fuch
as have entered upon the ftudy of it, are faid to have
a touch of it. Thefe ^re common ways of fpeaking
in mod languages, and very expreffive of what is in¬
tended by them. And we may alio bring thofe meta¬
phors under this head, by which the properties and
affeftions of men are attributed to the Deity: as,-when
God is faid to hear, fee, be angry, repent, and the like;
which are forms of expreffions very frequent in the fa-
cred writings.
A fecond kind of metaphors lies between inanimate
things, whether natural or artificial, which bear fome
fimilitude to each other. And this head is very ex¬
tenfive. Thus we fay, floods of fire, and clouds offmoke,
for large quantities. And fo likewife, to infiame an
account, that is, to heighten or increafe it; with in¬
numerable others of the like fort. In the two firft of
thefe inftances, the terms proper to one element are
applied to another; and as thofe elements of fire and
water are oppofite to each other, they (hew the exten-
„ fivenefs of this trope, that there are no things in na¬
ture fo contrary, but may come within the limits of it,
and be accommodated to each other in a way of fimi-
j litude. In the laft example, a natural aCUon is applied
to what is artificial.
A third fort of metaphors is, when inanimate things
are applied to animals, on account of fome like pro¬
perties between them. Thus Homer calls Ajax, the
bulwark of the Greeks, on account of his valour, which
like a wall defended them from the Trojans. And
nothing is more common with Cicero, than to brand ill
Vol. VIII. 2
5695
men with the chara&er of being the peft of tie fate, Elocution.
by reafon of the mifehief which they bring to the pub- 
lie. So likewife he calls Zeno the philofopher an
acute man, for his great difeernment and quick per¬
ception of things; fetching the allufion from metals
when brought to an edge or a point. As on the
contrary, old Chremes in Terence calls himfelf a
feone, for want of apprehenfion. And we fay, a
gay perfen, and a bright genius, by this kind of meta¬
phor.
The fourth and laft kind of metaphors is that by
which the aftions and other attributes of animals are
accommodated to inanimate things. Thus Cicero,
fpeaking of Clodius, fays: “ The very altars, when
they faw that monfter fall, feemed to move themfelves
and aflert their right againft him.” Here the words
faw, move, and ajfert, are all metaphors taken from
the properties of animals. And Virgil, when he would
reprefent the impetuous force and rapidity of the river
Araxes, fays, it difdained a bridge. And it is a very
ufual epithet, which Homer gives to words, to call
them or winged, to intimate the fwiftnefs of
fpeech.
Daftly, as to the choice of metaphors, thofe are
efteemed the fineft and ftrongeft, which give life and
aflion to inanimate things. The reafon of which is,
becaufe they do as it were invigorate all nature, intro¬
duce new forms of beings, and reprefent their images
to the fight, which of all the fenfes is the quickeft,
moft adlive, and yet moft unwearied. What can be
more moving, or in ftronger terms exprefs the villany
of Clodius, than when Cicero fays, “ The very al¬
tars of the gods feemed to exult at his death.” And
the fame great orator particularly commends thofe me¬
taphors, for their fprightlinefs and vivacity, which are
taken from the fenfe of feeing ; as when we fay a
bright thought, or a gay expreffion.
However, care mult be taken not to venture upon
too bold and daring metaphors. Poets indeed claim
greater liberty in this refpect, whofe view is often to
amufe, terrify, or delight, by heightening the juft
and natural images of things. But it is expected the
orator fhould reafon coolly, though ftrongly and for¬
cibly : and not by theatrical reprelentations fo tran-
fport the mind, as to take it off froKl refledtion, unlefs
perhaps on fome particular oecafion. And yet on the
other hand, metaphors ought not to fink below the
dignity of what they are defigned to exprefs; but
the idea they convey ftiould at leaft be equal to the
proper word in the place of which they are fubfti-
tuted.
But there is a very great difference in the choice of
metaphors, as they are defigned either to praife or
difpraife. One thing may be compared to another in
a great variety of refpedts. And the fame thing may
be made to appear either noble or bafe, virtuous or
vicious, by confidering it in a different light. Such
metaphors, therefore, as are chofen to commend, muft
be taken from great and laudable things; and on the
contrary, thofe which are defigned to difeommend,
from things vile and contemptible. Ariftotle gives us
a very pleafant example of this in the poet Simonides.
A certain perfon, who had carried the prize at a race
of mules, offered him a a reward to wiite a poem in ho¬
nour of that action. Simonides thought he did not
32 E bid
ORATORY.
5696 ORATORY. Partlll.
Elocution, bid high enough; and therefore put him off with fay-
ing, the fubjeft was too mean to write in praife of
mules which were the offspring of afies. But upon
his being offered a larger, fum he undertook the taflc ;
and, as Ariftotle obferves, when he has occafion to
fpeakof the mules in that poem, he does not mention
them by that name, but calls them the daughters of
fleet and generous horfes, though he might with as
much propriety have called them the daughters of dull
ajfes. But it was the poet’s bufinefs, in praifing, to
take the moft advantageous part of the chara&er.
Where things are capable of fuch different turns, me¬
taphorical exprefiions are generally moft beautiful.
And fometimes the fame metaphor may be applied
contrary ways, both in praife and difpraife, as it will
fuit different properties pf the thing to which it refers.
So a dove, in a metaphorical fenfe, may reprefent either
innocence or fear; and an iron heart may denote either
courage or cruelty ; as an hard head, Jlrength or nneakr
refs of thought. And this ambiguity in the applica¬
tion of metaphorical words, often affords occafion for
jefts and concife wit. We obferved before, that Ci¬
cero never calls ill men, lights of the fate. But he
once in this manner calls Sextius Clodius, the light of
the fenate. For, when his kinfman Publius Clodius
had been killed by Milo, and his corpfe was brought
to Rome, Sextius raifed the mob, and in a tumultu¬
ous manner carried it into the fenate-houfe, where
they burnt it, and by that means fet the building on
fire : For which feditious aftion Cicero paffes that joke
upon him, under the metaphor of light, which elfe*
where he always ufes in a good fenfe.
But to^ proceed: All forced and harfh metaphors
fhould be avoided, the one being no lefs difagreeable
to the mind than the other to the ear. Nor fhould they
come too thick in a difcourfe. In a word, they ought
not to be ufed, but either where a (proper word is
wanting, or they are more fignificant or beautiful than
the proper word.
51 II. Metonymy. This, as defined by Quintilian, is,
the putting one word for another. But Vomus defcribes
it more fully, when he calls it, “ A trope, which
changes the name of things that are naturally united,
but in fuch a manner as that one is not of the effence
of the other.” That a metonymy is thus diftinguifh-
ed from the other tropes, has been fufficiently fhewn
already in the two laft chapters. When it is faid, to
put one word for another, or, to change the names of
things, the meaning is, that the word fo ufed changes
its fenfe, and denotes fomething different from its pro¬
per fignification. Thus, when Mars is put for war,
and Ceres for corn, they lofe their perfonal fenfe,
and ftand for the effedfs of which thofe deities
were faid to be the caufe. So likewife, when Virgil
fays,
He drank the frothing bowl,
the word howl muft neceffarily fignify the liquor in t^e
bowl. And when in another place, defcribing the
temple of Juno at Carthage, in which the a&ions of
the Trojan war were reprefented, and the images of
the heroes, he makes ./Eneas, upon difcovering that of
Priam among the reft, cry out,
Lo here is Priam ;•
it is plain the word Priam there muft ftand not for his
perfon, but his image or figure. And this property
of changing the fenfe of the word appears peculiar to Elocution^
metonymy. In treating upon a metaphor, we obfer- ■*
ved the miftake of thofe who teach, that a word ufed
metaphorically lofes its proper fignification ; whereas |
it only changes its place, but not its fenfe ; being ap¬
plied to a thing to which it does not naturally belong, ;
by way of fimilitude. And as the not attending to j
this has run fome perfons into very great abfurdities, j
in treating upon metaphorical exprefiions, and reafon- J
ing from them in the tropical fenfe ; fo the like has
happened to others in fome inftances of a metonymy,
where, by mifapprehending their true nature, they
have reafoned from them in the literal fenfe, as we
•Ihall fhew prefently. A metonymy is not fo extenfive I
as a metaphor, nor altogether fo neceffary: becaufe |
nothing is faid by a metonymy, which cannot be ex-
prefled in proper words; whereas metaphors are often ;j
ufed for want of proper words to exprefs fome ideas.
.However, metonymies are very ufeful in language; for
they enrich a difcourfe with an agreeable variety, and
give both force and beauty to an exprefiion. And what I
we obferved with relation to a metaphor, is true alfo 1
of this trope; that fome metonymies, even in common |
difcourfe, are more frequently made ufe of than the
proper words in whofe room they are put. So, pale
death, a blind way, and a happy fate, are very com¬
mon exprefiions with us. And it is more ufual to fay,
This is fuch a perfon's hand, or I know his hand, |
than his writing, when we intend this latter fenfe of
the word.
We now proceed to the divifion of metonymies; |
which are commonly diftinguilhed into four kinds,
from the different manner in which things are natu¬
rally, but externally, united to one another. Now
things are thus united, or one thing depends upon
another, either with refpeft to its produftion, or in the j I
manner of its exiftence when produced. In the for¬
mer way the effeft depends upon its caufe, and in
the latter the adjunft upon its fubjedts. And hence
arife four forts of metonymies, which receive their
names from the caufe and effe£l, the fubjeft and the ij
adjunft.
It is called a metonymy of the caufe, when the external
caufe is put for the effedl. The external caufe is two¬
fold, the agent and end, which are ufually called the
efficient and final caufe. Of the former kind are fuch J
metonymies, where the inventor or author is put for
what was invented or effefted by him. Thus, as we
faid before, CVn?.r is fometimes put forthe ufe of |
which Ihe was faid firft to have introduced ; and Mars |
for war, over which he was thought to prefide. And
by this way of fpeaking, any artift or writer is put
for his work. So Juvenal, blaming the luxury and |
profufenefs of the Romans, fays: There are few tables , J
without Mentor; that is, which were not made by
him, or after his manner. And our Saviour fays in
the parable of the rich man and Lazarus,* They have
Mofes and the prophets; meaning, the books of Mofes
and the prophets. But under this fort of metonymy
is included not only the agent, ftridUy fo called, but
alfo any means or inftruments made ufe of in the do¬
ing of a thing, when put for the thing done. Thus,
polite literature is called humanity, becaufe it culti¬
vates and improves the human mind. And in that
exprefiion of Cicero, Words move nobody but him who
un? ; I
PartHI. ORA1
Elocution, underjlands the tongue ; the word tongue, which is the
inftrument of fpeech, is put for fpeech, or language.
And in the like fenfe, arms are fometimes put for •vear,
and tistfnuordiox/laughter. By the fame kind of me¬
tonymy, likewife, any affe&ion or quality is put for its
effect. As when it is faid, the end of government is
to maintain ju/lice ; that is, fuch mutual offices among
men, as are the effetts of jujlice. And fo likewife in
that of Cicero, It is the bujinefs of magif rates to check
the levity of the multitude; by which he means tumults
occafioned by their levity. Moreover, as human af¬
fections are attributed to the Deity in a metaphorical
fenfe, fo feveral parts of the human body are likewife
afcribed to him by this kind of metonymy. Thus, his
hand znd his arm are ufed to exprefs his ponuer; as his
ear and eye, his care and providence; thefe being the
inftrume'nts of fuch tffedts in mankind. Metonymies
of the final caufe are thofe, by which the end in doing
a thing is put for the thing done. As when we fay,
"The •watch is fet, meaning the ’watchmen, who are ap¬
pointed for that purpofe. And fo likewife that ex-
preffion, to make an example, as it fignifies to puni/h, in
order to deter others from the like crimes by fuch an
example. As alfo that of Virgil,
Phillis Ihould garlands crop,
by which are meant flo’wers to make garlands.
The fecond kind of metonymy puts the effeft for
the efficient caufe, whether the agent, or only the
means and inftrument. So Virgil calls the two Sci-
pios the deflruttion of Libya, becaufe they were the
agents who effe&ed it. And Horace compliments his
patron Msecenas with the titles of being his guard and
honour; that is, his guardian, and the author of his
honour. But when Cicero tells the citizens of Rome,
that the death of Clodius •was their fafety, he means
the occafion only of their fafety. And elfewhere he
calls that a dark hope and blind expectation ; the effedl
of which was dubious and uncertain to thofe who en¬
tertained it. And in like manner, the fons of the pro¬
phets, when they were eating the pottage which E-
lifha had ordered to be fet before them, cried out,
There is death in the pot; that is, fame deadly thing, as
is prefently after explained. And thus fweat, which
is the effedt of labour, is fometimes put for labour. As
in the threat denounced againft Adam, In the fweat of
thy faceJhalt\thou eat bread; that is, by labour in cultiva-'
ting the ground. And, in allufion to this way offpeak-
ing, Anthony the orator tells Craffus, “ the improve¬
ment of the ftyleby conftant exercife, as he prefcribed,
was a thing of much fweat.And virtue is faid to
be gained by fweat, that is, continued care and exercife
in fubduing the paffions, and bringing them to a pro¬
per regulation. But in thefe two expreffions there is
likewife a metaphof, the effedt of bodily labour being
applied to that of the mind. In all thefe inftances, the
effedt is put for the efficient caufe.
The third kind of metonymy is, when the fubjedt
is put for the adjundt. By fubjedt here, in a large
fenfe of the word, may be underftood that wherein
fome other thing is contained, or about which it is
converfant; as likewife the poffeffor with refped): to the
thing he poffeffes ; and the tiling fignified, when put
for the fign of it. Now, by the firft of thefe ways of
fpeaking, the feat of any faculty or affedfion, is ufed
for the faculty or affedtion itfelf. So it is ufual to
r O R Y. 5697
fay, a man of a clear head, when we mean a clear Elocution,
mind or underftanding ; the feat of the mind being in’”
the head. And a perfon is faid to have a ’warm heart,
becaufe the heart has been thought the feat of the
affedtions. In like manner, the place where any ac¬
tions are performed, is put for the adtions done in it.
As when Cicero fays, “ Do not always think of the
forum, the benches, the roftra, and the fenate
meaning the difcourfes which were ufually made in
thofe places. So likewife the contrary, or place of
refidence, is put for the inhabitants, as in that pafiage
of Cicero : “ And to omit Greece, which always
claimed the preeminence for eloquence, and Athens,
the inventrefs of all fciences, where the art of fpeak¬
ing was invented and perfedted 5 in this city of ours,
(meaning Rome), no ftudies have prevailed more than
that of eloquence.” Where the words Greece and
Athens ftand to denote the inhabitants of thofe places.
And hither may alfo be referred thofe expreffions in
which the time is put for the perfons living in it; as,
the degeneracy of the prefent age, the virtue of former
times. In the fecond way above-mentioned, the ob-
jedt is ufed for the perfon, or thing employed about
it: As when Cicero fays, “ In time of battle the laws
are filentwhere by la<ws he intends the judges,
who pronounce fentence according to law. By the
third of thefe ways, in which the poffeflbr is put for
the thing he pofleffes, we fay, to devour, defray, or
ruin a man ; meaning, not his perfon, but his efate.
And mythologifts explain the fable of Adleon by this
trope, who is faid to have been devoured by his dogs:
for by dogs they underftand flatterers and parafites,
who confumed his eftate, and brought him tc^beggary.
By the laft way before recited, which puts the thing
fignified for the fign, ftatutes and pidlures are called
by the names of the perfons which they reprefent; as
in that jeft of Cicero upon his brother Quintus, when,
as Macrobius relates, “ being in the province which
his brother had governed, and feeing a large portrait of
part of his body, holding a fheild, though Quintus was
but a little man, he faid, My half brother is bigger than
my whole brother.” The Popifh dodtrine of tranfub-
ftantiation is founded upon an abufe of this trope. For
when our Saviour, fpeaking of the bread and wine at that
time before him, fays, “ This is my body,' and this is
my blood;” his plain meaning is, they were the figns of
his body and blood, the thing fignified being put for the
fign by this fort of metonymy. But the Papifts take
the exprefiion literally, which mull doubtlefs be very
abfurd ; fince the words relate to the time then prefent,
while Chrift was yet living, and fpoke them ; when it
was impolfible for the bread and wine to be converted
into his body and blood, it being evident to all who
were prefent, that thofe elements, and.his body, exifted
feparately at the fame time. But if the words arp
explained by this trope, the fenfe is plain and eafy,
and the way of fpeaking familiar to all writers. Where¬
as they who plead for the literal fenfe might with
equal reafon aifert, that thofe expreflions above-men¬
tioned are to be taken literally, in which feveral parts
of the human body, as the hand, the arm, the ear,
and the eye, are afcribed to the Deity; or that, when
our Saviour in a metaphorical fenfe calhhimfelftf vine,
and a door, thefe words were defigned to be applied
to him ftriftly and properly, and not by way of hmi-
32 E 2 lititude
5698
Elocution.
ORATORY. Part III.
litude only, as is the cafe in all metaphors. any aggregate body, as a civil community, which is Elocution, i
The fourth kind of metonymy is that wherein the diviftble into thofe who govern and are governed; or "f
adjundt is put for the fuhjefl, which is done in the any army, confiding of the general, and his foldiers.
fame variety of ways as the former. It is therefore a As an whole therefore, in each of thefe acceptations of
metonymy of the adjun<3,when the thing contained is the word, is frequently put for a part, and a part for
put for that which contains it. As when Virgil fays, the whole; hence arife fix fpeces or forts of fynecdoche.
“ They lie down upon purple that is, upon couches The firftof thefe puts the genus for thefpecies. Thus,
dyed with purple. And again, “ They crown the virtue in general is fometimes ufed to denote fome parti-
wine meaning the bowl which contained the wine, it cular fort of virtue. As when Cicero mentions virtue
being the cuftom of the ancients to deck their bowls as one of the four qualifications neceffary in a general,
with garlands at their entertainments By thefe tropes he means greatnefs of mind. And fo perfons are often
likewife virtues and vices are put for the perfons in commended for inftances of virtue (hewn in their con-
w’hom they are found. As in that beautiful pafiage dudt, which refpedt only fome Angle virtue, as juftice,
of Cicero, where, comparing the profligate army of temperance, or the like: And in this fenfe Cicero
Catiline with the forces of the (late, he fays, “ On calls Clodius a deadly animal. So when our Saviour
this fide modefty is engaged, on that impudence; on comm\ftiO'nzh\s Z'poMesx.o preach the gofpel to every crca-
this chaftity, on that lewdnefs ; on this integrity, on ture, the meaning is, every rational creature. And
that deceit; on this piety, on that profanenefs ; on thus likewife, to talk to a perfon, fometimes denotes
this conltancy, on that fury ; on this honour, on that the fame thing as to blatne him, which is one way of
bafenefs; on this moderation, on that unbridled paffion: talking.
in a ivord, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence. The fecond kind of fynecdoche puts the fpecies for
and all virtues, engage with injuftice, luxury, cowar- the genus. Thus bread denotes any kind of food;
dice, raflinefs, and all vices.” And to this trope as when a perfon is faid to get bis bread by his labour.
thofe expreffions are to be referred, in which any In the fame way of fpeaking, money is put for any
thing is put for the objedt about which it is conver- kind of wealth in general. And it is an ufual ex-
fant. As in that faying of the wife man, “ Hope prelfion to fay, that wine dejiroys more than the /word;
deferred makes the heart fick;” where hope is put for that is, than any hojiile arms. And the legal form of
the thing hoped for. And thus Suetonius calls the banifhment among the Romans was, to prohibit per-
emperor Titus the love and delight of mankind, whofe fons the ufe of fire and water; that is, the mojl common
mild and obliging temper rendered him the objedt of and ordinary necejj'aries of life, in which all others were
thofe agreeable affedtions to all perfons under his go- included.
vernment. A third ufe of this trope is by putting a The third fpecies of this trope is, when the eflential
thing for the time in which it was done. Thus we whole is put for one of its parts; that is, either for
fay of a perfon, he has fervedfo many campaigns; mean- the matter or form. Thus, in the evangeliil, Mary
ing fo many fommers, that being the ufual time in Magdalen fays, They have taken away my Lord, and
which armies are drawn out into the field. Laftly, I know not where they have laid him; meaning his
by this metonymy, the fign is put for the thing it body. So it is ufual to fay of a deceafed perfon, H*
fignifies ; as, thefeeptre for the regal dignity, and the was buried at fuch a time. And in the inferiptions
fword for the authority of the magiftrate. of fepulchral monuments we frequently meet with this
III. Synecdoche. This is a trope by which either expreffion, Here lies fuch an one; that is, his corpfe.
the whole of a thing is put for a part of it, or a part Nor are inftances uncommon in which the whole
for the whole; fo that the two things, whofe ideas being is put for the form. Thus when Cicero fays,
are prefented to the mind in this trope, are infernally Thofe perfons live, who have fled from the confinement of
related to each other : by which, as has been (hewn the body, as from a prifoh; by perfons mu ft necefiarily
already, it is diftinguifhed from all the other tropes, be underftood their fouls, which are here diftinguifhed
In a fynecdoche the word retains its proper fenfe, and from and fet in oppofition to their bodies. And fo
the expreflion is elliptical, as will appear by the feve- Virgil reprcfents^Eneas as meeting with Dido and fome
ral fpecies of it, wherein the ellifplis in moft of the of his Trojan friends in the infernal regions; by which
examples is very obvious, and may with no great dif- are meant their ghojls.
ficulty be fupplied. N'>w a thing may be confidered The fourth kind of fynecdoche is, when either the mat-
as an whole in three different refpe&s, which logicians ter or form is put for the whole being. Thus fiver and
call an unherfdl, ejfential, and integral whole. An £<?/</a re ufed to fignify money made cf thofe metals; as
univerfal whole is any genus with regard to its feveral when we fay, 1 have Jo much fIver,or fo much gold. And
fpecies: as, an animal with refpedt to mankind and the word foul, both in our own and other languages, is
brutes; or pbilofophy, with refpedt to the leveral arts put for the whole perfon. So with us, a merry foul, and
2.n& fciences compriled under it. An effential whole a dull foul; in Cicero, dear fouls; and in Horace, candid
confifts of matter and form; as, a man of body and fouls, are all ufed in this tropical fenfe. But this way of
foal. And an integral whole is any body or quanity, fpeaking occurs nowhere more frequently than in the
with relpect to the leveral parts of which the matter facred writings. Thus, for inftance, it is faid,.^//Ata/a«/r
of it is compofed, and into which it may be divided ; which came with Jacob into Egypt, meaning the per-
as, an human body with refpeft to its feveral menders; fons. And again. The foul that finneth it Jhall die;
or a year, as divifible into months, weeks, and days, from which expreflion, and others of the like import.
And thus rhetoric is an integral whole in refpedt to fome perfons, by not attending to the nature of this
the four parts that compofe it, namely, invention, dif- trope, have been erroneoufly led to infer that the foul
pofition, elocution, and pronunciation. So likewife is naturally mortal. But fometimes only part of the
matter
Partlll. ORA’:
it location, matter ftands to exprefs the whole eflence or being.
r—1~*— So we imitate the Latins in ufing the word caput or
head to denote either a perfon or thing. For, as with
them lepidutn caput, fo with us a 'witty head, fignifies
the fame as a man of wit. And in the fame fenfe,
fo many head of cattle means fo many entire cattle.
By the fifth fort of fynecdoche, the whole of any
material thing or quantity, whether continued or dif*
Crete, is put for a part of it. So when Cicero fays,
A war is kindled through the whole world-, in compli¬
ment to his country, he calls the Roman empire the
world. And this expreifion is alfo ufed by hillorians.
Thus Cornelius Nepos, fpeaking of the quarrel be¬
tween Mark Anthony and Auguftus, tells us, that
each of them defined to be lord of the world. And in
like manner St Luke fays, There went out a decree
from Cisfar Auguftus, that all the world Jlould be taxed.
So in St Paul’s fhipwreck, it is faid, They ran the jhip
aground, that is, the head of her; for it is plain by
what follows, that the ftern was loofe. And as to
diferete quantity, our Saviour, ufing this trope, faid
he (hould be three days and three nights in the heart of
the earth. Though he did not continue three whole
days and nights in the grave, but only part of thefirft
and third day, and the whole fiecond day, with the
two whole nights between the firft and third day, ac¬
cording to our way of reckoning. For he was buried
on Friday in the afternoon, and refted in the grave
that night, with the following day, which was the
Jewiih Sabbath, and was rifen on the morning of the
next day. So that we muft neceffarily have recourfe
to this fynecdoche, which puts the whole for the part,
to clear up that event.
By this kind of fynecdoche, alfo, the plural number
is fometimes put for the fingular. Thus St Matthew
fays, The thieves who were crucified with our Saviour
reviled him: though it is plain from St Luke, that
only one of them did fo. It may alfo be referred to
this trope, when a certain number is put for an un¬
certain one. So it is an ufual way of exprefiion to
fay, I have feen or done fuch a thing an hundred or a
thoufand times; when perhaps fo many are not really
intended, but only in general fome coufiderable
number.
The fixth and laft kind of fynecdoche puts a part of
any material thing or quantity for the whole of it.
So we fay of a man, He Jhelters himfelf under fuch an
one's roof; that is, in his houfe. And of a fleet, that
it confifis of ft many fail; meaning, many Jhips. And
by this trope, that is alcrited to a fingle perfon, which
was done by the afiillance of others, and in conjunc¬
tion with them. As when it is faid, that Hannibal
killed forty thoufand Romans at the battle of Cannee;
For an army is an aggregate body, of which the ge¬
neral is the head, and confequently the chief part of
it. And to this kind of fynecdoche may alfo be re¬
ferred fuch expieflioos in which the fingular number
is put for the plural: as if one fhould fay, A man is
liable to be mified by the influence of irregular pajfions;
meaning all men, or mankind in general. Or when
lefs than the real number is put for any round number.
Thus fome ancient writers, when they fpeak of the
Grecian armada that came againft Troy, call it a fleet
of a thoufand Jhips; though, according to Homer’s
lift, it contained 1186. And fo likewife the Greek
r O R Y. 5699
interpreters of the Old Teftament are ufually called Elocution,
the Seventy; whereas, in reality, they were feventy- ~
two.
IV. Irony. This is a trope in which one contrary 53
is fgnified by another: As if any one fhould fay, Well
done; when at the fame time his defign is to intimate
that the thing was ill done. So that, by this manner
of exprtffion, the fpeaker appears to mean fomething
contrary to the fenfe of the word he makes ufe of.
Not that the word is changed from its ufual fignifica-
tion; but by the circumftances attending the ex¬
prefiion, we perceive the contrary to what is fpoken is
intended. Quintilian obferves, that an irony may be
known one of thefe three ways: “ By the manner of
pronunciation, or from the nature of the perfon or
the thing. For (as he adds) where any of thefe do
not fuit with the words, it is plain the fpeaker intends
the contrary.” The irony is very plain from the
manner of pronunciation in that paffage of Terence,
where Simo fpeaking to bis fervant by way of re¬
proof, fays, “ You have taken great care indeed.”
From the circumftances of the perfon, when Cicero,
addrefiing to Catiline, fays, “ He went to your com¬
panion, that excellent man, Marcus Marcellus.” When
he calls him an excellent man, it is evident he means
the contrary; becaufe no good man would be a com¬
panion of Catiline. And when he begins his oration
for Ligarius with faying, “ Csefar, this is a new
crime, and never heard of till now,” the thing he
is fpeaking of fhews it to be an irony; for it was
not new, as all who were prefent very well under-
ftood.
The fubje&s of irony are vices and follies of all
kinds. And this way of expofing them is often more
effedtual than ferious reafoning: For many perfons,
who, either from temper or want of reflexion, cannot
be moved by the force of an argument, are not proof
againft the poignancy of wit and raillery. And there¬
fore we find the moft grave and ferious perfons have
not declined the ufe of this trope upon proper occa-
fions. Socrates, whom the oracle pronounced the
wifeft man of his age, gave fo much into it, that he
got the name of that is, the droll. In the facred
writings we have a remarkable inftance of it in the
prophet Elijah, where he challenges the priefts of
Baal to prove the truth of his deity: For it is faid
exprefsly, “ He mocked them, and faid. Cry aloud,
for he is a god; either he is talking, or he is purfuing,
or he is on a journey, or peradventure he fleepeth, aud
muft be waked.” And Solomon takes the like me¬
thod to expofe the follies of youth by this ironical
apoftrophe, “ Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth,”
with what follows, which is all ironical. Nay, our
Saviour himfelf thought fit thus to reprove the J, wifh
doflors, when he fays, “ Full well ye rejedt the com¬
mandment of God, that ye may keep your own tradi¬
tion Where, by the words full well, or, as it is in
the original, xaxus. it is very evident that a fevere re¬
primand was intended.
An irony is ufed on a variety of occafions, as we
fhall fhew from fome inftances in Cicero. Sometimes
he applies it in a way of jeft and banter : As when he
fays, “ We have much reafon to believe the modeft
man would not alk him for his debt, when he puriues
bis life.” At other times by way of intuit and deri-
fion:
O R A T
Elocution, fion: Thus when he would reprefent the forces of
1 "Catiline as mean and contemptible, “ O terrible war,
(fays he) in which this band of rakes are to march
under Catiline! Draw out all your garrifons againft
this formidable body.” Again, at other times, to
give the greater force to his argument, he would feem
as it were by this trope to recall and correft what he
had faid before; as in his oration for Milo: “ But it
is foolifh in us to compare Drufus, Africanus, Pompey,
and ourfelves, with Clodius; all our calamities were
tolerable, but no one can patiently bear the death of
Clodius.” Now the character of Clodius was fo well
known, that all who were prefent muft be fenfible he
meant the contrary. And, to name no more, an irony
is never ufed to greater advantage, than when it is
followed immediately by fomething very flinging.
Thus, fpeaking of Pifo, he fays, “ You have heard
this philofopher: he denies that he was ever defirous
of a triumph.” And then addrefiing himfelf to him,
he immediately adds, “ O wretch! when you de-
ftroyed the fenate, fold its authority, fubjefied your
confulate to the tribune, overturned the flate, betrayed
my life and fafety for the reward of a province; if
you did not defire a triumph, what can you pretend
you did not defire?” This muft effe&ually con¬
found the falfe gravity at that time affumed by
Pifo.
O R Y. Part HI. >
perfons. Thefe forms of fpeech are called antonomajtd, Elocution.|if
and come properly under a fynecdoche; fo. in the for- ~
the whole is put for a part, and in th: alter a part
for the whole.
Art. II. Secondary Tropes.
Secondary tropes are fo called, becaufe they are
all of the fame nature with the former, and may be
referred to fome or other of them, though they have
received different names.
They are chiefly eight in number; Antonomcjia,
Communication, Litotes, Euphernifm, Catachrefis, Hy¬
perbole, Metalepjis, and Allegory. The three firft of
thefe are Ample tropes, and may all be referred to a
Synecdoche. But the five laft are of a mixed or com¬
plex nature, and not confined to any one of the pri¬
mary tropes; as will appear in treating upon them in
order.
I. A common or general word is fometimes ufed
for the proper name of fome particular thing or per-
fon which upon any account is eminent and remark¬
able. So we fay, He is gone to the city, ox he came
frotn the city, that is, London. And by the Scriptures
we mean the Bible. So likewife in fpeaking of per¬
fons, the orator is ufed for Cicero, the poet for Homer
or Virgil, and thephilcfopher for Ariftotle : and it is
not unufual to fay the apojlle, when we mean St Paul.
On the contrary, the proper names of things or per¬
fons are fometimes applied tcf any o’her of the fame
chara&er. Thus we ufe the word gofpel for any cer¬
tain and undoubted truth. And Carthaginianfaith pro¬
verbially flood for the greateft falfehood and deceit
among the Romans. With the Greeks, Hercules fig-
nified a ftrong man, Neft or a ■wife man, and Irus a
leggar; andthenamesof Samfon, Solomon, and Job,
now anfwer the like chara&ers. Both thefe ways of
expreflion are often very emphatical, and heighten the
idea more than where things are exprefled by their
own name. To call a good orator Cicero, or an excel¬
lent poet afecond Virgil, includes not only an encomium
from the arts themfdves, but leads the mind to what
is moft perfed in them, and was peculiar to thofe
II. Nothing is more common with orators, than a
change of perfons. Sometimes, to avoid envy, and pre¬
vent the imputation of pride, in affuming to them-
felves the praife of any laudable aftion,they aferibe it
to their hearers, and do not fay, nve, but^e did fo and
fo. At other times, when it is neceflary to remind
them of fomething which they have done amifs, or to
caution them againft fome wrong ftep for the future;
to prevent giving offence, they take it upon themfelves,
or at leaft join themfelves with them, and do not fay,
you have done this, or do not you do this; but, w have
done it, or let us not do it. And again, at other times,
in compliment to their hearers, they join them as part¬
ners in the commendable adions or virtues of other
perfons; as when the whole body of the people is
brought in to fhare the praife arifing from the fuccefs
of wife counfels or vidorious arms. Such ways of
fpeaking often occur both in Demofthenes and Cicero.
They are called communication, and come properly un¬
der a fynecdoche of the whole.
III. On the contrary, there is a mode of fpeech,
in which, by denying the contrary, more is intended
than the words exprefs. This way of fpeaking is call¬
ed litotes ; and is often ufed for modefty fake where
a perfon is led to fay any thing in his own praife, or
to foften an expreffion which in dired terms might
found harfh or give offence. As if one fhould fay, /
do not commend you for that; meaning, I greatly dif-
commend or blame you for it. Where more being un-
derftood than the words exprefsly denote, it is propet*
ly a fynecdoche of the part. Not that this manner of
fpeaking is always to be fo interpreted; but where it
is not, there is no trope; which muft be judged of by
the circumftances of the difeourfe. But that it fre¬
quently is fo ufed, might be eafily fhewn from many
inftances; though it will be fufficient to mention two
or three. Cicero fpeaking of Cotta, calls him no mean
orator, whom he had juft called a very great orator.-
And he fays of Varro, that, “ he purlued his ftudies
not without induftry;” and afterwards gives him the
charader “ of a man of the greateft application.”
. Which paffages, compared together, plainly (hew the
import of thofe negative expreflions. And a friend
of Cicero, writing to him, begins his letter thus: “ Al¬
though I am fenfible the news I fend you will not be
very pleafant.” This news was concerning thedeafh
of another friend of Cicero’s; and there by the words
not very pleafant, muft to be fure be meant very un-
pleafant and melancholy ; but he chofe that exprefiion
in the beginning of his letter, as the fofteft and leaft
Ihocking, the better to prepare him for the following
account of what that news was. And this way inter¬
preters explain that paffage in St Matthew: And thou
Bethlehem in the land of Juda are not the leaft among
the princes of Juda ; where, by not the leaft, they
underftand the greateft, or very great, upon account of
the honour it received by the birth of our Saviour, as
the words immediately following plainly intimate.
IV. When any difpleafing or ungrateful thing is
expreffed by a more foft and agreeable word, it is call¬
ed euphemifm. And as the word made ufe of is either
con-
56
iPart III. ORA
ocution. contrary to the proper word, or only different from it,
’ it may be referred to different tropes. The Latins
have a foft way of expreffing their difregard to a per-
fon, by faying valeat; which we have borrawed from
them, and fay, fare him 'well. When the contrary
being intended to what is expreffed, it comes properly
under an irony. And as the word death carries in it
an idea that is difagreeable to human nature, inftead
of faying a perfon is dead, we often fay he is deceafed,
or departed; which we have alfo taken from the La¬
tins, who ufe the words decejjit and obiit, in the fame
fenfe. So that in both languages it comes under a
fynecdoche of the whole; to depart out of life being
one fort of departure. But when the evangelift fpeak-
ing of Stephen, who was ftoned to death, expreffes it
by faying that he fell afleep ; this is a beautiful meta¬
phor, taken from the fimilitude between the death of
a good man and fleep.
V. fignifies in general any harfh trope,
though it is rnoft commonly found in metaphors. It
is principally ufed by poets, who make choice of it
for novelty, or to enforce an expreffion, where the pro¬
per word does not feem ftrong enough. As when Mil-
ton, in defcribing the angel Raphael’s defcent from
heaven, fays, he
Sails between worlds and worlds;
where the novelty of the word enlivens the image more
than if he had faid flies. But it is fometimes found
in the graveft authors, and even in the facred writings.
So we read of the Hood of the grape. And Solomon
fays, the horfe-leech hath two daughters. In all thefe
inftances the trope is a metaphor. But when St John
fays in the Revelations, I turned to fee the voice that
fpake to me, it is here a metonymy of the adjunft; the
word voice being put for the perfon who uttered it. In
St Matthew we read of Simon the leper; not that he
was then a leper, but had been fo, and was cured;
which is a fynecdoche of the part. And when a cri¬
minal is faid to have had bis reward, that is, his punifh-
ment, it is an Irony.
VI. Hyperbole is the boldeft of all tropes; for it ex-
59 ceeds the drift bounds of truth, and reprefents things
either greater or lefs, better or worfe, than they really
are. But the reprefentation is made in fuch a manner
as not to impofe on the hearers. For an hyperbole is
not ufed to define or defcribe any thing accurately,
but only to magnify or deprefs it in a confiderable de¬
gree, when we either cannot or do not choofe to re-
prefent it exaftly. The excefs in this trope is called
auxefs ; as when we fay of any thing that is very-
high, it reaches to the /kies. The defeft, or contrary
extreme, is termed meiofis: So we fay of a very lean
perfon, he is nothing but /kin and bones, or a mere /ke-
leton. It is principally metaphorical, but fometimes
taken from other tropes. When Saul and Jonathan
are faid to have been fwifter than eagles, andflronger
than lions, the expreffion is founded in fimilitude, and
is therefore a metaphor. When, infteadjof faying Cato
was a very virtuous man, the hiftor.ian calls him the
image of virtue; it is an hyperbolical metonymy of
the adjundt for the fubjeft. And when we read in
the Mofaic hiftory of cities fenced up to heaven, there
is a fynecdoche. But if a man of weak fight be faid
to be eagle-eyed, it is an irony. Thofe hyperboles which
are expreffed comparatively, are commonly moft em-
T O R Y. 5701
phatical, becaufe they fliew a peculiarity in the excefs. Elocution.
To fay a thing is as light as a feather, carries the idea
very far; but to fay it is lighter, not only carries it
ftill farther, but alfo heightens it, by leaving the mind
at an uncertainty where to fix the limits.
VII. Sometimes two or more tropes, and thofe of 60
a different kind, are contained under one word ; fo
that feveral gradations, or intervening fenfes, come be¬
tween the word that is expreffed, and the thing de-
figned by it. And this is called a metalepfis. The
contefts between Sylla and Marius proved very fatal
to the Roman ftate. Julius Caefar was then a young
man. But Sylla obferving his afpiring genius, faid of
him, “ In one Caefar there are many Mariufes.” Now
in this expreffion there is a metalepfis. For the word
Marius, by a fynecdoche, or antonomafia, is put for any
ambitious and turbulent perfon; and this again, by a
metonymy of the caufe, for the ill effe&s of fuch a tem¬
per to the public. So that Sylla’s meaning, divefted
of thefe tropes was, that Caefar would prove the moft
dangerous perfon to the Roman ftate that ever was
bred in it: Which afterwards proved true in the event.
So when Virgil, defcribing that part of the African
coaft where tineas arrived with his fhips, fays, A dark
wood hung over it; the word dark, by a metonymy of
the effeft, is put for Jhady, and that again by the fame
trope for thick ; for his meaning is, a thick wood. But
the words of Dido, in the fame poet, contain a larger
gradation, when ffie fays,
Happy, ah truly happy had I been,
If Trojan fliips our coafts had never feen.
In which expreffion, firft by a metonymy of the adjunct,
the fliips are put for theTrojans in the (hips; and thefe,
by a fynecdoche of the whole, for iEneas, who was one
of them ; and again, his arriving on thecoaft, by a me¬
tonymy of the caufe, for her feeing him; and laftly,
her feeing him, by the fame trope, for the paffion (he
had for him. So that her meaning is, ffie had been
happy, if flie had never entertained a paffion for iE-
neas. This trope is more frequently to be met with in
poets than in orators, as they take greater liberty in
ufing diftant allufions than is fuited to that perfpi-
cuity of expreffion which is required in oratory. But
as Quintilian has well obferved, all the intermediate
links of the chain in this trope are of no further ufe
than to lead the mind gradually from the firft to the
laft, the better to perceive their conneftion. As in
the example laft mentioned, relating to Dido, if we
drop all the intervening fteps, and connedl the words-
expreffed with what is diredtly intended, they will be
found to contain a very remote caufe put for the ef¬
fect, which comes under a metonymy. On the contray,
in the fecond example, where dark (lands tor thick, the
effeft is put for a remote caufe. And the firft, which
is founded in a fimilitude of temper between Casfar
and Marius, belongs to a metaphor.
VIII. Allegory. As a metalepfis comprifes feveral ^
tropes in one word, fo this is a continuation of feveral
tropes in one or more fentences. Thus Cicero fays,
“ Fortune provided you no field, in which your vir¬
tue could run and difplay itfdfWhere the'words
fleld and run are metaphors taken from corporeal
things, and applied to the mind. And in another
paffage, ("peaking of himfelf, he fays, “ Nor was I fo
timorous, that after I had (leered the (hip of the date
through*
5702
Elocution, through the greateft ftorms and waves, and brought
her fafe into port, I fliould fear the cloud of your fore¬
head, or your colleague’s peftilent breath. I faw other
winds, I perceived other (torms, I did not withdraw
from other impending tempers; but expofed myfelf
fingly to them for the common fafety.” Here the flate
is compared to a ihip, and all the things faid of it un¬
der that image are exprefled in metaphors made ufe
of to fignify the dangers with which it had been threat¬
ened. And indeed allegories generally confifl of me¬
taphors; which being the moft beautiful trope, a num¬
ber of them well chofen and put together is one of
the fineft and brighteft ornaments in language, and
exceeds a fingle metaphor in luftre, as a conftellation
does a feparate liar. It is true, that allegories are
fometimes found in other tropes; but this is very rare.
In that known expreffion of Terence, the tropes are
all metonymies: Without Ceres and Bacchus Venus
grows cold; that is, divefted of the tropes, Without meat
and drink, love dies. And Samfon’s riddle is made up
of fynecdoches; “ Out of the eater came forth meat,
and out of the ftrong came forth fweetnefs.” But
there is no fmall fkill required in the right manage¬
ment of allegories. For care fbould be taken, that
the fame kind of trope be carried through the whole,
fo as to compofe one uniform and confident fet of
ideas: otherwife they drefs up a chimera, a thing that
has no exidence, and of which the,mind can form no
perception. And, as Quintilian fays very judly, “ to
begin with a temped and end with a fire, would be
very ridiculous and unnatural.” It is likewife very
neceflary that the allufions be all plain and evident,
efpecially where the name of the thing alluded to is
not exprejfed. Thefe are called pure allegories. As
that of Cicero: “ So it happens, that I, whofe bufi-
nefs it is to repell the darts, and heal the wounds, am
obliged to appear before the adverfaries have thrown
any dart ; and they are allowed a time to attack us,
when it will not be in'our power to avoid theaffault; and
if they throw a poifonous dart, which they feem pre¬
pared to do, we fliall have no opportunity to apply a
remedy.” The tropes here are all taken from mili¬
tary affairs, without any intimation what they are ap¬
plied to. But that is plain from the context of the
difcourfe. For he is fpeaking of the difadvantages he
laboured under in defending his client againft thofe of
the oppofite fide, and fo applies to the bar thofe
terms which were proper to the field. But where the
reference is not evident, it becomes a riddle ; which
is nothing elfe but an obfcure allegory. To avoid this,
therefore, the beft writers generally ufe what they call
mixed allegories; that is, fuch wherein the proper name
of the thing is expreffed, which the whole fimili-
tude refpedts. Of this kind is that in the fpeech of
king Philip of Macedon, given us by Juftin, where he
fays, “ I perceive that cloud of a dreadful and bloody
war arifing in Italy, and a thunder-ftorm from the
weft, which will fill all places with a large (bower of
blood, wherever the temped of vi&ory (hall carry it.”
The proper words war, blood, and vittory, being join¬
ed to the tropes cloud, Jhower,-un&tempeJ}, in this fen-
tence, render the feveral parts of the (imilitude plain
and evident. Quintilian thinks thofe allegories mod
beautiful, where the whole fimilitude is expreffed, and
thofe words, which in their proper fenfe relate to one
Part Hill
of the two things between which the comparifon is Elocutioi|aj
made, are allegorically applied to the other: As when Tij
Cornelius Nepos lays of Atticus, « If that pilot |
gains the greateft reputation who preferves his (hip
in a boifterous and rocky fea ; ought not he to be
thought a man of lingular prudence, who arrived in |||
fafety through fo many and fo great civil tempefts ?”
Thefe are the allegories with which orators are chiefly ijj
concerned.
§ 2. Of Figures.
This term feems to have been borrowed from the fit |||
llage, where the different habits and gcftures of the
adtors, fuitable to the feveral charadters they fuftained,
were by the Greeks called c^^ara, and by the Latins
figtiree: And it is not unufual with us to fay of a per-
fon, both with refpedt to his drefs and adiion, that he S
makes a very bad, or a very gracefid, figure. And as
language is the drefs, as it were, of our thoughts, in
which they appear and are reprefented to others; fo
any particular manner of fpeaking, may in a large
fenfe of the word be called its figure, in which lati¬
tudes writers fometimes ufe it. But rhetoricians have
reftrained the fenfe of the word to fuch forms of fpeech
as differ from the more common and ordinary ways of
expreffion ; as the theatrical habits of aftors, and
their deporement on the ftage, are different from their
ufual garb and behaviour at other times. A figure
therefore, in the fenfe it is ufed by rhetoricians, is, A
mode of fpeaking different from, and more beautiful and
empbatical than, the ordinary and ufual way of exprefs-
ing the fame fenfe. Now as the habits and geftures
of our bodies are in a manner infinitely variable, fo
it is plain that the different forms of fpdech are almoft
innumerable. But every alteration from the common
manner ought not to be efteemed a figure, nor de-
ferves that charadter. It muff contain fome beauty,
or exprefs fome paflion, to merit a place among rheto¬
rical figures, and be marked out for imitation.
The fubjedl oifigures feems to have been one of the
lad things which was brought into the art of oratory
in order to complete it. Ariftotle, who treats fo ac¬
curately upon other parts, fays very little of thi*.
But the Greek writers who came after him have
abundantly fupplied that deficiency. It is to them we
owe the chief obfervations, that have been made on
this fubjeft. They took notice of the feveral modes
and turns of expreflion, obferved their force and
beauty, and gave them particular names by which they
might be known and diftinguifhed from each other.
And indeed they have treated the matter with that
minutenefs and fubtility, that Quintilian feems, not
without reafon, to think they have multiplied figures to
an excefs. But though it was folate before they were
taken notice of, and introduced into the art of
fpeaking; yet the ufe of them in difcourfe was doubt-
lefs very ancient. The author of Homer’s life, which
fome have afcribed to Plutrach, has (hewn, by examples
taken out of him, that there is fcarce a figure men¬
tioned by rhetoricians, but is to be met with in that
moft ancient poet. And, if we confider the nature of
fpeech, we fhall eafily perceive that mankind muft
have been under a neceffity very early to introduce the
ufe of tropes for fupplying the want of proper words
to exprefs their Ample ideas: fo the like neceflity muft
have
ORATORY.
PartHI. ORATORY. 5703
elocution, have put them upon the ufe of figures to reprefent
  their different paffions. Tho’both of them were after¬
wards increafed, and improved in fuch a manner as to
become the chief ornaments of language. The paffions
of men have been always the fame ; they are implanted
in us by nature, and we are all taught to difcover
them by the fame ways. When the mind is difturbed,
we (hew it by our countenance, by our aftions, and
by our words. Fear, joy, anger, alter the counte¬
nance, and occafion different emotions and geftures of
the whole body. And we know with what paffion a
man is affe&ed, by hearing his words, though we do
not fee him. He does not exprefs himfelf as he ufually
does at other times when cool and fedate. Objedts
appear to him in a different view, and therefore he
cannot but fpeak of them in a different way. He in¬
terrogates, he exclaims, he admires, he appeals, he
invokes, he threatens, he recalls his words, repeats
them, and by many other different turns of expreffion
varies his fpeech, no lefs than his countenance, front
his common and ordinary manner. Now as nature
feems to teach us by thefe figurative expreffions how
to reprefent the different commotions of our minds,
hence fome have thought fit to call figures the language
of the paffions. And as thefe are given us, among
other wife ends, to excite us the better to provide for
our prefervation and fafety, this is done fometimes by
force of arms, and at other times by difcourfe. And
therefore Cicero very handfomely compares the con-
duft of an orator to the exercifes of the palseftra : in
which, as each Combatant endeavours not only to de¬
fend himfelf, and attack his adverfary, but likewife
to do both with decency ; fo the principal weapons of
an orator, as he reprefents them, are figures, which
being no lefs the ornaments of language than images
of our paffions, anfwer all thefe purpofes. Befides,
figures chiefly diftinguifh the different kinds of ftyle,
furnilh it with an agreeable variety, and often ferve to
feprefent things in a clear and forcible manner.
From this (hort account of the nature of figures, the
advantage of them to an orator is very evident. They
are a fort of natural eloquence, which every one falls
into without attending to it, fuitably to that temper
o mind, with which he is affefted himfelf, and is
defirous to affeft others. In a cool and fedate dif¬
courfe, fuch figures as convey our fentiments with the
greateft ftrength and evidence are mod proper. And
there are others, which are fuited to brighten and en¬
liven more gay and fprightly fubje&s. Others again
are more peculiarly adapted to exprefs the diforders
and perturbations of the mind. To repeat the fame
thing again would many times, be deemed a tautology
and impertinent ; but to do this when the mind is
ruffled, is not only allowable, but the repetition ren-
j. ders it more ftrong and affefting. So likewife to in¬
terrogate, exclaim, or admire, under the influence of
a paffidn, impreffes the hearers, and difpofes them to
attention ; whereas at another time perhaps fuch ways
of fpeaking would fcarce be confident with prudence.
There is a natural fympathy in mens minds, which
difpofes them to receive impreffions from thofe with
whom they converfe. Thus one gay and pleafant
companion gives a chearfulnefs and vivacity to a
whole company whereas on the contrary, one who
is dull and flegmatic damps the fpirits of all about
Vol. VIII. i
him, and affefls them with the fame gloomy temper. Elocution-
Figures are peculiarly ferviceable to an orator for an- “
fwering thefe different intentions. And as he finds
them in life, from thence he mud copy them ; as a
paintSIr does the features of the countenance, and the
feveral parts of the body ; figures being to the one what
lines and colours are to the other. The defign of
Catiline to dedroy the Roman date and burn the city,
is a dory well known. There was an army drawn to¬
gether at a proper didance to favour the undertaking;
and others were left in Rome, who had their parts
affigned them for burning the city, and dedroying
thofe who (hould efcape the flames. And in a word,
every thing was ready for putting in execution this
horrid and barbarous fcheme. So that nothing re¬
tarded it but the taking off Cicero, who was then
counful, which was thought neceffary to be done firft.
Cicero, upon information of the defign againd his
life, finds means to prevent it, and the fame day calls
together the fenate. And Catiline, who was a man
of confummate boldnefs, had the confidence to ap¬
pear in that affembly. Upon their meeting, Cicero
opens to them the whole affair of the confpiracy, and
the defign againft himfelf, in a mod warm and pa¬
thetic harangue. In which he had two things in
view; to raife the indignation of the fenate againd:
the confpirators, and particularly againd Catiline;
and, either by terrifying or exafperating him, to
oblige him to leave the city. Now he does not begin
this fpeeeh in his ufual manner at other times, by
addreffing to his audience, befpeaking their favour
and attention, or letting them gradually into the de¬
fign of what he was about to fay ; but as Catiline
was prefent, he immediately falls upon him with
vehemence, in the following manner : “ How far,
Catiline, will you abufe our patience? How long will
your fury infult us ? What bounds will you fet to
your unbridled rage ? Does neither the night guard
of the palace, nor the city watch, nor the peoples
fear, nor the agreement of all good men, nor the
meeting of the fenate in this fortified place, nor the
countenances and looks of this affembly, at all move
you ? Do not you perceive your defigns are difeo-
vered, and that all who are prefent know of your con-
fpracy ? Who of us do you think is ignorant of what
you did the lad night, and the night before, where
you was, who were with you, and what you refolved
on? O times, O manners! The fenate knows this,
the eonful fees it; and yet this man lives!—-lives ? nay,
comes into the fenate, joins in the public counfeis,
obferves and marks out each of us for dedruftion!”
And in the fame impetuous drain he proceeds through
bis whole fpecch, interfperfing a great variety of the
like drong and moving figures. And the difcourfe
had its defired effeft: for when Catiline dood up
afterwards to make his defence, the whole fenate was
fo inflamed, and their refentments againd him roie fo
high, from what Cicero had faid, that they had not
patience to hear him fpeak ; upon which he left both
them and the city. Had Cicero, indead of venting his
jod indignation againd the author of fo barbarous and
inhuman a defign, in the manner he did, by figures
fuited to drike the paffions of his hearers ; had he,
initead of this, attempted to reafon with him, and told
the dory in a cold and lifelefs manner, he would have
3 2 F expofed
S7°4
Elocution, expofcd hlmfelf to the contempt of Catiline; and by
' " ^"leaving the fenate liitle or nothing moved at what
he faid, prevented perhaps their coming to thofe
fpeedy and vigorous refolutions which were neceS'ary
at fo critical a juncture. Let us fuppofe him to have
expoftulated with Catiline in much the fame words as
tcfore, but thrown into a different form, and divefted
of thofe pathetic figures. As thus: “ Catiline, you
have really abufed our patience to a great degree.
You have infulted us with your furious proceedings a
long while. You feem to .have fixed no bounds to
your unbridled rage. Neither the night-guard of the
palace, nor the city- watch, nor the peoples fear, nor the
agreement among good men, nor the calling together
of the fenate in this fortified place, nor the counte¬
nances and looks of this affembly, appear to move you
in the leaft. I affure you we are all of us apprifed of
what you did the laft night, and the night before,
where you was, and who were with you, and what re¬
folutions you came to. Thefe are fad times, the age
is very degenerate ; that the fenate fhould know all
this, the conful fee it; and yet that this man fliould
live, come into the fenate, hear all our debates, and
mark us out to deftroy us.” You fee the fenfe is en¬
tirely the fame, and the words too in a great meafure ;
fo that there is little more than an alteration in the form
of them. And yet who does not perceive how flat and
languid fuch a way of talking muft have appeared at
that time ? and how much it lofes of that ipirit and
energy, which (hews itfelf in Cicero’s manner of ex-
preffion ? Had he delivered himfelf thus, it might in¬
deed have made the fenate look upon Catiline as an
abandoned wretch, loft to all virtue and goodnefs, and
perhaps have moved fome to pity him on that account;
as we are eafily induced to compalfionate perfons in
fuch circumftances, efpecially when defcended from
noble and virtuous anceftors, which was his cafe. But
fnre it would have been ill fuited to fire their minds
with that generous regard for their country, and the
neceffary precautions for its fecurity, which the cir¬
cumftances of the date then required. Nor would
Catiline have been at all deterred by it, but rather en¬
couraged in the profecution of his defigns, from the
little effeft a fpeech fo managed muft probably have
had upon the minds of the fenators. But Cicero
knew very well, that the paffions of mankind are the
fprings of adtion: that it is many times not fufficient
for an orator to convince their minds, by fetting the
truth in a clear light; but he muft alfo raife their
hopes, alarm their fears, inflame their anger, or ex¬
cite fome other fuitable pafiion, before they will be
brought to aft 'with that zeal and fervour, which the
cafe may require. And as he was admirably well
(killed in this art of touching the paffions, he feldom
fails to fix upon the proper methods of doing it, and
makes choice of fuch figures and modes of (peaking
as in the ftrongeft manner reprefent the emotions of
his own mind. For every paffion is not to be exprefled
by the fame figures, any more than it is drawn by the
fame lines, or painted with.the fame colours. When
Dido finds that iEneas is about to leave her, (he ufes
all her arts to detain him. And as perfons in great
diftrefs are feldom at a lofs to exprefs their condition
sn the moft affefting way; (he difcovers her fear,
anger, revenge, with the whole crowd of diforders
Part III.
which then poflefled her mind, in a variety of moving Elocutiom
figures, fuited to raife the counter paffions in his r‘
breaft, as is finely reprefented by Virgil in that artful
fpeech he has made for her, which we forbear to re¬
cite for no other reafon but the length of it. But
what particular figures are moft accommodated to an-
fwer the-feveral ends propofed by them, will beft ap¬
pear when we come to*treat of them feparately.
We (hall therefore now proceed to lay down a few
direftions for the proper ufe of figures. And firft
they (hould always be accommodated to the fentiments,
and rife in proportion to the images defigned to be
conveyed by them. So far as they ^re founded in
reafon, they are fuited to imprefs the mind ; but
where the language outftrips the thought, though
it may pleafe the ear, and fome weak perfons may be
carried away with a pomp of words, yet an intelligent
hearer will foon fee through the thin and airy drefs.
It is the fenfe which gives weight to the figure, as
that by ftriking the imagination awakens the mind,
and excites it to aft in conformity to reafon. Again,
in the ufe of pathetic figures, it is generally better to
be nervous than copious, that the images, by their
clofer union, may imprefs the mind with greater force
and energy; though in fuch figures as are deugned
for ornament or illuftration, a more diffufive way of
painting is fometimes agreeable. But farther, the too
frequent ufe of figures ought to be avoided. For what
was obferved in relation to gropes, is alfo true with
refpeft to thefe ; that a great number of them is apt
to darken and obfcure the ftyle. And befides, Ci¬
cero’s refleftion in this cafe is very juft, That “ it is
hard to fay, what (hould be the reafon, that’ thofe
things, which moft affeft us with a fenfible pleafure,
and at firft fight fooneft move us, do likewife fooneft
cloy and fatiate us.” But that it is fo, we find by
common experience. Laftly, figures (hould be fo
interwoven in a difeourfe, as not to render the ftyle
rough and uneven, fometimes high and at other times
low; now dry and jejune, then pompous and florid.
In a word, they (hould rather feem to arife from nature
than art ; to offer themfelves, than to be the effeft of
ftudy ; and to appear not like patches upon a face,
but the agreeable beauty of a found and healthful
complexion. But of this we (hall have occafion to
fpeak more at large hereafter, in treating upon the
different kinds or charafters of ftyle.
As to the divifion of figures, which is what remains
to be confidered, they are ufually divided into two
forts, figures of words, and figures of fentences.
Tbe difference between them confifts in this ; that in
the former, if you alter the words, or fometimes only
the fituation of them, you deftroy the figure ; but in
the latter the figure remains, whatever words are
made ufe of, or in what manner foever the order of
them is changed. Thus when the name of a perfoti
or thing is repeated, to intimate fome known property
or quality belonging thereto, it is a verbal figure
called place. Cicero was a true patriot and hearty
lover of his country. And therefore we /hall ufe this ,
figure in faying, that the time of Catiline's con-
fpiracy Cicero appeared like Cicero. The fenfe would
remain the fame, but the figure would be loft, if we
(hould alter the words, and fay, at that time Cicero,
appeared like hitnfelf. So when two or more fentences,.
or
ORATORY.
Part III.
ij Elocution, or members of a fentence, end with the fame word,
i “ it is called epiftrophe ; as when we fay, To lofe all re-
UJh of life, is in effetl to lofe life. But if only the or¬
der of the words be changed in the latter claufe thus,
To lofe all relif} of life, is to lofe life in effett; the
figure vanifhes. And this is the nature of the verbal
figures. But it is not fo in figures of fentences ; they
continue the fame, whatever alterations are made in
the words. An orator fometimes thinks it proper to
change the form of his difcourfe, and addrefs himfelf
to his audience, or an abfent perfon, or elfe perhaps
to introduce fome other perfon as fpeaking to them,
whofe words may be fuppofed to carry greater weight
and authority with them than his own. The former
of thefe is called apojlrophe, and the latter profopopceia
or imagery ; which require no certain words, or order
I ■ of expreffion.
Art. I. Verbal Figures.
These may be diftinguifhed into three forts, as
they con fid in a deficiency of words, a redundancy, or
a repetition.
I. Of the firft fort are ellipjis and afyndeton.
fa Ellipfis, is when one or more words are wanting in
a fentence, to complete the conftru&ion, and fully ex-
prefs the fenfe. This figure is often ufed in proverbial
fpeeches: as when we fay, Many men, many minds :
that is, have many minds; and, The more danger, the
' more honour, that is, gains more honour. But where
more is intended by fuch exprefiions than mere brevity,
and efpecially when they are the effeft of fome paffion*
the figure receives another name, and is called apofio-
pejis, which is placed among the figures of fentences,
where we (hall confider it. ,
(jj Afyndeton, is when the particles that conncft the
members of a fentence one with another are left
out, to reprefent either the celerity of an a&ion,
or the hade and eagernefs of the fpeaker. Thus Cas-
far exprefles his fpeedy conqueft of Pharnaces: 1 came,
I fain, I conquered. If he had inferted the copula¬
tives, and faid, 1 came, and I faav, and I conquered: it
would have retarded the expreffion, and not given to full
and juft an idea of the fwiftnefs of the aftion. In the
laft article we took notice of the vehement and impe¬
tuous manner in which Cicero attacked Catiline in
his firft oration, where his defign was to fire the minds
of the fenate againft him, and oblige him to leave the
city; both which points he gained by that fpeech.
The next day therefore, when Catiline was gone, he
calls together the body of the citizens, and makes a
fpeech to them, which in a fort of rapture or tranfpoft
of mind he thus begins, by acquainting them with
the departure of Catiline, He is gone, departed, efca-
ped, broke out; intimating at the fame time both the
exceffive rage in which Catiline Ifcft Rome, and the
great pleafure with which he was himfelf affefled on
that account. This concife way of fpeaking adds like-
wife a confiderable emphafis to an expreffion, and by
bringing the feveral parts of a thing nearer together
affe&s the mind with greater force. Thus Cicero fets
Cato’s charadter in a very ftrong and beautiful light
by the ufe of this figure. “ Nature itfelf (fays he)
has made you a great and excellent man for integrity,
gravity, temperance, magnaminity, juftice, in a word,
for all virtues.”
J7°5
II. The fecond fort of verbal figures is contrary Elocution,
to thefe, and confifts in a redundancy or multiplicity
of words; which are likewife two, pleonafmus and po-
lyfyndeton.
When we ufe more words than are neceffary to ex- 64.
prefs a thing, it is called pleonafmus. This is done
fometimes for greater emphafis, as when we fay, Where
in the world is he ? At other times it is defigned to af-
cetuain the truth of what is faid : So the fervant in
Terence, when the truth of what he had related was
called in queftion, replies, It is certainly fo, I faw it
with thefe very eyes.
When the feveral parts of a fentence are united by 65
proper particles, it is called polyfyndeton. This adds a
weight and gravity to an expreffion, and makes what
is faid to appear with an air of folemnity ; and by re¬
tarding the courfe of the fentence, gives the mind an
opportunity to confider and refleft upon every part di-
ftindly. We often meet with this figure in Demoft-
henes, which very well fuits with the gravity of his
ftyle. So he encourages the Athenians to profecute
the war againft king Philip of Macedon, from this
confideration, that now “ they had (hips, and men,
and money, and. ftores, and all other things which
might contribute to the ftrength of the city, in greater
number and plenty than in former times. Every ar¬
ticle here has its weight, and carries in it a proper mo¬
tive to animate them to the war. And if you remove
the copulatives, the fentence will lofe much of its
force.
III. The third kind of verbal figures confift in a re¬
petition. And either the fame word in found or fenfe,
is repeated; or one of a like found, or fignification,
or both.
Ofthe former fort there are ten, called antanacla-
fs, place, epizeuxis, climax, anaphora, epiflrophe, fym-
ploce, epanalepfis, anadiplqjis, and epanodos. The two
firft of thefe agree in found, but differ in fenfe; the
eight following agree in both.
When the fame word in found but not in fenfe is re- 6S
peated, it is called antanaclafis. This figure fome¬
times carries a poignancy in it; and when it appears na¬
tural and eafy, difeovers a ready turn of thought. As
when a fon, to clear himfelf of fufpicion, affured his fa¬
ther he didnot wait for his death ; his father replied.
But I defire you would wait for it. Here the word
wait is taken in two different fenfes. It is likewife
ufed on ferious occafions, as in grave and moral pre¬
cepts, which are apt to affeft the mind with greater
pleafure when delivered in an agreeable drefs. As
this ; Care far thofe things in your youth, whiah in old
age may free you from care : Where the word care in
the former place fignifies to provide, and in the latter
anxiety of mind. And even our Saviour himfelf once
ufes this figure, when he fays to one of his difciples,
who defired to be difmiffed from attending him that
he might go and bury his father; Follow me, and let
the dead bury their dead: Where dead in one place
denotes a natural death, and in the other a moral or
fpiritual death.
Sometimes the name of fome perfon or thing is re-
peated again, to denote fome particular charadler or *
property defigned to be expreffed by it; and then
it is called place. Thus Cicero fays, Toung Cato wants
experience, but yet he is Cato ; meaning he had the
32 F 2 ftcady
ORATORY.
5706 O R A T
Elocution, fteacly temper of the family. And fo in the pro¬
verbial expreffion: An ape is an ape, drefs him ever
fo fine.
When a word is repeated again with vehemence in
the fame fenfe, it is called This figure (hews
O R Y. Partin.
and your anceftors have undergone the greateft la- Elocution,
hours ?”
Epifirophe, is contrary to the former, and makes
the repetition at the end of each member or fentence.
As thus : Since concord ’was loji, friendjhip •was loft.
of mind about what he fays ; and therefore has
tural tendency to excite the attention of the audience.
It is fuited to exprefs anger, furprize, forrow, and fe-
veral other paffions. As when Cicero would exprefs
his indignation againft Anthony for having been the
chief inftrument in bringing on the civil war, he fays
to him : Ton, you, Anthony, pufhed Cafar upon the
civil war. And thus he tells Catiline in his firlt invec¬
tive againft him : I'ou live; and live, not to lay aftde,
hit to purfue, your wicked deftgn. And when our Sa¬
viour would exprefs his great concern and forrow for
the wickednefs of the Jews, he does it in this pathetic
manner: 0 Jerufalem, Jerufalem, who killeft the pro¬
phets !
Climax, is a beautiful kind of repetition, when the
word, which ends the firft member of a period, be¬
gins the fecond, and fo through each member, till the
whole is finifned. There is a great deal of ftrength
as well as beauty in this figure, where the feveral fteps
rife naturally, and are clofely cpnnedted with each
other. As in this example : Thfte is no enjoyment of no good thing who has virtue.” The figi
property ’without government, no government without a
magiftrate, no magiftrate without obedience, and no
obedience where every one ads as he pleafes. But, as
Quintilian obferves, this figure lies fo open, that it is
apt to look too much like art ; for which reafon he
advifes not to ufe it often. To prevent this, therefore,
do nothing, (fays Cicero to Catiline,) you attempt
nothing, you think nothing, but what I not only
hear, but alfo fee, and plainly perceive.” It is fre¬
quently ufed by way of queftion ^ which renders it not   . ,
only beautiful, but likewife ftrong and nervous. As ing it backwards, fo that it takes in the two laft fi-
''*• the beginning of the fame fpeech : “ Does neither gures; for it both begins and ends with the fame word,
came to his own, and his own received him not. This
figure generally fuits belt with grave and folemn dif-
courfes;
is the inverfion of a fentence, or repeat-
the night-guard of the palace, nor the city-watch,
nor the peoples fear, nor the agreement of all good
men, nor the meeting of the fenate in this fortified
place, nor the countenances and looks of this affembly,
at all move you ?” And in another of his orations :
u What is fo popular as peace, which feems to afford
a pleafure, not only to beings endowed with fenfe, but
even to inanimate nature ? What is fo popular as li¬
berty, which even beafts as well as men feern to covet
and the fame word is likewife repeated in the middle.
This turn of expreffion has a beauty in it, and (hews area-
dinefs of thought. We have the following example of it
in Minutius Felix, where he is expofing the folly of the
Egyptian fuperftition. “ Ifis (fays he) with Cy-
nocephalus and her priefts, laments, bemoans, and
feeks her loft fon ; her attendants beat their breafts,
and imitate the grief of the unhappy mother ; in a
little time the fon is found, upon which they all re¬
am! prefer above all things ? What is fo popular as joice. Nor do they ceafe every year to lofe what
cafe and leifure, for the enjoyment of which you they find, or to find what they lofe. Aad is it not ri-
di-
71
the earneftnefs of the fpeaker, and his great concern fidelity was loft, liberty was loft, all was loft. And
Cicero, in the charge which he brings againft Mark
Anthony before the fenate, makes ufe of this figure,
when he fays, “ Do you lament the deftrudion of
three Roman armies ? The author of that deftrudion
was Anthony. Do you bewail the lofs of moft emi¬
nent citizens ? They have been taken from you by An¬
thony. Is the authority of this order weakened ? It
is weakened by Anthony.”
Symploce in both thefe laft figures. As in that
of Cicero: “ You would pardon and acquit him,
whom the fenate hath condemned, whom the people of
Rome have condemned; whom all mankind have con¬
demned.” Here the feveral members both begin and
end with the fame word. We have a beautiful in-
ftance of it in St Paul, when he fays: “ Are they
Hebrews ? fo am I. Are they Ifraelites ? fo am I.
Are they the feed of Abraham ? fo am I.”
When a fentence concludes with the word with which
it began, it is called epanalepfts. As in that expref¬
fion of Plautus, “Virtue contains all things, he wants
i a. 1.r ...1.v,«» 't1 1.„ £l   r- *r ^
1 the
fame, but the principle not fo honeft, in the advice
which we find given by themifer in Horace, when he
fays, “ Get money if you can, honeftly ; but however,
get money.” This figure adds a force to an expref¬
fion, when the principal thing defigned to be convey¬
ed is thus repeated, by leaving it laft upon the mind.
orators fometimes difguife it, by not repeating the fame And it heightens the beauty of it, when the fentence
word which flood in the former member, but fome has an agreeable turn arifing from two oppofite parts,
other equivalent to it. As in the following inftance As in Cicero’s compliment to Csefar : “ We have feen
of Cicero for Milo : “ Nor did he commit himfelf on- your viclory terminated by the war; your drawn
ly to the people, but alfo to the fenate; nor to the fword in the city we have not feen.” Hermogenes
fenate only, but likewife to the public forces; nor to calls this a circle, becaufe the fentence returns again
thefe only, but alfo to his power with whom the fe- to the fame word, as that geometrical figure is form-
nate had entrufted the whole commonwealth.” ed by the orbicular motion of a line to the fame
When feveral fentences, or members of a fentence, point,
begin with the fame word, it is called anaphora. This When the following fentence begins with the fame
is a lively and elegant figure, and ferves very much to word with which the former concluded, it is termed
engage the attention. For by the freqnent return of anadiplofts. As in the following inftance: Let us
the fame word the mind of the hearer is held in an think no price too great for truth ; truth cannot be
agreeable fufpence, till the whole is finiftied. “ You bought too dear. So in that paffage of St John : He
i|Part III.
i locution, diculous to lament what you worfhip, or to worfhip
rf what you lament ?” It ferves likewife to illuftrate and
enforce the fenfe, by fetting it in two oppofne views.
As in that exprefiion of the prophet: “ Wo unto
SIB them who call good evil, and evil good ; who put
darknefs for light, and light for darknefs 1”
Thofe figures which confift in a repetition of words
| of a like found or fignification, or boll?, are four ;
paror.omafia, . homoioptoton, fynonyrrria, and dcriva-
tio; the two firft of which refpe<£l words that are
fitnilar in found only, the third in fenfe, and the laft
1 in both.
•I When two words very near in found, but different
in fenfe, refped each other in the fame fentence, it is
called paronotnafta. As when we fay, After a feajl
comes a faff ; and, A friend in need is a friend in~
Ideed. We gfually call it a pun; which when new, and
H appofitely ufed, paffes for wit, and ferves to enliven
converfation. Nor is it wholly to be excluded from
grave and ferious difcourfes : for a witty jeft has many
times had a better effedt than a folid argument, and
prevailed with thofe who could not be moved by clofe
reafoning. And therefore Cicero and the beft fpeak-
ers have fometimes recourfe to it upon weighty and fo-
j . lemn occafions, as will be fhewn hereafter in its pro-
I per place.
yi When the feveral parts of a fentence end with the
fame cafe, or tenfe of a like found, this alfo is confi-
dered as a figure, and named homoioptoton. As thus:
No marvel though nnifdom complains that fie is either
’wilfully defpifed, or carelefly neglefied; either openly
fcornedt or fecretly abhorred. This figure is efteemed
moft beautiful when the parts are all of the fame
length, or pretty near it; as it adds to the harmony
of the period, and renders the cadency of the feveral
members more mufical from the juft proportion be¬
tween them. The Greek rhetoricians were much ad¬
duced to this figure, and Ifocrates is particularly ce-
4 lebrated for it. But fome of the beft orators feem to
have induftrioufly avoided it, as carrying in it too much
the appearance of art. And it is remarkable, that
this figure appears nowhere fo much in all the works of
Demofthenes, as in an oration, which he did not fpeak
himfelf, but wrote for his friend Diodorus, a man of
that tafte, who was to pronounce it as his own.
j g The next figure above-mentioned is fynonymia. Now
^ ftriftly fpeaking, fynonymous words are thofe which
have exactly the fame fenfe. But there being few
fuch, the ufe of the term is fo far extended as to com¬
prehend words of a near affinity in their fignification,
which in'difcourfe are frequently put for one another.
So, to defire, and intreat, are fometimes ufed as equi¬
valent terms; whereas to defre is no moi-e than to
wiih for a thing, and to intreat is to exprefs that in¬
clination in words. In like manner, efeem and honour,
are often taken for fynonymous words, though they
have not precifely the fame fenfe, but one is the ufual
|l confeqUence of the other; for efteem is the good opi¬
nion we entertain of a perfon in our mind, and ho¬
nour the outward expreffion of that opinion. When
two or more fuch words come together, they confti-
tute this figure. As when Cicero fpeaking of Pifo
|, fays, “ His whole countenance, which is the tacit
language of the mind, has drawn men into a miftake,
| and deceived, cheated,, impofed on thofe who did not
5707
knowjiim.” This figure fometimes adds force to an Elocution,
expreffion, by enlivening the idea ; and it often pro- ’
motes the harmony and juft cadency of a fentence,
which otherwife would drop too foon, and difappoint
the ear.
When fuch words as fpring from the fame root, as 79
jufice, jufi, injuflice, unjufi, and the like, come toge¬
ther in the fame fentence, they make the figure call¬
ed derivatio. Cicero obferving the vanity of the philo-
fophers, who affefted praife at the fame time that they
decried it, ufes this figure, when he fays of them,
“ The philofophers fet their names to thofe very
books which they write for the contempt of glory ;
and are defirous to be honoured and applauded, even
for what they fay in contempt of honour and ap-
plaufe.” This figure receives an additional beauty
when repeated, efpecially in two oppofite members;
as, He •wifhed rather to die a prefent death, than t*
live a miferable life.
Art. II. Figures of Sentekces.
Of thefe, fome are principally adapted for reafon*
ing, and others to move the paffions.
I. Thofe fuited for proof. AVhich are fix: Prolepfs,
hypohole, anacoinofts, epitrope, parabole, and antithefs.
Prolepfts, or anticipation, is fo called, when the g*
orator firft ftarts an objeftion, which he forefees may
be made either againft his conduit or caufe, agd then
anfwers it. Its ufe is to foreftall an adverfary, and
prevent his exceptions, which cannot afterwards be in¬
troduced with fo good a grace. Though it has like¬
wife a farther advantage, as it ferves to conciliate the
audience, while the fpeaker appears defirous to repre-
fent matters fairly, and not to conceal any objection
which may be made againft him. The occafions of
this figure are various ; and the manner of introdu¬
cing it very different. Sometimes the orator thinks it
neceffary to begin with it, in order to juftify his con—
duft, and remove any exceptions which may be made
againft his defign. Cicero for feveral years together,
after he firft began to plead, had always been for the
defendant in criminal cafes. And therefore, when he
was prevailed with to undertake the accufation of
Verres, he begins his oration with this apology for
himfelf: “ If any one prefent fhould wonder, that
when for feveral years paft I have fo conduced my-
felf as to defend many and accufe none, I now on a
fudden alter my cuftom, and undertake an accufation;
when he /hall have heard the occafion and reafon pf
my defign, he will both approve of it, and think no
perfon fo proper to manage this affair as myfelf.’5
And then he proceeds to give an account of the rea-
fons which moved him to engage in it. At other-
times the obje&ion is admitted as an exception to
what has been faid, but not fo as to affedt it in gene¬
ral. Thus, when Cicero has reprefented the advan¬
tages of literature and the polite arts, he Harts this
objedtion to what himfelf had faid, “ But fome one
will afk, whether thofe great men,- the memory of
whole glorious adtions is delivered down to pofterity,
were acquainted with that fort of learning I fo ap¬
plaud?” To which he replies, “ Indeed this can fcarce
be faid of them all. However, the anfwer is eafy. I
have known feveral perfons of excellent abilities, who,-
without learning, by the force of an extraordinary ge¬
nius.
ORATORY.
57°8
Elocution, nius, ^ave been men of great virtue and folidity. Nay
'I will add, that nature without learning, has ofteuer
produced thefe qualifications, than learning without a
genius. But yet it muft: ftill be owned, that where
both thefe meet, they form fomething very excellent
and lingular.” Again, at other times, the orator art¬
fully reprefents the objedion as fomething confider-
able and important, to give the greater weight to his
anfwer when he has confuted it. Cicero, in his cele¬
brated oration for the Manilian law, could not omit
to take notice, that Lucullus had already gained fe-
veral very confiderable advantages over Mithridates.
And therefore, having before defcribed the war as
very great and dangerous, apprehending thefe two ac¬
counts might appear fomewhat inconfiftent, and be
liable to an obje&ion; he puts it thus artfully himfelf:
“ But now, after what I have faid of Lucullus, it may
probably be afked, How then can the war be fo great ?
Be pleafed to hear, for there feems to be very juft
reafon for this queftion.” And then he proceeds to
fhew, from the power of king Mithridates at that time,
his great abilities, long experience in military affairs,
and frefh alliances, that the war was yet very great
and dangerous. But fometimes, when the orator is
fenfible that what he has advanced lies open to an ob-
je&ion, he omits to make it in exprefs terms; and yet
proceeds to vindicate what he had faid, as if it had
been made. Thus, when Cicero had charged Verres
with having plundered the inhabitants of Sicily of all
their plate, jewels, and other valuable moveables, which
he thought worth while to carry away ; as the audi¬
ence might imagine this to be fcarce credible, he takes
it for granted they thought fo; and therefore imme¬
diately adds, “ As ftrange as this is, I affirm it po-
fitively, without any intention to aggravate the crime.”
And fo he goes on to the proof pf his affertion. But
this figure is likewife made ufe of to guard againft
fome objection, which the fpeaker apprehends may be
made againft what he defigns to fay. And thus Ci¬
cero ufes it in his oration for Sextius. “ My province,
(fays he) as I fpeak laft, feems to call for affedtion to
' my friend, rather than his defence; complaint, rather
than eloquence; expreffions of grief, rather than art.
And therefore, if I fhall exprefs myfelf with more
warmth, or greater freedom, than thofe who have
fpoke before me, I hope you will grant me all that li¬
berty of fpeech which you judge reafonable to be al¬
lowed to an affedtionate forrow, and juft refentment.”
This figure requires great prudence and difcretion in
the management of it. The fpeaker muft conlider
well the temper, bias, and other circumftances of his
hearers, in order to form a right judgment what parts
of his difcourfe may be moft liable to exception. For
to obj df fuch things, which the hearers would never
have thought of themfelves, is to give himfelf a need-
lefs trouble ; and to ftart fuch difficulties, which he
cannot afterwards fairly remove, will expofe both him¬
felf and his caufe. But as nothing gives an audience
greater pleafure and fatisfadfion, than to have their
fcruples fully anfwered as they rife in their thoughts ;
fo on the contrary, be a difcourfe otherwife ever fo
entertaining and agreeable, if there be any doubt left
upon the minds of the hearers, it gives them a pain
that continues with them till it be removed.
St The figure hypobde or /abjection, is not much un-
ORATORY. PartlH.,
like the former; and is, when feveral things areElocution|)
mentioned that feem to make for the contrary fide, i"
and each of them refuted in order. It confifts of
three parts, when complete; a propofition, an enu¬
meration of particulars with their anfwers, and a
conclufion. Thus, C'cero upon his return from ba-
nifhment, vindicates his condudt in withdrawing fo
quietly, and not oppofing the fa&ion that ejedled him.
“ My departure (fays he) is objedfed to me, which
charge I cannot anfwer without commending myfelf.
For what muft; I fay ? That I fled from a confciouf-
nefs of guilt ? But what is charged upon me as a crime,
was fo far from being a fault, that it is the moft glo¬
rious adtion fince the memory of man, (he means his
puniffiing the aflbciates of Cataline.) That I feared
being called to an account by the people? That was
never talked of; and if it had been done, I ffiould
have come off with double honour. That 1 wanted
the fupport of good and honeft men ? That is falfe.
That I was afraid of death? That is a calumny. I
muft therefore fay, what I would not, unlefs compel¬
led to it, that I withdrew to preferve the city.” When
the objedlions are put by way of queftion, as in the
example here given, they add a bri/knefs and poignan¬
cy to the figure. All the parts of it are not conftant-
ly expreffed. For thus Cicero in his defence of Plan-
cius introduces his adverfary objecting, and himfelf
anfwering, “ The people judged ill, but they did
judge; they Ihould not have done it, but they had a
power; I cannot fubmit to it, but many very great
and wife men have.” Both the propofition and con¬
clufion are here omitted.
The next figure in order is anacoino/is, or communi¬
cation s by which the fpeaker deliberates either with
the judges, the hearers, or the adverfary himfelf.
Thus Cicero addreffes the judges in his accufation of
Verres: “ Now I defire your opinion, what you think
I ought to do. And I know your advice will be,
though you do not declare it, what appears to me ne-
ceffary to be done.” In another place we find him
reafoning in this manner with the adverfe party :
“ What could you have done in fuch a cafe, and at fuch
a time; when to have fat ftill, or withdrawn, would
have been cowardice? When the wickednefs and fury
of Saturninus the tribune had called you into the Capi¬
tol ; and the confuls, to defend the fafety and liberty
of your country ; whofe authority, whofe voice, which
party would you have followed, and whofe command
would you have chofen to obey?” This figure carries
in it an air of modefty and condeftenfion, when the
fpeaker feems unwilling to determine in his own caufe,
but refers it to the opinion of others. It likewife
fliews a perfuafioh of the equity of his caufe, that he
can leave it to their arbitration; and ferves very much
to conciliate their minds, while he joins them, as it
were, with himfelf, and makes them of his party.
And when the appeal is made to the adverfe party, it
is of confiderable advantage, either to extort a con-
feffion, or at lead to filence him. And therefore the
facred writers fometimes very beautifully introduce
God himfelf thus expoftulating with mankind; as the
prophet Malachi, ^ Jon honoureth his father, and a
fervant his majier. If then I be a father, ’where is mine
honour? and if I be a majier, ’where is my fear?
Another figure that comes under this head, is
epi-
I
iJPart III. ORATORY. 5709
cut ion. epitrope or concejfion ; which grants one thing, to ob-
tain another more advantageous. It is either real or
feigned; and either the whole of a thing, or a part
only, is granted. We fhall confider each of thefe fe-
parately, and illuftrate them with proper examples.
I Nothing more confounds an adverfary, than to grant
him his whole argument; and at the fame time either
to (hew that it is nothing to the purpofe, or to offer
fomething elfe which may invalidate it. I allow, fays
the claimant by will againfl the heir at law, that no
body was more nearly related to the deceafed than you;
that he was under fame obligations to you ; that you
were in the army together: but what is all this to the
will? And thus Cicero in his defence of Ligarius,
who was acc-ufed by Tubero for having joined with
Pompey in the civil war between him and Ctefar :
“ You have, Tubero, what an accufer would mod
1 defire, the accufed perfon confefiing the charge ; but
fo as to affirm, that he was of the fame party with
you and your excellent father. Therefore own firft
that it was a crime in yourfelf, before you charge it
as fuch upon Ligarius.” Sometimes the orator gives
up fome particular point that would well admit of a
difpute, to gain fomething more confiderable, which
he thinks cannot fairly be denied him. In the affair of
Rofcius, where the proof depended upon circumflances,
Cicero, who defended him, inquires what reafon could
be alleged for his committing fo black a crime, as to
kill his father. And after he has (hewn there was no
probable reafon to be affigned for it, he adds, “ Well,
iince you can offer no reafon, although this might be
fufficient for me, yet I will recede from my right;
and upon the affurance I have of his innocence, I will
rant you in this caufe what I would not in another,
do not therefore infift upon your telling me why he
killed his father, but afk how he did it?” This ap¬
pearance of candour and ingenuity in fuch conceffions
removes the fufpicion of art, and gives greater credit
to what is denied. We have an example of a feigned
or ironical conceffion, in Cicero’s defence of Flaccus;
where, interceding for him on the account of his for¬
mer good fervices in the time of Cataline’s confpiracy,
he fays in a way of irony, If fuch things are to be
overlooked, “ let us appeafe the ghofts of Lentulus
and Cethegus; let us recall thofe who are in exile;
and let us be punifhed for our too great affe&ion and
love for our country.” By this artful infinuation
the orator, after he has ufed all his arguments to
perfuade his hearers, does as it were fet them at li¬
berty, and leave them to their own ele&ion ; it
being the nature of man to adhere more ftedfaft-
ly to what is not violently impofed, but referred to
their own free and deliberative choice. And to
thefe feigned conceffions may be referred fuch ways
of reafcning, by which 'the orator both juftifies
a charge brought againft him upon the fuppofition
©f its being true, and alfo proves that the charge it-
felf is falfe. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Milo, re-
prefents the taking off Clodius, with which Milo was
accufed, as a glorious a&ion ; after he has (hewn that
Milo’s fervants did it without the knowledge of their
mafter.
Parabole or Jimilitude, illuflrates a thing by com¬
paring it with forae other, to which it bears a refem-
blance. Similitudes are indeed generally but weak
arguments, though often beautiful and fine ornaments. Elocution,
And where the defign of them is not fo much to prove
what is doubtful, as to fet things in a clear and agree¬
able light, they come properly under the notion of fi¬
gures. They are of two forts; fimple and compound.
Thofe are called fimple, in which one thing only is
likened or compared to another, in this manner : As
fwallows appear in Jummer, but in winter retreat; fo
falfefriendi foow tkemfelves in profperity, but allfly away
when adverfity approaches. Compound fimilitudes are
fuch, wherein one thing is likened or compared to fe-
veral others ; as thus: What light is to the world, phy-
fc to the fick, water to the thirfy, and ref to the weary;
that is knowledge to the mind. The more exaft the a-
greement is between the things thus compared, they
give the greater beauty and grace to the figure.
Antithefts or oppofition, by which things contrary 8j
or different are compared, to render them more evi¬
dent. Thus Cicero fays, “ The Roman people hate
private luxury, but love public grandeur.” This is
a very florid figure; and fuited no lefs for amplifi¬
cation than proof. As in the following inftance of
Cicero, where, fpeaking of Pompey, he fays, “ He
waged more wars than others had read ; conquered
more provinces than others had governed ; and hath
been trained up from his youth to the art of war, not
by the precepts of others, but by his own commands ;
not by mifcarriages in the field, but by vi&ories; not
by campaigns, but triumphs.” It is efteemed a beauty
in this figure when any of the members are inverted,
which fome czW antimetathefs. As where Cicero, oppo-
fing the conduft of Verres when governor of Sicily, to
that of Marcellus who took Syracufe the capital city
of that ifland, fays, “ Compare this peace with that
war, the arrival of this governor with the vidtory of
that general, his profligate troops with the invincible
army of the other, the luxury of the former with the
temperance of the latter; you will fay, that Syracufe
was founded by him who took it, and taken by him
who held it when founded.” To this figure may alfo
be referred oxymoron, or feeming contradiction; that is,,
when the parts of a fentence difagree in found, but
are confident in fenfe. As when Ovid fays of Althea,
that foe was impioufy pious. And fo Cato ufed to-
fay of Scipio Africanus, that “ he was never lefs at
leifure, than when he was at leifure ; nor lefs alone,,
than when alone :” By which he meant, as Cicero
tells us, that “ Scipio was wont to think of bufinefs
in his retirement, and in his folitude to converfe with
himfelf.” This is a flrong and bold figure, which
awakens the mind, and affords it an agreeable pleafure
to find upon refledlion, that what at firfl feemed con-
tradi&ory, is not only confident with good fenfe, but
very beautiful.
II. Thofe fuited to move the pafions. Which are 13
namely, epdnorthofs, paralepfs, parrhefa, aparithme-
fs, exergafa, hypotypofs, aporia, pofopefs, erotefs, ec-
phonefs, epiphonema, apofrophe, and profopeia.
Epanorthofs, or correction, is a figure, by whLh
the fpeaker either recalls or amends what he had lad
faid. It is ufed'different ways. For fometimes one
or more words are recalled by him, and others fub-
joined in their room ; at other times, without recall¬
ing what has been faid, fomething elfe is fubdituted
as more, fuitable. This is a very extenfive figure, and
made.*
57io ORATORY. Part III.
Elocution, made ufe of in addrefllng to different paflions. We lands, he makes ufe of this figure to reprefent the Elocmloit
have an inftance of it in Terence’s Self-tormentor, pernicious effeds of fuch a law, particularly with re-
where the old man, whofe extraordinary concern for fped to the lands in Italy. “ I do not complain
the abfence of his fon gave occafion to the name of (fays he) of the diminution of our revenues, and the
the play, thus bewails his condition to his neighbour, woful effeds of this lofs and damage. I omit what
“ I have an only fon, Chremes. Alas! did I fay that may give every one occafion for a very grievous and
I have? I had indeed; but it is now uncertain whe- juft complaint, that we could not preferve the prin-
ther I have or not.” Here, to aggravate his misfor- cipal eftate of the public, the fineft pofl'tffion of the
tune, he recalls a pleafing word, and fubftitutes ano- Roman people, the fund of our provifions, the granary
ther more affeding in its place. And Cicero, in his of our wants, a revenue entrufted with the date; but
defence of Milo, fpeaking to the judges concerning that we muft give up thofe lands to Rullus, which,
Clodius, fays, “ Are you only ignorant, what laws, after the power of Sylla, and the largeffes of the
if they may be called laws, and not rather torches and Gracchi, are yet left us. I do not fay, this is now
plagues of the ftate, he was about to impofe and force the only revenue of the ftate, which continues when
ire in hia nf Planrina It? fa vs - others rpafp. is an nrnampnf in nparp. failq na nnt in
57
upon us ?” Again, in his defence of Plancius he fays, others ceafe, is an ornament in peace, fails us not in
“ What greater blow could thofe judges, if they are war, fupports the army, and does not fear an enemy,
to be called judges, and not parricides of their coun- I pafs over all thefe things, and referve them for my
try, have given to the ftate, than when they banilhed difcourfe to the people,, and only fpeak at prefent of
him, who, when prxtor, freed the republic from a the danger of our peace and liberties.” His view
neighbouring war, and when conful, from a civil one ?” here was to raife the indignation of the fenate againft
He is fpeaking there of Opimius. But in commend- Rullus, and excite them to oppofe the law. There is
ing the moderation of Lucius Mummius, who did not a beautiful inftance of this figure in St Paul’s epiftle
enrich himlelf, but his country, by demolilhing the to Philemon, where, after he has earnei'tly intreated
wealthy city of Corinth, he thus recalls his whole ex- him to receive again Onefimus his fervant, who had
^preffion, and by giving it a new turn heightens the run from him, and promifed that if he had wronged
compliment he defigned him : “ He chofe rather him, or owed him any thing, he would repay it, he
(fays he) to adorn Italy, than his own houfe; though adds, That I may not fay, you owe even yourfelf to me,
by adorning Italy, his houfe feems to have received Nothing could be a ftronger motive to foften his dif-
the greateft ornament.” And fometimes the correc- pleafure againft his fervant, from a fenfe of gratitude
tion is made by fubftituting fomething contrary to to the apoftle. Hermogenes has obferved, that the
what had been faid before ; as in the following paf- defign of this figure is to poffefs the minds of the au-
fage of Cicero : “ Csefar, (meaning Auguftus) though dience w’ith more than the words exprefs, and that it
but a youth, by an incredible and furprifing refolu- is principally made ufe of on three occafiops: either
tion and courage, when Antony was moft enraged, when things are fmall, but yet neceffary to be men-
and we dreaded his cruel and pernicious return from tioned ; or well known, and need not be enlarged
Brundufium, at a tipie when we neither aflced, nor ex- on; or ungrateful, and therefore fhould.be intro-
petfted, nor defired it, (becaufe it was thought impof- duced with caution, and not fet in too ftrong a
fible), raifed a very powerful army of invincible ve- light. ,
terans; to effeft which, he threw away his whole eftate: The next figure abovementioned was Parrhefa, or
Tho' I have ufed an improper word ; for he did not reprehenfion : Not that whenever a perfon admonifhes
throw it away, but employed it for the fafety of the or reproves another, it is to be efteemed a figure; but
government.” At other times, as has been faid, the when it is done with art and addrefs, and in fuch cir-
corre&ion is made by adding a more fuitable word, cumftances as render it difficult not to difpleafe. The
without any repetition of the former. Thus Cicero, The orator therefore fometimes prepares his hearers
after he has inveighed againft the crimes of Verres, for this by commending them firft, urging the ne-
breaks out into this pathetic exclamation ; 0 the cle- ceffity of it, reprsfenting his great concern f^r them
mency, or rather wonder ful andftngular patience, of the as his motive, or joining himfelf with them. Thus
Roman people! He did not think the word clemency Cicero charges the fenate with the death of Servius
ftrong enough, and therefore adds patience, as better Sulpicius, for fending him to Mark Antony under a
anfwering his defign. The hidden and unexpe&ed very ill ftate of health. And his defign in it was to
turn of this figure gives a furprize to the mind, and bring them more readily into a motion he was about
by that means renders it the more pathetic. to make, that both a ftatue and a fepulchral monu-
Paralepfis, or omiffion, is another of thefe figures, ment might be eredled to his memory at the public
when the fpeaker pretends to omit, or pafs by, what expence. “ You (fays he), it is a-very fevere ex-
at the fame time he declares. It is ufed either in preffion, but Icannot help faying it; you, I fay, have de-
praife or difpraife. Thus Cicero, in his defence of prived Servius Sulpicius of his life. It was not from
Sextius, introduces his charaQer in this manner, with cruelty indeed, (for what is there with which this
a defign to recommend him to the favour of the court: aficmbiy is lefs chargeable?) but when his di^emper
“ I might fay many things of his liberality, kindnefs pleaded his excufe more than his words, from the
to his domeftics, his command in the army, and mo- hopes you conceived, that there was nothing which
deration during his office in the province: but the ho- his authority and wifdom might not be able to effedf,
nour of the ftate prefents itfeif to my view; and calling you vehemently oppofed his excufe, and obliged him,
me to it, advifes me to omit thefe leffer matters.” who always had the greateft regard for your com-
But in bis oration, to tlje fenate againft Rullus the mands, to recede from his refolution.” Sometimes,
tribune, who had propofed a law to fell the public indeed, the orator affumes an air of reproof, with a
locution view only to pafs a compliment with a better grace.
"" ' As Cicero in his addrefs to Casfar, when he fays, “ I
hear that excellent and wife faying from you with
concern. That you have lived long enough, either for
the purpofes of nature, or glory: for nature perhaps,
if you think fo; and, if you pleafe, for glory; but,
what is principally to be regarded, not for your coun¬
try.” It adds both a beauty and force to this figure,
when it is expreffed in a way of comparifon. As in
the following inftance of Cicero: “ But fince my dif-
courfe leads me to this, confider how you ought to be
affedfed for the dignity and glory of your empire.
Your anceftors often engaged in war to redrefs the
injuries of their merchants or failors: how ought you
then to refent it, that fo many thoufand Roman ci¬
tizens were murdered by one meflage, and at one time?
Your forefathers deftroyed Corinth, the principal city
in Greece, for the haughty treatment of their am-
bafiadors ; and will you fuller that king to go un-
punilhed who has put to death a Roman legate, of
confular dignity, in the moft ignominious as well as
moll cruel manner ? See, left, as it was their honour
to leave you the glory of fo great an empire, it Ihould
prove your difgrace not to be able to maintain and
defend what you have received from them.” By this
figure an addrefs is made to the more tender paffions,
jnodefty, lhatne, and emulation, the attendants of an
ingenuous temper, which is fooneft touched, and moft;
affe&ed, by a juft reproof.
g Another of thefe pathetic figures is Aparithmejist
I or enumeration, when that which might beexprelfed in
general by a few words, is branched out into feveral
particulars, to enlarge the idea, and render it the
more affe&ing. Cicero in pleading for the Manilian
law, where his defign is to conciliate the love and
elleem of the people to Pompey, thus enlarges upon
his charafter: “ Now, what language can equal the
virtue of Cneius Pompey ? What can be faid either
worthy of him, of new to you, or which every one
has not heard? For thofe are not the only virtues of
a general which are commonly thought fo; labour in
affairs, courage in dangers, induftry in afting, dif-
patch in performing, defign in contriving; which are
greater in him than in all other generals we have ever
feen or heard of.” And fo likewife, when he endea¬
vours to difpoffefs Pompey of the apprehenfion that
^ Milo defigned to affaffinate him: “ if (fays he) you
fear Milo; if you imagine that either formerly, or at
prefent, any ill defign has been formed by him againft
your life; if the foldiers ratfed through Italy, (as
fome of your officers give out), if thefe arms, if thefe
cohorts in the Capitol, if the Gentries, if the watch, if
the guards which defend your perfon and houfe, are
armed to prevent any attempt of Milo, and all of them
appointed, prepared, and ftationed on his account; he
muft be thought a perfon of great power, and incre¬
dible refolution, above the reach and capacity of a
fingle man, that the moft confumihate general, and
the whole republic are in arms againft him only. But
who does not perceive, that all the difordered and
^ finking parts of the ftate are committed to you, to
redlify and fupport them by thefe forces ?” This
might have been faid in a few words, that fuel) vaft
preparations could never be intended for fo low a
purpofe. But the orator’s view was to expofe that
Von. VIII. i
groundlefs report, and ffiame it out of countenance. Elocution.
And foon after he endeavours to raife compaffion for”"
Milo under thofe prejudices, by the fame figure: “ See
how various and changeable is the ftate of human life,
how unfteady and voluble is fortune, what infidelity
in friends, what difguifes fuited to the times, what
flights, what fears, even of the neareft acquaintance,
at the approach of dangers.” Had no addrefs to the
paffions been defigned here, fewer of thefe reflexions
might have been fufficient. The ufe of this figure in
amplification is very evident from the nature of it,
which confifts in unfolding of things, and by that
means enlarging the conception of them.
Exergajia, or expojition, has an affinity with the 9©
former figure: but it differs from it in this, that it
confifts of feveral equivalent expreffions, or nearly
fuch, in order to reprefent the fame thing in a ftronger
manner; whereas the other enlarges the idea by an
enumeration of different particulars. So that this
figure has a near relation to fynonymia, of which we
have treated before under Verbal figures. We have
an inftance of it in Cicero’s defence of Sextius, where
he fays, “ Thofe who at any time have incited the
populace to fedition, or blinded the minds of the ig¬
norant by corruption, or traduced brave and excellent
men, and fuch as deferved well of the public, have
with us always been efteemed vain, bold, bad, and per¬
nicious citizens. But thofe who repreffed the at¬
tempts and endeavours of fuch as, by their autho¬
rity, integrity, co'nftancy, refolution, and prudence,
withftood their infolence, have been always accounted
men of folidity, the chiefs, the leaders, and fupporters
of our dignity and government.” Nothing more is
intended by this paffage, but to fet the oppofite cha-
radlers of fa&ious perfons and true patriots in the
ftrongeft light, with a view to recommend the one,
and create a juft hatred and deteftation of the other.
So elfewhere he reprefents the juftice of felf-defence
in no lefs different terms: “ If reafon (fays he) pre-
feribes this to the learned, and neceffity to barbarians,
cuftom to nations, and nature itfelf to brutes, always
to ward off all manner of violence, by all poffible ways,
from their body, from their head, from their life;
you cannot judge this to- be a criminal and wicked
action, without judging at the fame time that all
perfons who fall among robbers and affaffins muft
either perifh by their Jweapons, or your fentence.”—•
He is addreffing here to the judges in favour_of Milo.
The warmth and vehemence of the fpeaker often runs
him into this figure, when he is affefted with his fub-
je£l, and thinks no words, no expreffions, forcible
enough to convey his fentiments ; and therefore re¬
peats one after another, as his fancy fuggelts them.
This ftgw of expreffion, under the conduct of a good
judgment, is often.attended with advantage; as it
warms the hearers, and impreffes their minds, excites
their paffions, and helps them to fee things in a ftronger
li8ht-
Hypotypojis, or imagery, is a defeription of things
painted in fuch ftrong and bright colours, as may help
the imagination of the hearers to conceive of them
rather as prefent to their view, than deferibed in
words. It is peculiarly fuited for drawing chara&ers;
and often affords the fined ornaments in poetry and
hiftory, as well as oratory. Nor is it lefs moving,
32 G but
5712 O R A T
Elocution, but fuited to finite different paflions, according to the
nature of the fubjeft, and artful management of the
fpeaker. Cicero haa thus drawn the pi&ure of Cati¬
line, confifting of an unaccountable mixture of con¬
trary qualities. “ He had (fays he) the appearance
of the greatelt virtues! he made ufe of many ill men
to carry on his defigns, and pretended to be in the
intereft of the bed men; he had a very engaging be-
- haviour, and did not want induftry nor application;
he gave into the greateft loofenefs, but was a good
foldier. Nor do I believe there was ever the like
monfter in the world, made of fuch janing and re¬
pugnant qualities and inclinations. Who at one time
was more acceptable to the beft men, and who more
intimate with the word? Who was once a better pa¬
triot, and who a greater enemy to this date? Who
more devoted to pleafures, who more patient in la¬
bours? Who more rapacious, and yet more profufe?
He fuited himfelf to the humours of all he converfed
with: was ferious with the referved, and pleafant with
the joeofe; grave with the aged, and facetious with
the young ; bold with the daring, and extravagant
with the profligate.”—Such a charafter of a man,
when accompanied with power and intered, mud
render him no lefs the objeft of fear, than detedation;
which was the defign of Cicero in this defcription.
And elfewhere, in order to prevail with the fenate to
dire&the execution of thofe confpirators with Catiline
who were then in prifon, he paints the mod difmal
fcene of that horrid defign in the dronged colours.
“ Muhinks (fays he) I fee this city, the light of the
world, and citadel of all nations, fuddenly falling into
one fire; I perceive heaps of miferable citizens un¬
buried in their ruined country; the countenance and
fury of Cethegus raging in your flaughter, prefents
itfelf to my view.” This figure is very ferviceable in
amplification, as we have formerly fhewn in treating
upon that fubjedl. But no fmall judgment is required
in the management of defcriptions. L.effer circum-
dances flionld either be wholly omitted, or but llightly
touched; and thofe which are more material drawn in
their due proportion. Nature is as much the rule of
the orator as of the painter, and what they both pro-
pofe to imitate. And therefore, let a thought be ever
lb pleafing and beautiful in itfelf, it mud not be in¬
troduced when foreign to the purpofe, or out of its
place; any more than a painter fhould attempt to alter
nature, when he propofes to copy it. This figure re¬
quires likewife a vigorous and lively genius. For the
images in defcription can rife no higher than the con¬
ception of the fpeaker, fince the idea mud fird be
formed in his own mind before he can convey it to
others; and agreeably to the clearnefs with which
he conceives it himfelf, he will be able to exprefs it in
words.
92 jfporia, or doubt, expreffes the debate of the mind
with itfelf upon a preffing difficulty. A perfon in
fuch a date is apt to hefitate, or dart feveral things
fuccefiively, without coming to any fixed refolution.
The uneafinefs arifing from fuch a diforder of thought
is naturally very moving. Of this kind is that of
, Cicero for Cluentius, when he fays, “ I know not
which way to turn myfelf. Shall I deny the fcandal
thrown upon him of bribing the judges? Can I fay
the people were not told of it ? that it was cot talked
93
O R Y. Partlll.
of in the court? mentioned in the fenate? Can I re- Elocution,
move an opinion fo deeply and long rooted in the ~
minds of men ? It is not in my power. You, judges,
mud fupport his innocence, and refeue him from this
calamity.” Orators fometimes choofe to begin their
difeourfe wu'th this figure. A diffidence of mind at
fird is not unbecoming, but graceful. It carries in it
an air of modedy, and tends very much to conciliate
the affe&ions of the hearers. Livy gives us a very
elegant example of this, in a fpeech of Scipio Afri-
canus to his foldiers, when, calling them together after
a fedition, he thus befpeaks them: “ I never thought
I fhould have been at a lofs, in what manner to ad-
drefs my army. Not that I have applied myfelf more
to words, than things; but becaufe I have been ac-
cudomed to the genius of foldiers, having been trained
up in the camp almoft from my childhood. But I
am in doubt what or how to fpeak to you, not knowing
what name to give you. Shall I call you citizens, who
have revolted from your country? Soldiers, who have
difowned the authority of your general, and broke your
military oath? Enemies? I perceive the mien, the
afpeft, and habit of citizens; but difeern the a&ions,
words, defigns, and difpofitions of enemies.”
Sometimes a paffion has that effedl, not fo much to
render a perfon doubtful what to fay, as to dop him
in the midd of a fentence, and prevent his expreffing
the whole of what he defigned; and then it is called
Apoftopejis, or concealment. It denotes different paf-
fions; as anger, which, by reafon of its heat and vehe¬
mence, caufes perfons to break off abruptly in their
difeourfe. So the old man in Terence, when he was
jealous that his fervant obdrudfed his defigns, ufes
this imperfedt, but threatening expreffion ; Whom, if /
find." And Neptune, when deferibed by Virgil as
very angry that the winds fhould prefume to didurb
the fea without his permiffion, after he has called them
to him to know the reafon of it, threatens them in this
abrupt manner:
“ Whom I- hut firft I’ll lay the ftorm.”
But Cicero, in writing to Atticus, applies it to ex¬
prefs grief, where he fays, “ I know nothing of Pom-
pey, and believe he mud be taken, if he is not got on
fhipboard. O incredible fwiftnefs ! But of our friend.—
Though I cannot accufe him without grief, for whom
I am in fo much concern and trouble.” And in a
letter to Caffius he ufes it to exprefs fear, when be
fays to him, “ Brutus could fcarce fupport himfelf at
Mutina; if he is fafe, we have carried the day. But
if—heaven avert the omen 1 all mud have recourfe to
you.” His meaning is, “ If Brutus fhould be de¬
feated.”
The next figure is erotefis, or interrogation. But every
interrogation or quedion is not figurative. When we
inquire about a thing that is doubtful, in order to be
informed, this is no figure, but the natural form of
fuch expreffions. As if I aflc a perfon, Where he is
going? or What he is doing ? But then it becomes fi¬
gurative when the fame thing may be expreffed in a
diredl manner; but the putting it by way of que-
ftion gives it a much greater life and fpirit. As when
Cicero fays, “ Catiline, how long will you abufe our
patience ? do not you perceive your defigns are difeo-
vered ?” He might indeed have faid, abufe our
patience a long while. Ton tnufi be fenjible your defigns
94
Part III. ORA
Elocution, are difcovered. But It Is eafy to perceive how much
this latter way of expreffion falls fhort of the force and
vehemence of the former. And fo when Medea fays,
I could fave ; and do you aft) if I can defray ? Had
/he faid, I could fave, and I can defray, the fentence
had been flat, and very unfit to exprefs the rage and
fury in which the poet there reprefents her. This fi¬
gure is fuited to exprefs molt pafiions and emotions
of the mind, as anger, difdaitf, fear, defire, and
others. It ferves alfo to prefs and bear down an ad-
verfary. Cicero frequently makes this nfe of it. As
in his defence of Plancius: “ I will make you this of¬
fer (fays he) choofe any tribe you pleafe, and /hew,
as you ought, by whom it was bribed ; and if you
cannot, as I believe you will not undertake it, I will
prove how he gained it. Is this a fair contelt ? Will
you engage on this loot ? I cannot give you fairer
play. Why are you filent ? Why do you difiemble ?
Why do you hefitate ? I infill upon it, urge you to it,
prefs it, require, and even demand it of you.” Such
a way of pulhingan antagonift fhews the fpeaker has
great confidence in his caufe; otherwife he would ne¬
ver lay himfelf fo open, if he was not affured the other
party had nothing to reply. This figure likewife di-
verfifies a difcourfe, and gives it a beautiful variety,
by altering the form of exprellion; provided it be nei¬
ther too frequent, nor continued too long at once.
And befides the warmth and eager manner in which it
is exprefled, enlivens the hearers, and quickens their
attention.
Ecphoneftf, or exclamation, is a vehement exten-
fion. of the voice, occafioned by a commotion of
mind, naturally venting itfelf by this figure, which
is ufed by Cicero to exprefs a variety of pafiions. It
often denotes refentment or indignation. Thus, after
his return from banifhment, reflecting on thofe who
had occafioned it, he breaks but into this moving ex¬
clamation : “ O mournful day to the fenate, and all
good men, calamitous to the flate, afflictive to me and
my family, but glorious in the view of pofterity 1”
Hisdefign was to excite an odium againll the authors
of his exile, when recalled in fo honourable a manner.
And again in his defence of Caslius : “ O the great
force of truth; which eafily fupports itfelf againlt the
wit, craft, fubtilty, and artful defigns of men 1” He
had been juft /hewing the abfurdity of the charge
againft Caelius, and now endeavours to expofe his ac-
cufers to the indignation of the court. At other
times it is ufed to exprefs difdain or contempt.
As when fpeaking of Pompey’s houfe, which was
bought by Mark Anthony, he fays: “ O confum-
mate impudence! dare you go within that houfe! dare
you enter that venerable threlhold, and /how your au¬
dacious countenance to the tutelar deities, which re-
lide there ?” Nor is it lefs fuited to indicate grief, as
when he fays of Milo: “ O that happy country, which
/hall receive this man ! ungrateful this, if it bani/h
him ! miferable, if it lofe him !” And foraetimes it
ferves to exprefs admiration; as when, in compliment
to Caefar, he fays, “ O admirable clemency i worthy
of the greateft praife, the higheft encomiums, and
moft lafting monuments!” It has its ufe alfo in ridi¬
cule and irony. As in his oration for Balbus, where
he derides his accufer, by faying, “ O excellent in¬
terpreter of the law! mafter of antiquity i corrector
TORY. 57I3
and amender of our conftitution !” The facred writers Elocution,
fometimes ufe it by way of intreaty or vvi/h. As the ~
royal Pfalmift : “ O that I had the wings of a dove,
that I might flee away, and be at reft 1” And at other
times in triumph and exultation, as in that of St Paul :
“ O death, where is thy (ling! O grave, where is thy
victory!” It is frequently joined with the preceding fi.
gure, interrogation; as appears in fome of the inftan-
ceshere brought from Cicero. And it generally fol¬
lows the reprefentation of the thing which occafions it.
Though fometimes it is made ufe of to introduce it,
and then it ferves to prepare the mind by exciting its
attention. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Caelius, to
render the character of Clodia more odious, at whofe
inftigation he was accufed, infinuates that fhe had be¬
fore poifoned her hufband ; and to heighten the bar¬
barity of the faCt,and make it appear the more/hock¬
ing, he Introduces the account of it, with this mo¬
ving exclammation : “ O heavens, why do you fome¬
times wink at the greateft crimes of mankind, or de¬
lay the puni/hment of them to futurity !”
Epiphonema, or acclamation,. has a great affinity
with the former figure. And it isfo called, when the
fpeaker, at the conclufion of his argument, makes fome
lively and juft remark upon what he has been faying,
to give it the greater force, and render it the more
affeCling to his hearers. It is not fo vehement and
impetuous as exclamation, being ufually expre/five of
the milder and more gentle pafiions. And the reflec¬
tion ought not only to contain fome plain and obvious
truth, but likewife to arife naturally from the difcourfe
which occafioned it, otherwife it lofes its end. When
Cicero has /hewn, that recourfe is never to be had to
force and violence, but in cafes of the utmoft necefii-
ty, he concludes with the following remark : “ Thus
to think, is prudence; to ad, fortitude; both to think
and aCt; perfeCt and confummate virtue.” And elfe-
where, after he has defcribed a fingular inft'ance of
cruelty and breach of friendfhip : “ Hence (fays he)
we may learn, that no duties are fo facred and folerr.n,
which covetoufnefs will not violate.” This figure is
frequently exprefled in a way of admiration. As when
Cicero has obferved, that all men are defirous to live
to an advanced age, but uneafy tinder it when at¬
tained, he makes this juft refletftion upon fitch a con-
duift: “ So great is their inconftancy, folly, and per-
verfenefs!”
The next figure in order is apofrophe, or addreft, Q_
when the fpeaker breaks off from the feries of his dif-
courfe, and addreffes himfelf to fome particular perfon
prefent or abfent, living or dead ; or to inanimate na¬
ture, as endowed with fenfe and reafon. By this means
he has an opportunity of faying many things with
greater freedom than perhaps would be confident
with decency if immediately dire&ed to the perfons
themfelves. He can admoni/h, chide, or cenfure, with¬
out giving offence. Nor is there any pafiion, but may
be very advantageoufly exprtffed by this figure. When
an orator has been fpeaking of any particular perfon,
on a fudden to turn upon him, and apply the difcourfe
to that perfon himfelf, is very moving; it is like at¬
tacking an adverfary by furprize, when he is off
his guard, and where he lead expefts it. Thus Ci¬
cero : “ I defire, fenators, to be merciful, but not to
appear negligent in fo great dangers of theftate; tho’
32 G 2 at
57*4 O R A T
Elocution, at prefent I cannot bnt condemn myfelf of remiffnefs.
There is a camp formed in Italy, at the entrance of
Etruria, againft the date; our enemies increafe daily;
but we fee the commander of the camp, and general
of the enemies, within our walls, in the very fenate,
contriving fome inteftine ruin to the date. If now,
Catiline, I fiiould order you to be feized and put to
death, I have reafon to fear, that all good men would
rather think I had deferred it too long, than charge me
with cruelty. But I am prevailed with for a certain
reafon not to do that yet, which ought to have been
done laiig fince.” This fudden turn of the difcourfe to
Catiline himfelf, and the addrefs to him in that un-
expefted manner, mud have touched him very fenfibly.
So in his defence of Milo, expreffing his concern if he
diould not fucceed in it, he fays: “ And how fliall I
anfwer it to you, my brother Quintus, the partner of
my misfortunes, who art now abfent.” And elfe-
where addrefling to the foldiers of the Martian legion,
who had been killed in an engagement with Mark An¬
thony, he thus befpeaks them: “ O happy death,
which due to nature, was paid to your country ! I may
efteem you truly born for your country, who likewife
received your name from Mars; fo that the fame deity
feems to have produced this city for the world, and
you for this city.” And in his oration for Balbus he
thus calls upon dumb nature to witnefs to Pompey’s
virtues: I invoke you, mute regions; you, mod di-
ftant countries; you feas, havens, iflands, and ftiores.
For what coad, what land, what place is there, in
which the marks of his courage, humanity, wifdom,
and prudence, are not extant?” An appeal to heaven,
or any part of inanimate nature, has fomething very
fublime and folemn in it, which we often meet with in
facred writ. So the divine prophet: “ Hear, O hea¬
vens! and give ear, O earth! for the Lord hath fpoken.”
And in like manner, the prophet Jeremy: “ Be ado-
nilhed, O ye heavens, at this.”
58 Profopoptea, or the fi£lion of a perfon: by which, ei¬
ther an abfent perfon is introduced fpeaking; or one
who is dead, as if he was alive and prefent; or fpeech
is attributed to fome inanimate being. There is no
figure, perhaps, which ferves more or better purpofes
to an orator, than this. For by this means he is en¬
abled to call in all nature to his aflidance, and can
affign to every thing fuch parts as he thinks conve¬
nient. There is fcarce any thing fit to be faid, but
may be introduced this way. When he thinks his
own ehara&er is not of fufficient weight to affeft his
audience in the manner he defires, he fubditutes a per¬
fon of greater authority than himfelf to engage their
attention. When he has fevere things to fay, and
which may give offence as coming from himfelf; he
avoids this, by putting them into the mouth of fome
other perfon from whom they will be better taken ;
or makes inanimate nature bring a charge, or exprefs
a refentment, to render it the more affedting. And by
the fame method he fometimes choofes to fecure him¬
felf from a fufpicion of flattery, in carrying a com¬
pliment too high. We meet with feveral very beautiful
indances of this figure in Cicero ; but an example of
each fort may here fuffice, beginning with that of an
abfent perfon, from his defence of Milo, whom he
thus introduces as fpeaking to the citizens of ^Rome:
“ Should he, holding the bloody fword, cry out, At-
' O R Y. Partin.
tend, I pray, hearken, O citizens, I have killed Pu- Elocution,
blius Clodius ; by this fword. and by this right hand,
I have kept off his rage from your necks, which no
laws, no courts of judicature, could reftrain ; it is by
my means, thatjudice, equity, laws, liberty, (hame,
and, modefty, remain in the city. Is it to be feared
how the city would bear this a&ion ? Is there any
one now, who would not approve and commend it.”
And in his oration for Balbus, he introduces Marius,
who was then dead, to plead in bis defence : “ Can.
Balbus (fays he) be condemned, without condemning
Marius for a like faft ? Let him be prefent a little to
your thoughts, fince he cannot be fo in perfon ; that
you may view him in your minds, though you cannot
with your eyes. Let him tell you, he was not unac¬
quainted with leagues, void of examples, or ignorant
of war.” And again, in his firft inveftive againft Ca¬
tiline, he reprefents his country as thus expoftulating
with himfelf, and upbraiding him for fuffering fuch
a criminal as Catiline to live. “ Should my country
(fays he), which is much dearer to me than my life,
fhould all Italy, all the ftate, thus addrefs me, Mark
Tully, what do you do ? Do you fuffer him, whom
you have found to be an enemy, who you fee is to be
at the head of the war, whom you perceive your ene¬
mies wait for in their camp as their general, who has
been the contriver of this wickednefs, the chief of the
confpiracy, the exciter of flaves and profligate citizens,
to leave the city, which is rather to bring him in, than
let him out ? Will not you order him to be imprifon-
ed, condemned, and executed ? What prevents you ?
The cuftom of ouranceftors ? But private„perfons have
often punifhed pernicious citizens in this ftate. The
laws relating to the punifhment of Roman citizens ?
But traitors never had the rights of citizens. Do you
fear the cenfure of pofterity ? Truly you make a very
handfome return to the people of Rome, who have ad¬
vanced you from an obfcure condition fo early to the
higheft dignity ; if you negleft their fafety to avoid
envy, or from the apprehenfion of any danger. And
if you fear cenfure ; which is moft to be dreaded, that
which may arife from juftice and fortitude, or from
cowardice and treachery ? When Italy fhallbe wafted
by a war, cities plundered, and houfes burnt, do you
think then to efcape the fevereft cenfure.” In the
management of this figure, care fhould be taken, that
what is faid be always confiftent with the chara&er in¬
troduced, in which both the force and beauty of it
confift.
In treating upon figures, we have hitherto confider-
ed them feparately; but it may not be amifs to ob-
ferve, that fome expreflions confift of a complication
of them, and may come under the denomination of fe¬
veral figures, as well verbal as thofe of fentences,
differently confidered. Thus when Cicero fays:
“ What, Tubero, did your drawn fword do in the
Pharfalian battle ? at whofe fide was its point direc¬
ted ? what was the intention of your arms ?” As he
fpeaks to Tubero, it is an apoftrophe ; as the expref-
fions have much the fame import, and are defigned to
heighten and aggravate the fa£t, it is exergafa ; and
as they are put by queftion, it is interrogation. So
likewife in his fecond Philippic, where he fays,
“ What can I think ? that I am contemned ? I fee no¬
thing in my life, intereft, adions, or abilities, as mo-
* * derate
Part IIL ORA
ocutiQn- derate as they are, which Anthony can defpife. Did
he think he could eafily leffen me in the fenate ? But
they, who have commended many famous citizens for
their good government of the ftate, never thanked any
but me for preferving it. Would he contend with me
for eloquence ? This would be a favour indeed. For
what could be a larger and more copious fubjed, than
for me to fpeak for myfelf againft Anthony ? His de-
fign was really this: he thought he could nor convince
his aflbciates, that he was truly an enemy to his coun¬
try, unlefs he was fo firft to me.” There are three fi¬
gures in this pafTage ; doubt, interrogation, and jub-
jeftion. And again, when he introduces Sicily thus
addrefiirrg to Verres in a way of complaint: “ What¬
ever gold, whatever filver, whatever ornaments in my
cities, dwellings, temples, whatever right of any kind
I poffefled by the favour of the fenate and people of
Rome ; you, Verres, have plundered and taken from
me.” Here is a profopopeia, joined with the verbal fi¬
gure anaphora, as feveral members of the fentence be¬
gin with the fame word. The like inftances of complex
figures frequently occur, and therefore we need not
multiply examples of them here.
PARTICULAR ELOCUTION,
Or that part of Elocution which confiders the
feveral Properties and Ornaments of Language,
as they are made ufe of to form different forts
of Style.
Chap. IV. Of Style, and its different CharaSlers.
99 The word Jlyle, properly fignifies the inftrument
which the ancients ufed in writing. Tor as they com¬
monly wrote upon thin boards covered over with wax,
and fometimes upon the barks of trees, they made ufe
of a long inftrument like a bodkin, pointed at one
end, with which they cut their letters; and broad at
the other, to eraze any thing they chofe to alter.
And this the Latins called f ilus. But tho’ this be
the firft fenfe of the word, yet afterwards it came to
denote the manner of expreffion. In which fenfe we
likewife ufe it, by the fame kind of trope that we
call any one’s writing his hand. But as to the rea-
fons which occafiona variety of ftyle, they are princi¬
pally thefe.
Since both fpeech and writing are only fenfible ex-
prefiions of our thoughts, by which we communicate
them to others; as all men think more or lefs diffe¬
rently, fo confequently they in fome meafure differ in
their ftyle. No two perfons, who were to write up¬
on one fubjefl, would make ufe of all the fame words.
And were this poflible, yet they would as certainly
differ in their order and connexion, as two painters,
who ufed the fame colours in painting the fame pic¬
ture, would neceffai-ily vary their mixtures and dif-
pofition of them, in the feveral gradations of lights
and (hades. As every painter therefore has fomething
peculiar in his manner, fo has every writer in his ftyle.
It is from thefe internal charafters, in a good meafure,
that critics undertake to difcover the true authors of
anonymous writings ; and to (hew that others are fpu-
rioue, and not the genuine produ&ions of thofe whofe
names they bear; as they judge of the age of fuch
TORY. 57J5
writings from the words and manner of exprefiion Elocution-
which have been in ufe at different times. And we
may often obferve in perfons a fondnefs for fome par¬
ticular words or phrafes; and a peculiarity in the turn
or connexion of their fentences, or in their tranfitions
from one thing to another; by which their ftyle may
be known, even when they defign to conceal it. For
thefe things, thro’ cuftom and habit, will fometimes
drop from them, notwithdanding the greateft caution
to prevent it.
There is likewife very often a confiderable difference
in the ftyle of the fame perfon, in feveral parts of his
life. Young perfons, whofe invention is quick and
lively, commonly run into a pompous and luxuriant
ftyle. Their fancy reprefents the images of things to
their mind in a gay and fpritely manner, cloathed
with a variety of cifcumftances; and while they en¬
deavour to fet off each of thefe in the brighteft and
mod glittering colours, this renders their ftyle ver-
bofe and florid, but weakens the force and (Length of
it. And therefore, as their imagination gradually
cools, and comes under the conduct of a more mature
judgment, they find it proper to cut off many fuper-
fluities ; fo that by omitting unneceffary words and cir-
cumftances, and by a clofer connexion of things
placed in a (Longer light, if their ftyle becomes lefs
(welling and pompous, it is, however, more correft
and nervous. But as old age finks the powers of the
mind, chills the imagination, and weakens the judge¬
ment ; the ftyle, too, in proportion ufualiy grows dry
and languid. Critics have obferved fomething of this
difference in the writings even of Cicero himfelf. To
be mafter of a good ftyle, therefore, it feems neceffary
that a perlbn ftiould be endued with a vigorous mind
and lively fancy, a (Long memory, and a good judge¬
ment. It is by the imagination that the mind con¬
ceives the images of things. If the imprdfions of
thofe images be clear and diftind, the ftyle will be fo
too ; fince language is nothing but a copy of thofe
images firft conceived by the mind. But if the images
are faint and imperfect, the ftyle will accordingly be
flat and languH. This is evident from the difference
between fuch obje&s as are reprefented to our fight,
and things of which we have only reader heard. For
as the former generally make a deeper impreflion up¬
on our minds, fo we can deferibe them in a m6re (Long
and lively manner. And we commonly find, that
according as perfons are affe&ed themfelves when
they fpeak, they are able to affeft others with what
they fay. Now perfons are more or lefs affe&ed with
things in proportion to the impreffions which the
images of thofe things make upon the mind. For the
fame reafon alfo, if the imagination be dull, and in-
difpofed to receive the ideas of things, the ftyle will
be ftiff and heavy ; or if the images are irregular and
difordered, the ftyle will likewife be perplexed and
confufed. When things lie ftraight (as we fay) in
the mind, we exprefs them with eafe, and in their jult
connexion and dependence ; but when they are warpt
and crooked, we deliver them with pain and difficulty,
as well as diforder. A good fancy fhould likewife
be accompanied with a happy memory. This helps
us to retain the names of thofe things the ideas
whereof are prefented to the mind by the imagination,
together'
57*6
Elocution.
tliey are apt to hurry perfons into many inconveniences.
Such are generally great talkers, but far from good
orators. Frefti images continually crowd in upon
them, fader than the tongue can well exprefs them.
This runs them into long and tedious difcourfes,
abounding with words, but empty of fenfe. Many
ORATORY. Part II
together with proper and fuitable phrafes to exprefs prefently difcovered. Hence it is often found, that Elocution|»
them in their feveral ,conneftions and relations to each difcourfes, which were thought very fine when heard, r“
other. When the images of things offer themfelves to appear to have much lefs beauty, as well as drength,
the mind, unlefs the names of thenrprefent themfelves when they come to be read. And therefore it is not
at the fame time, we are at a lofs to exprefs them, or without reafon, that Cicero recommends to all thofe
at lead are in danger of doing it by wrong and improper who are candidates for eloquence, and defirous to be-
terms. Befides, variety is necedary in difcourfe to come maders of a good dyle, to write much. This
render it agreeable ; and therefore, without a large affords them an opportunity to diged their thoughts,
furniture of words and phrafes, the dyle will neceffari- weigh their words and expreffions, and give every
ly become inlipid and jejune, by the frequent return thing its proper force and evidence; as likewife, by
of the fame terms and manner of expreflion. But to reviewing a difcourfe when compofed, to corredl its
both thefe a folid judgment is highly requifite to form errors, or fupply its defe&s ; till by practice they
a jud and accurate dyle. A fruitful imagination will gain a readinefs both to think judly, and to fpeak
furnilh the mind with plenty of ideas, and a good with propriety and eloquence. But it is time to pro¬
memory will help to clothe them in proper language ; ceed to fome other caufes of the diverfity of dyle.
but unlefs they are both under the condudt of reafon, Different countries have not only a different lan¬
guage, but likewife a peculiarity of dyle fuited to their
temper and genius. The eadern nations had a lofty
and majedic way of fpeaking. Their words are full
and fonorous, their expreflions drong and forcible,
and warmed with the mod lively and moving figures.
w . _ This is very evident from the Jewifh writings in the
impertinencies, if not improprieties, neceffarily mix Old Tedament, in which we find a mod agreeable
themfelves with what they fay ; and they are fre- mixture of fimplicity and dignity. On the contrary,
quently carried off from their point, by not having the dyle of the more northern languages generally
thdr'fancics under a proper regulation. So that fuch partakes of the chilnefs of their climate. “ There is,”
difcourfes, though compofed perhaps of pretty ex- fays Mr Addifan*, “ a certain coldnefs and indifference * p „
prefiions, rhetorical flowers, and fprightly fallies of in the phrafes of our European languages, when they are no 4^,"
wit, yet fall very much fhort of a drong and manly compared with the oriental forms of fpeech. And it
eloquence. But where reafon prefides and holds the happens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms run into
reins, every thing is weighed before it is fpoken. the Englifh tongue with a peculiar grace and beauty.
The propered words are made choice of, which bed Our language has received innumerable elegancies and
fuit the ideas they are defigned to convey ; rather mprovements from that infufion of Hebraifms, which
than the mod gay and pompous. All things are not are derived to it out of the poetical paffages in holy
laid, which offer themfelves to the mind, and fancy writ. They give a force and energy to our expreflions,
didates ; but fuch only as are fit and proper, and warm and animate our language, and convey our
the reft are dropped. Some things are but flightly thoughts in more ardent and intenfe phrafes than any
mentioned, and others difeourfed on more largely and that are to be met with in our own tongue. There is
fully, according to their different importance. And fomething fo pathetic in this kind of didion, that it
every thing is placed in that order, and cloathed in often fets the mind in a flame, and makes our hearts
fuch a drefs, as may reprefent it to the greateft ad- burn within us.”
vantage. So that, in a word, the foundation of a good Again, people of different nations vary in their
ftyle is chiefly good fenfe. Where thefe qualities all cuftoms and manners, which occafions a diverfity in
meet in a confiderable degree, fuch perfons have the their ftyle. This was very remarkable in the Attics,
happinefs to excell, either in fpeaking or writing. Afiatics, and Rhodians, and is often taken notice of
But this is not generally the cafe. Many perfons of by ancient writers. The Athenians, while they con-
a vigorous and fpritely imagination, have but a weak tioued a free ftate, were an aflive, indultrious, and
judgment; and others much more judicious can think frugal people ; very polite indeed, and cultivated arts
but (lowly. And it is this, in a great meafure, which and fciences beyond any other nation : but as they
makes the difference between fpeaking and writing had powerful enemies, and were exceeding jealous of
veil, as one or the other of thefe qualities is predo- their liberties, this preferved them from wantonnefs
minant. A perfon of a lively fancy, ready wit, and and luxury. And their way of fpeaking was agree-
voluble tongue, will deliver himfelf offhand much able to their conduft; accurate and clofe, but very full
better and more acceptably, than one who is capable, and expreflive. The Afiatics, on the other hand,
upon due premeditation, to difeern farther into the were more gay, and loofe in their manners, devoted
fubjed, but cannot command his thoughts with the to luxury and pleafure; and accordingly they affedted
fame eafe and freedom. And this latter would have a florid and fwelling ftyle, filled with redundancies
the fame advantage of the other, were they both and fuperfluities of expreflion. Indeed, fome of the
coolly to offer their fentiments in writing. Many ancients have attributed this loofenefs of ftyle to their
things appear well in fpeaking,. which will not bear way of purfuing eloquence at firft. For as they were
a ft rift ferutiny. While the hearer’s attention is put upon it by converfing with the Greek colonies
obliged to keep pace with the fpeaker, he is not at who fettled among them, they fuppofe, that in imi-
leifure to obferve every impropriety or incoherence, tating them, before they were mafters of the language,
but many flips cafily efcapehim, which'in reading arc they were often obliged to make ufe of circumlocu-
- tions,
I
Part III.
|o| locution, tions, which afterwards became habitual, and very
H i much weakened the force of their expreffions, as it
naturally would do. But one would think, if they
were put to this neceflity at firft, when they found its
ill efFe&, they might eallly have amended it after¬
wards, as they grew better acquainted with the Greek
language, had they been inclined fo to do. The
Rhodian ftyle was a medium between the other two;
not fo concife and expreffive as the Attic, nor yet fo
loofe and redundant as the Afiatic. Quintilian fays,
it had a mixture of its author, and the humour of the
people ; and, like plants fet in a foreign foil, degene¬
rated from the Attic purity, but not fo wholly as to lofe
it. They firft received it from iEfchines, who being
worded in his famous conteft with Demofthenes, re¬
tired thither, and taught rhetoric, which put them
upon the ftudy of eloquence.
The ftyle of the fame country likewife very much
alters in different ages. Cicero tells us, that the firft
I Latin hiftorians aimed at nothing more than barely to
make themfelves intelligible, and that with as much
brevity as they could. Thofe who fuceeeded them
advanced a ftep further; and gave fomewhat a better
turn and cadency to their fentences, though ftill withr
out any drefs or ornament. But afterwards, when the
Greek language became falhionable at Rome, by co¬
pying after their writers, fuch as Herodotus, Thucy¬
dides, Xenophon, and others, they endeaveured to in¬
troduce all their beauties into their own tongue, which
in Cicero’s time was brought to its higheft perfeflion.
J3ut it did” not long continue in that date. A dege¬
neracy of manners foon altered their tafte, and cor¬
rupted their language, which Quintilian very much
complains of in his time. The cafe was the fame with
refpedf to the Greek tongue ; though that had the
good fortune to continue its purity much longer than
the Latin. Nor can any language be exempt from
the common fate of all human produftions; which
have their beginning, perfeftion, and decay. Befides,
there is a fort of fafliion in language, as well as other
I things, and the generality of people are always fond
of running into the mode. Perhaps fome one, or a
few perfons, fall into a manner which happens to
pleafe. This gives them a reputation ; and others im¬
mediately copy after them, till it generally prevail.
Cicero tells us, that the mod ancient Greek orators,
whofe writings were extant in his time, fuch as Peri-
■ cles, Alcibiades, and others, were fubtle, acute, con¬
cife, and abounded in fenfe rather than words. But
another fet that followed them, of which were Critias,
Theramenes, and Lyfias, retained the good fenfe of
the former, and at the fame time took more care of
their ftyle ; not leaving it fo bare as the former had
done, but furniihing it with a better drefs. After
thefe came Ifocrates, who added all the flowers and
beauties of eloquence. And as he had abundance of
followers, they applied- thefe ornaments and decora¬
tions according to their different genius; fome for
pomp and fplendour; and others to invigorate their
ftyle, and give it the greater force and energy. And
in this latter way Demofthenes principally excelled.
Now as each of thefe manners had its peculiar beau¬
ties, and generally prevailed indifferent ages; Cicero
think this could not have happened otherwife than
5717
from imitation. And he attributes it to the fame Elocution,
caufe, that afterwards they funk into a fofter and "
fmoother manner, not lefs exa£t and florid, but more
cold and lifelefs. If we take a view of our own
tongue, Chaucer feems to have been the firft who
made any confiderable attempts to cultivate it. And
whoever looks into him, will perceive the difference to
be fo great from what it is at prefent, that it fcarce
appears to be the fame language. The gradual im¬
provements it has fince received, are very evident in
the writers almoft of every fucceeding age fince that
time ; and how much farther it may ftiil be carried,
time only can difeover. See Language.
Another caufe of the variety of ftyle arifes from the
different nature and properties of language. A dif¬
ference in the letters, the make of the words, and the
order of them, do all affeft the ftyle. So Quintilian
obferves, that the Latin tongue cannot equal the
Greek in pronunciation, becaufe it is liarfher. The
Latins want two of the fofteft Greek letters, u and t;
and life others of a very hard found, which the Greeks
have not, as /"and q. Again, many Latin words end
in m; a letter of a broad and hollow found, which
never terminates any Greek word ; but v does fre¬
quently, whofe found is much fofter and fweeter. Be¬
fides, in the combination of fyllables, the letters b and
d are often fo fituated, as to require too ftrong and
unequal a force to be laid upon them, as in the words
obverfus and adjungo. Another advantage of the Greek
tongue arifes from the variety and different feat of the
accents: for the Greeks often accent the laft fyllable,
which both enlivens the pronounciation, and renders it
more mufical; whereas the Latins never do this. But
the greateft advantage of the Greeks lies in their
plenty and variety of words; for which reafon they
have lefs occafion for tropes or circumlocutions, which,
when ufed from neceffity, have generally lefs force,
and weaken the ftyle. But under thefe difadvantages,
Quintilian feems to give his countrymen the bell ad¬
vice the cafe will admit of: That what they cannot
do in words, they fhould make up in fenfe. If their
expr^ffions are not fo foft and tender, they fhould ex¬
ceed in ftrength ; if they are lefs fubtile, they fhould
be more fublime ; and if they have fewer proper
words, they (hould excell in the beauty as well as num¬
ber of their figures. If this account of Quintilian be
juft, that the Greek tongue does furpafs the Latin in
all thefe inftances, it is certain that both of them
have much greater advantages over fome modern lan¬
guages. The varying all their declinable words, both
tiouns and verbs, by terminations, and not by figns,
contributes very much to the fmoothnefs and harmony
of their periods. Whereas in the modern languages,
thofe fmall particles and pronouns, which dilUnguilh
the cafes of nouns, and the tenfes and perfons of verbs,
hinder the run of a period, and render the found much
more rough and uneven. Befides, the ancient lan¬
guages feem to have a better and more equal mixture
of vowels and confonants, which makes their pronun¬
ciation more eafy and mufical.
But the chief diftindiion of ftyle arifes from the dif¬
ferent fubjeds, or matter of difeourfe. The fame way
of fpeaking no more fuits all fubje&s, than the fame
garment would all perfons. A prince end a peafant
ought
ORATORY.
5718
Elocution, ought not to have the fame drefs ; and another diffe-
rent from both becomes thofe of a middle ftation in
life. The ftyle therefore (hould always be adapted to
the nature of the fubjedt, which rhetoricians have re¬
duced to threee ranks or degrees; the /ew or plain
ftyle, the middle or temperate, and the lofty orfublbne :
Which are likewife called characters, becaufe they de¬
note the quality of the fubjedt upon which they treat.
This divifion of ftyle into three charadters, was taken
notice of very early by ancient writers. Some have
obferved it even in Homer, who feems to affign the
fublime or magnificent to Ulyffes, when he reprefents
him fo copious and vehement an orator, that his
words came from him like a 'winter fno'w. On the
contrary, he defcribes Menelaus as a polite fpeaker,
but concife and moderate. And when he mentions
Neftor, he reprefents his manner as between thefe
two, not fo high and lofty as the one, nor yet
fo low and drefled as the other; but fmooth, even,
and pleafant, or, as he expreffes it, morefweet than
honey. Quintilian obferves, that although accuracy
and politenefs were general charadters of the Attic
writers; yet among their orators, Lyfias excelled in
the lo'w and familiar way ; Ifocrates for his elegancy,
fmoothnefs, and the fine turn of his periods ; and De-
mofthenes for his flame and rapidity, by which he car¬
ried all before him. And Gellius tells us, that the
like difference was found in the three philofophers
who were fent from the Athenians to Rome (before
the Romans had any relifti for the polite arts) to foli-
cit the remittance of a fine laid upon them for an in¬
jury done to a neighbouring ftate. Carneades, one of
thofe ambaffadors, was vehement and rapid in his ha¬
rangues; CdwoHus, neat and fmooth; and Diogenes,
modejl and fiber. The eloquence of thefe orators, and
the agreeable variety of their different manner, fo cap¬
tivated the Roman youth, and inflamed them with a
love of the Grecian arts, that old Cato, who did all
he could to check it by hurrying away the ambaffa¬
dors, could not prevent their vigorous purfuit of them,
till the ftudy became in a manner univerfal. And the
old gentleman afterwards learned the Greek language
himfelf, when it became more faftiionable. Which a
con ^ a~ n°ble writer of ours * reprefents as a punifoment upon
him for his former crime. It feldom happens that the
fame perfon excells in each of thefe characters. They
feem to require a different genius, and moft people
are naturally led to one of them more than another;
though all of them are requifite for an orator upon
different occafions, as we lhall fhew hereafter.
-Chap. V. Of the Low Style.
This we fliall confider under two heads, thoughts
and language; in each of which thefe feveral characters
100 are diftinguifhed from one another.
I. And with refpeCt to the former, as the fubjeCts
proper for this ftyle are either common things, or fuch
101 as ^10U^ ke treated in a plain and familiar way ; fo
plain thoughts are moft fuitable to it, and diftinguifh
it from the other characters.
Now, by plain thoughts, are meant fuch as are
ftmple and obvious, and feem to rife naturally from
the fubjeCt, when duly confidered ; fo that any one,
upon firft hearing them, would be apt to imagine they
Part ini
muft have occurred to himfelf. Not that this is really Elocutionlii
the cafe, but becaufe the more natural a thing is, the f"
more eafy it feems to be; though in reality it is often
otherwife; and the perfection of art lies in its neareft
refemblance to nature. And therefore, in order to
fpeak plainly and clearly upon any fubjeCt, it muft firft ||
be duly confidered, well underftood, and thoroughly I
digefted in the mind; which, though it require labour
and ftudy, yet the more a perfon is mafter of what he
he fays, the lefs that labour will appear in his dif-
courfe. This natural plainnefs and fimplicity, with¬
out any difguife or affeCtation, very much contributes jl?
to give credit to what is faid. Nor is any thing more li
apt to impofe on us, than the appearance of this, when
artfully affumed. Cicero’s account of the fight be¬
tween Milo and Clodius, in which Clodius was killed,
is a remarkable inftance of this. “ When Clodius j|
knew (fays he) that Milo was obliged to go to La-
nuvium upon a folemn and neceflary occafion, he im¬
mediately haftened from Rome, the day before, to af-
faffinate him before Clodius’s own houfe, as appeared
afterwards by the event. And this he did at a time, 1
when his turbulent mob in the city wanted his affift-
ance; whom he would not have left, but for the ad¬
vantage of that place and feafon to execute his wicked
defign. But the next day Milo was in the fenate,
where be continued till they broke up; then went home;
changed his drefs; ftaid there fome time till his wife
was ready ; and afterwards fet forward fo late, that if
Clodius had defigned to return to Rome that day, he
might have been here by that time. Clodius, prepared
for his defign, met him on horfeback, having no cha¬
riot, no equipage, no Greek attendants as ufual; and
without his wife, which was fcarce ever known: where¬
as Milo was in a chariot with his wife, wrapt up in a
cloak, and attended by a large retinue of maid fer-
vants, pages, and other perfons unfit for an engage¬
ment. He met with Clodius before his houfe, about
five o’clock in the evening; and was prefently affault-
ed from an higher ground by many armed men, who
killed the coachman. Upon which, Milo, throwing
off his cloak, leaped out of the chariot, and bravely
defended himfelf: and thofe who were with Clodius,
having their fwords drawn, fome made up to the cha¬
riot to attack Milo; and others, who now thought he j!
had been killed, began to fall upon his fervants who
were behind. And of thefe, fuch as had courage,
and were faithful to their mafter, fome were killed;
and others, when they faw the fkirmifti at the chariot,
and could do their mafter no fervice (for they heard
Clodius himfelf fay that Milo was killed, and really
thought it was fo), did that, not by their matter’s or¬
der, not with his knowledge, nor when he was prefent,
which every one would have his own fervants to do in
the like circumftances. I do not fay this to fix any
crime upon them, but only to relate what happened.”
His meaning is, they killed Clodius; which he avoids
mentioning, to render what he fays lefs offenfive. Can
any thing be told in a more plain and Ample manner
than this ? Here is nothing faid, but what in itfelf
feems highly probable, and what one would imagine
the faff might eafily fugged to any ordinary fpeda-
tor. But in this, both the art and fkill of it confift.
For in the whole account, as, on the one hand, Milo
is
ORATORY.
Partlll. O R A
Elocution, is fo defcribed as to render it highly improbable he
could have any defign at that time againft Clodius ;
fo on the other, no one circomftance is omitted which
might feem proper to perfuade the hearers that Clo¬
dius was the aggreflbr in that engagement. And yet,
if we may believe Afconius, the quarrel was begun by
fome of Milo’s retinue, and Clodius was afterwards
killed by his exprefs order. But as things are fonve-
times bell iliultrated by their oppofites, we fhall here
produce a contrary inftance of a very afle&ed and un¬
natural way of relating, a fafl, Val. Maximus tells us
of a learned man at Athens, who, by a blow which he
received by a (tone upon his head, entirely forgot all
his learning, though he continued to remember every
thing elfe. And therefore, as he fays, fince this mif-
fortune deprived him of the greateft enjoyment of his
life, it had been happier for him never to have been
learned, than afterwards to lofe that pleafure. This
is the plain fenfe of the ftory. But now let us hear
him relate it. “ A man (fays he) of great learning
at Athens, having received a blow upon his head by
a (tone, retained the memory of all other things very
perfeftly, and only forgot his learning, to which he
had chiefly devoted himfelf. The direful and malig¬
nant wound invading his mind, and as it were defign-
edly furveying the knowledge repofited there, cruelly
feized on that part of it in particular from which he
received the greateft pleafure, and buried the Angular
learning of the man with an invidious funeral. Who
fince he was not permitted to enjoy his bodies, had
better never have obtained accefs to them, than after¬
wards to have been deprived of the delight they af¬
forded him.” What an unnatural way is this of re¬
lating fuch an accident, to talk of a 'ivoujid invading the
viind, and furveying the knonvledge repofited there, and
cruelly feizing a particular part of it, and burying it
with an invidious funeral? There is nothing in the
ftory could lead him to this, but an over-fondnefs to
refine upon it in a very affe&ed manner. But there
are two properties of plain thoughts, one of which
ought conftantly to attend them in common with all
thoughts, and the other is often neceflary to animate
and enliven this charafter.
The former of thefe is juftnefs and propriety, which
is what reafon diftates in all cafes. What Cicero fays
of the death of Craffus the orator, feems very juft, as
well as natural. “ It was (fays he) an affli&ion to
his friends, a lofs to his country, and a concern to all
good men ; but foch public calamities followed upon
it, that heaven feemed rather to have favoured him
with death, than to have deprived him of life.” This
thought feems very juft, and agreeable to the fenti-
ments of a good man, as Craflus was, to choofe death
rather than to outlive the happinefs of his country, to
which he himfelf had fo much contributed. Quintilian
has a reflexion upon a like occafion, which is not fo
juft and becoming. It is upon the death of his only
fon, a youth of very uncommon parts, as he reprefents
him ; and for whofe ufe he had defigoed his Inf it u-
tions of Oratory ; but he died before they were finiftt-
ed. The paflage is this : “ I have loft him of whom
I had formed the greateft hopes, and in whom I had
repofed the greateft comfort of my old age. What
can I do now? or of what farther ufe can I think my-
felf to be, thus difappointed by heaven? What -good
Vol. VIII. i
O R Y. .?719
parent will pardon me, if I can any longer ftudy? and Elocution,
not condemn fuch refolution, if, thus furviying all my
family, I can make any other ufe of. my voice, than
to accufe the; gods, and declare that providence does
not rpvern the world ?” Allowance may be made for
the (allies of pafiion, even in wife men, upon fome
/hocking dccafions ; but when it proceeds to fuch a
degree as (o become impious, it is very indecent, as
well as unjuft. And all indecency is unnatural, as it
is difagreeable to reafon, which always direds to a de¬
corum. That Teems to be a very natural as well as
juft thought of Pliny the Younger, when he fays,
“ The death of thofe perfons always appear to me too
hafty and unfeafonable, who are preparing fome laft-
ing work. For perfons wholly devoted to pleafures,
live, as it were, from day to day, and daily fini/h the
end for which they live; but thofe who have a view to
pofterity, and preferve their memory by their labours,
always die untimely, becaufe they leave fomething un-
finifhed. We /hall mention but one more inftance ;
and that in a comparative view, to make it the more
evident. The two fons of Junius Brutus, the firft Ro¬
man conful, having been convided of treafon in affb-
ciating with Tarquin’s party, were ordered, among
others, to be put to death ; and their father not only
pronounced the fentcnce, but prefided at the execu¬
tion. This fad is mentioned by feveral of the Ro¬
man hiftorians ; and, as it carries in it not only the
appearance of rigorous juftice, but likewife of cruelty
in Brutus, to have been prefent at the execution of his
fons, they endeavour to vindicate him different ways.
What Florus fays, feems rather an affedation of wit,
than a juft defence of the fad. “ He beheaded them
(fays he), that, being a public parent, he might ap¬
pear to have adopted the whole body of the people.”
Nor does Val. Maximus come up to the cafe, who
fays, “ He put off the father to ad the conful; and
chofe rather to lofe his fons, than he wanting to pub¬
lic juftice.” This might be a reafon for condemning
them; and would have been equally true, had he not
been prefent at their execution. But Livy, whofe
thoughts are generally very juft and natural, alfigns
the beft reafon which perhaps can be given for his
vindication, when he fays, “ Fortune made him the
executioner of the fentence, who ought not to have
been a fpedator.” By fortune made him fo, he
reprefents it not as a matter of choice, like the other
hiftorians, but of nece/fity, from the nature of his of¬
fice, which then obliged him to fee the execution of
that fentence he had hirofelf before pronounced; as is
the cliftom at prefent, in fome popular governments.
The other property, which /hould often accompany
plain and Ample thoughts, is, that they be gay and
fprightly. This, as has been faid, is necefiaryto ani¬
mate and enliven , fuch difeourfes as require the low
ftyle. The fewer ornaments it admits of, the greater
fpirit and vivacity is requifite to prevent its being dry
and jejune. A thought may be very bri/k and lively,
and at the fame time appear very natural, as the effed
of a ready and flowing wit. Such thoughts, attend¬
ed with agreeable turns, are very fuitablc to this ftyle;
but care fliould be taken, left, while fancy is too much
indulged, the juftnefs of them be overlooked. We
ftiall give one inftance, in which this feems to have
■been the cafe, from a'celebrated Englifh work, where
32 H the
57^° O R A ¥
Elocution, the Ingenious writer endeavours to fliew the dlfadvan-
tages of perfons not attending to their natural genius,
but affecting to imitate others in thofe things for
which they were not formed. “ The great misfor¬
tune (fays he) of this affe&ation is, that men not only
lofe a good quality, but alfo contraA a bad onej they
not only are unfit for what they are defigned, but
they affign themfelves to what they are unfit for; and
inftead of making a very good figure one way, make
a very ridiculous one another. Could the world be
reformed to the obedience of that famed di&ate, fol¬
low nature, which the oracle of Delphos pronounced
to Cicero when he confulted what courfe of ftudies
he fhould purfue, we (hould fee almoft every man as
eminent in his proper fphere as Tully was in his.
For my part, I could never confider this prepofterous
repugnancy to nature any otherwife, than not only as
the greateft folly, but alfo one of the moll heinous
crimes; fince it is a direft oppofition to the difpofi-
tion of Providence, and (as Tully expreffes it) like the
fin of the giants, an aftual rebellion againft heaven.”
The advantages that arife from perfons attending to
their own genius, and purfuing its diftates, are here
reprefented in a very lively and agreeable mannei.
But there is one thing afferted, which we fear will not
hold; which is, that, Could the world le reformed to
that diftate, “ Follow nature,” we Jhould fee almojl
every man as eminent in his proper fphere, as Tully was
in his. For though doubtlefs perfons would generally
fucceed beft, if they kept to this rule ; yet different
degrees of ability are often found, where the bias and
inclination is the fame, and that accompanied with
equal labour and diligence. If this was not fo, how
happened it that no one came up to Tully in the art
of oratory; efpecially in his own age, when there were
the greateft opportunities for that ftudy, and the
higheft encouragements were given to it, as it paved
the way to riches, honours, and all the grand offices
of the ftate ? It cannot well be queftioned, but that
there were other gentlemen, who had all the fame ad¬
vantages, accompanied with as ftrong a paffion for this
art, as Tully had, who yet fell much fhort of him in
point of fuccefs. And experience fhews, that the cafe
has been the fame in all other purfuits.
102 III. But it is time to proceed to the other head,
the language proper for this ftyle. And here it may
be obferved in general, that the drefs ought to be a-
greeable to the thoughts, plain, Ample, and unaffec¬
ted.
But the firft thing that comes under confideration
is elegance, or a proper choice of words and expref-
fions; which ought always to fuit the idea they are
defigned to convey. And therefore' when an ancient
writer, fpeaking of cruelty, calls it mevus crudelitatis,
ihe blemifo of cruelty; and another, applying the fame
word to ingratitude, fays n.evus ingratitudinis, the
llemijh of ingratitude; that term does not fufficiently
convey to us the odious nature of either of thofe vices,
as indeed it was not their defign it fhould. But other-
wife, where the fpeaker has not foroe particular view
in doing it, to fink too low is as much a fault, as to
rife too high. So to call ancient Rome the miflrefs of
Italy, would as much leffen the juft notion of the ex¬
tent of her power, as the Roman writers aggrandife
it when they ftyle her mifrefs of the world. But pu-
O R Y,
Part III.
rity, both in the choice of words and expfeffions, is Elocution,
never more neceffary than it is here. This may be -1
called neatnefs in language. And to be plain and neat
at the fame time, is not only very confiftent but the
former can no other way recommend itfelf, than as
joined with the latter. Befides, the fewer advantages
any thing has to fet it off, the more carefully they
ought to be obferved. Perfpicuity is always to be re¬
garded ; and ferves very much to keep up the atten¬
tion, where other ornaments are wanting. Epithets
fhould be fparingly ufed, fince they enlarge the images
of things, and contribute very much to heighten the
ftyle. Indeed they are fometimes neceffary to fet a
thing in its juft light; and then they fhould not be
dropped. Thus, in fpeaking of Xerxes, it would be
too low and flat to fay, He defended with his army
into Greece. Here is no intimation given of their vaft
and unparallelled numbers, which ought to be done.
Herodotus fays, his whole army, of fea and land for¬
ces, amounted to 2,317,000 and upwards. There¬
fore, unlefs the number be mentioned, the leaft that
can be faid is, that he defended with a vaf army.
The next thing to be regarded is compofition,
which here does not require the greateft accuracy and
exaftnefs. A'feeming negligence is fometimes a beau¬
ty in this ftyle, as it appears more natural. Short
fentences, or thofe of a moderate length, are likewife
upon the whole beft fuited to this charafter. Long and
accurate periods, finely wrought up with a gradual
rife, harmonious numbers, a due proportion of the
feveral parts, and a juft cadency, are therefore impro¬
per, as they are plainly the effeft of (art. But yet
fome proportion fhould be obferved in the members,
that neither the ears be too much defrauded, nor the
fenfe obfcured. Of this kind is that expreffion of a
Greek orator, blamed by Demetrius: Ceres came rea¬
dily to our affiance, hut Arfiides not. The latter
member of this fentence is too fhort; and by dropping
fo fuddenly, both difappoints the ears, and is fome-
what obfcure. It would have been plainer, and more
agreeable thus, hut Arifiides did not come. As to or¬
der, the plaineft and cleareft difpofition, both of the
words and members of fentences, and what is molt
agreeable to the natural conftruclion, beft fuits with
this charadter. For one of its principal beauties is
perfpicuity. And a proper conne&ion likewife of
fentences, with a regular order in the dependence of
things one upon another, very much contribute to this
end. With regard to the collifion of fyllables in dif¬
ferent words, for preventing either an hollownefs or
afperity of found, greater liberty may be taken in this
ftyle than in the other charaflers. Here it may be al¬
lowed to fay, Virtue is amiable to all, though all do
not purfue it. But in an higher charafter, perhaps,
in order to prevent the hollow found of the words
though all, a perfon would choofe to vary the expref¬
fion a little, and fay, though few purfue it. So,
Xerxes' expedition, may be tolerable here ; but in the
florid ftyle, the expedition of Xerxes would found much
better.
The laft thing thing to be confidered, with refpedl
to the language, is dignity, or the ufe of tropes and
figures. And as to tropes, they ought to be ufed cau-
tioufly ; ualefs fuch as are very common, and by time
have either come into the place of proper words, or at
leaft
Part III.
ORATORY.
Elocution, lead equally plain and clear. So in the inftancemen-
tioned above, Diodorus Siculus, fpeaking of the
forces of Xerxes, calls them an innumerable company.
Where, by a fynecdoche, he has chofe to make ufe of
an uncertain number for a certain, as lefs liable per¬
haps to exception. Other examples might be given if
neceflary. And with regard to figures, as moft of
thofe which confift in words, and are therefore called
verbal figures, ferve chiefly to enliven an expreflion,
and give an agreeable turn, they are often not impro¬
per for this charafler. Nor are figures of fentences
wholly to be excluded, efpecially fuch as are chiefly
ufed in reafoning or demonftration. But thofe which
■re more peculiarly adapted to touch the pafilons, or
paint things in the ftrongeft colours, are the more
proper ornaments of the higher ftyles, as will be ftiewn
hereafter.
Upon the whole, therefore, pure nature, without
any colouring, or appearance of art, is the diftinguilh-
ing mark of the low ftyle. The defign of it is to
make things plain and intelligible, and fet them in an
eafy light. And therefore the proper fubje&s of it are
epiftles, dialogues, philofophical diflertations, or any
other difcourfes, that ought to be treated in a plain
and familiar manner, without much ornament, or ad-
drefs to the pafiions. A freedom and eafe both of
thought and expreffion, attended with an agreeable
humour and pleafantry, are its peculiar beauties that
engage us. As we fee perfons of faftiion and good
breeding, though in the plaineft habit, have yet fome-
thing in their air and manner of behaviour that is
very taking and amiable. Somewhat of the like na¬
ture attends this ftyle. It has its difficulties, which
are not fo eafily difeerned, but from experience. For
it requires no fmall Ikill, to treat a common fubjeft in
fuch a manner as to make it entertaining. The fewer
ornaments it admits of, the greater art is neceflary to
attain this end. Lofty fubjefls often engage and cap¬
tivate the mind by the fublimity of the ideas. And
the florid ftyle calls in all the affiftance of language
and eloquence. But the plain ftyle is in a great mea-
fure ftripped of thofe advantages; and has little more
to recommend it, than its own native beauty andfim-
plicity.
Chap. VI. Of the Middle Style.
*0$ This we fhall treat in the fame manner as we
did the former, by confidering firft the matter, and
then the language proper for it.
104 I. And as the fubjeds proper for this ftyle are
things of weight and importance, which require both
a gravity and accuracy of expreffion; fo fine thoughts
are its diftinguiftn'ng-mark, as plain thoughts are of
the low charadfer, and lofty thoughts of the fub-
lime. Now a fine thought may deferve that cha-
rafter from fome or other of the following proper¬
ties. .
And the firft property we fhall mention is gravity
and dignity. Thus Cicero in a fpeech to Csefar fays,
“ It has been often told me, that you have frequent¬
ly faid, you have lived long enough for yourfelf. I be¬
lieve it, if you either lived, or was born for yourfelf
only.” Nothing could either he more fit and proper,
than this was, when it was fpoken; or at the fame
time a finer compliment upon Csfar. For the civil
57JI
was now over, and the whole power of the Ro- Elocution,
man government in the hands of Csefar; fo that he
might venture to fay, he had lived long enough for
himfelf, there being no higher pitch of glory to which
his ambition could afpire. But then there were many
things in the ftate that wanted redreffing, after thofe
times of diforder and confufion, which he had not
yet been able to effect, and of which Cicero here takes
an opportanity to remind him. We ftiall produce an¬
other example from Curtins. Philotas, one of Alex¬
ander’s captains, having formed a confpiracy agaioil
him, was convidled of it, and put to.death. Amin-
tas, who was fufpefted of the fame crime, by reafon
of his great intimacy with Philotas, when he comes to
make his defence, among other things fpeaks thus :
“ I am fo far from denying my intimacy with Philo¬
tas, that I own I courted his friendftiip. Dp you
wonder that we ffiewed a regard to the fon of Parme-
nio, whom you would have to be next to yourfelf, gi¬
ving him the preference to all your other friends ? You,
Sir, if I may be allowed to fpeak the truth, have
brought me into this danger. For to whom elfe is it
owing, that thofe who endeavoured to plcafe you, ad-
drefled themfelves to Philotas? By his recommenda¬
tion we have been raifed to this fhare of your friend-
fhip. Such was his intereft with you, that we court¬
ed his favour, and feared his difpleafure. Did we not
all in a manner engage ourfelves by oath, to have the
fame friends, and the fame enemies, which you had ?
Should we have refufed to take this, which you as it
were propofed to us ? Therefore, if this be a crime,
you have few innocent perfons about you ; nay, indeed
none. For all defired to be the friends of Philotas;
though all could not be fo, who defired it. There¬
fore, if you make no difference between his friends
and accomplices, neither ought you to make any be¬
tween thofe who defired to be his friends, and thbfe
who really were fo.” Could any thing be finer fpoken,
more proper, and becoming the character of a fol-
dier, than this defence ; efpecially to a prince of fo
great and generous a fpirit as Alexander ? There is
fomething which appears like this in Tacitus with re¬
lation to the emperor Tiberius, but falls vaftly ftiort
of it in the juftuefs and dignity of the fentiment. Se-
janus, his great favourite, and partner in his crimes,
falling under his difpleafure, was, like Philotas, put
to death for a confpiracy. Now a Roman knight,
who apprehended himfelf in danger on account of
his friendftiip with Sejanus, thus apologizes for him¬
felf to the emperor, in the manner of Amintas: “ It
is not for us to examine the merit of a perfon whom
you raife above others, nor your reafons for doing it.
The gods have given you the fovereign power of all
things, to us the glory of obeying. Let confpiracies
formed againft the ftate, or the life of the emperor, be
puniftied ; but as to friendlhips and private regards,
the fame reafon that juftifies you, Ceefar, renders us
innocent.” The turn of the expreffions is not much
different from that in the cafe of Amintas; but the
beauty of the thought is fpoiled, by the flattery of
complimenting Tiberius upon an excefs of power,
which he employed to the deftru&ion of many excel¬
lent men. There is not that impropriety in the de¬
fence of Amintas, which is equally brave and juft.
Another property of a fine thought is beauty and
32 H 2 elegancy
5721
Elocution..
ORATORY.
elegaxc?. It is a fine compliment which Pliny pays to
'the emperor Trajan, when he fays : 11 It has happen¬
ed to you alone, that you was father of your country,
before you was made fq.” Some of the Roman em¬
perors had been complimented with the title of father
of their country, who little deferved it. But Trajan
had a long time refufed it, though he was really fo,
both by his good government, and in the efteem of
his fubjedts, before he thought fit to accept of it.
And Piiny, among other inftances of the generofity
of that prince, which he mentions in the fame dif-
courfe, fpeaking of the liberty that he gave the Ro¬
mans to purchafe eftates which had belonged to the
emperors, and the peaceable poffeffion they had of
them, does it by a turn of thought no lefs beautiful
than the former. “ Such (fays he) is the prince’s
bounty, fuch the fecurity of the times, that he thinks
us worthy to enjoy what has been poffeffed by em¬
perors ; and we are not afraid to be thought fo.”
There is a fpritelinefs in this image, which gives it a
beauty ; as there is likewife in the following paffage
of the fame difcourfe, where he fays to Trajan,
“ Your life is difpleafmg to you, if it be not joined
with the public fafety ; and you fufifer us to wifli you
nothing but what is for the good of thofe who wifh
it.” And of the fame kind is that of Cicero to Cse-
far, when he fays: “ You, Csefar, are wont to for¬
get nothing. but injuries.” It is a very handfome, as
well as juft reflection, made by Tacitus upon Galba’s
government, that, “ He feemed too great for a pri¬
vate man, while he was but a private man ; and
all would have thought him worthy of the em¬
pire, had he never beeen emperor.” The beauty of
a thought may give us delight, though the fubjedt
be forrowful; and the images of things in them-
felves unpleafant, may be fo reprefented as to become
agreeable. Sifigambis, the mother of Darius, after
the death of her fon, had been treated by Alexander
with the greateft regard and tendernefs, in whofe
power (he then was. So foon as (he heard therefore
that he was dead, (he grew weary of life, and could
not bear to outlive him. Upon which QACurtius
makes this fine refledtion: “ Though (he had cou¬
rage to furvive Darius, yet (he was afliamed to outlive
Alexander.”
The next property of a fine thought, which we (hall
mention, is delicacy. As, in the objedts of pur fenfes,
thofe things are faid to be delicate which aflecl us
gradually in a foft and agreeable manner; fo a delicate
thought is that which is not wholly difcovered at
once, but by degrees opening and unfolding itfelf to
the mind, difclofes more than was at firft perceived.
Quintilian feems to refer to this, when he fays,
“ Thofe things are grateful to the hearers, which
when they apprehend, they are delighted with their
own fagacity ; and pleafe themfelves, as though they
had not heard, but difcovered them.” Such thoughts
are not unlike the (ketches of fome pictures, which
let us into the defign of the artift, and help us to dif-
eern more than the lines themfelves exprefs. Of this
kind is that of Sallult : “ In the greateft fortunes,
there is the lead liberty.” This is not often fo in
fadt, but ought to be; both to guard againft an abufe
of power, and to prevent the effeds of a bad example
to inferiors. Piiny, fpeaking of the emperor Traj.an’s
Part III.
entry into Rome, fays : “ Some declared, upon fee- Elocution,
tug yog, they had lived long enough ; others, that. '**•
now they were more defirous to live.” The compli¬
ment is fine either way, fince both muft efteem the
fight of him the greateft happinefs in life ; and in
that confiftency lies the delicacy of the thought. It
was a fine charader given of Grotius, when very
young, on the. account of his furprifing genius and
uncommon proficiency in learning, that he 'was ‘horn
a man : As if nature, at his coming into the world,
had at once furniftied him with thofe endowments
which others gradually acquire by iludy and appli¬
cation.
The laft property of a fine thought, which we (hall
take notice of, is novelty. Mankind is naturally plea-
fed with new things ; and when at the fame time they
are fet in an agreeable light, this very much heightens
the pleafure. Indeed there are few fubjeds, but what
have been fo often confidered, that it is not to be ex-
peded they (hould afford many thoughts entirely new;
but the fame thought fet in a different light, or ap¬
plied to a different occafion, has in fome degree a
claim of novelty. And even where a thing hath been
fo well, faid already, that it cannot eafily be mended,
the revival of a fine thought often affords a pleafure
and entertainment to the mind, though it can have no
longer the claim of novelty. Cicero, in his treatife
of an orator, among feveral other encomiums which
he there gives to Craffus, fays of him : “ Craffus al¬
ways excelled every other perfon, but that day he ex¬
celled himfelf.” He means as an orator. But elfe-
where he applies the fame thought to Caefar, upon
another account; and with fome addition to it. “ You
had (fays he) before conquered all other conquerors by
your equity and clemency, but to-day you have con¬
quered yourfelf; you feem to have vanquKhed even
yi&ory herfelf, therefore you alone are truly invin¬
cible.” This thought, with a little variation of the
phrafe, has fince appeared in feveral later writers ; and
it is now grown common to fay of a perfon, who ex-
cells in any way, upon his doing better than he did
before, that he has outdone himfelf. The like has
happened to another thought, which, with a little al¬
teration, has been varioufly applied. It was faid by
Varro, That if the Mufes 'were to talk Latin, they
'would talk like Plautus. The younger Pliny, apply¬
ing this compliment to a friend of his, fays, His let¬
ters are fo finely 'written, that you 'would think the Mu¬
fes themfelves talked Latin. And Cicero tells us, It
•was faid of Xenophon, that the Mufes themfelves feem¬
ed to fpeak Greek •with his voice. And elfewhere,
that Philofopbers fay, if Jupiter fpeaks Greek, he mujl
fpeak like Plato. The thought is much the fame in
alUhefe inftsnces, and KaS been fince revived by fome
modern writers.
II. We (hall now confider the language proper for I0-
the middle ftyle. And in general it may be obftrved, '
that as the proper fubje'As of it are things of weight
and importance, though not of that exalted nature
as wholly to captivate the mind and divert it from
attending to the didtion; fo all theornainents offpeeeh,
and beauties of eloquence, have place here.
And firll with regard to elegance, it is plain that a
different choice of words makes a very great difference
iii.ihe ftyle, where the ftnfe is the fame.. Sometimes
one.
Partlll. ORATORY. 5723
'locution. one fmgle word adds a grace and weight to an ex-
preffion, which, if removed, the fenfe becomes flat
and lifelefs. Now fuch words as are moft full and
expreflive, fuit beft with this charafter. Epithets alfo,
which are proper and well chofen, ferve very mtich to
beautify and enliven it, as they enlarge the ideas of
things, and fet them in a fuller light.
The mod accurate compofition, in all the parts of
it, has place here. Periods, the moft beautiful and
harmonious, of a due length, and wrought up with
the moft exacl order, juft cadency, eafy and fmooth
connexion of the words, and flowing numbers, are the
genuine ornaments, which greatly contribute to form
this charafter.
But the principal diftinftion of ftyle arifes from
tropes and figures. By thefe it is chiefly animated
and raifed to its different degrees or characters, as it
receives a lefferor greater number of them; and thofe
either more mild, or ftrong and powerful.
As to tropes, thofe which afford the moft lively and
pleafing ideas, efpecialiy metaphors, fuit the middle
charadter. It is a pretty remark, which has been
made by fome critics upon two verfes of Virgil ; one
in his Eclogues, and the other in his Georgies. The
former of thefe works is for the moft part written in
the low ftyle, as the language of Ihepherds ought
to be ; but the latter in the middle ftyle, fuitable to
the nature of the fubjed, and the perfons for whom
it was defigned, the greateft men in Rome not think¬
ing it below them to entertain themfelves with rural
affairs. Now in the Eclogue, as fome copies read the
verfe, the Ihepherd, complaining of the barrennefs of
his land, fays:
Infelix folium ct fteriles najamtar avenx.
In Englilh thus:
Wild oats ami darnel grow inflead of corn.
But in the Georgic, where the fame fenfe is in¬
tended, inftead of the proper word nafeuntur, grow,
the author fubftitutes a metaphor, dominantur, com¬
mand, and fays :
Infrtix folium et Jferiles dominantur avenx.
That is in Englilh :
Where corn is fown, darnel and oats command.
It was fit and natural for the Ihepherd to exprefs his
fenfe in the plained terms; and it would have been
wrong to reprefent him going fo far out of bis way, as
to fetch a metaphor from government, in talking up¬
on his own affairs. But in the Georgic, where the
poet fpeaks in his own perfon, the metaphor is much
more beautiful, and agreeable to the dignity of the
work. This inftance may (hew in fome meafure how
the ftyle is heightened by tropes, and the fame thought
may be accommodated to the feveral cbara&ers of
ftyle by the different manner of expreffion.
The like may alfo be faid of figures either of words
or fentences, in reference to this chara&er ; which ad¬
mits of thefineft deferiptions, moft lively images, and
brighteft figures, that ferve either for delight, or to
influence the pafiions without tranfport or eeftafy,
which is the property of the fublime. This is indeed
the proper feat of fuch embdlilhments, which fupport
and make up a principal part of the middle or florid
ftyle. Having treated largely upon thefe in feveral
preceding chapters, we (hall here only briefly mention Elocution,
fome of the moft confiderable.
Deferiptions are not only a great ornament to a dif- i©6
courfe, but reprefent things in a very lively and agree¬
able manner. In what a beautiful light has Cicero
placed the polite arts and fciences, when, deferibing
them from their effetSs, he thus reprefents to us the
great advantages, as well as pleafure, which they af-
ford to the mind ? “ Other ftudies neither fuit with
all times, nor all ages, nor all places : but thefe im¬
prove youth, delight old age, adorn profperity, afford
a refuge and folace in adverfity ; pleafe at home, are
no hindrance abroad; fleep, travel, and retire with us.”
And they often affecl us very powerfully, when they
are addreffed to the fenfes. Quintilian has painted the
calamities of a city taken by ftorm in the brighteft
and ftrongeft colours, which he reprefents by “ Flames
fpreading themfelves over the houfes and temples, the
cracking of falling buildings, and a confufed noife
from a variety of cries and fliouts; fome running they
know not where, others in the laft embraces of their
friends, the fhrieks of children, women, and old men
unhappily referred to fuch diftrefs ; the plundering
of all places civil and facrcd, the hurry and confufion
in carrying off the booty, captives driven before their
vi&ors, mothers endeavouring to guard their infants,
and quarrels among the conquerors where the plun¬
der is largeft.” This feems to be a very natural, as
well as moving, image of fo dreadful a calamity.
Profopopeia is another very ftrong and beautiful fi- 107
gure, very proper for this charatter. Seneca has a
fine inftance of it in his Confolotary letter to Marcia,
upon the death of her fon. After many arguments
he had made ufe of to alleviate her grief, he at laft
introduces her father, Cremutius Cordus, as thus ad¬
drefling to her: “ Imagine your father (fays he) from
the celeftial regions, fpeaking to you in this manner:
Daughter, why do you fo long indulge your grief? why
are you fo ignorant, as to think it unhappy for your
fon, that, weary of life, he has withdrawn himfelf to
his anceftors ? Are you not fenfible what diforders for¬
tune occa lions every where? and that (he is kindeft to
thofe who have lealt concern with her ?. Need I men¬
tion to you princes who had been extremely happy
had a more timely death fecured them from impend¬
ing evils ? or Roman generals, who wanted nothing
to confummate their glory, but that they lived too
long ? Why then is he bewailed longeft in our family,
who died moft happily ? There is nothing, as you
imagine, defirable among you, nothing great, no¬
thing noble; but, on the contrary, all things are
mean, full of trouble and anxiety, and partake very
little of the light which we enjoy.” This advice was
very fuitable for a philofopher; and he feems to have
chofen. this way of introducing it, to enforce the ar¬
gument drawn from the happinefs of good men in a
future ftate, from the teftimony of a perfon who was
atftually in the poffeffion of it.
Similitudes and comparifons are another great orna- jog'
ment of this ftyle, and ofteneft found here. Nothing
can be finer than the comparifon between thofe two
great orators, Demofthenes and Cicero, made by
Quintilian, when he fays : “ Demofthenes and Cicero
differ in their elocution ; one is more clofe, and the
other more copious; the former concludes more con-
5,724
Elocution.
109
110
lit
ORA
cifely, and the latter takes a larger compafs; the one
always with pungency, and the other generally with
weight; one can have nothing taken from him, and
the other nothing added to him ; the latter has more
of art, and the former more of nature. But thismnft
be allowed to Demofthenes, that he made Cicero in a
great meafure what he was. For as Tully gave himfelf
wholly to an imitation of the Gfeeks, he feems to me
to have expreffed the force of Demofthenes, the fluen¬
cy of Plato, and the pleafantry of Ifocrates.” Simili¬
tudes, taken from natural things, ferve very much to
enliven the ftyle, and give it a cheerfulnefs ; which is
a thing fo common and well known, that we need not
ftay to give any inftances of it.
Antithejis, or oppofition, both in the words and
fenfe, has often the like beautiful effeft. There is an
agreeable contraft in that pafiage of Seneca : “ Cse-
far does not allow himfelf many things, becaufe he
can do all things: his watching defends all others
fleep, his labour their quiet, his induftry their plea-
fure, his bufinefs their eafe ; fince he has governed
the world, he has deprived himfelf of it.” Had he
faid no more than only in general, that, Cxfar doet
not allow himfelf many things% hecaufe he can do all
things, it might have paffed for a fine thought; but,
by adding fo many particulars, all in the fame form
of expreffion, and beginning each member with the
fame word, he has both enlarged the idea, and beauti¬
fied the antithefis, by a bright verbal figure.
Thefe, and fuch like florid figures, are fometimes
found in hiftorians, but oftener in orators ; and in¬
deed this middle charaSer, in the whole of it, is
beft accommodated to the fubjefts of hiftory and ora¬
tory.
Chap. VII. Of the Sublime Style.
The fublime is the moft noble, as well as the mod
difficult part, of an orator’s province. It is this prin¬
cipally which Cicero requires in his perfect orator,
whom he could not defcribe in words, but only con¬
ceive of in his mind. And indeed, the nobleft ge¬
nius and greateft art are both requifite to form this
chara£ter. For where nature has been moft liberal in
furnifliing the mind with lofty thoughts, bright ima¬
ges, and ftrong expreffions ; yet without the affiftance
of art there will fometimes be found a mixture of what
is low, improper, or mifplaced. And a great genius,
like a too rich foil, muft produce flowers and weeds
promifcuoufly, without cultivation. But the jufteft
propriety, joined with the greateft ftrength and higheft
elevation, of thought, are required to complete the
true fublime. Art therefore is neceftary to regulate
and perfeft the tafte oTthofe who are defirous to ex¬
cell in this chara&er.
In explaining the nature and properties of this cha-
rafter, we {hall, as in the two former, co.nfider firft
the thoughts, and then the language, in each of which
it is diftinguiftted from them.
$ i. Sublime, as it relates to Thoughts.
Lofty and grand fentiments are the bafis and foun¬
dation of the true fublime. Longinus therefore ad-
vifes thofe who afpire at this excellence, to accuftom
themfelves to think upon the nobleft fubje&s. A mind
that always dwells upon low and common fubjefts,
TORY. Partlll.
can never raife itfelf fufficiently to reprefent things Elocution,
great and magnificent in their full extent and proper "
light. But he who inures himfelf to conceive the
higheft and moft exalted ideas, and renders them fa¬
miliar to his thoughts, will not often be at a lofs how
to exprefs them ; for where proper words are want¬
ing, by metaphors and images taken from other
things he will be able to convey them in a juft and
adequate manner. What is more common than for
two perfons to conceive very differently of the fame
thing from, the different manner of thinking to which
they have been accuftomed ? After the great battle in
Cilicia, between Alexander and Darius, in which the
latter was routed, he fent ambaffadors to Alexander
with propofals of peace, offering him half his king¬
dom with his daughter in marriage. Parmenio, one
of Alexander’s chief captains, fays to him upon this
occafion : “ For my part, was I Alexander, I would
accept of thefe conditions.” “And fo would I,” replies
that afpiring monarch, “ was I Parmenio.” The half
of fo vaft a kingdom at prefent, and a right of fuc-
ceffion to the whole by marriage, was the higheft am¬
bition to which the thoughts of Parmenio could rife.
But Alexander had vaftly higher views, he aimed at
nothing lefs than univerfal monarchy ; and therefore
fuch a propofal feemed much beneath his regard.
Noble and lofty thoughts are principally thofe which
either relate to divine objeds, or fuch things as a- j
mong men are generally efteemcd the greateft and moft
illuftrious.
Of the former fort is that of Homer, when defcri-
bing the goddefs Difcord, he fays, that (he
Walks on the ground, and hides her head in clouds.
Tliis ftretch of thought, fays Longinus, as great as
the diftance between heaven and earth, does not more
reprefent the ftature of the goddefs, than the meafure
of the poet’s genius and capacity. But fuch images,
however beautiful in poetry, are not fo proper for an
orator, whofe bufinefs it is to make choice of thofe
which are fuited to the nature of things and the com¬
mon reafon of mankind. When Numa the fecond
king of Rome was fettled in his government, and at
peace with his neighbours, in order to foften the fierce
and martial temper of his fubje&s, who had been al¬
ways accuftomed to wars during the reign of his pre-
deceffor Romulus, he endeavoured to imprefs their
minds with an awe of the Deity; and for that end in¬
troduced a number of religious ceremonies, which he
pretended to have received from the goddefs Egeria.
This muft be efteemed an artful piece of policy at
that time. But that fentiment is far more juft and
noble, with which Cicero endeavours to infpire the
members of a community, in his treatife Of Laws,
when he fays, that “ Citizens ought firft to be per-
fuaded, that all things are under the rule and govern¬
ment of the gods ; that every affair is directed by
their wifdom and power; that the higheft regard is
due to them from men, fince they obferve every one’s
conduft, how he a&s and behaves himfelf, and with
what temper and devotion he worfliips them ; and
that they make a difference between the pious and
impious.” Perfons under the influence of fuch a per-
fuafion, could not fail of behaving well in fociety.
And what he fays to Caefar is no lefs in this ftyle, <
when, interceding for Ligarius, he tells him, that
“ men
Part III. ORA']
locution. “ men in nothing approach nearer to deity, than in
  giving life to men.” And Velleius Paterculus, fpeak*
ing of Cato, gives him this fublime chara&er, “ That
he was more like the gods than men; who never did a
good thing, that he might feem to do it.”
The other kind of lofty thoughts mentioned above,
are thofe which relate to power, wifdom, courage,
beneficence, and fuch other things as are of the higheft
efteem among mankind. “ Your fortune (fays Tully
to Caefar) has nothing greater than a power, nor your
nature than a will, to fave many.” He fubjoins this
compliment to what we juft now cited from him; and
applies that to Csefar, which was before only ex-
prefied in general, leaving him to draw the inference
of his fimilitude to deity from the clemency of his
nature. And elfewhere, as in a fort of tranfport for
his fuccefs in defeating the confpiracy of Catiline, he
thus befpeaks the Roman fenate: “ You have always
decreed public thanks to others for their good govern¬
ment of the ftate, but to me alone for its prefervation.
Let that Scipio fhine, by whofe conduft and valour
Hannibal was forced to leave Italy, and retire to
Africa ; let the other Scipio be greatly honoured,
who deftroyed Carthage and Numantia, two cities the
moft dangerous to this empire; let Lucius Paulus
be in high efteem, whofe triumphal chariot was adorned
with Perfes, once a moft powerful and noble prince;
let Marius be in eternal hunour, who twice delivered
Italy from an invafion and the dread of fervitude; let
Pompey’s name excel all thefe, whofe aftions and vir¬
tues are terminated by no other bounds but the courfe
of the fun: yet, among all their praifes, there will
(till fome place be left for my glory; unlefs indeed it
be a greater thing to open for us new provinces to
which we may refort, than to fecure a place for our
victorious generals to returrt in triumph.” And Vel¬
leius Paterculus, as if he thought no encomium too
high for this great orator, laments his unhappy fate
in thefe lofty ftrains, addreffed to M. Antony, by
whofe order he was put to death: “ You have taken
from Cicero old age, and a life more miferable than
death under your government; but his fame, and the
glory of his aCtions and words, you have been fo far
from deftroying, that you have increafed them. He
lives, and will live in the memory of all ages ; and
while this fyftem of nature, however conftituted, fhall
remain, (which fcarce any Roman but himfelf con¬
ceived in his mind, comprehended by his genius, and
illuftrated with his eloquence), the praife of Cicero
lhall accompany it; and all pofterity, whilett admires
his writings againit you, will curfe your treatment of
him; and fooner fhall mankind be loft to the world,
than his name.” It was a noble reply of Porus the
Indian king, when, after his defeat by Alexander,
being brought before him, and afked, Ho<w he expefted
to be treated? he anfwered, Like a king. And Vale¬
rius Maximus, fpeaking of Pompey’s treatment of
Tigranes king of Armenia after he had vanquifhed
him, exprefles it in a manner fuited to the dignity and
beneficence of the aftion, when he fays, “ He re-
ftored him to his former fortune, efteeming it as glo¬
rious to make kings, as to conquer them.”
But the true fublime is confiftent with the greateft
plainnefs and fimplicity of expreffion. And, gene¬
rally fpeaking, the more plain and natural the images
r O R Y. 5725
appear, the more they furprife us. How fuccinfl, Elocution,
and yet how majeftic, is that exprefiion of Caefar upon
his vidory over Pharnaces? I came, I fanu, I conquered.
But there cannot be a greater or more beautiful example
of this, than what Longinus has taken notice of from
Mofes. “ The legiflator of the Jews (fays he), no
ordinary perfon, having a juft notion of the power
and raajefty of the Deity, has expreffed it in the be¬
ginning of his laws in the following words: And God
faid—what? Let there be light; and there nuas light.
Let the earth be made; and it ’was made.” This in-
ftance from the divine writer, and the character here
given of him by that excellent critic, is the more re¬
markable, as he was himfelf a Pagan. And certainly
no laboured defcription could raife in the mind an
higher conception of the infinite power of the Deity,
than this plain and (hort narration. To command na¬
ture itfelf into being by a nnord, reprefents it at once
altogether boundlefs and unlimited.
It fometimes very much contributes to heighten the
image of a thing, when it is expreffed in fo undeter¬
mined a manner, as to leave the mind in fufpence
what bounds to fix to the thought. Of this kind is
that of Cicero, when he firlt raifes an objeftion againft
the neceffity of an acquaintance with polite literature
in order to form a great man, and then anfwers it.
The objection is founded upon the examples of feveral
great and excellent perfons among the Romans, who
had raifed themfelves to the higheft pitch of honour
and dignity, and been very ferviceable to their coun¬
try, by the help of a good genius, without the
advantage of much learning. In reply to which,
he allows, that, where thefe are not united, nature
or genius is of itfelf much preferable, and will
carry a perfon further in the purfuit of great and noble
defigns, than learning without a.genius; but that
both are neceffary to complete and perfeft a truly great
man. But we (hall give what he fays himfelf on this
this head, by which that property of a fublime thought
we are now endeavouring to explain, will appear from
his manner of exprefiion: “ I acknowledge (fays he)
that many perfons of an exalted mind and virtue have,
from a divine temper, without inftruAion, become
moderate and grave; and I'add likewife, that nature,
without the afliftance of learning, has frequently more
contributed to honour and virtue, than learning where
a genius has been wanting : But yet I muft fay, that
where the dire&ion and improvement of learning is
added to a great and excellent genius, it is wont to
produce fomething admirable and Angular, which I
know not how to deferibe.’’ He knew very well,
that, by leaving the minds of his hearers thus- in fuf¬
pence, they would form to themfelves higher concep¬
tions of what he intended, than from any idea he
could convey to them in words. We may add to this-
another example from the fame great orator, where
he fays, “ Truly, if the mind had no views to pofte¬
rity, and all its thoughts were terminated by thofe
bounds in which the fpace of life is confined, it would
neither fatigue itfelf with fo great labours, nor be dif-
quieted with fo many cares and watchings, nor fo
often expofe itfelf to death. But there is a certain
a&ive principle in every good man, which conftantly
excites his mind by motives of glory ; and reminds
him, that the remembrance of his name is not to end
withu
5726 ORATORY. Part III.
Elocution, with his life, but extend itfelf to all pofterity.” Of
the like nature is that of Milton, when he defcribes
Satan as flying from hell in quell of our earth, then
newly formed. For, having reprefented that his
wings failed him in the vail vacuity, he thus defcribes
his fall:
Down he drops
Ten thoufand fathom deep; and to this hour
Down had been falling, had not by ill chance
The (Irong rebuff of fome tumultuous cloud,
Ir.ftinft with fir# .md nitre, hurried him
As many miles aloft.
Thofe words, by which his fall is exprefled.
And to this hour
Down had been falling,
leave the mind in fufpence, and unable to fix any
bounds to the vacuity ; and by that means raife a
greater and more furpriling idea of its fpace, than
any direfl expreffion could have done. This image
is very beautiful where it Hands; but fo much out
of the common way of thinking, as to fuit better
with an epic poem, than the difcourfe of an
orator.
$ 2. The Sublime, nuith regard to Language.
112 What we have to offer upon this fubjedl, will come
under the three heads of Elegance, Compofition, and
Dignity ; which comprehend all the properites of llyle.
113 I. Elegance. __ Thofe words and expreffions chiefly
contribute to form the fublime, which are moil fono-
rous, and have the greatell fplendor, force, and dignity.
And they are principally fuch as thefe. Long words,
when equally expreffive, are rather to be chofen, than
fbort ones, and efpecially monofyllables. So to con¬
quer or vanquilh and enemy, carries in it a fuller and
and more grand found, than to beat an enemy. For
which reafon, likewife, compound words are often pre¬
ferable to Ample ones. So if we fay, Ccefar's army,
when he wasprefent, was always invincible; this manner
of expreffion has more of fublimity in it, than Ihould
we fay, Cafar's army, when he was prefent, could
never be conquered. But the ancient languages have
much the advantage of ours in both thefe refpe&s ;
for their words are generally longer, and they are
abundantly more happy in their compofnions. The
ufe of proper epithets does alfo in a particular manner
contribute to this chara&er. For as they denote the
qualities and modes of things, they are, as it were,
fhort defcriptions; fo that beingjoined to their fubjefts,
they often greatly enlarge and heighten their image.
Thus when the character of divine poet is given to
Homer or Virgil, or prince of orators to Demofthenes
or Cicero ; it conveys to the mind a more fubiimeidea
of them, than the bare mention of their name.
114 II. Cvmpojition : The force of which, as Longinus
obferves, is fo great, that fometimes it creates a kind
of fublime where the thoughts, themfelves are but
mean, and gives a certain appearance of grandeur to
^iat which otherwffe would feem but common. But
compofuion confifts of feveral parts; the firft of which,
in the order we have hitherto confidered them, is period.
And here the cafe is much the fame as with animal
bodies, which owe their chief excellency to the union
and juft proportion of their parts. The feveral mem¬
bers, when feparate from each , other, lofe both that
beauty and force, which they have when joined toge-Elocution^
ther in a complete body. In like manner fublimity \
arifes from the feveral parts of a period fo connedled,
as to give force, as well as beauty, to the whole.
The periods therefore in this chara&er Ihould be of a
proper length. If they are too ffiort, they lofe their
juft weight and grandeur, and are gone almoft before
they reach the ear ; as on the contrary, when they
are too prolix, they become heavy and unwieldy, and
by that means lofe their force. But more efpecialiy,
nothing fuperfluous ought to be admitted, which very
much enervates the force of a fentence. We ftiall ex¬
emplify this in a paffage from Herodotus, where he
is giving an account of the famous battle at Ther¬
mopylae, between the Perfians and Lacedemonians.
“ D-ieneces,” fays he, “ the Spartan, being told by
a Trachinian, before the engagement with the Medes, j
that when the barbarians came to fhoot their arrows,
they would fly fo thick as to obfeure the light of the
fun ; he was fo far from being terrified at this, that,
defpifing their number, he replied, he “ was pleafed
with what his friend told him, fince if the fun was ob-
feured, they (liould fight in the (hade, and not in the
fun.” The fenfe here is great and noble, but the
fublimity of expreffion is fpoilt in a great meafure by
thofe laft words, and ?iot in the fun, which are wholly
fuperfluous. Cicero was fenfible of this, and therefore
he omits that member in relating the fame ftory, and
fays only : “ A Spartan, hearing that one of the
Perfians ftiould fay in an infulting manner, that when
they came to engage, they ftiould not be able fo fee
the fun, for the multitude of their djrts and arrows,
replies, Then we lhall fight in the fhade.” By flop¬
ping here, he gives the fentence much more life and
emphafis. The next thing to be confidered in com¬
pofition, is the order and difpofition of the feveral
words and members of a fentence. The different
placing but of one or two words will fometimes
wholly deflroy the grandeur of a fentence, and make
it extremely flat. “ This public aft (fays Demof¬
thenes) difpelled the danger, which at that time, like
a cloud, hung over the city.” Let us vary the order a
little, and read it thus : “ This public aft difpelled
the danger, which like a cloud hung over the city at
that time.” What a different turn does the exprtffion
receive for the worfe ! The fpirit and majefty of it are
entirely loit.—And in placing the feveral parts or
members, they ought to be fo difpofed, that what is
moft weighty and important. ftiould ftand laft-. So
Tully fays of Catiline: “ We ought to return thanks
to heaven, that we have fo often efcaped fo odious,
fo frightful, fo dangerous a plague of the ftate.” A
thing may be odious, and frightful, and yet not
dangerdus; therefore he puts this in the laft place, to
give it the greater force, aiid make the deepeft im-
preffidn. Another thing to be attended to in com-
pefition, is the conneftion of the words with regard
to the found ; that the pronunciatiop, in palling from
one to another, may be moft agreeable to the ear,
and bed fuited to the nature of the fubjeft. And as
this is generally fomething grand and magnificent, fuch
a contextdre of them as will give the grtattft <force
and energy to the expreffion is moft proper for the
fublime. Soft and languid founds are very unfuitabie
to this character. They foothe and pleafe the ear; but
rather
Part III. ORATORY. 5727
Elocution, rather fink and deprefs the mind, than excite it to
things' great and noble. In this refpedl therefore,
our tongue, by its multitude of confonants, is more
fuitable for fublime difcourfes, than fome other modern
languages, which abound with vowels.
115 III. The lalt head to be confidered, is the proper
ufe of tropes and figures; which is here fo neceflary,
that the title of dignity feems to have been given to
this part of elocutio-n, from the afliftance it more
efpecially affords to this character. For if, as has
been obferved from Longinus, compofitions will fome-
times create a fort of fublimity ; this much oftener
happens from the force and efficacy of fome lively
tropes and ftrong figures.
And as to tropes, bright metaphors are peculiarly
fuited to raife and animate the ftyle. This is mani-
feft from the nature of them, as they confift of con-
trafted fimilies, reduced to a fingle word ; which, if
taken from things lofty and grand, muft of confe-
quence give a fublimity to the ftyle. What can fug¬
ged to us a greater idea of the valour of Ajax, than
Homer’s calling him the bulwark of the Greeks ; or
I of the Scipios, than when they are ftyled by Virgil,
the two thunderbolts of war. A number of thofe, well
chofen, contribute no lefs to the grandeur than to the
beauty of difcourfe. Hyperbole fometimes gives the
fame force to an expreffion, if cautioufly ufed, and fo
as not to exceed all appearance of truth. But the
chief ufe of it is, where proper words will not cxprefs
the juft idea of the thing defigned to be conveyed;
and it may feetn rather the offspring of neceffity than
choice. Of this nature is that of Herodotus, when
fpeaking of the Lacedemonians at Thermopylae, he
fays: “ They defended themfelves with the fwords
they had left, and even with their hands and teeth,
till the barbarians buried them under their arrows.”
It cannot be fuppofed ftri&ly true, that fo many
arrows were thrown at them as to bury them ; but
having in the former part of the fentence reprefented
their refolute defence in the ftrongeft terms, by faying,
that, naked and without arms, they engaged armed
men with their hands and teeth, the following hyper¬
bole feems not unnatural, and to intimate nothing
more than what was neceffary to quell fuch obftinate
refolution and courage.
As to figures, whether verbal or thofe which con¬
fift in the fenfe, the nature of this chara&er will eafily
diredt to fuch as are mod proper. But with refpedl
to the latter, poets take greater liberties in the ufe of
them than would be allowed in an orator. As their
images are often formed for pleafure and delight, fo
they carry in them more of rapture and tranfport.
But the orator’s ufe of them being to fet things in a
ftronger and clearer light, they are more fedate and
moderate. Befides, an orator fcarce ever has occafion
| v for fuch fidlitious images as we often meet with
in poetry; though his ought to appear as natural, and
its painting as ftrong and lively. We (hall juft men¬
tion fome of the chief of thofe figures, which feem belt
fuited for this purpofe ; though they are no lefs fuited
to the middle ftyle, as has been flicwn already, when
taken from fubjedls of an inferior nature.
; Il6 I- Defcription. Of this Judin gives us a fine in-
ftance, in a fpeech of king Philip the fifth of Mace-
don, wherein he reprefents the ueceffity of falling up-
Vou. VIII. 1
on the Romans, who at that time were engaged in a Eiqcut'on,
war with Hannibal. “ I behold,” fays he, “ a cloud
of a moft dreadful and bloody war rifing in Italy. I
fee a ftorm of thunder and lightning from the weft,
which will overfpread all places with a vaft fhower of
blood, into whatever country the tempeft of viftory
{hall drive it. Greece has undergone many violent
(hocks in the Perfian, Gallic, and Macedonian wars ;
but thefe would all be found unworthy of regard, if
the armies now engaged in Italy (hould march out
of that country. I view the terrible and cruel wars
which involve thofe nations through the courage of their
forces, and fkill of their generals. This rage and fury
cannot ceafe by the deftrudtion of one party, without
the ruin of their neighbours. Indeed, Macedon has
lefs reafon to dread the favage conquerors, than
Greece ; becaufe more prepared, and better able to
defend itfelf: but I am fenfible, thofe who attack
each other fo impetuoufly, will not confine their vic¬
tories within thofe bounds ; and that it will be our lot
to engage the conquerors.” So lively a pidlure of
imminent and threatning danger, muft needs alarm
the moft timorous, and excite them to a refolution to
defend their country, and all that was dear to them.
Such images give life and vigour to a difeourfe, and
being artfully interwoven with proper arguments, in¬
fluence the mind, and cafty it away by an irrefiftible
force ; fo that the hearer is not barely left to conclude
the certainty of the thing, but moved by it, as it
were, from ocular demonftration. The images there¬
fore of the orator ought to be drawn from real things,
or at lead fuch as are probable; for if they are
wholly fidlitious and incredible, as many poetical
images are, they may give pleafure, but will not con¬
vince the mind, nor fway the paffions.
2. Enumeration has fome affinity with the former j {y
figure ; by which, if the feveral parts have each
fomething grand in them, the whole, when brought
together, and difpofed in a juft order, very much
contributes to the fublimity. We (hall produce an
example of this from an Englifh writer, containing a
defcription of our globe, upon a furvey of it after the
general conflagration, which he reprefents in this
ftrong light : “ Such is the vanity and tranfient glory
of this habitable world! By the force of one element
breaking loofe upon the reft, all the vanities of nature,
all the works of art, all the labours of man, are re¬
duced to nothing ; all that we admired and loved be¬
fore, as great and magnificent, is obliterated and va-
niftied, and another form and face of things, plain,
fimple, and every where the fame, overfpreads the
whole earth. Where are now the great empires of
the world, and their great imperial cities ? their pillars,
trophies, and monuments of glory ? Shew me where
they ftood, read the infeription, tell me the vigor’s
name. What remains, what impreffions, what diffe¬
rence or diftin&ion, do you fee in this mafs of fire?
Rome itfelf, eternal Rome, the great city, the em-
prefs of the world, whofe domination or fuperftition,
ancient or modern, make a great part of the hiftory
of the earth ; what is become of her now ? She laid
her foundations deep, and her palaces were ftrong and
fumptuous; Jheglorifiedherfelf, and lived delicioufiy, and
faid in her heart, I fit a queen, and Jhall fee no for row :
but her hour is come, (he is wiped away from the face
32 I of
5728 6H A "
Slocution. of the eartb, and buried in everlafting oblivion. But
it is not cities only, and the works of mens hands; the
everlafting hills, the'mountains and rocks of the earth,
are melted as wax before the fun, and their place is
no where found. Here flood the Alps, the load of
the earth, that covered many countries, and reached
their arms from the ocean to the Black fea. This
huge mafs of ftone is foftened and difiblved, as a ten¬
der cloud into rain. Here flood the African moun¬
tains, and Atlas with his top above the clouds. There
was frozen Caucafus, and Taurus, and Imaus, aud
the mountains of Afia; and yonder, towards the
north, flood the Riphean hills, clothed in ice and
fnow; all thefe are vanilhed, dropped away, as the
f Burnet's fnow upon their headsf.” Thefe particulars confidered
Theory. feparately, are all truly great and noble, and every way
fuited to the nature of the fubjeft; but as they are
here difpofed, and rife in order, they both enlarge
the idea, and heighten the image of that grand] ca-
taftrophe.
118 3 • Similitude : Which ferves very much for beauty
and ornament ; and when taken from great and fub-
lime objefts, adds a grandeur and magnificence to the
things illuftrated by it. We need go no farther for
an example of this, than to the great critic fo often
mentioned already, who has treated upon the fublime
in a ftyle every way equal to the fubjeft. He, then,
comparing thofe two great works of Homer, his Iliad
and Odyffey, thusdefcribes them: “ Homercompofed
his Iliad, when his mind was in its full ftrength and
vigour ; the whofe body of the poem is dramatic, and
full ofaftion : whereas the beft part of the Odyffey is
taken up in narrations, which feem to be the genius
of old age. So that one may compare him in this
latter work to the fetting fun, which ftill appears with
the fame magnificence, but has no longer the fame
heat and force.” And foon after, fpeaking of the
Odyfley, he fays, “ That piece may be called the re¬
flux of his genius, which like the ocean ebbs, and
deferts its fhores.” What nobler idea could poffibly
have been given of that great poet, than by thofe two
fimilitudes of the fun and the ocean ? And elfewhere,
comparing thofe two great orators Demofthenes and
Cicero, he {hews the like fublimity of thought. De-
moflenes, fays he, “ is fublime, in that he is clofe and
concife ; Cicero, in that he is diffufed and extenfive.
The former, by reafon of the violence, rapidity,
itrength, and fury, with which he rages and bears all
before him, may be compared to a tempeft and
thunder ; but the latter, like a great conflagration,
devours and confumes all he meets, with a fire that is
never extingufhed, but wherever it advances continu¬
ally gathers new ftrengh.”
119 4. yintithejis, or a fcntence confifting of oppofite
parts, has often the fame effed; as in the following
inftance of Cicero, where his view is to reprefent
Pompey as a moft confummate general. “ Who,”
fays he, “ ever was, or need be more knowing, than
this man ? who from his childhood, and inftru&ion
at fchool, went into the army of his father, and
learned the military art, in a very great war againtt
the fierceft enemies : who while yet a boy, became a
foldier under the greateft general; and when firft a
youth, was himfelf commander of a very great army:
who has oftener engaged with the enemy in battle,
r O R Y. Partlll.
than any other perfon with his adverfary in private Elocution,
contefts ; has waged more wars than others have ”
read, and conquered more provinces than others have
wirtied to govern: whofe youth has been fpent in ac¬
quiring the art of war, not by the precepts of others,
but his own commands 5 not by defeats, but victories;
not by campains, but triumphs.”
5. Apojlrophe. Among the articles charged againft 120
Demofthenes by his great adverfary and rival iEfchines,
one was, that he had advifed the Athenians to engage
in a war againft king Philip, wherein they had re¬
ceived a very great defeat. When he comes to anfwer
that part of the charge, he does not fay, as he might,
“ You have not been milled, my fellow-citizens, in
expofing your lives for the liberties and fafety of
Greece; you are not without the moft. illuftrious ex¬
amples of fuch conduft: For who can fay thefe great
men were mifled, who fought for the fame caufe in the
plains of Marathon ?” But inftead of expreffing him¬
felf thus, he gives the matter quite a different turn;
and in a fort of rapture, appealing to thofe brave de¬
fenders of their country, fays, “ No, my fellow- I
citizens, you have not done wrong, you have not; I I
proteft by the ghofts of thofe great men who fought
for the fame caufc in the plains of Marathon.” By
this appeal to thofe ancient worthies whofe memories
were in the higheft efteem at Athens, that it was the
caufe, and not the fuccefs, which rendered their aftions |
fo glorious, he artfully corroborates his aflertion in a
way which he knew muft: have the greateft weight
with his audience.'
As the proper fubje&s of this charafter are cither
divine things, or fuch as are in the higheft efteem and
regard among mankind, which often require laudatory
difeourfes, or panegyric ; thefe naturally admit of all
the ornaments and afliftance of eloquence. Which,
however, muft be ufed with diferetion : for when the
mind is wrapt up in thought, and ftretched to the
utmoft of its powers in the purfuit of fome noble and
fublime idea, it cannot attend to all the lefler fineries
and niceties of language; but, from its own vigour, i]
and lively conception of things, will be led to exprefs
them in terms the moft emphatical, and beft fuited to
their nature. In fuch cafes therefore, the fublimity
muft appear rather from the elevation of the thought, -|
attended with a fimplicity of expreflion, than from
the ornaments and drefs of the language. ’Thefe
things feem more natural when the mind is relaxed, =1
and employed upon lower objefts. Though, upon
the whole, grandeur and majefty of expreflion is the
proper mark of this chara&er with relation to the
language, as beauty and fplendor is of the middle
ftyle.
Chap. VIII. Gf the Style of an Orator.
The ftyle of an orator comprehends all the cha- 121:£
rafters already explained, of low, middle, and fublimt,
as they are applied by him in the different parts of
his province. For that the language muft be fuited
to the nature of the fubjeft, we have had occafion
often to obferve already; and the different view of the
fpeaker or writer, neceflarily occafions a variety in
the manner of expreflion. Now an orator has three
things in his view; to prove what he afferts, to re¬
prefent it in an agreeable light, and to move the paf-
fions.
PanlU. ORA
Elocution, fions. Thefe are all neceflary, we do not mean in the
— order wherein we have now mentioned them, but that
the difcourfe may upon the whole have its defired
effeft upon the audience. For unlefs the mind be
convinced of the truth of what is offered by folid and
cogent arguments, neither will the moft eloquent dif-
v courfe afford a lading pleafure, nor the moft pathetic
long influence the affedfions. Though, on the other
hand, the hearers expeA to be entertained at the
fame time they are informed ; and therefore, unlefs
the language be agreeable to their tafte, they will foon
call off their attention, and think but meanly of the
fpeaker. And unlefs,both thefe are warmed and ani¬
mated by a becoming pathos, the fpeaker may very
probably mifs of his end, in bringing his audience
over to his fentiments. For bare convi&ion is not
fufBcient with many perfons to excite them to adion.
They will acquiefce in the truth of a thing which
they cannot contradid, or will not give themfelves
the trouble to examine; and at the fame time remain
unconcerned to profecute it. And the pleafure of a
florid difcourfe will of itfelf foon vanifh, like the har¬
mony of mufic, or the charms of a fine poem. And
therefore to captivate his audience, fecure them in his
intereft, and pufh them upon adion, it is neceflary
for the orator to engage their affedions: thefe are,
as it were, the fprings of the foul, which, managed
by a fkilful hand, move and dired it at pleafure.
Now each of thefe parts of an orator’s province re¬
quires a different ftyle. The /ctu Jlyle is moft proper
for proof and information ; becaufe he has no other
view here but to reprefent things to the mind in the
plaineft light, as they really are in themfelves, without
colouring or ornament. The middle Jlyle is moft fuited
for pleafure and entertainment, becaufe it confifts of
fmooth and well-turned periods, harmonious numbers,
with florid and bright figures. But the fublime is ne-
ceffary in order to fway and influence the paffions.
Here the orator calls in all the affiftance both of na¬
ture and art; the moft raifed and lofty thoughts,
cloathed with the brighteft and ftrongeft colouring,
enter into this charadcr.
But as an orator has frequently each of thefe views
in the fame difcourfe, we fhall firft give a fummary
defeription of the feveral charaders of ftyle, which we
have formerly difeourfed on more at large; that, by
placing them together in one view, the difference be¬
tween them may be more plain and obvious: and then
we (hall proceed to (hew to what particular parts of a
difcourfe each of them is more efpecially to be ap¬
plied.
I. Firft, then, as fhorter periods are proper in the
love Jlyle, fo lefs care is nectffary in their turn and ca¬
dency. If a fentence now and then drop unexpededly,
and difappoint the ear, or has fomething rough and
harfh in its compofition, it is no blemifti in this cha-
rader. For as it is fuited to the manner of common
difcourfe, an appearance of regard to the fubjed, ra¬
ther than the form of exprefiion, is more becoming
than any beauties of art. But the words fhould be
well chofen and proper, fuited to the ideas they are
defigned to convey ; the expreffions plain and clear,
and the artificial ornaments few and modeft. By ar¬
tificial ornaments are here meant tropes and figures;
and they are called artificial^ becaufe they vary from
TORY. 5729
the natural drefs of language, either in the words or Elocution,
manner of expreflion: though they are often ufed by
thofe who are wholly unacquainted with the rules of
art; and particularly metaphors, which perfons who
have the lead command of language frequently run
into through mere necefiity, for want of a fufficient
(lock of proper words to convey their ideas. The low
ftyle therefore admits of thefe: but care (hould be
taken to choofe fuch as have been rendered fami¬
liar by ufe, or at lead where the fimilitude is very
plain and evident. Bold or lofty metaphors, or where
the allufion is dark and remote, ought to be avoided.
Nor is the moderate ufe of the other tropes wholly
difagreeable to this ftyle. And the fame thing is to
be faid with refped to verbal figures, or fuch as con-
fift in the particular difpofition of the fentence, fothat
if the form of it be changed, the figure is loft. Of
thefe, fuch as come neareft to the natural way of ex-
preflion are moft proper for this ftyle; and therefore
thofe which confift in a jingle of words, arifing from
the fame or a like found, are to be avoided, as carry¬
ing in-them too much the appearance of art. Thofe
likewife which confift in a repetition of the fame word
have often too great a force and vehemence for this
mild and gentle charadcr. And as to figures of fen-
tences, which do not depend on the conftrudion of
words, but lie in the fenfe, many of them are too gay
and fprightly, and others too rapid and impetuous,
for the fimplicity of the low ftyle; fo that only the
more moderate and fedate ones are to be allowed a
place hero. It is therefore no wonder if perfons are
often miftaken in their notions of this charader; the
beauty of which confiding in a certain plainnefs and
fimplicity, without any thing in it but what ftems
natural and common, every one is apt to imagine he
can readily be matter of it, till by experience he finds
the contrary. For the cafe is much the fame here, as
in perfons of fafhion and good breeding, whofe beha¬
viour and addrefs is attended with that agreeable free¬
dom and feeming negligence, which in appearance is
very eafy to exprefs, but in reality is fcarce imitable
by others.
As the middle Jlyle is more adapted for pleafure
and delight, it admits of all thofe beauties and orna¬
ments which foothe and entertain the mind. It has
more force and energy than the low ftyle, but lefs
than the fublime. Smooth and harmonious numbers,
well-turned periods, of a juft length,delightful cadency,
and accurate difpofition of the words, are fuited to
this ftyle. The moft beautiful and fhining tropes,
which ftrike the fancy, and all thofe verbal figures
which, by a repetition, fimilitude, or proportion of
founds, pleafe and gratify the ear, help to form this
charader. The like is to be faid as to figures of fen-
tences: The moft florid and beautiful, fuch as enume¬
ration, defeription, fimilitude, and the like, are here
the moft proper.
But it is the fublime Jlyle which perfeds the orator.
This requires the moft forcible and emphatical words,
the boldeft metaphors, and ftrongeft figures. In verbal
figures, repetitions, fynonyms, gradations, contraries,
with others of a like force and energy, are chiefly
employed here. But figures of fentences are the rnofl
confiderable, and principally contribute to make up
thi? sbarader. Among thefe are fimilies taken from
32 I 2 lofty
ORATORY.
Elocution, lofty fubjecis, profopopoeia, apoftrophe, exclamation,
" epiphonema, apofiopelis, and others of a like nature.
But due care muft likewife be taken of the form, con-
Aruftion, and harmony of the periods ; which feem
beft difp jfed, when long and fhort ones are inter¬
mixed. For though round and fwelling periods carry
in them fomething grand and majeftic, yet many
times they move too flow to Arike the paffions;
whereas fhort ones are more acute and pungent, and,
by returning quick, awaken the mind, and raife the
paflions. But to render it complete, it muft be fup-
ported with ftrong reafon, grandeur of thought, and
fentiments every way equal to the expreflion; with¬
out which it will be very liable to fwell into bombaft,
and end barely in amufement.
II. Having given a ftiort Iketch of this part of the-
orator’s furniture, we (hall now go on to (hew where,
and in what manner, he is to make ufe of it. This
will beft appear by confidering his principal view in each
part of his difcourfe. Now the parts of a juft oration
(as we have formerly (hewn) are fix; Introduction, Nar¬
ration, Proportion, Confirmation, Confutation, and Con-
clujion. Not that all thefe are neceflary in every dif¬
courfe; but it is proper they (hould all be mentioned,
that we may confider what ftyle is fitted for them, when
they are neceflary.
>22 In the introduction, the orator has three things be¬
fore him ; to gain the efteem of his hearers, to fecure
their attention, and to give them fome general no¬
tion of his fubjeft. To fet out modeftly, is undoubt¬
edly the mod likely way to recommend himfelf. For
to attempt to inflame an audience, before they are
prepared for it, or fee the reafon of much warmth, is
highly improper. A prudent fpeaker wfll, like De-
mofthenes, begin with temper, and rife gradually, till
he has infenfibly warmed his hearers, and in fome
degree engaged their affections in his favour. So
that this part fcarce rifes above the middle ftyle.
And if it carry in it an air of pleafantry and good-
humour, it is generally the more apt to engage the
attention.
123 The introduction is ufually followed by the narra¬
tion, or a recital of fuch things as either preceded, ac¬
companied, or followed upon the fubjeCt under confi-
deration. Now as the qualities that recommend a
narration are clearnefs, brevity, and probability;
thefe fufficiently point out the ftyle. Perfpicuity arifes
from the choice of proper words, and fuch tropes as
have been rendered molt familiar by ufe ; brevity re¬
quires moderate periods, whofe parts are but little
tranfpofed ; and a plain and Ample drefs, without or¬
nament or colouring, is beft fuited to reprefent things
probable : all which are the properties of the low
ttyle. And therefore Cicero fays, narrations come
pretty near to our ordinary difcourfe. Indeed, fome-
times it is neceflary not only to relate the faCts them-
felves, but likewife to defcribe the manner in which
they were performed. And then a further degree of
art may be requifite to reprefent them with all their
circumftances, and paint them to the mind in their
proper colours.
324 The next part in order is the propoftion, or fubjeCt
of the difcourfe, in which there can be no room for
ornament. But as it is the bafis and foundation of the
orator’s whole defign, it ought to be laid down in the
Part IH.i
plained and cleared terms, fo as to leave no ro6m for Elocution.]
doubt or uncertainty what it is which he intends to -
difcourfe upon.
The next thing is confirmation, wherein the orator 125 j
endeavours to maintain and defend his own caufe, and
to convince his hearers of the truth of it by reafon
and argument. Now the low ftyle is certainly fitted
for cool reafoning and debate. But the orator’s me¬
thod of reafoning often very much differs from that of
the philofopher. The latter contents himfelf with the \
mod plain and familiar manner of reprefenting the
truth, and thinks it fufficient if what he lays be clear¬
ly underftood. But t.he former, at the fame time that
be convinces the judgment, endeavours likewife to af-
fe& the paflions, and that in a great variety of ways.
So that in this part of the difcourfe the ftyle is very
different, according to the nature and circumftances
of the caufe. Sometimes, while he is dwelling upon
the proof of a thing, he talks coolly, and reafons
with the fedatenefs of a philofopher; and where any
part of his argument appears doubtful or obfeure, he
endeavours with the fame even temper to explain and
clear it up. But frequently he intermixes with his
proofs all the art's of perfuafion, and embellifties his
reafons with the greateft ornaments and beauties of elo¬
quence.
Confirmation is ufually followed by confutation, in 126
which the orator endeavours to enervate and over¬
throw all that has been advanced in favour of the op-
pofite fide of the queftion. But as the ftyle is much
the fame here as in the former part ; what has
been faid*upon this, may be fufficient for this like¬
wife.
The laft part above-mentioned is the conclufion, 127
This confifts of two branches, recapitulation and ad-
drefs. Recapitulasion is a fliort recital of the feveral
arguments, or at lead the chief of them, which were
before advanced in fupport of the caufe ; that, being
brought together into a narrow compafs, they may
appear in a ftronger light. Wherefore the language
here ought rather to be forcible and ftrong than flo¬
rid, becaufe brevity and concifenefs is a neceffary qua¬
lity. The other branch of the conclufion confifts in
an addrefs to the paffions, and is wholly perfuafive;
for which the fpeaker is now entirely at leifure. In¬
deed, this is often done occafionally in other parts of
the difcourfe, particularly in the introduflion and con¬
firmation : But as in the former of thefe, his view is
principally to fecure the good opinion of the hearers,
and excite their attention ; an<3 in the latter to defend
his own fide of the queftion by reafon and argument;
when thefe two points are gained, he has nothing left
but to prevail with them to fall in with his defign, and
declare for him. And the beft way to attain this is,
by engaging their paflions in his intereft. Hence then,
to ufe Quintilian’s words, “ All the fprings of elo¬
quence are to be opened. Now we are paft the rocks
and (hallows, all the fails may be hoifted. And as the
greateft part of the conclufion confifts in illuftration,
the raoft pompous language and ftrongeft figures have
place here.”
All the variety above-mentioned, however, is not
always neceflary. Regard muft be had to the nature
of the fubjeft, the time, place, perfons, and other cir¬
cumftances ; by all which the ftyle is to be regulated.
IV. ORATORY. 5731
i- To difcoorfe in a lofty and grand way upon a common mentions feveral among tlie Greeks, and feme few Prommcii-
topic, or in a low and flat manner upon a fublime ar- among the Romans, who excelled in one or other of tl0n‘
gument, are both equally injudicious. Cicero refers thefe different kinds; yet one who excelled in them
us to fome difeourfes of his own, as inftances of each all, he fuppofes never to have exifted, except in the
kind. His oration for Csscina, he fays, is written in imagination. The reafon perhaps may be, becaufe
the low ftyle, that for the Manilian law in the middle each of them feems to require a very different genius,
ftyle, and that for Rabirius in the fublime ; and his fo that it is fcarce poffible for the fame perfon to fuc-
Aftions againft Verres, with fome others, are patterns -ceed in them all. Since therefore it is fo rare and dif-
of the variety here mentioned. And he gives us a very ficult a matter to gain the command of each in any
comprehenfive defeription of a perfed orator in a very good degree, it is better perhaps for every one to pur-
few words, when he fays : “ He is one who can fue that which nature feems moft inclined to, and to
fpeak upon a low fubjeft acutely, upon a lofty fubjeft excel in it, than to drive againd their genius. For
with fublimity, and upon a moderate fubjeA tempe- every kind has its perfe&ions; and it is morecommen-
rately.” By which he means no more, than one who dable to be raader of one thing, than to do feveral but
is mader of the three chara&ers here deferibed, and indifferently,
knows when and how to ufe them. But although he
Part IV. Of P R O N U N C I A T I O N.
Chap. I. Of Pronunciation in general.
Ronunctation is alfo called Attion by fome of the
ancients. Though if we attend to the proper fig-
nification of each of thefe words, the former refpedts
the voice, and the latter the gedures and motions of
the body. But if we confider them as fynonymous
terms, in this large fenfe pronunciation or a&ion may
be faid to be, a fuitable conformity of the voice, and the
fcveral motions of the body, in fpeaking, to the fubjett mat¬
ter of the difeourfe.
The bed judges among the ancients have reprefent-
ed this as the principal part of an orator’s province,
from whence he is chiefly to expeft fuccefs in the art
of perfuafion. When Cicero, in the perfon of Craflus,
has largely and elegantly difeourfed upon all the other
parts of oratory, coming at lad to fpeak of this, he
lays: “ All the former have their effeft as they are
pronounced. It is the aftion alone that governs in
fpeaking ; without which the bed orator is of no va¬
lue, and is often defeated by one in other refpefls
much his inferior.” And he lets us know, that De-
modhenes was of the fame opinion, who, when he was
allied what was the principal thing in oratory, re¬
plied, A&ion ; and being allied again a fecond and a
third time, what was next confiderable, be dill made
the fame anfwer.” By which he feemed to intimate,
that he thought the whole art did in a manner conflft
in it. And indeed, if he had not judged this highly
neceflary for an orator, he would fcarce have taken fo
much pains in correcting thofe natural defeats, under
which he laboured at fird, in-order to acquire it. For
he had both a weak voice, and likewife an impedi¬
ment in his fpeech, fo that he could not pronounce di-
ftinftly fome particular letters. The former of which
defeCts he conquered, partly by fpeaking as loud as he
could upon the (bore, when the fea roared and was
boiderous ; and partly, by pronouncing long periods
as he walked up-hill; both which methods contributed
to the drengthening of his voice. And he found
means to render his pronunciation more clear and ar¬
ticulate, by the help of fome little dones put under
his tongue. Nor was he lefs careful in endeavouring
to gain the habit of a becoming and decent gedure^
lor which gurpofe he ufed to pronounce his difeourfes
alone before a large glafs. And becaufe he had got
an ill cudom of drawing up his fhoulders when he
fpoke ; to amend that, he ufed to place them under a
fword, which hung over him with the point down¬
ward. Such pains did this prince of the Grecian ora¬
tors take to remove thofe difficulties, which would have
been fufficient to difeourage an inferior and lefs afpiring
genius. And to hot*’ great a perfection he arrived in his
aCtion, under all thefe difadvantages, by his indefatigable
diligence and application, is evident from the confeffion
of his great adverfary, and rival in oratory, Efchines.
“ Who, when he could not bear the difgrace of being
worded by Demodhenes in the caufe of Ctefiphon, re¬
tired to Rhodes. And being defired by the inhabi¬
tants to recite to them his own oration upon that oc-
cafion, which accordingly he did ; the next day they
requeded of him to let them hear that of Demodhe¬
nes ; which having pronounced in a mod graceful man¬
ner, to the admiration of all who were prefent, “ How
much more, (fays he,) would you have wondered, if
you had heard him fpeak it himfelf!” By which he
plainly gave Demodhenes the preference in that re-
fped. We might add to thefe authorities the judg¬
ment of Quintilian, who fays, that “ it is not of fo
much moment what our compofitions are, as how they
are pronounced ; fince it is the manner of the deli¬
very, by which the audience is moved.” And there¬
fore he ventures to affert, that, “ an indifferent dif¬
eourfe, affided by a lively and graceful a&ion, will
have greater efficacy than the fined harangue,, which
wants that advantage.”
The truth of this fentiment of the ancients, con¬
cerning the power and efficacy of pronunciation,,
might be proved from many indances; but one or two
may here fuffice. Hortenfius, a cotemporary with
Cieero, and while living next to him in reputation aa;
an orator, was highly applauded for his action. But
his orations after his death, as Quintilian tells us (for
we have none of them now remaining), did not appear
anfwerable to his chana&er; from whence he judly
concludes, there mud have been fomething pleafing
when he fpoke, by which he gained his charafter,
which was lod in reading them. But perhaps there
is fcarce a more eonfiderable indance of this than in
Cicero hitufelf. After the death of Pompey, when
Csefair
5732 ORATORY. Part IV.
Pronuncia- Catfar had got the government into his own hands,
tlor1, many of his acquaintance interceded with him in be¬
half of their relations and friends, who had been of
the contrary party in the late wars. Among others,
Cicero folicited for his friend Ligarius; which Tubero
underftanding, who owed Ligarius a grudge, he op-
pofed it, and undertook to reprefent him to Ctefar as
unworthy of his mercy. Casfar himfelf was prejudiced
againft Ligarius; and therefore, when the caufe was
to come before him, he faid, “ We may venture to
hear Cicero difplayhis eloquence ; for I know the per-
fon he pleads for to be an ill man, and my enemy.”
But, however, in the courfe of his oration, Cicero fo
worked upon his paffions, that by the frequent altera¬
tion of his countenance, the emotions of his mind were
very confpicuous. And when he came to touch upon
the battle of Pharfalia, which had given Caefar the
empire of the world, he reprefented it in that moving
and lively manner, that Caefar could no longer con¬
tain himfelf, but was thrown into fuch a fit of (hiver¬
ing, that he dropped the papers which he held in his
hand. This was the more remarkable, becaufe Caefar
was himfelf one of the greatell orators of that age,
knew all the arts of addrefs, and avenues to the paf¬
fions, and confequently was better prepared to guard
againft them. But neither his (kill, nor refolution of
mind, was of fufficient force againft the power of ora¬
tory ; but the conqueror of the world became a con-
queft to the charms of Cicero’s eloquence ; fo that,
contrary to his intention, he gave into his plea, and
pardoned Ligarius. Now that oration is dill extant,
and appears exceedingly well calculated to touch the
foft and tender pafiions, and fprings of the foul; but we
believe it can fcarce be difcernible to any in reading it,
how it (hould have had fo furprifing an effe& ; which
mult therefore have been chiefly owing to the wonder¬
ful addrefs and condufl of the fpeaker.
The more natural the pronunciation is, it will of
confequence be the more moving, fince the perfeftion
of art confifts in its neareft refemblance to nature.
And therefore it is not without good reafon, that the
ancients make it one qualification of an orator, that he
be a good man ; becaufe a perfon of this chara&er will
make the caufe he efpoufes his own, and the more fen-
fibly he is touched with it himfelf, his aftion will be
the more natural, and by that means the more eafily
affeA others in the fame manner. Cicero, fpeaking up¬
on this fubjeft, fays : “ It is certain that truth (by
which he means nature) in every thing excels imita¬
tion; but if that was fufficient of itfelf in a&ion, we
fhould have no occafion for art.” In his opinion
therefore (and who was ever a better judge ?) art in
this cafe, as well as in many others, if well managed,
will affift and improve nature. But that is not all; for
fometimes we find the force of it fo great and power¬
ful, that, where it is wholly counterfeit, it will for the
time work the fame effect as if it was founded in truth.
This is well known to thofe who have been converfant
with the reprefentations of the theatre. In tragedies,
though we are fenfible that every thing we fee and
hear is feigned and counterfeit, yet fuch is the powfer
of a&ion, that we are oftentimes afFefted by it in the
fame manner as if they were all realities. Anger and
refentment at the appearance of cruelty, concern and
folicitude for diftrefled virtue, rife in our breafts; and
tears are extorted from us for opprefied innocence: Pronuncia
though at the fame time, perhaps, we are ready to tion‘
laugh at ourfelves for being thus decoyed. If art then
has fo great an influence upon us, when fupported on¬
ly by fancy and imagination; how powerful muft be
the effeA of a juft and lively reprefentation of what we
know to be true and real ?
How agreeable it is both to nature and reafon, that
a warmth of expreffion and vehemency of motion
fhould rife in proportion to the importance of the
fubjeft and concern of the fpeaker, will further ap¬
pear, by looking back a little into the more early and
Ample ages of the world. For the higher we go, the
more we (hall find of both. We (hall give the obferva-
tion of a very great man upon this head, in his own
words. “ The Romans (fays he) had a very great gr
talent this way, and the Greeks a greater. The za-Eloquence^
ftern nations excelled in it, and particularly the He-p. jj.
brews. Nothing can equal the (Length and vivacity
of the figures they employed in their difcourfe; and
the very actions they ufed to exprefs their fentiments;
fuch as putting afhes on their heads, and tearing their
garments, and covering themfelves with fackcloth un¬
der any deep diftrefs and forrow of mind. I do not
fpeak of what the prophets did to give a more lively
reprefentation of the things they foretold, becaufe
fuch figurative actions were the effeft of divine infpi-
ration. But even in other cafes we find thofe people
underftood much better than we do how to exprefs
their grief, and fear, and other palfions. And hence,
no doubt, arofe thofe furprifing effefts of eloquence,
which we never experience now.” Thus far this ex¬
cellent writer. And what he fays h^ere with refpedl
to the a&ions of the eaftern nations, was in a good
meafure cuftomary among the Greeks and Romans; if
not entirely of the fame kind, yet perhaps as vehe¬
ment and expreflive. They did not think language of
itfelf fufficient to exprefs the height of their paffions,
unlefs enforced by uncommon motions and geftures.
Thus, when Achilles had driven the Trojans into
their city with the greateft precipitation and terror,
and only Heitor ventured to tarry without the gates
to engage him ; Homer reprefents both king Priam
and his queen under the higheft confternation for the
danger of their fon. And therefore, in order to pre¬
vail with him to come into the city, and not fight with
Achilles, they not only intreat him from the walls in
the moft tender and moving language imaginable ;
but he tears off his grey locks with his hands; and (he
in a flood of tears expofes her breafts, and adjures him
by thofe paps which fuckled him, to comply with their
requeft. The poet knew very well, that no words of
themfelves could reprefent thofe agonies of mind he
endeavoured to convey, unlefs heightened by the idea
of fuch adtions as were expreffive of the deepeft for¬
row. And indeed this was anciently efteemed fo re-
quifite in an orator, that in matters of importance he
was fcarce thought to be in earned, who wanted it. In
one of Cicero’s orations, he does not ftick to argue in
that manner with his adverfary. “ Would you talk
thus (fays he) if you was ferious ? Would you, who
are wont to difplay your eloquence fo warmly in the
danger of others, aft fo coldly in your own ? Where
is that concern, that ardour, which ufed to extort pity
even from children ? Here is no emotion either of mind
I
Part IV. ORA
Rronuncia- or body ; neither the forehead ftruck, nor the thigh,
1,1 tlon- nor fo much as a ftamp of the foot. Therefore, you
have been fo far from inflaming our minds, that you
have fcarce kept us awake.”
As a&ion therefore was judged fo neceflarya qua¬
lification in an orator among the ancients, fo they
made ufe of feveral methods and expedients for the
better attaining it. The principal of which we (hall
briefly mention.
Decency of pronunciation is an habit. And as all
habits are gained by time, fo the fooner they are
learned, they are generally acquired with greater eafe.
For while perfons are young, they are not only more
flexible, and capable of any particular bent, but they
are likewife free from the trouble of encountering and
fubduing contrary habits, which doubles the labour,
and increafes the difficulty of attaining any laudable
quality. Quintilian was very fenfible of this in the
cafe here before us; and therefore, in order to have
perfons trained up to it, he begins with them in their
childhood, and defcends fo low as even to give direc¬
tions how they fliould be taught to pronounce when
they firft learn to read. And he advifes, that they
fhould then be inftrufted where to fufpend their voice,
and make the proper paufes, both in diftinguifhing
the feveral parts of the fame fentence, and in fepara-
ting one fentence from another: likewife when to
raife, or fink their voice, or give it a proper inflec¬
tion ; to be flower or fafter, more vehement or fedate,
as the nature of the things may require ; and that the
tone of their voice be always manly and grave, but at
the fame time mixed with an agreeable fweetnefs.
Thefe things may perhaps appear in themfelves fmall;
but if duly attended to, they will be found of confi-
derable fervice to bring us to a juft and proper pro¬
nunciation. For in every thing that is to be attain¬
ed by praftice, it is a great advantage to fet out right
at firft.
The ancients likewife had perfons, whom they call¬
ed phor.afci, whofe proper bufinefs it was to teach
them how to regulate and manage their voice ; and
others, who inftrufted them in the whole art of pro¬
nunciation, both as to their voice and geftures. Thefe
latter were generally taken from the theatre, being
fome eminent experienced adlors. So Quintilian,
treating of the province of thefe perfons, fays: “ The
comedian ought to teach them how to relate fafts,
with what authority to advife, with what vehemence
to exprefs anger, and with what foftnefs compaflion.”
And fpeaking of geftures, he fays, “ He fhould ad-
monifh them to raife their countenance, not diftort
| their lips, or ftretch their mouths.” With feveral
other direftions of the like kind. And we are told
concerning the emperor M. Antoninus, ufually called
the philofopher, that, Hh firji majierj ’were Euphoria
the grammarian, and Geminus the comedian.
But though they made ufe of aftors to inftruft
their youth in forming their fpeech and geftures, yet
the action of an orator was much different from that
of the theatre. Cicero very plainly reprefents this di-
ftinftion, in the words of Craffus, when, fpeaking of
orators, he fays: “ The motions of the body ought
to be fuited to the expreffions, not in a theatrical way,
'mimicking the words by particular gefticulations; but
in a manner exprelfive of the general fenfe j with a fe-
TORY. 5733
date and manly inflexion of the fides ; not taken from Prommcia-
the ftage and aftors, but from the exercife of arms and
the paleftra.” And Quintilian fays to the fame pur-
pofe : “ Every gefture and motion of the comedians is
not to be imitated, nor to the fame degree.” They
thought the aftion of the theatre too light and extra¬
vagant for the imitation of an orator ; and therefore,
though they employed aftors to inform young perfons
in the firft rudiments, yet they afterwards fent to the
paleftra, or fchools defigned on purpofe to teach them
a decent and graceful management of their bodies.
And fuch fchoole, as Quintilian informs us, were in
ufe both among the Greeks and Romans : Juft as of
later ages children learn to dance, in fome meafure
with the fame intention.
Being thus far prepared, they were afterwards fent
to the fchools of the rhetoricians. And here, as their
bufinefs was to cultivate their ftyle, and gain the
whole art of eloquence ; fo particularly to acquire a
juft and accurate pronunciation by thofe exercifes, in
which for that end they were conftantly employed.
And as the Greeks were moft celebrated for their ikiil
in all the polite arts, and efpecially oratory ; the Ro¬
man gentry and nobility generally fent their fons
abroad, and placed them under the tuition of fome
Grecian matter, to inftruft them in the art of fpeak¬
ing, and by that means to fit them for the fervice of
their country, either in the courts ofjudicature or the
fenate. Thus Cicero was fent to Rhodes, to ftudy un¬
der the famous Molo, and Brutus under Pammenes;
Casfar was going to the fame place when taken by
pirates ; and Auguftus afterwards ftudied there under
Apollodorus.
Nor, after all this pains and induftry, did they yet
think themfclves fufficiently qualified to take upon
them the chara&er of orators. But it was their con-
ftant cuftom to get together fome of their friends and
acquaintance who were proper judges of fuch perform¬
ances, and declaim before them in private. The bufi-
finefs of thefe perfons was to make obfervations both
on their language and pronunciation. And they were
allowed the greateft freedom to take notice of any
thing they thought amifs, either as to inaccuracy of
method, impropriety of ftyle, or indecency of their
voice or aftions. This gave them an opportunity to
correft any fuch defe&s at firft, before they became
habitual. What effefts might not juftly be experfted
from fuch an inftitution ? Perfons trained up in this
manner, with all thofe advantages, joined to a good
natural genius, could not fail of making very com¬
plete orators. Though even after they came to appear
in public, they did not lay afide the cuftom of de¬
claiming. For Quintilian tells us, that C. Carlo ujed
to praftife it daily in his tent. And Auguftus is re¬
ported to have continued it during the war of Mutina
againft M. Anthony. Nor is it to be fuppofed, that
fo conftantan attendance to this praftice was only fer-
viceable to them in their public performances ; but it
muft neceffarily affeft their whole conduft, give them
a freedom of fpeech, eafinefs of addrefs and behaviour,
and render them in all refpefts fine gentlemen, as well
as excellent orators. And from hence perhaps we
may fee lefs reafon to wonder at the furprifing effeft*
of fome of their difeourfes, when we confider what
pains they took to arrive at thofe abilities.
Having
5734 ° ,R. A T
Pronuncia- Having thus far treated on pronunciation in gene-
tion- ral, we (hall now proceed to confider the parts of it
feparately; which are, voice zaA gejiure.
O R Y.
Part IV
Chap. II. Of the Voice.
Voice is one kind of founds. Now the influence
of founds, either to raife or allay our paffions, is evi¬
dent from mufic. And certainly the harmony of a fine
difcourfe, well and gracefully pronounced, is as ca¬
pable to move us, if not in a way fo violent and ecfta-/
tic, yet no lefs powerful, and more agreeable to our
rational faculties. As the bufinefs of this chapter is
to offer fome confiderations for the juft and decent
management of the voice, it may not be improper in
the firft place to obferve in general, what nature does,
when free and unconftrained. As perfons are different¬
ly affefted when they Tpeak; fo they naturally alter
the tone of their voice, though they do not attend to
it. It rifes, finks, and has various inflexions given
it, according to the prefent ftate and difpofition of the
mind. When the mind is calm and fedate, the voice
chafms in fpeaking, than variations. Befides, as they Pronun
often prevent the hearers from taking in the fenfe of t‘Qn*
what is faid, it gives them no fmall uneafinefs that
they are obliged to ftretch their attention. Many per¬
fons are too apt to be guilty of this, efpecially at the
end of a fentence, by dropping the laft word; which
ought in a particular manner to be expreffed diltinXly,
becaufe the meaning of the whole fentence often de¬
pends upon it.
The medium between thefe two is a moderate and
even voice. But this is not the fame in all ; that which
is moderate in one would be high in another. Every
perfon therefore muft regulate it by the natural key
of his own voice. A calm and fedate voice is general¬
ly beft ; as a moderate found is moft pleafing to the
ear, if it be clear and diftind. But this equality of
the voice muft alfo be accompanied with a variety,
otherwtfe there can be no harmony ; fince all harmony
confifts in variety. Nothing is lefs pleafing, than a dif¬
courfe pronounced throughout in one continued tone
of the voice^ without any change or alteration. Be¬
ds moderate and even ; when the former is dejeXed fides, a variation of the voice is an cafe to the fpeaker ;
with forrow, the latter is languid ; and when that is as the body is relieved by ftiifting its pofture. The
inflamed by paflion, this is raifed and elevated. It is equality therefore we are here fpeaking of, admits a
the orator’s bufinefs, therefore, to follow nature, and variety of inflexions and changes within the fame
to endeavour that the tone of his voice appear natu- pitch. And when that is altered, the gradations,
ral and unaffeXed. And for this end, he muft take whether higher or lower, fhould be fo gentle and re¬
care to fuit it to the nature of the fubjeX ; but ftill fo gular, as to preferve a due proportion of the parts, and
as to be always grave and decent. Some perfons con- harmony of the whole; which cannot be done, when
tinue a difcourfe in fuch a low and drawling manner, the voice is fuddenly varied with too great a diftinc-
that they can fcarce be heard by their audience. O- tion. And therefore it fhould move from one key to
thers again hurry on in fo loud and boifterous a man- another, fo as rather to glide like a gentle ftream,
ner as if they imagined their bearers were deaf. But than pour down like a rapid torrent,^.as an ingenious
all the mufic and harmony of fpeech lies in the proper writer has well expreffed it. An even voice is beft fit-
temperament of the voice between thefe extremes. In ted to keep the mind to clofe attention. And there-
order to fet this matter in a juft light, it will be ne- fore, in fubjeXs defigned only for inftruXion, without
ceffary to confider the principal affeXions or proper- any addrefs to the paffions, there is little room for a
ties of the voice, and how they are to be regulated by variety of voice. For the voice ought to agree with
a orator. Now thefe may all be referred either to
quantity or quality.
The quantity of the voice confifts in its highnefs or
lo’wnefsy fuiftnefs or Jlo’wnefs, and the intermediate
degrees between them.
Every perfon who fpeaks in public, fhould endea¬
vour, if he can, to fill the place where he fpeaks. But
ftill he ought to be careful not to exceed the natural
key of his voice. If he does, it will neither be foft
nor agreeable ; but either harfh and rough, or too
ftirill and fqueaking. Befides, he will not be able to
give every fyllable its full and dittinX found ; which
will render what he fays obfeure, and difficult to be
underftood. He fhould therefore take -care to keep
his voice within reach, fo as to have it under manage¬
ment, that he may raife or fink it, or give it any in¬
the ftyle ; and as upoh fuch fubjeXs this ffiould be
equal, moderate, and fmooth, fo fhould the other. E-
very thing, as we fay, is beautiful in its feafon; and
there is a certain propriety in things, which ought al¬
ways to be regarded. And therefore, an affeXed va¬
riety, ill placed, is as difagreeable to a judicious au¬
dience, as the want of it, where the fubjeX requires it.
We may find fomC perfons, in pronouncing a grave and
plain difcourfe, affeX as many different tones, changes,
and variations of their voice, as if they were aXing a
comedy ; which is doubtlefs a very great impropriety.
But the orator’s province is not barely to apply to the
mind, but likewife to the paffions ; which require a
great variety of the voice, high or low, vehement or
languid, according to the nature of the paffions hede-
figns to affeX. So that for an orator always to ufe
ficXion he thinks proper: Which it will not be in his the fame tone or degree of his voice, and expeX to
power to do, if he put a force upon it, and ftrain it
beyond its natural tone.
The like caution is to be ufed againft the contrary
extreme, that the voice'be not dropped, and fuffered
to fink too low. This will give the fpeaker pain in
railing it again to its proper pitch, and be no lefs of-
fenlive to the hearers. For though the mufic of fpeech
confiils in the variations of the voice, yet they muft
be gradual to render them pleafant. Such fudden and
great changes at once are rather to be efteemed
anfwer all his views by it; would be much the fame
thing as if a phyfician fhould propofe to cure all di-
ftempers by one medicine. From hence it is evi¬
dent, that although various inflexions and tones of
the voice are requifite to make it harmonious and plea¬
fing to the ear; yet the degree of it fhould differ ac¬
cording to the nature of the fubjeX and defign of
the fpeaker. And, as a pcrftX monotony is al¬
ways unpleafant, fo it can never be neceffary in any
difcouife.
The
Part IV. O R A 1
Pranuncia- The next property of the voice above-mentioned
tion- wasfwiftntfs. That fome exprefiions ought to be
pronounced fafter and Pwifter than others, is very ma-
nifeft. Gay and fprightly ideas (hould not only be
expreffed louder, but alfo falter, than fuch as are fad
and melancholy. And when we prefs an adverfary, the
voice Ihould be bride and quick. But to hurry on in
a precipitant manner without paufing, till ftopt for
want of breath, is certainly a very great fault. This
deltroys not only the necefla-ry diftindtion between fen-
tence and fentence, but likewife between the feveral
words of the fame fentence ; nay, and often occafions
us to exprefs our words by halves, while one is thrown
fo fad upon another, that we are not able to give
each its full and juft found. By this means all the
grace of fpeaking is loft, and in a great meafure the
advantage of hearing. For when the ears of the
hearers cannot keep pace with the volubility of the
fpeaker’s tongue, they will be little the better for
what he fays. Befides, by not commanding his voice,
' and eafing his breath at the proper paufes and points
of diitinftion.he is often obliged to flop in the middle
of a fentence; and fo divides what fhonld be conti¬
nued, and joins what fhould be feparated; which
muft neceflarily deftroy the fenfe, and confound his
difeourfe. Young perfons are very liable to this, efpe-
. daily at firft felting out. And it often arifes from
diffidence. They are jealous of their performances,
and the fuccefs they may have In fpeaking, which
gives them a pain till it is over; and this puts them
into a hurry of mind, which incapacitates them from
governing their voice, and keeping it under that due
regulation which perhaps they propofed to them-
felves before they began to fpeak. And the greater
degree fuch perfons have of a native and ingenuous
modefty, accompanied w-ith a laudable ambition to
excel, they are commonly more expofed to this. For
while on the one hand they are fired with an ardent
defire to recommend themfelves, and on the other are
fearful of the event, this dubious ftate of mind is very
apt to throw them off their guard, and run them into
this excefs. From which we may fee the great advan¬
tage of having the voice well formed betimes ; for when
once it is become habitual to fpeak with juftnefs and
propriety, perfons readily pradtife it without much at¬
tention or concern.
And as a precipitant and hafty pronunciation is
culpable, fo likewife on the other hand, it is-a fault to
fpeak too flow. This feems to argue a heavinefs in
the fpeaker. And as he appears cool himfelf, he can
never expedl to warm his hearers, and excite their af¬
fections. When not only every word, but every fyl-
lable is drawn out to too great a length, the ideas do
not come faft enough to keep up the attention without
much uneafinefs. For till the fenfe is completed, the
mind is in fufpence ; and, if it be held long in that fi-
tuation, it will of courfe flag and grow tired. In¬
deed, in fome cafes, it is reqmifite the pronunciation
fhould be flower than in others ; as in reprefenting
things great and difficult; or in expreffing fome par¬
ticular paffions, as admiration or grief. But the ex¬
treme we are now fpeaking of, is a flownefs equally
continued through an whole difeourfe, which muft ne-
ceffarily render it flat and lifelefs.
Now, to avoid either of the two extremes laft men-
Vou. VIII, a
'OR Y. 5735
tioned, the voice ought to be fedate and diftinft. Prommcu-
And in order to render it diftindl, it is neceffary, not t,on' 
only that each word and fyRablt fliould have its juft
and full found, both as to time and accent; hut like¬
wife that every fentence, and part of a fentence,
Ihould be feparated by its proper paufe and interval.
This is more eafy to be done in reading, from the af-
flftance of the points ; but it is no lefs to be attended
to in fpeaking, if we would pronounce in a diftindt
and graceful manner. For every one ftiould fpeak in
the fame manner as he ought to read, if he could ar¬
rive at that exadtnefs. Now the common rule given in
paufing is, that we flop our voice at a comma till we
can tell one, at a femicolon two, at a colon three,
and at a full period four. And as thefe points are
either accommodated to the feveral parts of the fame
fentence, as the firft three ; or different fentences, as
the laft ; this pccafions the different length of the
paufe, by which either the dependance of what pre¬
cedes upon that which follows, or its diftindlion from
it, is reprefented. And therefore, in the firft three
flops, the voice is rather to be fufpended in different
degrees or meafures of time, than entirely dropt, to
fhew that the fenfe is not yet completed. But between
fentence and fentence we refpire, and begin anew. So
that in long periods, the voice fhould be favoured by
beginning low and fedately, that it may hold to the
end without refpiration ; or if it will not, the breath
ought to be recovered without finking the voice. For
if once the voice drop for want of breath before the
period be finifhed, not only the beauty, but likewife
the fenfe of it will be loft. Quintilian lays a great
ftrefs upon a due attention to thefe paufes ; and fays,
“ Though it may appear not fu confidterable in* itfelf,
yet all the other virtues of a good pronounewtion are
deficient without it.'’
Hitherto we have confidered1 fuch properties of the
voice as refpeft quantity, we come n nv to fpeak of its
qualities. And the chief of thefe are- Jfren^th or
weaknefr, clearnefs or obfeuremfs, fulntfs or fmallnefs,
fmoothnefs or roiighnefs. Now, one half of thefe is
what every one would willingly ehoofe, as he would
wifh to be free from the others. But it is not in our
power to give ourfelves what qualities of the voice we
pleafe ; but only to make the- heft ufe we can of what
nature has beftowed upon- us. However, feveral de¬
feats of the voice are capable of being helped by care
and proper means; as, on the other hand, the heft
voice may be greatly hurt by ill management and in-
diferetion. Temperance is a great prefervative of the
voice, and all excefs is highly prejudicial to it. The
voice muft neceffarily funer, if the organs of fpeecli
have not their proper tone. And in order to their
having this, they muft be kept in a due temperature ;
that is, they muft neither be too moift nor too dry.
If they abound with fluidt-, thefe will qbftruift the
clearnefs of the voice, and render it obfetrre and con-
fufed ; and if they are parched with drought, the
voice will be harfti and rough. Now all exceffes, as well
as fome bodily indifpofitions, are apt to affeft the or¬
gans one or other of thefe ways.
A ftrong voice is very ferviceabl'e to an orator, be-
caufe, if it want fome other advantages, he is, how¬
ever, capable to make himfelf heard. And if at any
time he is forced to drain it, he is in lefs danger of its
32 K fail-
S7S6
Pronuncia
ORATORY. PartIV.
failing hinfi before he has finiflied his difcourfe. But
he who has a weak voice, (hould be very care¬
ful not to drain it, efpecially at firft. He ought
to begin low, and rife gradually to fuch a pitch
as the key of his voice will well carry him, without
being obliged to fink again afterwards. Frequent in¬
flexions of the voice will likewife be.fome afMance
to him. But efpecially he fhould take care to fpeak
deliberately, and eafe his voice, by allowing due time
for refpiration at all the proper paufes. It is an ex¬
treme much, lefs inconvenient for fuch a perfon rather
to fpeak too flow, than too fall. But this defeX of a
weak voice is fometimes capable of being helped, by
the ufe of proper methods ; as is evident from thein-
ftance of Demofthenes, before-mentioned.
A voice is faid to be clear, when the organs of
fpeech are fuited to give every Angle letter, and all
the combinations of them in fyllables and words, their
proper and diftinX found. Such a voice is very
pleafing and agreeable to the hearers; and no lefs an
happinefs to the fpeaker, as it faves him a great ex¬
pence of fpirits. For a moderate voice, if clear, will
be as diftinXly heard, as one much louder, if thick
and obfcure. Which is a great advantage to the
fpeaker, becaufe he can better keep his voice under
command, and modulate it at pleafure, as the feveral
parts and circumftances of his difcourfe may require.
On the contrary, an obfcure and confufed voice is
not always occafioned from a deficiency in the organ;
but, many times, is the effeX of cuftom and a bad
habit. Some perfons, either from want of due care
in their education at firft, or from inadvertency and ne¬
gligence afterwards, run into a very irregular and
confufed manner of expreffing their words ; either by
raifplacing the accent, confounding the found of the
letters, or huddling the fyllables one upon another,
fo as to render what they fay often unintelligible. In¬
deed, fometimes this arifes from a natural defeX, as
in the cafe of Demofthenes; who found a method to
reXify that, as well as the weaknefs of his voice.
But in faults of this kind, which proceed from habit,
doubtlefsthe moft likely way to mend them is to fpeak
deliberately.
A full voice is not the fame, as a ftrong, nor a
loud voice. It fills the ear, but it is often not pjea-
fant. And therefore to render it fo,. as well as audible,
it fhould be frequently varied. However, this feems
better fuited to the charaXer of an orator, than a
Tmall and. (hrill voice becaufe it has fomething in it
more grave and manly. And thofe, who have the
misfortune of a very fmall voice, fhould be cautious
of railing it to too high a pitch, efpecially at once; be¬
caufe the fudden comprdfure of the organ, is apt to
occafion a fqueaking and very difagreeable found..
A foft and fmooth voice is of all the moft mufical,
efpecially if it be flexible. And on the contrary,
nothing is lefs harmonious than a voice that is
harfh and rough. For the one grates as difagree-
ably upon the ear, as the other gives it pleafure and
delight.
From the confideration of thefe feveral properties of
the voice, we may conclude that to be the belt, and
fitted for an orator, which is moderate, diftinX,
firm, clear, and fmootb, and withal eafily flexible to
tfije, feveral degrees and variations, af found which
every part of the difcourfe may require. Pronuncia*
Chap. III. Of Gefiure.   —
By this is meant, a fuitable conformity of the mo-
tions of the countenance, and feveral parts of the body
in fpeaking, to the fubjeX-matter of the difcourfe.
The word gejlure is here ufed in a larger fenfe than is
ordinarily done in common language. For we rarely
make ufe of that word to denote the motions of the
counienance, or any parts of it ; but as thefe make
a confiderable part of our prefent fubjeX, they mud
here be comprehended under this term.
It is not agreed among the learned, whether voice
or gefture has the greater influence upon us. But as
the latter affeXs us by the eye, as the former does by
the ear, gefture in the nature of it feems to have this
advantage, that it conveys the impreffion more fpeedi-
ly to the mind ; for the fight is the quickeft of all our
fenfes. Nor is its influence lefs upon our pafiions;
nay, in fome inftances it appears to aX more power*'
fully. A call of the eye fhall exprefs defire in as mo¬
ving a manner, as the fofteft language; and a diffe¬
rent motion of it, refentment. To wring the hands,
tear the hair, or ftrike the bread, are all ftrong indica¬
tions of forrow. And he who claps his hand to his
fword, throws us into a greater panic than one who
only threatens to kill us. Nor is it in fome refpeXs
lefs various and extenfive than language. Cicero tells
us, he often diverted himfelf by trying this with
Rofcius the comedian; who could exprefs a fentence
as many ways by his geftures, as he himfelf by words.
And fome dramas have been carried on wholly by
mutes, who have performed every part by geftures
only, without words, in a way very intelligent, as
well as entertaining to the fpeXators. Well therefore
might Cicero call attion (or gefture) the language of
the body, fince it is capable in fo lively a manner to
convey both our ideas and pafiions. But with refpeX
to oratory, gefture may very properly be called the
fecond part of pronounciation ; in which, as the voice
fhould be fuited to the imprefiions it receives from the
mind, fo the feveral motions of the body ought to be
accommodated to the various tones and inflexions of
the voice. When the voice is even and moderate,
little gefture is required ; and nothing is more unna¬
tural than violent motion, in difeourfing upon ordi¬
nary and familiar fubjeXs. The motions of the body
fhould rife therefore in proportion to the vehemence
and energy of the expreffton, as the natural and genuine
effeX of it.
But as gefture is very different and various as to the
manner of it, which depends upon the decent con-
duX of feveral parts of the body ; it will not be amifs
to confider more particularly, the proper manage¬
ment of each of thofe parts. Now all gefture is
either natural, or from imitation. By natural gefture
we mean fuch aXions and motions of the body, as na¬
turally accompany our words, as thefe do the im-
prtfiions of our minds. And thefe either refpeX the
whole body, or fome particular part of it. But be¬
fore we enter upon this, give us leave juft to obferve,
that it has been cuftomary in all ages and countries, in
making a fet difcourfe before an aflembly, to do it
(landing. Thus we read, that, Abraham food upr
andfpake unto the children of Heth. And it feems.as
Part IV. ORA’
Pionuncia- jf he fat down, when he had ended his fpeech ; be-
ri00, caufe, immediately after the account of their anfwer,
it is faid again, that Abraham Jlodd up and bowed him*
felf to the people of the land, the children of Heth. In
like manner Homer reprefents the Grecian princes, as
ftanding up, when they made a fpeech, either to the
army, or in their councils. So when Achilles has
affembled the army, to inquire into the reafon of the
reat plague which at that time raged among them,
e rifes up before he begins to fpeak, and fits down
again when he has done. After him the prophet
Calchas rifes, and charges it upon Agamemnon ; who
rifing up in a pafiion, does not refufe to comply with
what Calchas propofed, but expreffes his refentment
at him for faying it. And upon another occafion,
both Agamemnon and Neftor do the fame in council.
And Cicero acquaints us, that when Lentulus had
been charged in the fenate, as an affociate with Ca¬
tiline, he flood up to make his defence. Nor does
the advantage of being better heard, feem to have
been the only reafon for fo general an agreement in
this pofture; but it appears likewife to have been
chofen, as the moft decent and refpe&ful. Sitting
carries in it an air of authority, and is therefore a
pofture fcarce ufed upon fuch occafions, unlefs perhaps
where that is defigned to be exprefled by it. Where¬
fore it was a thing very much relented, that when
Csefar, after he had got the power into his hands, be¬
ing once addrefled to the fenate, either refufed to rife,
as fome fay, or as others, one of his friends held him
down by his gown.
But though ftanding appears to be the moft proper
pofture for fpeaking in public, yet it is very unbe¬
coming for the body to be entirely without any mo¬
tion like a ftatue. It (hould not long continue in
the fame pofition, but be conftantly changing, though
the motion be very moderate. There ought to be no
appearance of ftiffnefs, but a certain eafe and pliable-
nefs, naturally fuiting itfelf to every expreflion ; by
which means, when a greater degree of motion is
neceflary, it will appear lefs fudden and vehement.
For as the raifing, finking, and various infleftions of
the voice mull be gradual; fo likewife fhould the mo¬
tions of the body. It is only on fome particular oc¬
cafions, that an hafty vehemence and impetuofity is pro¬
per in either cafe.
As to the feveral parts of the body, the head is the
moft confiderable. To lift it up too high has the air
of arrogance and pride; to ftretch it out too far, or
throw it back, looks clownilh and unmannerly; to
hang it downwards on the breaft, (hews an unmanly
balhfulnefs, and want of fpirit; and to fuffer it-to lean
on either ftioulder, argues both floth and indolence.
Wherefore in calm and fedate difeourfe it ought to keepfts
natural ftate, an upright pofture. However, it Ihould
not be long without motion, nor yet always moving ;
but gently turn fometimes on one fide, and fometimes
on the other, as occafions. requires, that the voice
may be heard by all who are prefent; and then re¬
turn again to its natural pofition. It Ihould always
accompany the other aftions of the body, and turn on
the fame fide with them ; except when averfion to any
thing is expreft, which is done by ftretching out the
right hand, and turning the head to the left. The
ancients ere&ed a ftatue of Venus in this pofture, who
r O R Y. 5737
was called by the Greeks and by the LatinsProruncia-
Verticordia, and in Englilh may be termed the forbid- 1,'t^on'.
ding Venus. But nothing is more indecent, than
violent motions and agitations of the head. And
therefore, when a witty writer, who is well known
among us, would convey the moft ridiculous idea of a
pretender to knowledge, he exprefles it thus :
For having three times (hook his head
To ftir his wit up, thus he faid. Hudib.
But it is the countenance, that chiefly reprefents both
the paffions, and difpofition of the mind. By this wc
exprefs love, hatred ; joy, forrow; modefty, and con¬
fidence : by this we fupplicate, threaten, footh, in¬
vite, forbid, confent, or refufe ; and all this without
fpeaking. Nay, from hence we form a judgment not
only of a perfon’s prefent temper, but of his capacity
and natural difpofition. And therefore it is common
to fay, fuch an one has a promifing countenance, or that
he promifes little by his countenance. It is true, this is
no certain rule of judging ; nor is it in the power of
any one to alter the natural make of his countenance :
however, it may put us upon endeavouring to gain
the moft plealing afpeft we can ; fince it is fo natural
for mankind to draw fuch conclufions from it; and
fome perfons are fo unhappy, as to render their coun¬
tenance more difagreeable, than otherwife it wouldbe,
by ill habits.
But the feveral parts of the face bear their part,
and contribute to the proper and decent motion of the
whole. In a calm and fedate difeourfe, all the features
retain their natural ftate and fituation. In forrow, the
forehead and eyebrows lour, and the cheeks hang
down. But in expreflions of joy and chearfulnefs,
the forehead and eyebrows are expanded, the cheeks
contra&ed, and the corners of the mouth drawn up¬
wards. Anger and refentment contraft the forehead,
draw the brows together, and thruft out the lips. And
terror elevates both the brows and forehead. As
thefe are the natural figns of fuch paflions, the orator
Ihould endeavour to conform to them.
But as the eyes are moft a&ive and fignincant, it
is the advice of Cicero that the greateft care fhould
be taken in their management. And he gives this
reafon for it, “ Becaufe other parts of the countenance
have but few motions; whereas all the paffions of the
foul are exprefled in the eyes, by fo many different
aftions, which cannot poffibly be reprefented by any
geftures of the body, if the eyes are kept in a fixed
pofture.” Common experience does in a great mea-
fure confirm the truth of this obfervation. We rea¬
dily guefs at a perfon’s intention^or how he is affe&ed
to us, by his eyes. And any fudden change or emo¬
tion of the mind is prefently followed by an alteration
in the look. In fpeaking therefore upon pleafant
and delightful fubjeds, the eyes are brifk and chear-
ful; as, on the contrary, they fink and are languid in
delivering any thing melancholy and forrowful. This
is fo agreeable to nature, that before a perfon fpeaks,
we are prepared with the expectation of one or the
other from his different afped. So likewife in anger,
a certain vehemence and intenfenefs appears in the
eyes, which, for want of proper words to exprefs it
by, we endeavour to reprefent by metaphors taken
from fire, the moft violent and rapid element, and fay
in fuch cafes, ..the eyes fparkle, burn, or are inflamed:
32 K z la
5738 O R A 1
Pronuncia- In expreffions of hatred or deteftation, it is natural to
tlon* alter the look, either by turning the eyes afide, or
downwards. Virgil has very juftly obferved this:
for when he defcribes iEneas meeting with Dido in
the Elyfian fhades and addreffing her, he reprefents
her difregard of him, by faying,
Difdainfully (he look’d; then turning round.
Still fix’d her eyes untnov’d upon the ground.
She fliewed her refentment for his former treatment of
her, by not vouchfafing to lookon him. Indeed, the eyes
are fometimes turned downwards upon other occafions,
as to exprefs modefty. -And if at any time a parti¬
cular object be addreffed to, whatever it be, the eyes
fhould be turned that way. And therefore Philo-
ftratus very defervedly ridicules a certain rhetorician
as guilty of a folecifm in gefture, who, upon faying,
0 Jupiter! turned his eyes downward; and when he
faid, 0 earth! looked upward. A flaring look has
the appearance of giddinefs and w'ant of thought; and
to contraft the eyes, gives fufpicion of craft and de-
fign. A fixed look may be occafioned from intenfe-
nefs of thought, but at the fame time (hews a difre¬
gard to the audience; and a too quick and wandering
motion of the eyes denotes levity and vvantonnefs. A
gentle and moderate motion of the eyes is therefore in
common mod fuitable, always directed to fome of the
audience, and gradually turning from fide to fide with
an air of refpefl and modedy, and looking them de¬
cently in the face, as in common difcourfe: Such a
behaviour will of courfe draw an attention. As in
converfation, when a perfon addrefles us in an hand-
fome and becoming manner, we prefently put ourfelves
in a podure to give what he fays a proper reception.
But as all the paffions are in the mod lively manner
expreffcd in the eyes, their motions ought to vary ac¬
cording to the different nature of thole paffions they
are fuited both to difcover in the fpeaker, and convey
to his hearers:; fince, as the quicked accefs to the
mind is by the fight, a proper well-timed look will
fometimes fooner effed this than it can be done by
words; as in difcharging a cannon, we are druck with
the light before we hear the found.
As to the other .parts of the body didinft from the
head, .the (boulders ought not to be elevated; for this
is. not only in itfelf indecent, hut it likewife contradts
the neck, and hinders the proper motion of the head.
Nor, on the other hand, fhould they be drawn down,
and deprcfled; becaufe this occafions a diffnefs both’*
to the neck and the whole body. Their natural
podure therefore is bed, as being modeafyand grace¬
ful. To (hrug the fhoulders has an abjedt and fervile
air; and frequently to heave them upwards and down¬
wards is a very difagreeable fight.
A continued motion of the arms any way, is by all
means to be avoided. Their adtion fhould generally
be very moderate, and follow that of the hands, unlefs
in very pathetic expreffions, where it may be proper to
give them a more lively fpring.
The hands need never be idle. Quintilian feems to
think them as neceflary and powerful in adtion, as
Cicerp does the eyes. “ The hands (fays he) without
which all gedure is lame and weak, have a greater
variety pf motions than can well be exprefled; for
they are almoft equal to our words. Do not we defire
with them, promife, call, difmifs, threaten, befeech,
' O R Y. PartIV.
deteft, fear, inquire, deny? Do not they exprefs joy, Pmnuncia-
forrow, doubt, confeffion, penitence, meafure, plenty,
number, and time ? Do not they excite, redrain,
prove, admire, and fhame? That in fo great a variety
of fpeech among all nations and countries, this feems
to me the common language of all mankind.” Thus
far Quintilian. Now, all bodily motion is either up¬
ward or downward, to the right or left, forward or
backward, or elfe circular. The hands are employed
by the orator in all thefe, except the lad. And as
they ought to correfpond with our expreffions, fo they
ought to begin and end with them. In admiration,
and addrefles to heaven, they mud be elevated, but
never raifed above the eyes; and in fpeaking of things
below us, they are direfted downwards. Side motion
fhould generally begin from the left,andterminategently
on the right. In demondrating, addreffing, and on
feveral other occafions, they are moved forward; and
in threatening, fometimes thrown back. But when
the orator fpeaks of himfelf, his right-hand (hould be
gently laid on his bread. When no other motion is
necefiary, the hands fhould be kept about as high as
the bread, fo as to make near a right angle with the
arm. This is not only graceful# but likewife the mod
eafy podure, and gives the lead drain to the mufcles.
They (hould never be differed to hang down, nor to
loll upon the cudiion or bar. The left hand (hould
never move alone, but accommodate itfelf to the mo¬
tions of the right. In motions to the left fide, the
right hand (hould not be carried beyond the left
(houlder. In promifes, and expreffions of compliment,
the motion of the hands (hould be gentle and flow;
but in exhortations and applaufe more; fwift. The
hands (hould generally be open; but in expreffions of
compunftion and anger they may be clofed. All
finical and trifling a&ions of the fingers ought to be
avoided; nor (hould they be ftretched out and ex¬
panded in a ftiff and rigid pofture, but kept eafy and
pliable.
Neither the bread nor the belly (hould be thruft
out: which in itfelf looks ungainly, and hinders the free
motion of the trunk; which ought not to be kept too
ftiff and upright, but eafy and flexible, always fuiting
itfelf to the motions of the head and hands. The feet
fhould continue fteady, and not give the body a wa¬
vering and giddy motion by frequently (hifting; tho*
fome perfons fall into that habit without moving their
feet. Curio, a Roman orator, as Cicero tells us, was
addifted to this ; which occafioned a friend of his once
to pafs a joke upon him, by afleing, Who that 'was
talking out of a boat? The jeft is too plain to need
explication; for every one knows the waving of a boat
will give the body fuch a motion.
The geftures we have hitherto difeourfed of, are
fuch as naturally accompany our ex;preffions. And we
believe thofe we have mentioned, if duly attended to,
will be found fufficient to anfwer all the purpofes of
our modern pronunciation. The ancients, indeed, ufed
feveral more vehement a&ions and geftures than we
are accuftomed to; as we have formerly (hewn. Philip
the Roman orator, as Cicero informs us, did not ufe
to prepare his difeourfes; but fpoke, as we fay, off¬
hand. And he was wont to tell'his friends, “ he was
never fit to talk till he had warmed his arm.” He
doubtlefc, therefore, ufe£ a more violent motion with
PartIV. ORATORY.
onuncia- his arms and hands than is common with us. And
tion‘ Cicero cails the arm proje&ed the orator's 'weapon.
Indeed, to extend or brandifh the arm, carries in it an
air of command and authority, which was not unbeco¬
ming the charafter of Philip, who was a perfon of the
higheft rank and quality. And therefore young orators,
both among the Greeks and Romans, for a time ufed
no motion of the arm, but kept it confined in their
garment, as an argument of modefty, till age and ex¬
perience allowed them to ufe greater freedom. Nor
was it uncommon for the ancient orators to exprefs
the excefs of their pafiions by tears. They thought
nothing unbecoming that was natural; and judged it
agreeable to the charafters even of the braveft men,
to be touched with a fenfe of humanity in great cala¬
mities: And therefore we find both Homer and Vir¬
gil make their greateft. heroes Ihed tears on fome oc-
cafions.
The other fort of geftures abovementioned are fuch
as arife from imitation; as where the orator defcribes
fome a&ion, or perfonates another fpeaking. But
here great care is to be taken not to over-aft his
P. part, by running into any ludicrous or theatrical mi¬
micry. It is fufficient for him fo to reprefent things
of this nature, as may beft convey the image of them
in a lively manner to the minds of the hearers; with¬
out any fuch change either of his aftions or voice as
are not fuitable to his own charafter.
Chap. IV. Some particular rules for the
Voice and Gefture.
..j The fubjeft of pronunciation is of fo great impor¬
tance to an orator, that it can neither be too clearly
laid down, nor too ftrongly inculcated. If we inquire
into the caufes of that furprifing power it has over us,
and by what means it fo ftrongly alfefts us, this may
,in fome meafure appear by reflefting on the frame
and conftitution of human nature. For our infinitely
great and wife Maker has fo formed us, that not only
the aftions of the body are fubjeft to the direftion of
the mind; but we are likewife endowed with various
pafiions and affeftions, that excite us to purfue thofe
things which make for our happinefs, and avoid others
which are hurtful to us. And as we are made for
fociety, we are alfo furnifhed with fpeech, which en¬
ables us to converfe one with another. And fuch is
the contrivance of our make, and influence of our
minds upon the mechanifm of our bodies, that we can
not only communicate our thoughts to each other,
but likewife our pafiions. For, as Cicero well ob-
ferves, “ Every motion of the mind has naturally its
peculiar countenance, voice, and gefture; and the
whole body, every pofition of the face, and found of
the voice, like the firings of an inftrument, aft agree¬
ably to the imprefiion they receive from the mind.”
Nor is this all: but as every one is differently affefted
himfelf, he is capable to make the like imprefiions
upon others, and excite them to the fame motions
which he feels in himfelf. As when two inftruments
are fet to the fame pitch, the firings of the one being
touched, produce in the other the like found. This
common fympathyin the human frame /hews hownecef-
fary it is that an orator fhould not only ingeneral be well
acquainted with the rules of pronunciation, but like¬
wife know how to ufe them as occasion requires. For
a general knowledge of the rules of art is not of itfelf P
fufficient to perfeft an artift, without a further ac- _
quaintance with the particular application of them to
their feveral cafes and circumftances. Thus, for in-
ftance, it is not enough for an orator to underftand all
the beauties and ornaments of language, and which of
them are fuited to form the feveral kinds of ftyle;
unlefs he can likewife accommodate each of thofe
charafters to their proper fubjeft. And fo likewtfe
in pronunciation, he ought not only to know the fe¬
veral qualities of the voice, and proper geftures of the
body; but alfo when and where to make ufe of them.
For not only different fubjefts, but alfo different parts
of the fame difcourfe, and even particular expreflions,
often require a difference in the manner of pronuncia¬
tion, both as to the voice and gefture. Having there¬
fore treated on both thefe parts of pronunciation in
general, it may not be amifs now to confider, how
they are to be applied in each of the two refpefts laft
mentioned.
We (hall begin with the parts of a difcourfe, and
treat of them in their natural order. And here the
view and defign of the fpeaker in each of them will
eafily help us to fee the proper manner of pronuncia¬
tion.
Let us fuppofe then a perfon prefenting himfelf be¬
fore an aflembly, in order to make a difcourfe to them.
It cannot be decent immediately to begin to fpeak fo
foon as ever he makes his appearance. He will firft
fettle himfelf, compofe his countenance, and take a
refpeftful view of his audience. This prepares them
for filence and attention. To begin prefently, and
hurry on, without firll allowing either himfelf or his
hearers time to compofe themfelves, looks as if he was
rather performing a talk, than had any defign to pleafe
them; which will be very apt to make them as uneafy
till he has done, as he feems to be himfelf. Perfons
commonly form fome opinion of a fpeaker from their
firft view of him; which prejudices them either in his
favour, or otherwife, as to what he fays afterwards.
A grave and fedate afpeft inclines them to think him
ferious; that he has confidered his fubjeft, and may
have fomething to offer worth their attention. A
haughty and forbidding air occafions diftafte, as it
looks like difrefpeft. A wandering giddy counte¬
nance argues levity. A dejefted drooping appearance
is apt to raife contempt, unlels where the fubjeft is
melancholy. And a chearful afpeft is a proper pre¬
lude to a pleafant and agreeable argument.
To fpeak low at firft has the appearance of mo¬
defty, and is beft for the voice; which, by rifing gra¬
dually, will with more eafe be carried to any pitch
that may be afterwards neceffary, without draining it.
However, fome variation of the voice is always proper
to give it an harmony. Nay, and fometimes it is not
improper for an orator to fet out with a confiderabte
degree of warmth, expreffed by fuch an elevation of
the voice, and geftures of the body, as are fuited to
reprefent the emotions of his mind. But this is not
ordinarily the cafe. We have fome few inftances of
this in Cicero; as in his oration for ,R°fc'us-Arner'm,s»
where the heinoufnefs of the charge could not but ex¬
cite his indignation againft the accufers. And fo
likewife in that againft Pifo, and the two firft againfl
Catiline, which begin in the fame manner, frpm the
refentment
5739
ronnneia-
574° O R A T
Pronuncia- refentment he had conceived againfl. their perfons and
tl0n‘ conduft.
In the narration, the voice ought to be railed to
foraewhat an higher pitch. Matters of faft ftiould be
related in a very plain and diflindl manner, with a
proper ftrefs and emphafis laid upon each circum-
ftance, accompanied with a fuitable addrefs and mo¬
tions of the body, to engage the attention of the
hearers. For there is a certain grace in telling a
ftory, by which thofe who are matters of it feldom fail
to recommend themfelves in converfation. The beauty
of it confifts in an eafy and familiar manner of ex-
preflion, attended with fuch adlions and geftures as
are fuited to the nature of the things related, and
help to enliven each particular circumftance and part
of the difcourfe.
The propofition, or fubjeft of the difcourfe, fhould
be delivered with a very clear and audible voice. For
if this be not plainly heard, all that follows in proof
of it cannot well be underftood. And for the fame
reafon, if it be divided into feveral parts or branches,
they fhould each.be exprefled very deliberately and di-
ftinftly. But as the defign here is only information,
there can be little room for gefture.
The confirmation admits of great variety, both of
the voice and geftures. In reafoning, the voice is
quick and pungent, and Ihould be enforced with fuit¬
able adtions. And as defcriptions likewife have often
a place here, in painting out the images of things, the
orator fhould fo endeavour to adapt both his voice,
and the motions of his body, particularly the turn of
bis eyes, and adtion of his hands, as may beft help
the imagination of his hearers. Where he introduces
another perfon fpeaking, or addreffes to an abfent
perfon, it fhould be with fome degree of imitation.
And in dialogue the voice fhould alter with the parts.
When he diverts from his fubjedl by any digreF
fion, his voice fhould be lively and chearful; fince
that is rather defigned for entertainment than inftruc-
tion.
In confutation, the arguments of the adverfe party
ought firft to be repeated in a plain and diftindf man¬
ner, that the fpeaker may not feem to conceal, or
avoid the force of them. Unlefs they appear trifling
and unworthy of a ferious anfwer; and then a face¬
tious manner, both of expreflion and gefture, may be
<he propereft way to confute them. For to attempt
to anfwer -in a grave and ferious manner, what is in it-
felf empty and ludicrous, is apt to create a fufpicion
of its having more in it than it really has. So when
Tubero, in his accufation of Ligarius before Caefar,
had made it part of his charge, that Ligarius was in
Africa during.fome part of the civil war between Cae¬
far and Pompey; Cicero in his anfwer, not thinking
it deferved a ferious reply, contents himfelf with bare-
mentioning it ironically. For thus he begins his
defence of Ligarius: “ Caefar, my kinfman Tubero
has laid before you a new crime, and till this day un¬
heard of, that Q^Ligarius was in Africa.” Every
one mutt, eafily perceive, by the manner in which thefe
words were pronounced, that the defig.n of them was
to make the charge appear ridiculous. But caution
fhould be ufed not to reprefent any argument of
weight in a ludicrous way, left by fo doing the
fpeaker fhould more expofe himfelf than his adver¬
fe ry.
O R Y. Fart IV*
In the conclufion, both the voice and gefture (hould Pronunq it
be brifk and fprightly, which may feem to arife from t>0IM |‘
a fenfe of the fpeaker’s opinion of the goodnefs of his jf
caufe, and that he has offered nothing but what is
agreeable to reafon and truth ; as likewife from his af-
furancc that the audience agree with him in the fame Jl
fentiments. In every undertaking that requires care ]
and thought, perfons are apt at firft to be fedate and !|
moderate; but when it is drawn to an end, and
is near finifhed, it is very natural to appear more
gay. If an enumeration of the principal arguments
of the difcourfe be convenient, as it fometimes is,
where they are pretty numerous, or the difcourfe is
long; they ought to be expreffed in the moft clear j)
and forcible manner. And if there be an addrefs to
the pafiions, both the voice and gefture muft be fuit¬
ed to the nature of them, of which more will be faid
prefently.
We proceed now to the confideration of particular 1
expreffions. And what we fhall offer here, will be firft
in relation to fingle words, then fentences, and laftly fc
the paffions.
I. Even in thofe fentences, which are expreffed in *33 c
the moft even and fedate manner, there is often one It
or more words which require an emphafis and diftinc-
tion of the voice. Pronouns are often of this kind;
as. This is the man. And fuch are many words,
that denote the circumftances and qualities of things. tj
Such as heighten or magnify the idea of the thing to
which they are joined, elevate the voice; as noble, |
admirable, majejlic, greatly, and the like. On the j'
contrary, thofe which leffen the idea, or debafe it,
deprefs the voice, or at leaft protraft the tone ; of ^1
which Jort are the words little, mean, poorly contemptible,
with many others. Some tropes likewife, as meta¬
phors, and verbal figures, which confift in the repe¬
tition of a fingle word, fhould have a particular em¬
phafis. As when Virgil fays of the river Araxes, It
difdained a bridge. And Nifus of himfelf in the fame
poet, I, I am the man; where the repeated word is
loudeft. This diftimftion of words, and giving them
their proper emphafis, does not only render the ex- ;[•
preffion more clear and intelligible; but very much ;j;
contributes to the variation of the voice, and the pre- it
venting a monotony. And the different pronuncia¬
tion of thefe words will alfo require a peculiar ge- t
fture.
II. In fentences, regard fhould be had to their 132 ■,
length, and the number of their parts, in order to di-
ftinguifh them by proper paufes. The frame and ftruc- i I
ture of the period ought likewife to be confidered, that i|
the voice may be fo managed, as to give it the moft
mufical accent. Unlefs there be fome fpecial reafon for , j
the contrary, it fhould end louder than it begins. And ;
this difference of tone between the end of the former
fentence, and the beginning of the next, not only helps ||
to diftinguifh the fenfe, but adds to the harmony of the
voice. And that the laft fyliables of a fentence might
become more audible and diftinft, was doubtlefs one i
reafon why the ancient rhetoricians diflike ihort feet at |
the end of a period. In an antithefis, or a fentence i
confifting of oppofite parts, one contrary muft be
louder than the other. As : “ He is gone, but by a gain¬
ful remove, from painful labour, to quiet reft ; from un-
quiet defirescontentment,yruzK forrow, /<?joy;
and ym? tranfitory time, immortality.” In a cli¬
max, j
IV. ORA
- max, or gradation, tlif voice (hould rife with it. So :
“ There is no enjoyment of property ^without government;
m government 'without a magiltrate ; no magiftrate
•without obedience ; no obe’dience •where every one acts
as he pleafes.” And fo in other gradations of a dif¬
ferent form. As: “ Since concord voas loji, friendfhip
•was loji, fidelity •was /«/?, liberty w/ loft, all <was
loji.” And again : “ Tou •wouldpardon him •whom the
fenate hath condemned, •whom the people of Rome have
condemned, •whom iW mankxndL have condemned.” We
might mention feveral other figurative expreffions,
which require a particular conformation and manage¬
ment of the voice ; but thefe, we prefume, with fome
others we fhall have occafion to name prefently when
we come to the paffions, may be fufficient to guide us
in the reft. But that it may appear more evidently
how neceflary a different inflexion and variation of
the voice is in moft fentences, give us leave to fhew
how Quintilian illuftrates it, by a paffage which he
takes from Cicero. The place is the beginning of
Cicero’s defence for Milo, and the words are thefe :
“ Althd’ I am apprehenfive, it may feem bafe to difeover
fear •when I enter upon the defence of a moft coura¬
geous man; and it may appear very indecent, when Mi¬
lo difeovers more concern for the public fafety, than
for his own, not to fhe^w agreatnefs of mind equal to
his caufe : yet this new form of the court terrifies my
eyes, which cannot difeern the ancient manner of the
forum, and former cuftom of trials, •whatever •way
they look: your bench is not furrounded with ita ufual
attendants.” This fentence confrfts of four members.
And Quintilian fuppofes, that though thefe words are
the beginning of a fpeech, and were accordingly ex-
preffed in a calm and fubmiffive manner ; yet that the
orator ufed a great deal of variety in the pronuncia¬
tion of their feveral parts. In the firft member (as he
imagines) his voice was more elevated in exprefiing the
words, a mojl courageous man, than in thofe other
parts of it, I am apprehenfive it may feem bafe, and,
to dij'cover fear. In the fecond member he rofe higher
in faying, •when Milo difeovers more concern for the
public fafety than for bis own ; and then again as it were
checked himfelf in what follows, not to fiew a great¬
nefs of mind equal to his. caufe. The beginning of the
third member, carrying a reflexion in it, was fpoke
with a different tone of the voice, this new form of the
court terrifies my eyes; and the other part of it more loud
and diftin&ly, •which cannot difeern the ancient manner
of the forum, and former cufiom of trials. And the
laft member was Hill more raifed and andible, your
bench is not furrounded with its 'ufual attendants.
And it muft be fuppofed, that while he was faying
this, he call his eyes round the affembly, and viewed
the foldiers whom Pornpey had placed there ; which
renders the exprefiion ftill more grave and folemn. If
this was the manner of the ancient orators, and they
were fo exadf and accurate in exprelfing their periods,
and the feveraJ parts of them, as we have reafon to
believe they were; it muft have given a very great
force, as well as beauty, to their pronunciation.
III. That the paffions have each of them both a
different voice and adion, is evident from hence; that
we know in what manner a perfon is affe&ed, by the
tone of his voice, though we do not underftand the
httife.. of what he fays, or many times fo much as fee
TORY. 5741
him ; and we can often make the fame judgment from Promuida-
his countenance and gefturcs. Love and efteem are t'ur1,
expreffed in a fmooth and chearful tone : but anger
and refentment with a rough, har/h, and interrupted
voice; for when the fpirits are difturbed and ruffled,
the organs are moved unequally. Joy raifes and di--
lates the voice ; as forrow finks and contra&s it. Ci¬
cero takes notice of a paffage in an oration of Grac¬
chus, wherein he bewails the death of his brother,
who was killed by Scipio ; which in his time was
thought very moving : “ Unhappy man (fays he), whi¬
ther Jhall 1 betake myfelf? where Jhall I go ? Into the
capitol ? that flows with my brother's blood. Shall I go
home ? and behold my unhappy mother all in tears and
defpair ?” Though Gracchus had a very ill defign in
that fpeech, and his view was to excite the populace
againft their governors ; yet (as Cicero tells us) when
he came to this paflage, he expreffed himfelf in fuch.
moving accents and geftures, that he extorted tears
even from his enemies. Fear occafions a tremor and
hefitation of the voice ; and affurance gives it ftrength
and firmnefs. Admiration elevates the voice, and
fflould be expreffed with pomp and magnificence : 0
furprifing clemency, worthy of the highejl praife and
greateft encomiums, and fit to be perpetuated in lafling
monuments l This is Cicero’s compliment to Csefar,
when be thought it for his purpofe. And oftentimes
this paffion is accompanied with an elevation both of
the eyes and hands. On the contrary, contempt finks
and protra&s the voice. In the difpute between Ci¬
cero and Cecilius, which of them fflould accufe Verres,
Cicero puts this contemptuous queftion to him:
“ How are you qualified, Cecilius, for fuch an un¬
dertaking ? I will not afk, when you ever gave a proof'
of it; but when you fo much as attempted it ? Do
you confider the difficulty of " managing a public
caufe ?” With much more to the fame purpofe. Tho’
fuch kind of expreffions require little gtfture ; yet
fometimes a motion of the hand may not be improper,
to fignify difdain or averfion. We may fuppofe Ci¬
cero to have afted thus in his defence of Rabirius.
For to ffiow his affurance of his client’s caufe, having
ufed this expreffion in a very audible manner, “ I
wiffl I had it to fay, that Rabirius had with his own
hand killed Saturninus, who was an enemy to the Ro¬
man date:” fome perfons in the crowd began to raife
,a clamour, juft as of later times biffing has been prac-
tifed on the like occafions. Upon which Cicero
immediately replies, “ This noife does not difturb
me, but pleafe me; fince it fflows, though there are
fome weak perfons, yet they are but few.” Then
prefently after follows the expreffion we refer to:
“ Why do not you ceafe your clamour, fince it only
difeovers your folly, and the fmallnefs of your num¬
ber?” All exclamations fflould be violent. When we
addrefs to inanimate things, the voice fflould be
higher than when to animated beings ; and appeals to
heaven muft be made in a loftier tone than thofe to
men.
Thefe few hints for expreffing the principal paf¬
fions, may, ift duly attended to, fuffice to direft our
pra&ice in others. Though after all, it is impoffible
to gain a juft and deceit pronunciation of voice and
gefture merely from rules, without pra&ice and a:>
imitation of the belt examples. Which fflews the wif-
doiai
5742
Promincia-
Oratory
. !l
Orchard.
O R A T
dom of the ancients, in training up their youth to it,
by the afiiftance of matters, to form both their fpeech
and aftionsi
But there is one thing, which ought always to be
attended to; namely, that perfons (hould well confider
their own make and genius, efpecially with refpe£l to
the pafilons. We feldom find, that any after can ex¬
cel in all charafters ; but if he performs one well, he
is deficient in another : And therefore they are com¬
monly fo prudent as to confine themfelves to fuch as
[From Profeflbr Ward’s
O R Y. Part Ri
beft fuit them. The cafe is the fame in an orator; Pronunl
who (hould therefore keep within thofe bounds which t'on|
nature feems to have prefcribed for him. Some are *
better fitted for aftion than others, and moft for fome
particular aftions rather than others; and what fits
well upon one would appear very awkward in another*
Every one therefore ihould firft endeavour to know
himfelf, and manage accordingly. Though in moft
cafes, nature may be much affifted and improved by
art and exercife.
Syjlem of Oratory.'}
O R C
Oratory, among the Romanifts, a clofet or like
apartment near a bed-chamber, furnilhed with an al-
. tar, crucifix, &c. for private devotions.
ORB, in aftronomy, denotes an hollow globe or
fphere.
Orb, in taftics, is the difpofing of a number of
foldiers in circular form of defence. The orb has
been thought of confequence enough to employ the
attention - of the famous marfhal de Puyfegur in his
art of war, who prefers this pofition to throw a
body of infantry in an open country, to refift caval¬
ry, or even 3 fuperior force of infantry ; becaufe it is
regular, and equally ftrong, and gives an enemy no
reafon to expeft better fuccefs by attacking one place
than another. Caefar drew his whole army in this
form, when he fought againft Labienus. The whole
army of the Gauls were formed into an orb, under
the command of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting
againft the Romans. The orb was generally formed
fix deep.
ORBIT, in aftronomy, the path of a planet or co¬
met, or the curve that it defcribes in its revolutipn
round its central body : thus, the earth’s orbit is the
curve which it defcribes in its annual courfe round the
fun, and ufually called ih.s ecliptic. See Astronomy,
pajfim.
ORCADES, the Orkney Iflands. See Orkney.
ORCHARD, a garden-department, configned
entirely to the growth of ftandard fruit-trees, for
furnifiiing a large fupply of the moft ufeful kinds of
fruit.
In the orchard you may have, as ftandards, all forts
of apple-trees, moft forts of pears and plums, and all
forts of cherries: which four fpecies are the capital or¬
chard fruits ; each of them comprifing numerous valu¬
able varieties. But to have a complete orchard, you may
alfo have quinces, medlars, mulberries, fervice-trees,
filberts, Spanifh nuts, berberries; likewife walnuts
and chefnuts; which two latter are particularly appli¬
cable for the boundaries of orchards, to fcreen the
other trees from the infults of impetuous winds and
cold blafts. All the trees ought to be arranged in rows
from 20 to 30 feet diftance, as hereafter direfted.
But fometimes orchards confift intirely of apple-
trees, particularly in the cyder-making counties,
where they are cultivated in very great quantities in
large fields, and in hedge-rows, for the fruit to make
cyder for public fupply.
And fometimes whole orchards of very confiderable
extent are entirely of cherry-trees. But in this cafe, it
is when the fruit is defigned for fale in fome great
O R C
city, as London, &c. for the fupply of which city, Orch^
great numbers of large cherry-orchards are in fome  
of the adjacent counties, but more particularly in
Kent, which is famous for very extenfive cherry-
orchards; many of which are entirely of that fort call-
ed Kentijh cherry, as being generally a great .bearer;
others are ftored with all the principal forts of culti- ‘
vated cherries, from the earlieft to the lateft kinds.
See Prunus Cerafus.
A general orchard, however, compofed of all the
before-mentioned fruit-trees, (hould confift of a double
portion of apple-trees or more, becaufe they are con-
fiderably the moft ufeful fruit, and may be continued
for ufe the year round.
The utility of a general orchard, both for private ■
ufe and profit, ftored with the various forts of fruit- fl
trees, muft be very great, as well as afford infinite plea- ||
fure from the delightful appearance it makes from early ;|
fpring till late in autumn: In fpring the various trees
in bloffom are highly ornamental; in fummer, the (i|
pleafure is heightened by obferving the various fruits .J
advancing to perfeftion ; and as the feafon advances,
the mature growth of the difl;erent fpecies arriving to :l
perfeftion, in regular fucceffion, from May or June, 'll
until the end of Oftobtr, muft afford exceeding de¬
light, as well as great profit.
Of the proper Extent, Situation, and Soil, for this 11
Department.~\ As to the proper extent of ground for i I
an orchard, this muft be proportioned, in fome mea- i |
fure, to the extent of land you have to work on, and
the quantity of fruit required either for private ufe or i I
for public fupply: fo that an orchard may be from ' J
half an acre to 20 or more in extent.
With refpeft to the fituation and afpeft for an orch¬
ard, we may obferve very thriving orchards both in
low and high fituations, and on declivities and plains,
in various afpefts or expofures, provided the natural
foil is good : we (hould, however, avoid very low
damp fituations as much as the nature of the place will j|
admit; for in very wet foils no fruit trees will profper,
nor the fruit be fine : but a moderately low fituation,
free from copious wet, may be more eligible than an
elevated ground, as being lefs expofed to t'empeftuous
winds; though a fituation having a fmall declivity is
very defirable, efpecially if its afpeft incline towards ,>
the eaft, fauth-eaft, or foutherly, which are rather ;!i'
more eligible than a wefterly afpeft; but a north
afpeft is the word of all for an orchard, unlefs particu-
larly compenfated by the peculiar temperament or >
good quality of the foil.
And as for foil, any common field or pafture that
pro- |
Orchard.
O R C [ 5743 ] O R C
produces good crops of corn, grafs, or kitchen-gar-
' den vegetables, is luitable for an orchard, if it fhoiild
prove of a loamy nature, it will be a particular advan¬
tage : any foil, however, of a good quality, not too
light and dry, or too heavy, ftubborn, or wet, but of
a medium nature, of a foft, pliant temperature, not lefs
than one fpade deep of good ftaple, will beproperfor
this purpofe.
Preparation of the. Ground.^ The preparation of the
ground for the reception of trees, is by trenching; or,
if for very confiderable orchards, by deep ploughing;
but trench-digging, one or two fpades, as the foil will
admit, is the mod eligible, either wholly^ or only for
the prefent ip the places where the lines of trees are
to ftand, a fpaGe of fix or eight feet wide, all the way
in each row, efpecially if it be grafsrground, and in¬
tended to be kept in the fwaird; or if any under-crops
are defigned to be raifed, the ground may be whol¬
ly trenched at firft : in either cafe trench the ground
in the ufual way to the depth of the- natpral foil; and
if in grafs, turn the fward clean to the bottom of each
trench, which, when rotted, will prove an excellent ma¬
nure.
In planting orchards, however, on grafs-grounds,
fome only dig pits for each tree, capacious enough for
the reception of the roots, loofening the bottom well,
without the labour of digging any other part of the
ground. '
The ground muft be fenced fecurely againft cattle,
&c. either with a good ditch and hedge, or with a
paling-fence, as may be moft convenient. See Hedge.
Method of planting the Trees. The belt feafon for
planting all the forts of fruit-trees is autumn, foon af¬
ter the fall of the leaf, from about the latter end of
October until December ; or indeed it might be per¬
formed any time in open weather from October until
March.
Choofe principally full ftandards, with ftraight clean
Items, fix feet high; each with a branchy well-formed
head, of from two or three to four or five years growth;
and let feveral varieties of each particular fpecies becho-
fen, that ripen their fruit at different times, from the
earlieft to the lateft, according to the nature of the
different forts, that there may be a proper fupply of
every fort regularly during their proper feafon. Of
apples and pears in particular, choofe a much greater
quantity of the autumnal and late-ripening kinds than
of the early forts; but moft of all of apples : for the
fummer-ripening fruit is but of fhort duration, only
proper for temporary fervice ; but the later-ripening
kinds keep found fome confiderable time for autumnal
ufe ; and the lateft forts that ripen in Oftober, con¬
tinue in perfe&ion for various ufes all winter, and fe¬
veral forts until the feafon of apples come again.
Having- made choice of the proper forts, and mark¬
ed them, let them be taken up with the utmoft care,
fo as to preferve all their, roots as entire as poflible;
and when taken up, prune off any broken or bruifed
parts of the roots, and juft tip the ends of the princi¬
pal roots, in general, with the knife, on the under fide,
with a kind of flope outward.
If the trees have been already headed, or fo train¬
ed as to have branched out into regular fhoots to form
each a proper head, they muft be planted with the
faid heads entire, only retrenching or fhortening any
Vol. VIII. 2
irregular or ill-placed fhoot that takes an aukward di-
reftion, or grows acrofs its neighbours, or fuch as
may run confiderably longer than all the reft, &c.
The arrangement of the trees in the orchard muft
be in rows, each kind feparate, at diftances according
to the nature of growth of the different forts; but for
the larger growing kinds, fuch as apples, pears, plums,
cherries, &e. they Ihould ftand from 25 to 30 or 40
feet every way afunder, though 25 or 30 feet at moft
is a reafonable diftance for all thefe kinds.
Each fpecies and its varieties fhould generally be in
rows by themfelves, the better to fuit their refpedlive
modes-of growth: tho’ for variety, there may be fome
rows of apples and pears arranged alternately, asalfo of
plums and cherries ; and towards the boundaries there
may be ranges of leffer growth, as quinces, medlars,
filberts, &c. and the outer row of all may be walnut-
trees, and fome chefnuts, fet pretty clofe to defend the
other trees from violent winds.
According to the above diftances, proceed to {lake
out the ground for making the holes for the reception
of the trees; which if made to range every way, will
have a very agreeable effeft, and admit the currency
of air, and the fun’s influence more effeftually.
But in planting very extenfive orchards, fome di¬
vide the ground into large fquares or quarters, of dif-
ferent dimenfions, with intervals of fifty feet wide be¬
tween'; ferving both as walks, and for admitting a
greater currency of air; in different quarters planting
different forts of fruit, as apples in one, pears in an¬
other, and plums and cherries in others, &c. and thus
it may be repeated to as many quarters for each fpe¬
cies and its varieties as may be convenient.
As to the mode of planting the trees : A wide hole
muft be dug for each tree, capacious enough to re¬
ceive all the roots freely every way without touching
the fides. When the holes are all ready, proceed to
planting, one tree in each hole, a perfon holding the
ftem ere&, whilft another trims in the earth, pre-
vioufly breaking it fmall, and cafting it in equally all
about the roots, frequently (baking the tree to caufe
the mould to fettle in clofe about all the fmaller roots
and fibres, and fo as to raife the tree gradually up,
that the crown of the roots may be but two or three
inches below the general furface ; and when the hole
is filled up, tread it gently, firft round the outfide,
then near the ftem of the tree, forming the furface a
little hollow; and then if on the top of all is laid fome
inverted turf to the width of the holes, forming it
with a fort of circular-bank, three or four inches high,
it will fupport the tree, and guard the roots from dry¬
ing winds and the fummer’s drought: obferving that
each tree ftand perfedly upright, and that they range
exaftly in their proper rows.
ORCHESTRA, in the ancient theatres, a place in the
form of a femicircle, where the dancing was perform¬
ed. In the Greek theatres, the orcheftra made part
of the ftage; but, among the Romans, it anfwered
nearly to our pit; only that in it were difpofed the
feats for the fenators, magiftrates, veftals, and other
perfons of diftin&ion.
ORCHIS, fool-stones ; a genus of the diandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants.
There are a great many fpecies; but the mod remark¬
able are the following.
32 L
Orchard
!i
Qrchif.
I. The
O R C [ 5744 1 O R D
Orchis, i. The mafcula, or male fool-Hones, hath 3 root
Ordeal, compofed of two bulbs, crowned with oblong, broad,
"'’"Tpotted leaves; upright-flalks, a foot high; garnifhed
with one or two narrow amplexicaule leaves; and ter¬
minated by a long fpike of reddifh-purple flowers, ha¬
ving the petals reflexed backward; a quadrilobed cre-
nated lip to the •ne&arium, and an obtufe horn. The
flowers of this fpecies pofiefs a very agreeable odour.
2. The morio, or female orchis, hath a double bul¬
bous root, crowned with oblong, ribbed, fpreading
leaves; ereft flower-ftalks, eight or ten inches high;
garnifhed with a few amplexicaule leaves; and termi¬
nated by a Ihort loofe fpike of flowers, having conni-
vent petals, a quadrifid crenated lip to the nedarium,
and an obtufe horn.
3. The militaris, or man-orchis, hath a double bul¬
bous root, crowned with oblong amplexicaule leaves;
ereft flower-italks, eight or ten inches high ; termi¬
nated by a loofe fpike of afh-coloured and reddifli
flowers, having confluent petals; a quinquefid, rough,
fpotted lip to the nedarium, and an obtufe horn. The
flrudure of the flowers exhibit the figure of a naked
man; and are often of different colours in the fame
flower, as afh-colour, red, brown, and dark-ftriped.
Culture and Properties. All the orchifes are very
hardy perennials, with bulbous flefhy roots. The
flowers appear in May, June, and July, but princi¬
pally in June: their mode of flowering is univerfally
in fpikes, many flowers in each fpike; and each flower
is compofed of five petals in two feries, and a neda-
rium. The feafon for removing them is in fummer,
after they have done flowering, when their leaves and
ftalks decay: plant them three inches deep, and let
them remain undifturbed feveral years; for the lefs
they are removed, the ftrooger they will flower.
The roots of all the fpecies have a remarkable re-
femblance to the fcrotum of animals, whence the
name. This plant flouriflies in various parts of Eu¬
rope and Afia, and grows in our country fponta-
neoufly, and in great abundance. It is afliduoufly cul¬
tivated in the Eaft; and the root of it forms a confi-
derable part of the diet of the inhabitants of Turkey,
Perfia, and Syria. From it is made the alimentary
powder called salep ; which, prepared from foreign
roots, is fold at five or fix (hillings per pound, though
it might be furniflied by ourfelves at the fixth part of
that price, if we chofe to pay any attention to the
culture of this plant. The orchis mafcula is the moft
valued for this purpofe. A dry and not very fertile
foil is beft adapted to its growth.
The propereft time for gathering the roots, is when
the feed is formed, aud the (lalk is ready to fall; be-
caufe the new bulb, of which the falep is made, is
then arrived to its full maturity, and may be diftin-
guiflied from the old one, by a white bud rifing from
the top of it, which is the germ of the orchis of the
fucceeding year.
The culture of the orchis is an objeft highly de-
ferving of encouragement from all the lovers of agri¬
culture. And as the root, if introduced into com¬
mon ufe, would furnifh a cheap, wholefome, and moft
nutritious article of diet, the growth of it would be
fufficiently profitable to the farmer. See Salep.
ORDEAL, an ancient form of trial. See Trial.
It was peculiarly diftinguiftied by the appellation of
judicium Dei; and fometimes vulgaris purgatio, to Ordeal,
diftinguifli it from the canonical purgation, which was”
by the oath of the party. This was of two forts,
either fire-ordeal, or water-ordeal; the former being
confined to perfons of higher rank, the latter to the
common people. Both thefe might be performed by
deputy : but the principal was to anfwer for the fuc-
cefs of the trial; the deputy only venturing foroe cor¬
poral pain, for hire, or perhaps for friendfliip.
Fire-ordeal was performed either by taking up in the
hand, unhurt, a piece of red-hot iron, of one, two, or
three pounds weight ; or elfe by walking, barefoot, and
blindfold, over nine red-hot ploughfhares, laid length-
wife at unequal diftances: and if the party efcaped
being hurt, he was adjudged innocent; but if it hap¬
pened otherwife, as without collufion it ufually did,
he was then condemned as guilty. However, by this
latter method queen Emma, the mother of Edward
the Confeffor, is mentioned to have cleared her charac¬
ter, when fufpe&ed of Familiarity with Alwyn bifliop
of Winchefter.
Water-ordeal was performed, either by plunging
the bare arm up to the elbow in boiling-water, and
efcaping unhurt thereby: or by calling the perfon
fufpe6led into a river or pond of cold water; and,
if he floated therein without any a&ion of fwimming,
it was deemed an evidence of his guilt; but, if he
funk, he was acquitted. It is eafy to trace out the
traditional relics of this water-ordeal, in the ignorant
barbarity Hill pradifed in many countries to difcover
witches, by calling them into a pool of water, and
drowning them to prove their innocence. And in the
Eaftern empire the fire-ordeal was ufed to the fame
purpofe by the emperor Theodore Lafcaris ; who, at¬
tributing his ficknefs to magic, caufed all thofe whom
he fufpefted to handle the hot iron: thus joining (as
has been well remarked) to the moft dubious ccime in
the world, the moft dubious proof of innocence.
And indeed this purgation by ordeal feems to have
been very ancient, and very univerfal in the times of
fuperflnious barbarity. It was known to the ancient
Greeks : for in the Antigone of Sophocles, a perfon,
fufpedked by Creon of a mifdemefnor, declares himfelf
ready “ to handle hot iron, and to walk over fire,”
in order to manifeft his innocence; which, the fcholiaft
tells us, was then a very ufual purgation. And
Grotius gives us many inftances of water-ordeal in
Bithynia, Sardinia, and other places. There is alfo
a very peculiar fpecies of water-ordeal, faid to prevail
among the Indians on the coaft of Malabar ; where
a perfon accufed of any enormous crime is obliged to
fwira over a large river abounding with crocodiles,
and, if he efcapes unhurt, he is reputed innocent. j
As in Siam, befides the ufual methods of fire and
water ordeal, both parties are fometimes expofed to
the fury of a tiger let loofe for that purpofe : and,
if the bead fpares either, that perfon is accounted in¬
nocent ; if neither, both are held to be guilty ; but if
he fpares both, the trial is incomplete, and they proceed
to a more certain criterions.
One cannot but be aftonilhed at the folly and im¬
piety of pronouncing a man guilty, unlefs he was
cleared by a miracle ; and of expecting that all the
powers of nature (hould be fufpended, by an imme¬
diate interpofition of Providence to fave the innocent,
whenever
O R D [ 5745 ] O R D
> Order whenever It was prefumptuoufly required. And yet
,9 in England, fo late as king John’s time, we find
| Quinary. grants t0 t^e bifhops and clergy to ufe the judicium
Jerri, aquie, et ignis. And, both in England and
Sweden, the clergy prefided at this trial, and it was
only performed in the churches or in other confecrated
ground : for which Stiernhook gives the r.eafon, Non
defuit Mis opera et laboris pretium; femper enim ab
ejufmodi judicio a liquid lucri facerdotibus obveniebat.
But, to give it its due praife, we find the canon law
very early declaring againll trial by ordeal, ox vulgaris
purgatio, as being the fabric of the devil, cum Jit con¬
tra praceptum Domini, Non tentabis Dominum Deum
tuum. Upon this authority, though the canons them-
felves were of no validity in England, it was thought
proper {as had been done in Denmark above a century
before) to difufe and abolifh this trial entirely in our
courts of juttice, by an aft of parliament in 3 Hen.
III. according to Sir Edward Coke, or rather by an
order of the king in counciL
ORDER, in architefture, is a fyftem of the fevefai
members, ornaments, and proportions of columns and
pilafters; or a regular arrangement of the projefting
parts of a building, efpecially the column, fo as to
form one beautiful whole. See Architecture, n°4i,
&c.
Order is alfo ufed for a divifion, or clafs of any
thing: thus the tribe of animals called birds, is fubdi-
vided into fix orders. See Ornithology, Zoology,
&c.
Holy Orders, a charafter peculiar to ecclefiaftics,
whereby they are fet apart for the miniftry. See Or¬
dination.
Military Orders, are companies of knights, Infti-
tuted by kings and princes, either for defence of the
faith, or to confer marks of honour, and make diftinc-
tions among their fubjefts.
Religious Orders, are congregations or focieties of
monaltics, living under the fame fuperior, in the fame
manner, and wearing the fame habit.
Orders, in a military fenfe, all that is lawfully
commanded by fuperior officers. Orders are given out
every day, whether in camp, garrifon, or on a march,
by the commanding officer ; which orders are after¬
wards given to every officer in writing by their refpec-
tive ferjeants.
ORDINAL, a book containing the order or man¬
ner of performing divine fervice.
Ordinal Numbers, thofe which exprefs order; as
tft, 2d, 3d, &c.
ORDINANCE, or Ordonnance, a law, flatute,
or command of a fovereign or fuperior: thus the afts
of parliament are fometimes termed ordinances of par¬
liament.
ORDINARY, in general, fignifies common, ufual;
thus, an ambaffador or envoy in ordinary, is one fent
to refide ftatedly, and for a number of years, in the
court of fome foreign prince or ft ate, in order to keep
up a good underftanding, and watch over the ihtbreft
of his own nation.—This term is alfo applied to feve-
ral officers in the king’s houfehold, who attend on com¬
mon occafions. Thus we fay, phyfician in ordinary,
&c.
Ordinary, ox Honourable O&d'iKA.K'I, in heraldry,
* denomination given to certain charges properly be¬
longing to that art. See Heraldry, p. 3588. 0 nil in re*.
ORDINATES, in geometry and conics, are lines A
drawn from any point of the circumference of an el- °r nance-
lipfis or other conic feftion, perpendicularly acrofs the
axis, to the other fide. See Conic
ORDINATION, the aft of conferring holy or¬
ders, or of initiating a perfon into the priefthood by
prayer and the laying on of hands.
Ordination has always been efteemed the principal
prerogative of bifhops, and they ftill retain the func¬
tion as a mark of fpiritual fovcreignty in their dio-
cefe. Without ordination, no perfon can receive any
benefice, parfonage, vicarage, &c. A clerk mult
be 23 years of age before he can have any lhare in
the miniftry; and 24 before he can be ordained,
and by that means be permitted to adminifter the fa-
crament. A bifhop, on the ordination of clergymen,
is to examine them in the prefence of the minifters
who affift him at the impofition of hands; and in cafe
any crime, as drunkenncfs, perjury, forgery, &c. be
alleged againft any one that is to be ordained, either
prieft or deacon, the bilhop ought to defift from ordain¬
ing him. The perfon to be ordained is to bring a
teftimonial of his life and doftrine to the bilhop, and
give account of his faith in Latin, and both priefts
and deacons are obliged to fubfcribe the 39 articles.
The ordination-days in the church of England, are
the four Sundays immediately following the Ember-
weeks, r/z. the firft Sunday in Lent, Trinity-Sunday,
and the Sundays following the firft Wednefday after
September 14. and December 13.
In Scotland, where there are no bilhops, the power
of ordination is lodged in the prefbytery. See Pres¬
bytery.
ORDNANCE, a general name for all forts of
great guns ufed in war. See Gunnery.
Boring of Ordnance. Till within thefe to years,
iron ordnance were call with a cylindrical cavity, near¬
ly of the dimenfions of the caliber of the piece, which
was afterwards enlarged to the proper caliber by means
of fteel-cutters fixed into the dog-head of a boring-
bar iron. Three fide-cutters equidiftant were requifite
to preferve the caliber ftraight and cylindrical; and a
fingle cutter was ufed at the end of'the bar to fmooth
the breech of the piece. In boring ordnance call hol¬
low, the piece was fixed upon a carriage that could be
moved backwards and forwards in a direft line with
the centre of a water-wheel; in this centre was fixed
the boring bar, of a fufficient length to reach up to
the breech of the piece, or more properly to the fur¬
ther end of the caliber. The carriage with the piece
being drawn backwards from the centre of the water¬
wheel to introduce the boring and finifhingbars and cut¬
ters, it is then preffed forwards upon this bar by means
of levers, weights, &c. and the water-wheel being fet
agoing, the bar and fullers are turned round, and clean
out and fmooth the caliber to its proper dimenfions.
Experience at laft pointed out many inconveniences
arifing from the method of calling guns hollonss, and
widening the calibers by thefe boring bars. For the
body of iron of the hollow gun, being, at calling, in
contaft with the core that made the caliber within-fide,
and with the mould without-fide, began to confolidate
towards thefe fides in the firft place, foonerthan in the
intermediate fpace, where of courfe the contraftion of
32 L a the
ORE [ 5746 ] O R G
Ordnance, the Iron takes place; by which means, all guns cad
Ordon- {)0]jow became more or lefs fpongy where they
 1_ ought to have been mod compaft ; and numberlefs ca¬
vities alfo were created round the cores, from itagna-
ted air generated in them, which were too deep to be
cut out by the boring.
To remedy thefe defers, iron ordnance is now uni-
verfally cad folid, by which means the column of iron
is greatly enlarged, and the grain more comprefled;
and the contraction of the iron becomes in the heart
of the column, and confequently is cut out by the per¬
foration for the caliber. ^
pj -g Guns arebored out of the folid reverfely from the hol-
G'XXXH. low method. The piece A is placed upon two dan-
dards BB, by means of two journeys; turned round by
the water-wheel C, the breech I) being introduced
into the centre of the wheel, wit It the muzzle towards
the hiding carriage E, which is prefi'ed forwards by
a rach F, and weights in the fame way as the gun-car¬
riage was in hollow boring. Upon this Aiding car¬
riage is fixed, truly horizontal, and centrical to the gun,
the drill-bar G, to the end of which is fixed a carp’s-
tongue drill or cutter H ; which, being prefled forward
upon the piece whild it is turning round, perforates the
bore, which is afterwards finilhed with bars and cut¬
ters as the hollow guns were. The principal difaculty
of perforated folid guns truly centrical, arifes from the
contraSidn of the iron above-mentioned; which, refill¬
ing the drill unequally, tends to throw it out of the
centrical line.
Offic'fi c/'Ordnance, an office kept within the tower
of London, which fuperintends and difpofes of all the
arms, inftruments, and uteniils of war, both by, fea
and land, in all the magazines, garrifons, and forts, in
Great Britain,
The officers of the ordnance are, 1. The mafter-
general, from whom are derived all orders and dif-
patches relating to thefame. 2. The lieutenant-general,
who receives orders from the mader-general, and fees
them duly executed; orders the firing of guns on days
of rejoicing, and fees the train of artillery fitted out
when ordered to the field. 3. The furyeyor-general,
who has the infpe&ioh of the ordnance, ftores, and
provifions of war in the euflody of the (lore-keepers:
he allows all bills of debt, keeps a check on labourers,
&c. 4. The treafurer, through whofe hands pafies
the money of the whole office, as well for payment of
falaries as debentures; as alfo a cleikof the ordnance,
and a clerk of deliveries,
ORJDONNANCE, inarchitefture, is the compofition
of a building, and the difpofition of its_parts, both with
regard to the whole, and to one another; or, as Mr
Evelyn exprefles it, determining the meafure of what
is affigned to the feveral apartments. Thus ordon-
jiance is the judicious contrivance of the plan or
mould; as when the court, hall, lodgings, &c. are
neither too large nor top fmall, but the court affords
convenient light to the apartments about it : the hall
is . of fit capacity to receive company ; and the bed¬
chamber, &c. cf a proper iize. When thefe divifions
are either too great or too fmall, with refpedl to the
whole, as where there is a large court to a little houfe,
or a fmall hall to a magnificent palace, and the fault
is in the ordoxmancc. flee Architecture.
Ordonnancb, in painting, is ufed for the difpo-
fition of the parts of a piflure, either with regard to
the whole piece, or to the feveral darts, as the groups,
mafles, contrails, &c. See Fainting, n° 14.
ORE, in natural hiftpry, the compound mineral
glebe, earth, flone, or other fubllance, which is
fufficiently rich in metallic particles to be worth the
while of purification, and by this means of feparating
the metal from it, whether gold, filver, Copper, &c.
See Metallurgy, Part i. fe6l. 2.
ORENSE, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Galicia, with a bi(hop’s fee. It is famous
for its hot-baths; and is feated at tjhe foot of a moun¬
tain, on the river Minho, over which there is a
handfome bridge of one arch. W. Long. 7. 27.
N. Lat. 42. 16.
ORESTES, in ancient hiflory, king of Mycenae,
was the fon of Agamemnon and Clytemneftra. At
the infligation. of his fifter Eledra, he revenged the
death of his father, and did not even fpare his own
mother. He alfo killed Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles,
for taking away Hermione, who had-been promifed to
him in marriage. It is faid, that, after he had killed
his mother, he went diftra&ed; and that, to expiate
his crime, he was obliged to go to the temple of
Diana in the Cherfonefus T^urica. His friend Py-
lades accompanied him thither: when king Thoas re-
folving to facrifice him to Diana, to whom human
viftims were offered, Pylades refolving to be facrificed
to fave his friend, aflTured that prince that he was
Greftes; while Oreftes, on the contrary, to prevent
the death of Pylades, maintained that he alone was
the true Orefies. During this generous contefl, which
rendered the friendfhip of Orefies and Pylades the ad¬
miration of the world, Iphigenia, who prtfided at
Diana’s fpcrifices, knew again her brother Orelles,
and delivered him from the danger to which he was
expofed. Some days afterwards, Oreffes, accompanied
by Pylades, flew king Thoas, feized his treafures,
and took his filler Iphigenia with him into Arcadia,
1144 B. C.
ORFA, a confiderable town of Diarbeck in Afia,
very pleafantly fituated, pretty large, and well forti¬
fied. It formerly belonged, to Perfia 5 hut is now
in the Turkifh dominions, and is a place of very
good trade. It lias a {lately caflle (landing pn a hill,
which makes a great fhew at a diflance. They pre¬
tend to fhew the, well where Rachel watered her fa¬
ther’s camels when Jacob met her, and they call it
^brahatu's well. E. Long. 37. 45. N. Lat. 36. 2Cx
ORFORD, a town of Suffolk in England, feated
on the feaTcoall between two channels. It was for¬
merly a good fifhing-town, but has now loft its trade;
however, it has the title of an earldom, and fends two
members to parliament. Here is a handfome church,
whofe fteeple is a good fea-mark; and near it are the
ruins of an old callle, and an holy houfe, where the
feamens wives ufed to pray for the fafety of their huf-
Lands. E. Long. 1.33. N. Lat. 52. 15.
.. ORGAGNA (Andrea), an excellent Italian painter,
wras born at Florence in 1329. In his youth he
learned fculptiire; he was alfo a poet and an architect.
He had a fruitful genius, and his manner refembled
that of the other painters of his time. Mod of his
works.are at Pifa. The mod admired of them is his
picture of the Lad Judgment, in which he painted his
fsiends
», Orgal,
li Organ.
Plate
cxxx,
fig...
ORE [ 5747 ] ORE
friends among the blefied, and his foes In hell. He
died in 1389.
ORGAL, among dyers, denotes the lees of wine
dried.
ORGAN, in general, is an inftrument or machine
defigned for the produdtion of fome certain adtion or
operation; in which fenfe the mechanic powers, ma¬
chines, and even the veins, arteries, nerves, mufcles,
and bones of the human body, may be called organs.
Organ, in mufic, the largeft and mod harmonious
wind-inflrument.
The invention of the organ is very ancient; though
it is agreed that It was little ufed till the eighth cen¬
tury. It feems to have been borrowed from the
Greeks. Vitruvius defcribes an hydraulic one in his
tenth book of Architeflure. The emperor Julian has
an epigram in its praife. St Jerom mentions one with
twelve pair of bellows, which might be heard a thou-
fand paces, or a mile; and another at Jerufalem, which
might be heard at the mount of Olives.
The church-organ confifts of two parts; the main
body, called \he great organ; ^nd the pofitive or little
organ, which forms a fmall cafe or buffet, commonly
placed before the great organ. The iize of an organ
is generally expreffed by the length of its largeft pipe:
thus they fay, an organ of 8, j6, 32 feet, £gV. The
organ in the cathedral church at Ulm in Germany is
93 feet high, and 28 broad: its largeft pipe is 13 inches
diameter, and it has 16 pair of bellows.
The feveral parts of the church-organ are as follow-
HIH is the found-board : which is compofed of two
parts, the upper board or cover HHH, and the under
board HI, which is much thicker than the other;
each of thefe confifta of feveral planks laid with their
edges to each other, and joined very clofe together.
In the under-fide of the lower board there are made
feveral channels, which run in the dire’&ion LL, MM,
&c. and are continued as far as there are flops in the
organ, and come almoft to the edge HK. Thefe
channels are covered over very clofe with parchment
or leather all the way, except a hole that is commonly
at the fore-end next HK, upon which a valve or puff
is placed. Thefe channels are called partitions. When
this valve or flap is flint it keeps out the air,' and ad¬
mits it when open. On the upper fide 'of the lower
board there are likevvife cut feveral broad fquare chan¬
nels, lying crofs the former, but not fo deep as to
reach them; thefc lie in the dire&ion LN, &c.
To fit thefe channels, there are the fame number of
wooden Aiders or regifters./J &c. running the
whole length; and thefe may be drawn outer thrufl
in at pleafure. The number of thefe is the fame as
that of the flops in the organ.
IKKK is the wind cheft, which is a fquare box
fitted clofe to the under fide of the lower board, and
made air-tight, fo that no air can get out but what
goes through the valves along the partitions.
VV are the valves or puffs which open into the
wind-chdl ; they are all inclofed in it, and may be
placed in any part of it, as occafion fhall require. One
of thefe valves, with the fpring that flints it, and the
wire that opens it, is reprefented by fig. 2.
C, D, E, F, &c. are the keys on which the fingers
are placed when the organ is played : thefe keys lie
over the horizontal bar of wood W, in which are ftuck
an equal number of wire-pins 2, 2, on which keys are Organ.
fixed; and the keys move up and down on the bar, 
as on a centre. There is another bar, againft which
the keys fall when put down, and which is heremark-
3 : on this alfo are feveral w-ires, which go through
the keys, to guide them ; and on this bar a lift is fa-
llened to hinder the keys from knocking againft the
wood.
The keys are made to communicate with the valves
feveral ways, as we fhall now deferibe. Firft, /, /, /,
are the key-rollers, moving on the pivots t, t: thefe
rollers lie horizontally, one above another, and are of
fuch a length as to reach from the valve to the key ;
a, a, a, are arms or levers fixed to the key-rollers :
w, to, the valve-wires fixed to the arms a, a, and
to valves V, and go through the holes h, h, in the
bottom of the wind-cheft : b, b, b, are likewife arms
fixed to the kty-rollers: d, d, d, the key-wires, fixed
to the arms b, b, and to the keys C, D, E. Now,
when the end of any one of the keys C, D, E, is put
down, it pulls down the arm b, by the wure d, which
turns about the roller s with the arm a, that pulls
down the wire to, which opens the valve that is {hut
by the fpring as foon as the preffure is taken off the
key. In this conftruftion there muftbea worm-fpring
faftened to the key, and to the bar W on the further
fide, to keep down the end 5 of the key.
Another method of opening the valves is thus: xy,
xyt are flender levers, moveable on the centres J, 1 ;
5 x, 5 x, are wires going from the further ends of the
keys to the ends x of the levers ; y V, y V, are other
wires, reaching from the ends/of the levers, through
the holes b, to the valves V. So that putting down
the key C, D, &c. raifes the end 5, which thruftsup
the end i of the lever, by the wive 5 x; this depreffes
the end/ of the lever, which pulls down the wire/V,
and opens the valve V.
A third way of opening the valves is this : At the
end of the key b, is a lever 8, 9, moving in the cen¬
tre 7. This makes, with the key, a compound lever.
From the end 9, a wire goes to the valve. Now the
putting down ti?e end 6 of the key, raifes the end 8,
which depreffes the end 9, of the lever 8, 9,, pulls
down the wire, and opens the valve. There is only
one of thefe drawn in the fcheme, and but a few of
the others, to avoid confufion.
R, R, are the rollers, to move the Aiders, by
help of the arms cf cfj which are fixed horizontally
in thefe rollers: be, k ey are alfo levers fixed in the
rollers; le, le, are the handles, whieh lie horizontal¬
ly, and pafs through the holes/, /; they are faftened
to the lever k e, being moveable about a joint at e.
Now, any handle Ip, being drawn out, puljs the
end e toward /, which .turns about R4, along w’ith,
the arm cf; and the end f pulls -out the Aider fg;
and when p is thruft in, the arm likewife thrufts in
the Aider
Upon the feveral. rows of holes which appear on the
top of the upper board, there are fet up; an equal
numberof rows of pipes. The pipes of an organ are
of two kinds ; the one has a mouth like a flute, the
other with reeds. The firft, called pipes of mutationy
confift, (1.) of a foot AABB (fig. 3.) which is a<
hbllow cone, that receives the wind that is to found
the pipe: (a.) To this foot is fattened the body of
O R G [ 574B ] O R G
Organ, the pipe BBDD. Between the foot and the body of
" the pipe is a diaphragm or partition FEF, that has a
long but narrow aperture by which the wind comes
out; over this aperture is the mouth BBC, whofe
upper lip C, being level, cuts the wind as it comes
out.
The pipes are of pewter, of lead mixed with a
a twelfth part of tin, and of wood. Thofe of pew¬
ter are always open at their extremities : their diame¬
ter is very fmall, and their found very clear and {hrill.
Thofe of lead mixed with tin are larger; the flrorteft
are open, the longeft quite flopped ; thofe of a mean
fize are partly flopped, and have befide a little ear on
each fide the mouth, to be drawn clofer or fet further
afunder, in order to raife or lower the found. The
wooden pipes are fquare, and their extremity is flop¬
ped with a valve or tampion of leather. The found
of the wooden and leaden pipes is very foft ; the large
ones flopped are commonly of wood, the fmall ones
of lead. The longeft pipes give the graved found,
and the ftiorteft the moft acute: their lengths and
widths are determined by a fixed proportion to their
founds ; and their divifions are regulated by a rule,
which is called the diapafon. The longeft has com¬
monly 16 feet ; but in very large organs it has
32 feet. The pedal tubes are always upon, though
made of wood and of lead. Whatever note any open
pipe founds, when its mouth is flopped it will found
an o&ave lower; and a pipe of twice its capacity will
likewife found an oftave lower.
A reed-pipe contifts of a foot A ABB, (fig. 4.)
that carries the wind into the (ballot or reed CD, which
is a hollow demi-cylinder, fitted at its extremity D,
into a fort of mould, by a wooden tampion G. The
fhallot is covered with a plate of copper KKLL, fit¬
ted at its extremity II, into the mould, by the fame
wooden tampion. Its other extremity KK, is at liber¬
ty : fo that the air entering the fhallot makes it
tremble or (hake againft the reed ; and the' longer
that part of the tongue IL, which is at liberty, is
made, the deeper is the found. The mould II, that
ferves to fix the (hallot or reed, the tongue, tampion,
&c. ferves alfo to flop the foot of the pipe, and make
the wind go out wholly at the reed. Laftly, in the
mould is foldered the tube HH, whofe inward open¬
ing is a continuation of that of the reed : the form of
this tube is different in different ranks of pipes. The
degree of acutenefs or gravity in the found of a reed
pipe, depends on the length of the tongue, and that of
the pipe CK, taken from the extremity of the (hallot
to the extremity of the tube. The quantity or inten¬
tion of the found depends on the width of the reed,
the tongue, and the tube ; as alfo on the thicknefs of
the tongue, the figure of the tube, and the quantity
of wind. To diverlify the founds of the pipes, a valve
is added to the port-vent, which makes the wind go
out in fits or (hakes. In fig. 1. X reprefents a flute-
pipe of wood, Z a flute-pipe of metal, Y a trumpet-
pipe of metal. The pipes, to prevent them from fall¬
ing, pafs through holes made in boards, placed upon
the upper board.
The pipes are made to communicate with the wind-
cheft in the following manner. There are holes bored
that go through the upper and lower boards, and
through the flitter, (when it is drawn out), into the
partition below ; fo that any pipes placed upon thofe Organ,
boles will then communicate with the partition, which,-
by its valve, communicates with the wind-cheft. But
whep the Aider is thruft in, its holes do not anfwerto
thofe in the upper and lower boards; therefore the
communication is flopped, fo that no wind can get to
the pipe.
To every large organ there mud be at lead two pair
of bellows, which are marked in fig. r. by TU, TU.
O, O, are the handles, moving upon the axis nntnn.
Each of thefe bellows confifts of two boards, the
lowed of which is immoveable ; and in this there is a
valve r, opening inwards, and a tube leading to if,
called the conveying, tube. There is alfo a hole in this
under board, from which a tube leads to the port-
vent, which is a fquare tube marked 4, rifing upward,
and inferted into the under fide of the wind-cheft at
2. In the tube leading to the port-vent there is a
valve that opens towards the port-vent, and fuffersthe
air to go up tke port-vent, but not to return. Now
the handle O being pulled down, raifes the upper
board T, and the air enters through the valve r; and
when the handle is let go, the weight of the upper
board, which carries three or four pound to every
fquare foot, continually defcending, drives the air
through the port-vent to the found-board : and as the
bellows work alternately, one pair is conftantly de¬
fcending, which occafions a continual blaft through
the port-vent. In chamber-organs there is but one
pair of bellows ; but they are formed of three boards,
in the manner of a fmith’s bellows, and fo have a con¬
tinual blaft. All the internal ftrufture of the organ is
concealed from the fight by the front of the inftru-
ment, which (lands upon the part between the num¬
bers 3 and 6 (fig. 1.)
In every organ the number of partitions LL, MM,
Sec. there are in the found-board (fig. 1.) that of the
valves V V, that of the rollers / r, or of the levers
x or 8 9 and their wires, and that of the keys
ABC, Sec. muft be always equal. Large organs have
commonly four or five fets of keys, befide thofe that
belong to the pedals or large pipes, the flops to
which are played by the feet. The keys of an organ
are ufually divided into four oflaves ; which are, the
fecond fub-o&ave, firft fub-oftave, middle o£ave, and
firft oftave. Each oftave is divided into 12 flops or
frets, of which feven are black and five white ; the for¬
mer mark the natural notes, and the latter the artifi¬
cial notes, that is, flats and (harps. The number of
keys, therefore, when there are four o&aves, muft be
48. Some organifts add one or more flops to the firft
and fecond fub-odlaves. The pedals have two or
three oftaves, at the option of the organift ; fo that
the number of flops is indeterminate. The keys are
placed between GG (fig. 1.), but the fcheme could
not contain them all. There are alfo as many handles
/, /, &c. rollers RR, See. Aiders f, f. See. as there
are flops upon the organ ; and it muft be obferved,
that between the Aiders f, f, &c. there are as many
Aiders on the right hand, and the fame number of
handles and rollers, and other rows of pipes placed
between LN, PQ^ which could not be expreffed in
the figure.
The lead pipes and partitions are placed toward the
middle of the organ, and the greateft on the outfide.
The
OKI [ 5749 ] O R I
Organ The flops of an organ have various denominations, ac-
Onganum. corc3JDg t0 t{je founds they are to produce; Tome of
which arediapafon, principal, fifteenth, twelfth, tearce,
cornet, trumpet, French horn, vox humana, flute,
baflbon, cremona, &c. There is likewife a contrivance
to fwell the notes of fome of the flops-
When this magnificent inftrument is played, the
handle O of the bellows isfirft put down, which raifes
the upper board T, and gives room for the air to en¬
ter by the valve r. Then the other handle O is put
down ; in the mean time the board T, belonging to
the firft handle, defcending, and /hutting the valve r,
drives the air through the other valve, up the port-
vent, and into the wind-eheft. Then drawing out any
handle, as that of the flute-flop p /, which draws out
the Aider/£, all the pipes in the fet LN are ready to
play, as foon as the keys C,D,E, &e. are put down :
therefore, if the key D be put down, it opens the cor-
refponding valve wV, through which the air enters
into the pipe X, and makes it found. In the fame
manner any other pipe in the fet LN, will found when
its key is put down ; but no pipe, in any other fet,
will found till the Aider be drawn out by its correfpond-
ing handle.
Hydraulic Organ, denotes a mufical machine that
plays by water inftead of wind. Of thefe there are
feveral in Italy, in the grottos of vineyards. Cte-
febes of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Ptole¬
my Euergetes, is faid to have invented organs that
played by comprefling the air with water, as is (till
pradlifed. Archimedes and Vitruvius have left us de-
fcriptions of the hydraulic organ.
ORGASM, an ecftafy, or impetuous defire of
coition, occafioned by a turgefcency of the feminal
vefiels.
ORGIA, in antiquity, feafls and facrifices per¬
formed in honour of Bacchus, inftituted by Orpheus,
and chiefly celebrated on the mountains by wild di-
ftra&ed women called Baccha. See Bacchanalia,
and Dionysia.
ORGUES, in the military art, are thick long
* pieces of wood, pointed at one end, and fliod with
iron, clear one of another ; hanging each by a parti¬
cular rope or cord, over the gateway of a ftrong
place, perpendicularly, to be let fall in cafe of the ap¬
proach of an enemy.
Orgues, is alfo ufed for a machine compofed of
feveral harquebufs or mulket barrels bound together,
by means whereof feveral explofions are made at the
fame time. It is ufed to defend breaches and other
places attacked.
ORGYA, an ancient Grecian meafure containing
fix feet.
ORIFICE, the mouth or aperture of a tube, pipe,
or other cavity.
ORIGANUM, Origany, or Marjoram; a ge¬
nus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the di-
dynamia clafs of plants. The principal fpecies are,
two hardy perennials and an annual for the open
ground, and five perennials for the green-houfe : viz.
i. The vulgare, or wild pot-marjoram; 2. The he-
racleoticum, or winter fweet-marjoram. Thefe are
finely-fcentcd aromatics, excellent for culinary pur-
pofes, particularly for broths, foups, &c. they have
likewife merit for medical ufes, and for giving fra-
rance to ointments; fo that the plants are proper Orienf
oth for kitchen and phyfic gardens, and may alfo °ri6f
be employed in the pleafure-ground as plants of va¬
riety. 3. The marjorana, or annual fweet marjoram,
is an aromatic of the higheft fragrance, is admirable
for kitchen ufe, and excellent for nofegays ; fo is pro¬
per both for the kitchen and pleafure garden, but
more particularly the former. It is often called knot-
ted marjoram, from the flowers growing in clofe knot-
ted-Iike heads. The following moftly affume an un-
derfiirubby growth ; frequently with abiding ftalks, if
they have ftielter here in winter. 4. The didtam-
nus, or dittany of Crete ; 5. The fipyleum, or ori¬
ganum of mount Sipylus ; 6. The creticum, or Cre¬
tan origany ; 7. The fmyrmeum, or Smyrna origany;
8. The JEgyptiacum, or Egyptian origany. All
thefe eight fpecies of origanum flower in July and
Auguft; the flowers are fmall, monopetalous, rin-
gent, univerfally hermaphrodite, and colledled into
verticilli round the ftalks; fucceeded by ripe feed in
autumn ; though in this country the annual marjoram
and the three green-houfe forts feldom perfedt feed
well, unlefs the autumn proves remarkably fine and
warm : in default, however, of feed, the propagation
of all the perennial forts, both hardy and green-houfe
kinds, is eafily effedled by flips of the roots, &c. And
the feed of the annual fort is imported plentifully from
France or Italy, by the feed-dealers.
ORIENT, a harbour of France, in the province
of Bretagne, in the bottom of the bay of St Lewis.
Since the year 1720, a handfome town has been built
here, where the Eaft India company have large ma¬
gazines. The Englifli attempted to become mafters
of it in 1746, but mifcarried. W. Long. 3. 22. N.
Lat. 47. 45.
ORIGEN, one of the moft celebrated ecclefiaftical
writers, greateft geniufes, and mod; learned men of
the primitive church, during the third century, was
born at Alexandria, in the year 185; and was fur-
named Adamantus, either from his indefatigable ap¬
plication to ftudy, or the firmnefs he difcovered amidfl:
the torments he fuffered for the faith. Leonides his
father educated him with care,-and made him apply
to the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures from his infancy,
in which he made furprifing progrefs. He had after¬
wards St. Clement of Alexandria for his mafter in
divinity, and at 18 years of age fucceeded that great
man in the office of catechift, an important employ¬
ment, which confifted in teaching divinity, and ex¬
pounding the Scriptures. Leonides his father had
fuffered martyrdom the year before, during the per-
fecution of Severus in 202 ; and Origen had ftiewn fuch
eagernefs to follow his father to martyrdom, that his
mother was obliged to hide his cloaths, to prevent his
going abroad. Origen had a great concourfe of au¬
ditors who attended his fchool, fome of whom were of
the faithful, and the others pagans. He confirmed
and ftrengthened the firft in their faith, and converted
moft of the others; and there were fuch a number of
martyrs amongft his difciples, that it might be faid,
that he kept rather a fchool of martyrdom than of
divinity. He taught the dofhines of Chriftianity to
the girls and women as well as to the men; and, taking
in a too literal fenfe what Chrift fays of becoming vo¬
luntary eunuchs, caftrated himfelf, to prevent his de-
O R I
Origen. ferving or fufferlng fcandal. He took a voyage to
— Rome in 211; and at his return publilhed many works,
by which he acquired an extraordinary reputation,
that drew to him a great number of auditors. But
Demetrius,bifltop of Alexandria, conceiving ajealoufy
of him, endeavoured by various pretences to injure
him. At length Origen went to Antioch, whither
the emprefs Mammasa had fent for him to hear him
difcourfe on the Chrrftian religion; he did not how¬
ever ftay long there, but returned to Alexandria,
where he continued to teach till the year 288, when
he left that city,, and travelled into Achaia. In that
journey he went into Paleftine, and was ordained by
the bilbops of that province at 4.2 years of age. His
being ordianed by foreign bilhops without the per-
miffion of Demetrius, renewned that prelate’s refent-
ment againft. him ; on which Origen haftily returned
to Alexandria, to endeavour to mollify him ; but De¬
metrius drove him from thence in 231, and caufed
him to be excommunicated, and even depofed in a
council held in Egypt. Origen then retired to Csfa-
ria in Paleftine, where he railed a celebrated fchool,
and had St Gregory Thaumaturgus, and a great
number of other perfons who were illuftrious for their
virtue and learning, for his difciples. He afterwards
travelled to Athens; and then, at the defire of Firmi-
lianus, ftaid fome time at Ctefaria in Cappadocia; whence
he was invited into Arabia, to convince and bring
back to the truth Beryllus, bilhop of Boftra, who
maintained that the Word had no exiftence before his
incarnation. Origen had the happinefs to make him
fenlible of his miftake ; and fome years after was fent
for into Arabia by an aftembly of biftiops, to difpute
again the Arabians, who maintained that the fouls of
the dead remained in a ftate of infenfibility till the
general refurre&ion. At length the feventh perfecu-
tion of the Chriftians began in the reign of Decius,
and none were uied with greater feverity than Origen.
He fopported with incredible conftancy the dreadful
torments which-the perfecutors of the Chriftians in¬
vented againft them ; torments that were the more in-
fupportable, as they were made to continue a long
time, and as they took the greateft care to prevent his
expiring in the midft of his tortures; but in the midft
of the moft excruciating torments, he difeovered an
heroic courage, and fuffered nothing to efcape him
that was unworthy a difciple of Jefus Chrift. He
died at Tyre in 254, aged 69. He was the author of
a great number of excellent works. The principal of
thofe which have been handed down to us are, 1. A
Treatife againft Celfus, of which Spencer has given a
good edition in Greek and Latin, with notes : this
learned treatife has been tranflated into French by Elias
Bouhereau, a proteftant minifter, born at Rochelle.
2. A great number of Homilies, with Commentaries
on the Holy Scriptures. 3. Philocalia, and feveral
other treatifes. 4. Fragments of his Hexaples, col-
k&ed by father Montfaucon, in two volumes folio.
Of all Origen’s books, the lofs of the Hexaples is moft
to be regretted. This work was thus named from its
containing fix columns; in the firft of which was the
Hebrew text of the Bible; in the fecond, the fame
text in Greek chara&ers; in the third, the Greek
verfion of the Septuagint; in the fourth, that of
Aquila ; in the fifth, that of Symmachus; and in the
O R I
fixth, Theodotian’s Greek verfion. This admirable Origenifts; in
work gave the firft. hint for our Polyglot Bibles. II
5. The book of Principles; of which we have only an 0ri°
incorreft Latin verfion. In all his writings he dif-
covers a furprifing degree of modefty, candour, and
humility ; a noble and fublime genius, profound
learning, and vaft erudition. His manners were ’ex¬
tremely pure, and he had a warm zeal for fpreading the
truths and morals of the gofpel. The moft complete
edition of his works is that of father de la Rue, a Be-
nedi&ine, in Greek and Latin.
He ought not to be confounded with another Ori¬
gen, a Platonic philofopher, and the. difciple and
friend of Porphyry, who ftudied philofpphy under
Ammonius.
ORIGENISTS, in church-hiftory, a Chriftian
fed in the fourth century, fo called from their drawing
their opinions from the writings of Origen. The
Origenifts maintained, that the fouls of men had a
pre-exiftent ftate ; that they were holy intelligences,
and had finned in heaven before the body was created ;
that Chrift is only the fon of God by adoption; that
he has been fucceffively united with all the angelical
natures, and has been a cherub, a feraph, and all the
edeftial virtues one after another ; that, in future
ages, he will be crucified for the falvation of the devils,
as he has already been for that of men ; and that their
punilhment, and that of the damned, will continue
only for a certain limited time.
ORIGINAL, a firft draught or defign of any thing,
which ferves as a model to be imitated or copied.
Original Sin, the crime of eating the forbidden
fruit, of which, it is faid, all mankind are guilty at
their conception, by the imputation of Adam’s tranf-
grefiion ; which is accounted for by fuppofing, that
Adam, as he was to be the father, was alfo the foa-
deral head and reprefentative, of the whole human
human race : and that, on his finning, all that were
to fpring from him partook of his crimes.
ORIGUELA, a town of Spain in Valentia. It
is feated between the mountains on the banks of the
river Segura, in a place fortified by nature, and in a
fertile plain, abounding in all things, efpecially
corn. It is furrounded with pleafant gardens, and has
a univerfity and a bifhop’s fee. It is defended by an
old caftle; and is the capital of a government indepen¬
dent of Valentia, whofe' jurifdidion extends thirty
miles in length, and fifteen in breadth. W. Long,
o. 56. N. Lat. 38. 22.
ORILLON, in fortification, is a fmall rounding
of earth, faced with a wall; raifed on the (boulder of
thofe baftions that have cafemates, to cover the cannon
in the retired flank, and prevent their being dif-
mounted by the enemy. See Fortification.
ORIOLUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
the order of picae. The bill is conical, convex, very
(harp andftraight; the fuperior mandible being much
longer than the under one ; and the tongue is forked
and (harp. There are 20 fp.ecies, principally diftin-
guiflied by their colour.
ORION, in fabulous hiftory, was the fon of Jupi¬
ter, Neptune, and Mercury. For as thefe gods were
vifiting the earth, they entered the houfe of Hyrieus,
a native of Tanagra, in Boeotia, under the chara&er
of benighted travellers, on account of his being famed
for
[ 575° ]
T T
O R K [ 5751 ] O R K.
Orion for hofpitality to ftrangers. Hyrleus treated them in
I the beft manner in his,power; and even killed an ox,
l| 1 ney. tj1£ on]y. one j-or entertainment. At
which the gods were fo pleafed, that they offered the
old man whatever he would afk; who letting them
know that he defired nothing fo much as a fon, they,
to gratify his wifh, caufed the ox’s hide to be brought
before them, in which, having depofited their urine,
they bad him keep it under ground for ten months.
At the expiration of that term he dug it up, and
(found in it an infant, whom he at fxrft called Urion,
to exprefs his origin; but afterwards changed it to
Orion. He was a remarkable hunter: and Neptune
gave him the power of walking on the furface of the
waters, with the fame fpeed that Iphiclus did over the
ears of corn ; on which he croffed from the continent
of Greece to the ifland of Chios, where attemping to
j;\ violate iErope, the wife of king Oenopion, that
monarch deprived him of his fight. He than travelled
to Lefbos, where he was kindly received by Vulcan,
who gave him a guide to the palace of the fon, where
he was reftored to fight. He then made war on
Oenopion ; who efcaping his vengeance by concealing
himfelf under ground, he vrent to Crete, where he
purfoed his favourite exercife of hunting. But having
offended Diana, that goddefs put him to death, either
by her arrows, or by fending a fcorpion which gave
him a mortal wound; but afterwards relenting, (he
prevailed on Jupiter to raife him to the fkies, where
be forms a confteliation, remarkable for predicting rain
and tempeftuous weather.
Orion, in aftronomy, one of the conftellations of
the fouthern hemifphere.—The word is formed from the
Greek “ to make water;” the ancients fuppofing
that it raifed tempefts at its rifing and fetting.—The
flars in the confteliation Orion, in Ptolemy’s catalogue
are 37, in Tycho’s 62, in the Britannic catalogue 80.
ORISTAGNI, an ancient town of the ifland of
Sardinia, with an archbifhop’s fee. It is pretty large
and well fortified; but thinly inhabited, on account
of the unhealthy air : it is feated on the weftern coaft,
in a bay of the fame name, in E. Long. 8. 58.
I; N. Lat. 39. 55. _
ORIXA, a kingdom of Indoftan, lying on the
gulf of Bengal. It is divided fron the ancient king¬
dom of Golconda, by a ridge of mountains, the end
of which runs a little way into the fea. It is fertile
in corn and cattle, and they have feveral good towns
and harbours on the coaft ; there are alfo manufactures
of different kinds carried on throughout the kingdom.
The prince is a Gentoo, who pays to the Great
Mogul a tribute to the amount of about 12,0001.
yearly.
ORKNEY islands, certain iflands on the north
of Scotland, from which they are feparated by a frith
20 miles in length and 10 in breadth. They are '40
in number ; but many are uninhabited, the greater
part being fmall, and producing only pafturage for
cattle. The principal iflands are denominated by the
names of Mainland, South Ronaldjha, Snuinna, Plot-
ta. Copin/ha, Strupenjba, Stronfa, Sanda, &c. the
terminations in a, or ha, being generally given in the
Teutonic to fuch places as are furrounded by water.
The currents and tides flowing between the iflands are
extremely rapid and dangerous. Near an ifland cali-
Vol.VIII.
ed S<winna are two great whirlpools, called the nvdls Orkney.
o/Swinna, which are counted dangerous by mariners,
efpecially in a calm. When failors find themfelves
fucked into the vortex, it is faid they throw out a bar¬
rel, or fome bulky fubftance, which fmooths the wa¬
ter till it is fucked down and thrown up at a con-
fiderable diftance, during which time the fhip paffcs
over in fafety. But when there is a breeze of
wind, thefe whirlpools may be croffed without any
danger.
The air of thefe ifiands is moift, on account of the
neighbourhood of the fea ; and froft and fnow do not
continue long. In fome places the foil is bare and
mountainous, and in others fandy and barren ; how¬
ever, many of the iflands produce large crops of barley
and oats, but no wheat or other grain excepting what
is inclofed in gardens. Thefe, when duly cultivated,
produce all kinds of kitchen herbs and roots, bring¬
ing even fruit-trees to maturity; but out of them, in
the open country, there is fcarce a tree or fhrub to
be feen, except juniper, wild myrtle, heath, and the
cyur-hodon : yet this deficiency cannot be imputed to
the poverty of the foil, or the nature of the climate;
for the trunks of large oaks are frequently dug up in
the marfhes. This is likewife the cafe in the mofl
barren parts of the Highlands of Scotland, where not
a flmib is to be feen above the furface of the earth :
nay, the inhabitants frequently find, deep in the earth,
the roots of large trees, evidently exhibiting marks of
the ax by which they were felled; fo that thefe nor¬
thern parts muft have undergone fome ftrange revolu¬
tions. The Orkneys produce great variety of herbs
and berries, grafs and corn, which laft is exported as
far as Edinburgh. In fome of the iflands, the natives
have difcovered mines of tin, lead, and filver, though
none of them are wrought to any advantage; in
others, we find abundance of marl, grey and red
flate, quarries of freeftone, and even of marble and
alabafter : when the wind rages to any violence, the fea
throws in plenty of timber, torn from other countries ;
and, not unfrequently, the people find large pieces of
ambergreafe. The frefh water in thefe iflands is very
pure and limpid; and, though there are no large ri¬
vers in the Orkneys, the ground is well watered with
lakes and pleafant rivulets, that not only fcrve to turn
their mills, but alfo abound with trout of the moft de¬
licate flavour.
Befides the abundance of little horfes, black cattle,
fiieep, fwine, and rabbits, the inhabitants of the Ork¬
neys rear all forts of domeftic animals and tame poul¬
try. Their heaths and commons yield plenty of red
deer, ' and all forts of game; partridges, growfe,
heath-cocks, plover, duck, teal, and widgeon: the
fea-coaft teems with feals and otters ; and are,vifited
by whales, cod, ling, tuflc, herrings, and all manner
of fifh : on the Ihore they find fperma ceti, os fepiae,
and a great variety of (hells and corallines, with a mul¬
titude of oyfters, remarkably large mufcles, crabs,
and cockles. The rocks are covered with fea-fowl,
wild geefe, folan geefe, barnacles, eagles, hawks,
and kites. With refpeft to the barnacles, or, as the
natives call them, the deck geefe, they are faid to be
found in (hells flicking by the bills to trees, in feveral
iflands. Martin affirms he has feen them in this fitua-
tion, but could not perceive them alive; and indeed
32 M the
Orkney.
O R K [ 5752 ] O R K
tl.j whole account of their generation and produftion,
exhibited by the northern nattiralifts, is abfurd and
unphilofophical. The Orkney eagles are fo ftrong,
that, according to the reports of the country, they have
been known to carry away young children in their ta¬
lons. Certain it is, they make fuch havock among
the lambs, that he who kills an eagle is entitled by
Jawt to a hen from every houfe in the parifh where it
was killed. The king’s falconer vifits thefe iflands
every year, in order to fetch away the young hawks
and falcons from their nefts among the precipi¬
ces : he enjoys a yearly falary of twenty pounds, and
may claim a hen or a clog, from every houfe in the
country, except thofe that are exprefsly exempted from
this impofition.
The Orkneys, as well as the hills of Shetland, were
originally peopled from Norway, in the ninth, tenth,
or eleventh century ; and the commonalty ftill retain
the language of that kingdom, diftinguiflied by the
name of Norm : they likewife preferve fome cuftoms
of thefe Norwegian anceftors. The iflands of Ork¬
ney have been at different times fubdued by the
Scots, and recovered by the Norwegians: at length
they were fold by Magnus, king of Norway, to Alex¬
ander of Scotland, for the fum of 4000 merks Ster¬
ling, and a yearly acknowledgement of too merks.
Since that period, the Orkneys have continued annex¬
ed to the crown of Scotland. The gentry of the
Orkneys are civilized, polite, and hofpitable ; and live
like thofe of Scotland, from whom they are chiefly
defcended. They live comfortably, are remarkably
courteous to ftrangers, and drink a grjat quantity of
wine, with which their cellars are generally well fto-
red. Indeed the'inhabitants of the Orkney^ may be
now jullly deemed a Scotch colony. They fpeak the
language, profefs the religion, follow the fafhions,
and are fubje& to the laws, of that people. They are
frugal, fagacious, circumfpeft, religious, and hofpi¬
table. Their mariners are remarkably bold, aftive,
dexterou^, and hardy. Many furprifing inftances of
longevity occur here, as well as in Shetland, of per-
fons living to the age of 140. The Orkney women
are generally handfome and well-fhaped, and bring
forth children at a very advanced age. In the Ork¬
neys, fome particular lands are held by a tenure call¬
ed Udal Right, from Ulcius, or Olaus, king of Nor¬
way, who farmed the lands, on condition of re¬
ceiving one-third of the produce; and this right
devolved in fucceffion, without any charter granted
by the fovereign. The inhabitants of Orkney, inftead
of meafuring their corn, weigh it in pifmores or pun-
dlers. Their leaft denomination is a mark, confifting
of 18 ounces, and 24 merks make a lifpound, which
is a Danifh quantity. The poorer fort of people in
the Orkneys appear very meanly habited, with a piece
of feal-lkin inftead of fhoes ; and living chiefly on falt-
fifh, are fubje& to the fcurvy. They are much addic¬
ted to fuperftitious rites ; in particular, interpreting
dreams and omens, and believing in the force of idle
charms. The iflands of Orkney, we have already
obferved, produce very bold, able, and hardy ma¬
riners. The common people, in general, are inured
to fatigue, and remarkably adventurous, both in fifh-
ing during rough weather, and in climbing the rocks
for th^ fkfh, eggs, and down of fea-fowl. Former¬
ly, while they were expofed to the invafions of the
Norwegians, or weftern iflanders, every village was~
obliged to equip a large boat well manned ; and all
the fencible men appeared in arms, when the alarm was
given by the beacons lighted on the tops of the rocks
and higheft mountains. Thefe beacons, known by the
name of •ward-hills, are ftill to be feen in every ifland._
Their corn land they inclofe with mud or ftone walls,
to preferve it from the ravages of their iheep, fwine,
and cattle, which wander about at random, without
being attended by herdfmen : their ordinary manure,
efpecially near the fea-coaft, is fea-weed, which they
carefully gather and divide into equal portions. Their
flieep are marked on the ears and nofe ; but fo wild,
that when they have occafion tp (hear them in the
month of May, they are obliged to hunt every indi¬
vidual, with dogs trained for that purpofe. Their
manner of catching fea-fowl is curious and particular.
Under the rock where thefe fowls build, they row
their boat, provided with a large net, to the upper
corners of which are faftened two ropes, lowered down
from the top of the mountain by men placed in that
ftation. Thefe hoifting up the net, until it be fpread
oppofite to the cliffs in which the fowls are fitting, the
boatmen below make a noife with a rattle, by which
the fowls, being frightened, fly forwards into the bofom
of the net, in which they are immediately enclofed and
lowered down into the boat : others praftife the me¬
thod ufed in Iceland and Norway, and are lowered
down by a Angle rope from the fummit of the moun¬
tain ; this is the conftant way of robbing the hawk’s
neft. In thefe iflands fome ftrange effefts are produ¬
ced by thunder and lightening. In the year 1680, the
lightening entered a cow-houfe, in which 12 cows
flood in a row, killed every fecond beaft as flie ftood,
and left the reft untouched. The diftempers that
prevail moftly in the Orkneys are agues, confump.
tions, fcurvy, and itch. The agues, which abound in
the fpring, the natives cure with a diet-drink of bit¬
ters and antifcorbutics infufed in ale : for phthifical
complaints they ufe the plant arby, and the caryophyi-
lus marinus boiled with fweet milk.
The ifles of Orkney and Shetland compofe one
ftewartry, and fend one merflber to the Britifh parlia¬
ment. The right of fuperiority to the Orkneys was
difmembered from the crown by the union parliament,
and granted for a certain yearly confideration to the
earl of Moreton, by queen Anne, who appointed him
hereditary fteward and jufticiary. This nobleman pof-
feffes the power of creating certain judges, called bat-
■ HJfs. There is one of thefe eftablifhed in every ifland
and parifh, with power to fuperintend the manners of
the inhabitants, to hold courts and determine civil
caufes, according to the laws of Scotland, to the va¬
lue of ten pounds Scotch money, amounting to 16 s.
8 d : hut all contefts of higher import are referred to
the decifion of the fteward or his deputy, who refides
at Kirkwall, which is the feat of juftice. Subfer-
vient to the bailiffs are fix or feven of the moft repu¬
table and intelligent inhabitants, who overfee the con-
du6l of their fellows, aftiug as conftables, and make
report of all enormities to the bailiff; who caufes the
delinquent to be apprehended and punifhed, if the
crime be within the extent of hisjudicial power; other-
wife he fciafmits him to £irkwall, where he is tried
Orkney. |j
iOrkney.
O R K [ 5753 ] O R K
by the fteward. The Proteftant religion prevails in the
" ifles of Orkney, according to the rites and difcipline
of the kirk, thefe, and the ifles of Shetland, conftitu-
ting one prefbytery, which affembles at Kirkwall. The
country is divided into 18 parilhes, containing 31
churches, and above 100 chapels.
The trade of the Orkneys is not at prefent very
Confiderable, though it might be extended to great
advantage. They fupply with frdh provifions, for
ready money, the (hips and vefiels that touch upon
the coad in the courfe of northern voyages, or in their
paflage from the Eaft Indies, when they go north
about Ireland and Scotland, in time of war, to avoid
the privateers of the enemy. They are alfo vifited by
thofe engaged in the herring-filhery, though there is
not fuch a reforton this account to thefe iflands as to
the ifles of Shetland. Neverthelefs, a good number of
boats from the weftern parts of Scotland, as well as
from Londonderry, Belfaft, and other parts of Ire¬
land, fifti for herring as far north as the Leuze,
and fupply the Orkneys with tobacco, wine, bran¬
dy, and other fpirituous liquors, cloths, and divers
rnanufadlures. Thefe they exchange for fifli, and oil
extracted from porpoifes, feals, and other fea-animals.
The people of Orkney export annually great numbers
of black cattle, fwine, and fheep ; together with large
quantities of corn, butter, tallow, fait, and fluffs made
in the country, over and above the Ikins of feals, ot¬
ters, lambs, and rabbits, down, feathers, writing-
quills, hams, and wool : yet all thefe articles would,
in point of profit, fall infinitely flvort of their herring-
fifhery, were it profecuted with induftry, ceconomy,
and vigour. As there are no merchants in the Ork¬
neys at prefent who export fifli on their own account,
what herrings are taken, they fell to the Dutch or
Scotch dealers in and about Invernefs. They gene¬
rally fifli for herring on the weft fide of the Orkneys;
and are therefore more remote from markets, than
thofe who are employed in the fame manner on the
coaft of Shetland.
We may reckon among the curiofities of the Ork¬
neys, the Phafeoli, commonly known by the name of
Molucca beans, which are thrown upon the ftiore after
itorms of wefterly winds, and are fuppofed to be dri¬
ven thus far north from the Weft-Indies, where they
grow. Many ftrange fifties and curious fhells are alfo
frequently call up by the ocean ; of thefe Jaft a vaft
variety for adorning the cabinets of modern naturalifts.
Sometimes exotic fowls are driven upon the Orkneys
by tempeftuous weather: fifli, as large as whitings,
have been thrown alhore to a confiderable diftance
within the land. At Cantick-head, in the ifland
Waes, and fome other places, huge Hones are often
heaved up by the violence of the fea and wind, and call
over high rocks Upon the land. A fingle Laplander
has been feen more than once on this coaft, in his flen-
der canoe, covered with fkins, being driven hither by
adverfe winds and ftorms. The Orkneys are not altoge-
therdeftituteof ancient monumentsand curiofitiesof art.
In Hoy we find an entire ftone, 36 feet long, 18 in
breadth, and 9 in thicknefs, lying between two hills,
and known by the name of d’warficJlo?ie. It is hollowed
within by the tools of a mafon, the marks of which
are Hill apparent. The entrance is a fquare hole
about two feet high, with a ftone, by way of door,
Handing before it. Within we find a bed with a pil¬
low cut of the ftone ; at the other end is a couch of
the fame kind ; and in the middle a hearth, above
which there is a hole or vent for the exit of the fmoke.
This curiofity is found in the midft of a defolate
heath, and is fuppofed to have be^n the rtfidence of a
hermit : in the very neighbourhood of this ftone there
is a very high and fteep mountain, called the nvart hill
of Hoy, near the fummit of which, in the months of
May, June, and July, fomething at noon-day is feen
to fliine and fparkle with remarkable luftre, fuppofed
by the common people to be an enchanted carbuncle :
many pefons have clambered up the hill in queft of it,
but found nothing. Perhaps this fplendour is produ¬
ced by the refle&ion of the fun on a fmall ftrearn of
water Aiding over the face of a fmooth rock. At
Stenpis, in the main land, there is a caufeway of
Hones over a loch or lake, at the fouth end of which
we obferve a circle of Hones riling about 20 feet above
ground, each being fix feet in breadth, and from one
to two feet in thicknefs: between this circle and the
caufeway two Hones of the fame dimenfions Hand by
themfelves, and one of them is perforated in the
middle. At the diftance of half a mile from the
other end of the caufeway appears a larger circle of
the fame kind of Hones, the diameter of which may
amount to no paces ; fome of thefe'Hones are fallen;
and to the eaft and weft of the larger circle are two ar¬
tificial green mounts. Bath rounds are furrounded
with a ditch ; and one cannot view them without ad¬
miration, confidering the art that muft have been ufed
to bring fuch unwieldy mafles together in this order.
They were probably temples and places of facrifice
ufed in times of pagan fuperftition ; and feem to bear
a great affinity with the celebrated monument, called
Stonehenge, on Salilbury Plain in England. In one
of the mounts, at the north end of the caufeway, the
natives found nine fibula, or clafps of filver, formed
into a circle, and refembling a horfe-fhoe.- In many
different places of the Orkneys we find rude obelilks
or fingle ftones of a great height, fet up either as me¬
morials of battles, treaties, or the deceafe of remark¬
able perfonages. In Roufay, between two high
mountains, there is a place which the natives diftin-
guilh by the appellation of the camp of Jupiter Bring :
but the meaning of this name, handed down by tra¬
dition, is not known. At the weft end of the main
land, near Skeal, we find a fupprifing caufeway, above
a quarter of a mile in length,* on the fummit of high
hills, compofed of reddilh ftones of different magni¬
tude, impreffed with various figures both on the up¬
per and under furface. Some gentlemen in the neigh¬
bourhood have carried off the moft beautiful of thefe
ftones, to be fet in their chimnies by way of ornament,
like the painted tiles of Holland. This country pro¬
duces many fepulchres of different nations. In the
plains or links of Skeal, the fand being blown away
from the furface of the ground, feveral fquare cata¬
combs appear built of ftones well cemented together,
containing fome parcels of black earth, and each fe-
cured by a large ftone at^the mouth. Sepulchres of
the fame kind are found at Roufum in Stronfq; which
is likewife remarkable for a different kind of monu-
trient, confiding of one entire ftone cylinder hollow¬
ed; with a bottom like that of a barrel, and a round
32 M 2 ftone
Orkney.
o R L [ 5754 ] O R M
Orkney ftone to fill up the entrance: above, the ftone was
O leano's ^iarPenec^ 'nto an eclge > within were found fome
i eanois. ^urnej bones and red clay ; and over it was placed a
large flat ftone for the prefervation of the whole.
Thefc, in all probability were Roman catacombs. In
Weftra divers Danilh graves have been difcovered: in
one of thefe appeared the ikeleton of a man, witlr a
fword on one fide, and a Danifh ax on the other,
tSome have been found buried with dogs, combs,
knives, and other utenfils. In many places of the
country we find round hillocks or barrows, here known
by the name oi brogh, fignifying, in the Teutonic lan¬
guage, burying-place, fuppofed to have been the ce¬
meteries of the ancient Saxons. In different parts of
thefe iflands we fee the remains of great buildings,
believed to have been fortreffes creeled by the Danes
or Norwegians when they poffeffed the country. One
of thefe in the ifle of Wyre, called the cajile of Cop-
pi-row, fignifying a town of fecurity, is furrounded
by a foffe, and the firft floor ftill remains above
ground, a perfeA fquare of ftone wall, very thick,
ftrongly built, and cemented with lime, the area with¬
in not exceeding ten feet in length. Of this Coppi-
row the common people relate many idle fables. In
the chapel of Clet, in the ifle of Satida, there is a
grave 19 feet long, *in which was found part of a
man’s back bone, larger than that of a horfe. Hu¬
man bones, of nearly the fame fize, have been dug up
in Weftra ; and indeed this country is remarkable for
producing men of a gigantic ftature. Within the an¬
cient fabric of Lady Kirk in South Ronalfliaw, there
is a ftone four feet long, and two feet broad, on which
the print of two feet are engraven, fuppofed to be the
place where, in times of Popery, penitents flood to
do public pennance.
ORLE, Orlet, or Orlo, in archite&ure, a fillet
under the ovolo, or quarter round of a capital. When
it is at the top or bottom of a fhaft, it is called cinc¬
ture. Palladio ufes the word orlo for the plenith of
the bafis of the columns.
Orle, in heraldry, an ordinary, in form of a fil¬
let, drawn round the fhield, near the edge or extre¬
mity thereof, leaving the field vacant in the middle.
Its breadth is but half that of the treffure or bordure,
which contains a fixth part of the fliield ; and the orle
only a twelfth: befides, that the orle is its own breadth
diftant from the edge of the ftiield, whereas the bor¬
dure comes the edge itfelf. The form of the orle is
the fame with that of the Afield, whence it rtf»-mbles
an efcutcheon. See Plate CXLIV. fig. 1. (a.)
ORLEANOIS, a province of France, including
the feveral diftri&s of Orleanois-Proper, Beauce-Pro-
per or Chartrain, Dunois, Vendomois, Blaifois, the
greateft part of Gatinois, and Perche-Gouet. The
principal rivers of it are the Loire, the Loiret, the
Cher, the Laconic, the Aigle, the Hyere, the Yonne,
and the Evre. There are alfo fome remarkable ca¬
nals, particularly thofe of Briare and Orleans. The
river Loire, and the canals drawn from thence, great¬
ly facilitate and promote the inland trade of the king¬
dom ; and particularly of this government, which lies
entirely within the jurifdi&iorr of the parliament of
Paris; and, befides the chief governor, has feveral fub-
ordinate ones.
Orleanois, in Latin Aurdianafis Ager, is bounded
on the fouth by Sologne, on the north by Upper- OrleanoU.
Beauce, on the eaft by Gatinois, and on the weft by ll ■;
Dunois and Vendomois. The Loire divides it into 0rm nJ,i
Upper and Lower; the former lying to the north, and
the latter to the fouth of that river. It yields plenty
of graui, wine, wood, and fruit, and abounds in cattle,
game, and fifh. The principal places in it are,
Orleans, from which it derives its name, and is the
capital, not only of it, but of the whole government.
It was anciently called Genabum or Cenabum, and af¬
terwards andand (lands
20 leagues from Paris to the fouth, on the northern
bank of the Loire, over which there is here a fine ftone
bridge of 16 arches, leading into a fuburb on the fouth
fide of the river. In Julius Csefar’s time it was the
capital of the Carnutes. Aurelian, the emperor, en¬
larged it, and gave it his name. It is one of the lar¬
ged cities in the king; but meanly built, and mod of
the inhabitants are poor; though there are here feve¬
ral inferior courts of juftice, with an univerfity, at pre- »
fent in no great repute; a public library; a (lately Go¬
thic cathedral, and a great number of other churches,
fome of which are collegiate; a public walk, planted
with feveral rows of trees; fome fugar-bakers; a ma-
nufadlure of dockings and fheep-fkins; a feminary, in
which divinity is taught; and a great trade in brandy,
wine, fpices, and feveral manufactures, which, with
many other commodities, are conveyed from hence to
Paris, and other places, by means of the Loire, and
the canal which takes its name from the city. Some
of the trading people are very rich. The canal begins
about two miles above the city; is near 18 leagues in
length; and terminates on the Loing, which falls into
the Seine. To the north of. the city is a foreft, the
larged in the whole kingdom, belonging to the duke
of Orleans; to whom the timber felled in it brings in,
one year with another, about 100,000 livres. Ever
fince the year 1344, this city has been a dukedom and
peerage, and ufually an appennage of fome prince of
the blood. Lewis XIV. gave it to his brother Philip;
who begun and finiihed the canal, in whofe family it
Hill continues. The duties paid by veffels going up
and down the canal, amount, in fome years, to 150,000
livres. The bifliop of this city is fuffragan to the arch-
bifhop of Paris, and has a revenue of 24,000 livres,
otft of which his tax to Rome is 2000 florins. It is
faid, a new bifliop, on the firft; day of his entering the
city, has the privilege to releafe all the prifoners in it,
except thofe committed for treafon. On the eighth of
May, 1429, Orleans, then clofely befieged by the
Englifti, was relieved by Joan of Arc, commonly call¬
ed the Maid of Orleans ; and the anniverfary of that
deliverance is ftill kept here. To perpetuate the me¬
mory of it, a monument of brafs was ere£led on the
bridge, which is ftill in being.
ORLOPE, in the fea language, the uppermoft fpace
or deck in a great ftfip, reaching from the main to
the mizen-maft. In three-deck flfips, the fecond and
lowed decks are fometimes called orlopes.
ORMOND, the northern divifion of the county of
Tipperary, in the province of Munfter in Ireland. For
a long time it gave the title of earl, and afterwards of
marquis and duke, to the noble family of Butler, de-
feended from a filler of Thomas a Becket archbifliop
of Canterbury 5, till, at the acceffion of George I. the
OKNITHOIiOGY.
Tlate CCXXXl-
O R M [ 5755 ] O R N
Ormus. taft; duke was attainted of high treafon, and died abroad.
In that part of the country the family had great pre¬
rogatives and privileges granted by Edward III.
ORMUS, an ifland of Alia, about two leagues from
the main land, almoft at the mouth of the Perfian
gulph. It is about fix leagues in circuit; but is quite
barren, and has not a drop of frefh water. They catch
excellent oyfters about the ifland; and it yields plenty
of fine white fait; alfo a kind of ftiining black fand,
which is ufed for dulling writings, and is tranfported
in confiderable quantity to Europe. This ifland was
for fome time in poffeffion of the Portuguefe, when
there was a very rich and populous town upon it,
where all the trade of the Indies was managed; but
that has long been in ruins, and there is now nothing
inhabited but the fort.
ORNITHOGALLUM, Star of Bethlehem;
a genus of the monogynia order, belogning to the hex-
andria clafs of plants. There are feven fpecies; all of
them herbaceous perennials, rifing from fix inches to
three feet high, having ftalks terminated with long
fpikes of hexapetalous, ftar-lhaped, white and yellow-
flowers. Six of the fpecies are very hardy, and will
profper in any fituation; but one, named the capenfet
a native of the Cape of Good Hope, requires the affiit-
ance of artificial warmth to preferve it in this country.
They are all eafily propagated by off-fets from the
roots. The bulbous roots of all the fpecies are nutri¬
tious and wholefome.
ORNITHOLOGY.
Ornithology is a fcience which treats of birds;
defcribes their form, external and internal; and
teaches their ceconomy and their ufes. See Bird.
A bird is an animal covered with feathers; furnilh-
ed with a bill; having two wings, and only two legs;
with the faculty, except in a very few initances, of re¬
moving itfelf from place to place through the air.—
But before proceeding to analife the charadleriftic
parts of birds, it will be proper to premife an expla¬
nation of the terms ufed by naturalifts in deferibing
them.
EXPLANATION
nithology ufed by
T,S-r r
1. Cere. Cera
2. Capijlrum
3. Lorujn
4. Orbits. Orlita
5. Emarginatum
6. Vibrijpe
7. Bajiard 'wing
Alula fpuria
of fome Technical Terms in Or-
Pennant and Linnaeus.
The naked flein that covers
the bafe of the bill in the hawk
kind.
A word ufed by Linnseus to
exprefs the fliort feathers on the
forehead juft above the bill. In
crows thefe fall forwards over
the noftrils.
The fpace between the bill
and the eye, generally covered
with feathers ; but in fome birds
naked, as in the black and white
grebe.*
The fkin that furrounds the
eye, which is generally bare;
particularly in the heron and
parrot.
A bill is called rojlrum emar¬
ginatum when there is a fmall
notch near the end: thisiscon-
fpicuous in that of butcher-birds
and thrufhes.
VibriJJie peflinatce, ft iff hairs
that growon each fide the mouth,
formed like a double comb, to
be feen in the goatfucker, fly¬
catcher, &c.
A fmall joint rifing at the
end of the middle part of the
wing, or the cubitus y on which
are three or five feathers.
8. Lejfer coverts of the The fmall feathers that lie in
'wings feveral rows on the bones of the
Ted rices primes wings. The under coverts are
thofe that line the infide of the
wings.
9. Greater coverts The feathers that lie imme-
Tedrices fecund# diately over the quill-feathers
and fecondary feathers.
10. Quill-feathers The largeft feathers of the
Primores wings, or thofe that rife from
the firft bone.
11. Secondary feathers Thofe that rife from the fe-
Secondarix cond.
12. Coverts of the tail Thofe that cover the bafe of
Uropygium the tail.
13. Vent-feathers Thofe that lie from the vent
to the tail. Crijfum Linnai.
14. The tail. Re dr ices
15. Scapularfeathers That rife from the fhoulders,.
and cover the fides of the back.
t6. Nucha The hind part of the head.
17. Rofrum fubulatum A term Linmeus ufes for a
ftraight and flender bill.
18. To (hew the ftru&ure of the
feet of the kingfifher.
19. Pes fcanforius The foot of the woodpecker
formed for climbing. Climbing
feet.
20. Finned foot. Pes Such as thofe of the grebes,.
lobatusi pinnatus &c. Such as are indented, as-
fig. 21. are called fcalloped, fuch
• are thofe of coots and fcallop-
toed fandpipers.
22. Pes tridadylus Such as want the back toe.
23. Semi-palmated. Pes When the webs only reach-
femi-paltnatus half way of the toes.
24. Ungue pofiico fefili When the hind-claw adheres
to the leg without any toe, as in
the petrels.
25. Digitis 4 omnibus All the four toes conne&ed
palmatis by webs, as in the coryorants.
Rojlrum cultratusn When the edges of the bill
are very fliarp, fuch as in that
of. the crow.
Utu
Otnidio-
gallum.
5756
External
Parts.
O R N I T
Unguiculatum A bill with a nail at the end,
as in thofe of the goofanders
and ducks.
Lingua ciliata When the tongue is edged
with fine bridles, as in ducks.
Integra When plain or even.
Lumbriciformis When the tongue is long,
round, and flender like a worm,
as that of the woodpecker.
Pedes compedes When the legs are placed fo
far behind as to make the bird
walk with difficulty, or as if in
fetters; as is the cafe with the
auks, grebes, and divers.
Nares Lineares When the noftrils are very
narrow; as in fea gulls.
Marginata With a rim round the noftrils,
as in the flare.
Sect. I. External parts of Birds.
A Bird may be divided into bead, body, and limbs.
H O L O G Y. Sea. I.
nal ears, having an orifice foradmiffion of found; open External
in all hut owls, whofe ears are furniftied with valves. Part5'
5. The Chin, the fpace between the parts of the
lower mandible and the neck, is generally covered with
feathers; but, in the cock and fome others, have car-
neous appendages called wattles [palearia); in others,
is naked, and furnifhed with a pouch, capable of great
dilatation (facculus),'zs in the pelican and corvorants.
6. Neck, (collum), the part that connefb the head
to the body, is longer in birds than any other animals;
and longer in fuch as have long legs than thofe that
have fhort, either for gathering up their meat from the
ground, or ftriking their prey in the water, except in
web-footed fowl, which are, by reverfing their bodies,
deftined to fearch for food at the bottom of waters, as
fwans, and the like. Birds, efpecially thofe that have
a long neck, have the power of retracing, bending, or
ffretching it out, in order to change their centre of
gravity from their legs to their wings.
, II. BOD Y.
I. HEAD.
1. Bill (rojlrum), is a hard horny fubftance, con¬
fiding of an upper and under part, extending from the
head, and anfwering to the mandibles in quadrupeds.
Its edges generally plain and (harp, like the edge of a
knife, cultrated, as are the bills of crows ; but fome-
times Jerrated, as in the toucan; or jagged, as in the
gannet and fome herons; or pollinated, as in the duck;
or denticulated, as in the merganfers ; but always de-
ftitute of real teeth immerfed in fockets.
The bafe in falcons is covered with a naked (kin or
cere (cera); in fome birds with a carneous appendage,,
as the turkey; or a callous, as the curaffo.
In birds of prey, the bill is hooked at the end, and
fit for tearing; in crows, ftraight and ftrong for pick¬
ing: In water-fowl, either long and pointed, for ftri¬
king ; or flender and blunt, for fearching in the mire;
or flat and broad, for gobbling. Its other ufes are for
building nefts ; feeding the young; climbing, as in
parrots; or, laftly, as an inftrument of defence, or of¬
fence.
, 2. Nostrils, (nares), the nice inftruments of dif-
perning their food, are placed either in the middle of
the upper mandible, or near the bafe, or at the bale,
as in parrots; or behind the bafe, as in toucans and
hornbills: but fome birds, as.the gannet, are deftitute
of noftrils. The noftrils are generally naked; but
fometimes covered with bridles refle&ed over them, -as
in crows, or hid in the feathers, as in parrots, See.
The fore-part of the head is called the front (capi-
Jlrum); the fummit (vertex), or the crown: the hind
part, with the next joint of the neck (nucha), the nape:
the fpace between the bill and the eyes, which in he¬
rons, grebes, &c. is naked, (lora), the Jlraps: the
fpace beneath the eyes (gems), the cheeks.
3. Orbits, (orbit#), the eye-lids ; in fome birds
naked, in others covered with (hort foft feathers.
Birds have no eye-brows; but the grous kind have
in lieu, a fcarlet naked (kin above, which are called fn-
percilia ; the fame word is alfo applied to any line of
a different colour that pafles from the bill over the
4. Ears.. Birds are deftitute of auricles or exter-
1. Confifts of the Back, (dorfurn); which is flat,
ftraight, and inclines; terminated by the
2. Rump, (uropygium), furniftied with two glands,
fecreting a fattilh liquor from an orifice each has, which
the birds exprefs with their bills to oil or anoint the
difeompofed parts of their feathers. Thefe glands are
particulai-ly large in moft web-footed water-fowl; but
in the grebes, which want tails, they are fmaller.
2. Breast, (pelius), is ridged and very mufcular,
defended by a forked bone, (clavicula), the merry¬
thought.
The (hort-winged birds, fuch as grous, See. have
their breafts moft fleftiy or mufcular ; as they require
greater powers in flying than the long-winged birds,
fuch as gulls, herons, which are fpecifically lighter,
and have greater extent of fail.
4. Belly, (abdomen), is covered with a ftrong (kin,
and contains the entrails.
5. The Vent, or vent-feathers, (crijfum), which lies
between the thighs and the tail. The anus lies hid in
thofe feathers.
III. LIMBS.
r. Wings, (alee), adapted for flight in all birds
except the dodo, oftriches* great auk, and the pin-
guins, whofe wings are too (hort for the ufe of flying;
but in the dodo and oftrich, when extended, ferve to
accelerate their motion in running; and in the pinguins
perform the dffice of fins, in fwimming or diving.
The wings have near their end an appendage cover¬
ed with four or five feathers called the bajlard wing,
(ala notba), and ahda fpuria.
The lefler coverts (tellrices), are the feathers which
lie on the bones of the wings.
The greater coverts are thofe which lie beneath the
former, and cover the quill-feathers and the feconda-
ries.
The quill-feathers (primores), fpring from the firft
bones (digit's and metacarpi) of the wings, and are 10
in number.
Qiiill-feathers are broader on their inner than exte¬
rior (ides.
The fecondaries (fecondari#), are thofe that rife
from the fecond part (cubitus), and are about 18 in
number.
Sea. I. ORNITHOLOGY. 5757
{Extcmal number, are equally broad on both fides. The primary
: Parts. 8ncj fec0ndary v.ing-feathers are called retniges.
A tuft of feathers placed beyond the fecondaries
near the junftion of the wings with the body. This,
in water-fowl, is generally longer than the fecondaries,
and cuneiform.
The fcapulars are a tuft of long feathers arifing near
the junftion of the wings (brachia) with the body,
and lie along the fides of the back, but may be eafily
diftinguilhed, and raifed with one's finger.
The inner coverts are thofe that clothe the under
fide of the wing.
The fubaxillary are peculiar to the greater Paradife.
The wings of fome birds are inftruments of offence.
The anhima of Marcgrave has two ftrong fpines in the
front of each wing. A fpecies of plover, Edw. tab. 47.
and 280. has a Angle one on each; the whole tribe of
jacana, and the gambo, or fpur-winged goofe of Mr
Willoughby, the fame.
2. The Tail is the direftor, or rudder, of birds in
their flight; they rife, fink, or turn by its means; for,
when the head points one way, the tail inclines to the
other fide: it is, befides, an equilibrium or counter-
poife to the other parts; the ule is very evident in the
kite and fwallows.
The tail confifts of ftrong feathers [reftrices), 10
in number, as in the woodpeckers, &c.; 12 in the
hawk tribe, and many others; in the gallinaceous, the
merganfers, and the duck kind, of more.
It is either even at the end, as in moft birds; or fork¬
ed, as in fwallows; orcuneated, as in magpies, See.; or
rounded, as in the purple jackdaw of Catefby. The
grebe is deftitute of a tail, the rump being covered
with down ; and that of the cafibwary with the fea¬
thers of the back.
Immediately over the tail, are certain feathers that
fpring from the lower part of the back, and are called
the coverts of the tail, (uropygiam).
3. Thighs, (feviora), are covered entirely with
feathers in all land-birds, except the buftards and the
oftriches; the lower part of thofe of all waders, or
cloven-footed water-fowl, are naked; that of all web¬
bed-footed fowl the fame, but in a lefs degree; in ra¬
pacious birds, are very mufcular.
4. Legs, (crura) ; thofe of rapacious fowls very
ftrong, furnifhed with large tendons, and fitted for
tearing and a firm gripe. The legs of fome of this
genus are covered with feathers down to the toes, fuch
as the golden eagle; others to the very nails; but thofe
of moft other birds are covered with feales, or with a
fkin divided into fegments, or continuous. In fome of
the pies, and in all the pafferine tribe, the fkin is thin
and membranous; in thofe of web-footed water-fow],
flrong.
The legs of moft birds are placed near the centre of
gravity: in land-birds, or in waders that want the back
toe, exa&ly fo; for they want that appendage to keep
them ereiff. Auks, grebes, divers, and pinguins, have
their legs placed quite behind, fo are necefiitated to
fit ereft: their pace is aukward and difficult, walking
like men in fetters : hence Linnaeus ftyles their feet
pedes compedes.
The legs of all cloven-footed water-fowl are long,
as they muft wade in fearch of food: of the palmated,
fhort, except thofe of the flamingo, the avofet, and the
Courier. External
5. Feet, (pedes), in all land-birds that perch, have Part?‘
a large back toe: moft of them have three toes forward,
and one backward. Woodpeckers, parrots, and other
birds that climb much, have two forward, two back¬
ward; but parrots have the power of bringing one of
their hind toes forward while they are feeding them-
felves. Owls have alfo the power of turning one of
their fore toes backward. All the toes of thefwift
turn forwards, which is peculiar among land-birds:
the trida&ylous woodpecker is alfo anomalous, having
only two toes forward, one backward : the oftrich is
another, having but two toes.
6. Toes, (digiti). The toes of all waders are divi¬
ded; but, between the exterior and middle toe, is ge¬
nerally a fmall web, reaching as far as the firft joint.
The toes of birds that fwim are either plain, as in
the fingle inftance of the common water-hen or galli-
nule; or pinnated, as in the coots and grebes; or en¬
tirely webbed or palmated, as in all other fwimmers.
All the plover tribe, or charadrii, want the back-
toe. In the fwimmers, the fame want prevails among
the albatrofles and auks. No water-fowl perch, ex¬
cept certain herons, the corvorant, and the fliag.
7. Claws, (ungues). Rapacious birds have very
ftrong, hooked, and (harp claws, vultures excepted.
Thofe of all land-birds that rooft on trees have alfo
hooked claws, to enable them to perch in fafety while
afleep.
The gallinaceous tribe have broad concave claws for
feraping up the ground.
Grebes have flat nails like the human.
Among water-fowl, only the fkua, Br. ZocL 11.
p. 417. 3d edit. n° 234, and the black-toed gull, Br.
Zool. II. p.419, 3d edit. n° 435, have ftrong hook¬
ed or aquiline claws. All land-birds perch on trees,
except the ftruthious and fome of the gallinaceous tribes.
Parrots climb ; woodpeckers creep up the bodies and
boughs of trees; fwallows cling.
All water-fowl reft on the ground, except certain
herons, and one fpecies of ibis, the fpoonbill, one or
two fpecies of ducks and of corvorants.
IV. FEATHERS.
Feathers are defigned for two ufes; as coverings
from the inclemency of the weather, and inftruments
of motion through the air. They are placed in fuch
a manner as to fall over one another, (tegulatwi), fo as
to permit the wet to run off, and to exclude the cold;
and thofe on the body are placed in a quincuncial form;
moft apparent in the thick-fkinned water-fowl, parti¬
cularly in the divers.
The parts of a feather are, the (hafts; corneous,
ftrong, light, rounded, and hollow at the lower part;
at the upper, convex above, concave beneath, and
chiefly compofed of a pith.
2. On each fide the (hafts are the vanes, broad on
one fide, narrow on the other ; each vane confifts of
a multitude of thin laminae, ftiff, and of the nature of
a fplit quill. Thefe lamina are clofely braced toge¬
ther by the elegant contrivance of a multitude of fmall
bridles; thofe on one fide hooked, the other ftraight,
which lock into each oilier, and keep the vanes fmooth,
compadl, and ftrong.
The vanes near the bottom of the (hafts are foft, un-
conneded,
5758 ORNITHOLOGY. Sed. III.
Flight, conne&ed, and downy.
3. Feathers are of three kinds. (1.) Such as compofe
inftruments of flight: as the pen-feathers, or thofe
which form the wings and tail, and have a large lhaft.
The vanes of the exterior fide bending downward, of
the interior upwards, lying clofe on each other, fo
that, when fpread, not a feather mifles its impulfe on
the air. The component parts of thefe feathers are
defcribed before.
(2.) The feathers that cover the body, which may be
properly called the plumage, have little lhaft, and much
vane; and never are exerted or relaxed, ilnlefs in an¬
ger, fright, or illnefs.
(3.) The Down, [pluma), which is difperfed over
the whole body amidlt the plumage, is Ihort, foft, un-
connefted, confifts of lanuginous vanes, and is intend¬
ed for excluding that air or water which may penetrate
or efcape through the former. This is particularly ap¬
parent in aquatic birds, and remarkably fo in the an-
ferine tribe. There are exceptions to the forms of
feathers. The vanes of the fubaxillary feathers of the
Paradife are unconne&ed, and the laminae dillant,
looking like herring-bone. Thofe of the tail of the
oftrich, and head of a fpecies of curaflb, curled. Thofe
of the caflbwary confift of two lhafts, arifing from a
common Item at the bottom : as do, at the approach
of winter, (after moulting), thofe of the ptarmigans
of ar&ic countries. The feathers of the pinguins, par¬
ticularly thofe of the wings, confift chiefly of thin flat
drafts, and more refemble fcales than feathers ; thofe
of the tail, like fplit whale-bone.
Sect. II. Flight of Birds.
The flight of birds is various; for, had all the fame;
, none could elude that of rapacious birds. Thofe which
are much on wing, or flit from place to place, often
owe their prefervation to that caufe : thofe in the wa¬
ter, to diving.
Kites, and many of the falcon tribe, glide fmoothly
through the air, with fcarce any apparent motion of
the wings.
Moft of the order of pies fly quick, with a frequent
repetition of the motion of the wings. The Paradife
floats on the air. Woodpeckers fly aukwardly, and by
jerks, and have a propenfity to fink in their progrefs.
The gallinaceous tribe, in general, fly very ftrong
and fwiftly ; but their courfe is feldom long, by reafon
of the weight of their bodies.
The columbine race is of Angular fwiftnefs; witnefs
the flight of the Carrier-P^-cow.
The paflerine fly with a quick repetition of ftrokes;
their flight, except in migration, is feldom diftant.
Among them, the fwallow tribe is remarkably agile,
their evolutions fudden, and their continuance on wing
long.
Nature hath denied flight to the ftruthious; but
flill, in running, their fhort wings are of pfe, when
eredf, to colled the wind, and like fails to accelerate
their motion.
Many of the greater cloven-footed water-fowl, or
waders, have a flow and flagging flight; but moft of
the lefler fly fwiftly, and moft of them with extended
legs, to compenfate the fhortnefs of their tails. Rails
and gallinules, fly with their legs hanging down.
Coots and grebes, with difficulty are forced from Nuptials.'
the water; but when they rife, fly fwifty. Grebes, and 1
alfo divers, fly with their hind parts downwards, by
reafon of the forwardnefs of their wings.
Web-footed fowl are various in their flight. Several
have a failing or flagging wing, fuch as gulls. Pin¬
guins, and a Angle auk, are denied the power of flight.
Wild geefe, in their migrations, do not fly pell-mell,
but in a regular figure, in order to cut the air with
greater cafe; for example, in long lines, in the figure
of a > , or fome pointed form or letter, as the ancients
report that the cranes affumed in their annual migra¬
tions, till their order was broken by ftorms.
Strymona fic gclidum, bruma pellente, relinquunt.
Pot nr it tc, Nile, Grubs, primoque volatu
Effingunt varias, cafu monjirante, figuras.
Mox ubi percujfit tenfas Not us altior alas,
Confafos temcre immijhc ghmerantur in orbcs, * TAA«
Et iurbata peril djpcrfts litera * pennis.
Lucan-, lib. v. /. 711.
Sect. III. Of the Nuptials, Nidification, and
Eggs of Birds.
1. Most birds are monogamous, or pair; in fpring
fixing on a mate, and keeping conftant till the cares
of incubation and educating the young brood is paft.
This is the cafe, as far as we know, with all the birds
of the firft, fecond, fourth, and fifth orders.
Birds that lofe their mates early, aflbeiate with others;
and birds that lofe their firft eggs will pair and lay
again. The male, as well as the female, of feveral, join
alternately in the trouble of incubation, and always in
that of nutrition; when the young are hatched, both
are bufied in looking out for and bringing food to the
neftlings; and, at that period the mates of the melo¬
dious tribes, who, before, were perched on fome fprig,
and by their warbling alleviated the care of the females
confined to the neft, now join in the common duty.
Of the gallinaceous tribe, the greateft part are po¬
lygamous, at leaft in a tame ftate; the pheafant, many
of the grous, the partridges, and buftards, are mono-
amous; of the grous, the cock of the wood, and the
lack game, afiemble the females during the feafon of
love, by their cries,
Et venerem incnlam rapiunt.
The males of polygamous birds negleft their young;
and, in fome cafes, would deftroy them, if they met
with them. The ceconomy of the ftruthious order, in
this refpeeft, is obfeure. It is probable that the three
fpecies in the genus oftrich are polygamous, like the
common poultry, for they lay many eggs; the dodo is
faid to lay but one.
All waders or cloven-footed fowl are monogamous;
and all with pinnated feet, are alfo monogamous, ex¬
cept the ruffs.
The fwimmers or web-footed fowl obferve the fame
order, as far as can be remarked with any certainty ;
but many of the auks affemble in the rocks in fuch
numbers, and each individual fo contiguous, that it is
not poffible to determine their method in this article.
It may be remarked, that the affeftion of birds to
their young is very violent during the whole time of
nutrition, or as long as they continue in a hclplefs ftate ;
but, fo foon as the brood can fly and fhift for itfeif,
the parents negleft, and even drive it from their haunts,
the
Sea. III. ORNITHOLOGY. 5759
Nidification the affeflion ceafing with the neceffity of it: but, du-
•  ring that period,
The mothers nurfe it, and the fires defend.
The young difmifs’d, to wander earth, or air,
There flops the inftinft, and there ends the care:
The link difTblves; each feeks a frefh embrace;
Another love fucceeds, another race.
2. The Nest of a bird is one of thofe daily miracles
that from its familiarity is paffed over without regard.
We flare with wonder at things that rarely happen,
and negleft the daily operations of nature that ought
firft to excite our admiration and claim our attention.
Each bird, after nuptials, prepares a place fuited to
its fpecies, for the depofiting its eggs and (heltering
its little brood : different genera, and different fpecies,
fet about the tafk in a manner fuitable to their feveral
natures; yet, every individual of the fame fpecies col-
le&s the very fame materials, puts them together in
the fame form, and choofes the fame fort of fituation
for placing this temporary habitation. The young bird
of the laft year, which never faw the building of a neft,
direfted by a heaven-taught fagacity, purfues the fame
plan in the ftruclure of it, and felefts the fame mate¬
rials as its parent did before. Birds of the fame fpe¬
cies, of different and remote countries, do the fame.
The fwallows of Britain, and of the remoter parts of
Germany, obferve the fame order of archite&ure.
The nefts of the larger rapacious birds are rude,
made of flicks and bents, but often lined with fome-
thing foft; they generally build in high rocks, ruined
towers, and in defolate places: enemies to the whole
feathered creation, they feem confcious of attacks, and
feek folitude. A few build upon the ground.
Shrikes, the leaft of rapacious birds, build their nefts
in bufties, with mofs, wool, &c.
The order of pies is very irregular in the ftrudture
of their neftS. Parrots, and in fad all birds with two
toes forward and two backward, lay their eggs in the
hollows of trees. And moft of this order creep along
the bodies of trees, and lodge their eggs alfo within
them.
Crows build in trees: among them, the neft of the
magpie, compofed of rude materials, is made with much
art, quite covered with thorns, and only a hole left for
admittance.
The nefts of the orioles are contrived with wonder¬
ful fagacity, and are hung at the end of fome bough,
or between the forks of extreme branches. In Eu¬
rope, only three birds have penfile nefts; the common
oriola, the parus pendulinus, or hang-neft titmoufe,
and one more. But in the torrid zones, where the
birds fear the fearch of the gliding ferpent and inqui-
fitive monkey, the inftances are very frequent; a mar¬
vellous inftinft implanted in them for the prefervation
of their young.
All of the gallinaceous and ftruthius orders lay their
eggs on the ground. The oftrich is the only excep¬
tion, among birds, of the want of natural affe&ion :
“ Which leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth
them in the duft, and forgetteth that the foot may
crufh them, or the wild beaft may break them.”
The columbine race makes a moft artlefs neft, a few
flicks laid acrofs may fuffice.
Moft of the pafferine order build their nefts in
fhrubs or bufties, and fome in holes of walls or banks.
Vol. VIII. 2
Several in the Torrid Zone are penfile from the Eggs,
boughs of high trees; that of the taylor-bird, a won-
drous inftancef. Some of this order, fuch as larks, f See Mo-
and the goatfucker, on the ground. Some fwallows ToAC ILL**
make a curious plafter-neft beneath the roofs ofn 5’
houfes ; and an Indian fpecies, one of a certain gluti¬
nous matter, which are colle&ed as delicate ingre¬
dients for foups of Chinefe epicures. See the article
Birds-AV/?/.
Moft of the cloven-footed water-fowl, or waders,
lay upon the ground. Spoonbills and the common
heron build in trees, and make up large nefts with
flicks, &c. Storks build on churches, or the tops of
houfes.
Coots make a great neft near the water-fide.
Grebes, in the water, a floating neft, perhaps ad¬
hering to fome neighbouring reeds.
Web-footed fowl breed on the ground, as the avo-
fet, terns, fome of the gulls, merganfers, and ducks:
the laft pull the down from their breafts, to make
a fofter and warmer bed for their young. Auks
and guillemots lay their eggs on the naked (helves of
high rocks ; pinguins, in holes under ground : among
the pelicans, that which gives name to the genus,
makes its neft in the defart, on the ground. Shags,
fometimes on trees ; corvorants and gannets, on high
rocks, with flicks, dried algse, and other courfe ma¬
terials.
3. Rapacious birds, in general, lay few Eggs; eagles,
and the larger kinds, fewer than the Itfler. The eggs
of faleons and owls are rounder than thofe of moft
other birds ; they lay more than fix.
The order of pies vary greatly in the number of
their eggs.
Parrots lay only two or three white eggs.
Crows lay fix eggs, greenifti, mottled with dulky.
Cuckoos, as far as we can learn, two.
Woodpeckers, wryneck, and kingsfifher, lay eggs
of a clear white and femi-tranfparent colour. The
woodpeckers lay fix, the others more.
The nuthatch lays often in the year,eight at a time,
white, fpotted with brown.
The hoopoe lays but two cinerous eggs.
The creeper lays a great number of eggs.
The honeyfucker, the leaft and moft defencelefs of
birds, lays but two : but Providence wifely prevents
the extintftion of the genus, by a fwiftnefs of flight
that eludes every purfuit.
The gallinaceous order, the moft ufeful of any to
mankind, lay the moft eggs, from 8 to 20. Benigtia
circa hoc natura, innocua et efculenta aninialia fa-
cundageneravit, is a fine obfervation of Pliny. With
exception to the buftard, a bird that hangs be¬
tween the gallinaceous and the waders, which lays
only two.
The columbine order lays but two white eggs; but
the domeftic kind, breeding almoft every month, fup-
ports the remark of the Roman naturalift.
All of the pafferine order lay from four to fix
eggs ; except the titmice and the wren, which lay
15 or 18, and the goatfucker, which lays only two.
The ftruthious order, which confifts but of two
genera, difagree much in the number of eggs : the
oftrich laying many, as far as 50 j the dodo, but
one,
32 N
The
576°
Syftem.
ORNITHOLOGY.
Sea. IV.
The cloven-footed water-fowl, or waders, lay, in
general, four eggs: The crane and the Norfolk plo¬
ver, feldom more than two. All thofe of the fnipe and
plover genus are of a dirty white, or olive fpotted
with black, and fcarce to be diftinguilhed in the holes
they lay in. The bird called the Land Rail, (an am¬
biguous fpecies,) lays from 15 to 20. Of birds with
pinnated feet, the coot lays feven or eight eggs, and
fometimes more. Grebes, from four to eight, and
thofe white.
The web-footed, or fwimmers, differ in the number
of their eggs. Thofe which border on the order of
waders, lay few eggs ; the avofet, two ; the flamin¬
go, three; the albatrofs, the auks, and guillemots,
lay only one egg a-piece : the eggs of the two laft
are of a fize ftrangely large in proportion to the bulk
of the birds. They are commonly of a pale green
colour, fpotted, and ftriped fo varioufly, that not two
are alike ; which gives every individual the means of
diftinguifliing its own on the naked rock, where fuch
multitudes aflemble.
Divers, only two.
Terns and gulls lay about three eggs, of a dirty
olive, fpotted with black.
Ducks lay from eight to twenty eggs; the eggs of
all the genus~are of a pale green, or white, and un-
fpotted.
Pinguins probably lay but one egg.
Of the pejican genus,'the gannet lays but one egg;
the (hags or corvorants, fix or feven, all white ; the
laft, the mod oblong of eggs.
A minute account of the eggs of birds might occupy
a treatife of itfelf. This is only meant to (hew the great
conformity natures obferves in the fhape and colours of
the eggs of congenerous birds; and alfo, that {he keeps
the fame uniformity of colour in the eggs, as in the
plumage of the birds they belong to.
Zinanni publifhed, at Venice, in 1737, a treatife
on eggs, iiluftrated with accurate figures of 106
eggs. Mr Reyger of Dantzick publiftied in 1766,
a pofthumous work by Klein, with 21 plates, ele¬
gantly coloured: but much remains for future wri¬
ters.
Sect. IV. Syjlem.
Considering the many fyftems that have been
offered to the public of late years, Mr Pennant gives
the preference to that compofed by Mr Ray in 1667,
and afterwards publiftied in 1678 ; but obferves, at
the fame time, that it would be unfair to conceal the
writer, from whom our great countryman took the
original hint of forming that fyftem which has proved
the foundation of all that has been compofed fince
that period.
It was a Frenchman, Belon of Mans, wfio firft at¬
tempted to range birds according to their natures; and
performed great matters, confidering the unenlightened
age he lived in ; for his book was publiftied in 1555.
His arrangment of rapacious birds is as judicious as
that of the lateft writers. For his fehond chapter treats
of vultures, falcons, ftirikes, and owls : in the two
next, he paffes over to the web footed water-fowl, and
to the cloven-footed : in the fifth, he includes the
gallinaceous and ftruthious; but mixes with thefn the
plovers, buntings, and larks : in the fixth are the pies, Syftem.
pigeons, and thrufties ; and the feventh takes in the “
reft of.the pafferine order.
Notwithftaning the great defe&s that every natu-
ralift will at once fee in the arrangement of the leffer
birds of this writer, yet he will obferve a reditude of
intention in general, and a fine notion of fyftem,
which was left to the following age to mature and
bring to perfeftion. Accordingly, Mr Ray, and his
illuftrious pupil the Hon. Francis Willughby, affumed
the plan; but, with great judgment, flung into their
proper .Rations and proper genera thofe which Belon
had confufedly mixed together. They formed the .
great divifion of terreftrial and aquatic birds; they
made every fpecies occupy their proper place, con-
fulting at once exterior form and natural habit. They
could not bear the affedted intervention of aquatic
birds in the midft of terreftrial birds. They placed
the laft by themfelves; clear and diftinft from thofe
whofe haunts and ceconomy were fo different.
The fubjoined fcheme of arrangement by Mr Pen¬
nant, is introduced with the following obfervations.
“ Mr 'Ray’s general plan is fo judicious, that to me Pennant’s
it feems fcarce poffible to make any change in it for Genera of
the better: yet, notwithftanding he was in a manner
the founder of fyftematic Zoology, later difcoveries
have made a few improvements on his labours. My
Candid friend Linnaeus will not take it amifs, that I,
in par^, negledt his example : for I premit the land-
fowl to follow one another, undivided by the water-
fowl, the grallas and anferes'of his fyftem*; but, in * See
my generical arrangement, I, mod punAually attend Zj<i
to the order he has given in his feveral divifions, ex¬
cept in thofe of his anferes, and a few of his grallae.
For, after the manner of Mr Briffon, I make a diftincl
order of water-fowl with pinnated feet, placing them
between the waders or cloven-footed water-fowl and
the web-footed. The oftrich, and land-birds with
wingS ufelcfs for flight, I place as a diftinft order.
The trumpeter (pfophia Linnxi), and the buftards, I
place at the end of the gallinaceous tribe. All are
land-birds. The firft multiparous, like the generality
of the gallinaceous tribe; the laft granivorous, fwift
runners, avoiders of wet-places; and both have bills
fomewhat arched. It muft be confeffed; that both
have legs naked above the knees; and the laft, like
the waders, lay but few eggs. They feem ambiguous
birds that have affinity with each order; and it is
hoped, th^t' each naturalift may be indulged the
toleration of placing them as fuits his own opinion.”
TABLE of Pennant's Arrangement, with the cor-
refpondent ORDERS and GENERA in the Sys-
tema Nature of Linnaus.
Division
Divif. I.
I. LAND-BIRDS. Div. II. WATER-FOWL.
Order I. Rapacious. Accipitres Linnaiu
II. Pies. Pica;.
III. Gallinaceous. Gallinee
IV. Columbine. PaJJeres.
V. Pafferine. PaJ'cres.
VI. S.rulhious.
Order
Sea. IV. ' O R N I T
Order VII. Cloven-footed 7 ^ „
or Waders J G"U*-
W’fi.
H O L O G Y.
57®1
VIII. Pinnated feet.
IX. Web-footed.
D I V. I.
i Grailj;.
*C Anferes.
\ Grail#*
Ord. I. RAPACIOUS.
Vuhur 3 Owl Sir
Falco 4 Shrike Lai,
Ord II. PIE S.
6 Toucan
7 Motmot
8 Hornbill
9 licefeater
lo Ani
n Crow
12 Roller
13 Oriole
14 Grakle
15 Paradife
id Curucui
Pfiltacus
Ramphajtos
Ramphaftos
Buceros
Bupbaga
Crotophaga
Corvus
Coraciat
Qriolus
Gracula
Paradiftea
Trogon
Bucco
Cuculus
Jr
17 Barbel
18 Cuckoo
19 Wryneck
ao Woodpecker Picus
2i Jacamar Alcedo
11 Kingsfilher Alcedo
13 Nuthatch Sitta
24 Tody Todus
is Bee-eater Merops
ad Hoopoe Vpupa
a? Creeper Certoia
a8 Honeyfucker Trocbilus
Ord. III. GALLINACEOUS.
29 Cock Phafianut 34 Pheafant Phajlams
30 Turkey Meleagris 33 Grous Tetrao
31 Pintado Numida 3d Partridge Tetrao
32 Curallb Crax 37 Trumpeter Pfopbia
33 Peacock Pavo 38 Bullard Otis
Ord. IV. COLUMBINE.
39 Pigeon Columba
Ord. V. PASSERINE.
40 Stare Sturms 41 Thrufh Tardus
42 Chatterer Ampelis 43 Coly _ Loxia Arrange-
44 Grofbeak Loxia j© Wagtail Motacilla ment.
43 Bunting Emberiza 31 Warblers Molacilla ' “■
46 Tanager Tanagra 51 Manakin Pipra
47 Finch Fringilla 33 Titmoufe Paras
48 Flvcatcher Mufcicapa J4 Swallow Hirundo
49 Lark Alauda 35 Goatfucker Caprimulgus
Ord. VI. STRUTHIOUS.
3d Dodo Didus 57 Oftrich Strut bio
D I V. II.
Ord. VII. CLOVEN-FOOTED, or WADERS'
38 Spoonbill- Platalea 66 Snipe Scolopax
59 Screamer Palamedea d7 Sandpiper Tringa
do Jabiru Myfteria 68 Plover Charadrius
61 Boatbill Cancroma dpOydercatcher Hxmaloptts
61 Heron Ardea 70 Jacana Parra
ds Umbre Sco/w Briss. 71 Pratincole Hirundo
64. Ibis Tantalus 1% Rail Rallies
6s Curlew Scolopax 73 Gallinule Fulica.
Ord. VIII. PINNATED-FEET.
74 Phalarope Tringa yd Grebe Colymbui
7 5 Coot Fulica
Ord. IX. WEB-FOOTED.
77 Avofet Recurviroftra 86 Gull Laras
78 Courier Currira Briss. 87 Petrel Procellaria
79 Flammant Pbcenicopterus 88 Merganfer Mergus
80 Albatrofs Diomedea 89 Duck Anas
81 Auk Aka p. . f Diomedea
82 Guillemot Colymbus > b ^ Phaeton
83 Diver Colymbus 91 Pelecan Pelecanus
84 Skimmer Rhyncops 92 Tropic Phaeton
85 Tern Sterna 93 Darter Plotus
For Linnxus's Arrangement, fee Zoology.
O R N
Ornitho- ORNITHOMANCY, a fecies of divination per-
Orobus* forrned by means of birds; being the fame with au-
10 US* £"ry- Sce Divination and Augury.
OROBUS, bitter vetch ; a genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants. There are nine fpecies. All of them have fibra¬
ted roots, which are perennial, but are annual in ftalk,
riling early in fpring and decaying in autumn. They
are very hardy plants, and profper in any common foil
of a garden. Moll of the forts are very floriferous, and
the flowers confpicuous and ornamental for adorningthe
flower compartments. The flowers are univerfally of
the papilionaceous or butterfly kind, confiding each
of four irregular petals, /. e. a flandard, two wings,
and a keel ; and are all fucceeded by long taper feed-
pods, furnilhing plenty of ripe feed in autumn; by
which the plants may be propagated abundantly, as
alfo by parting the roots.
The Scots Highlanders have a great efteem for the
tubercles of the roots of the tuberofus, or fpe¬
cies fometimes called ’wood-pea. They dry and chew
them in general to give a better relifh to their li¬
quor ; they alfo affirm that they are good againd moil
diforders of the bread, and that by the ufe of them
they are enabled to refift hunger and third for a long
time. In Breadalbane and Rofsfhire, they fometimes
bruife and deep them in water, and make an agree-
O R N
able fermented liquor with them. They have a fweet Oroonoka
tade, fomething like the roots of liquorice ; and when ||
boiled, we are told, they are nutritious and well fla- Orpheus.
voured; and in times of fcarcity, they have ferved as  
a fubditute for bread.
OROONOKO, a great river of terra firma, in
South America, which rifes in Popayan, and falls in¬
to the fea with 16 mouths.
ORPHAN, a fatherlefs child, or minor; or one
that is deprived both of father and mother.
ORPHEUS, a celebrated poet and mufician of an¬
tiquity. His reputation was edablifhed as early as
the time of the Argonautic expedition, in which he
was himfelf an adventurer ; and is faid by Apollonius
Rhodius not only to have incited the Argonauts to
row by the found of his lyre, but to have vanquifhed
and put to filence the firens by the fuperiority of his
drains. Yet, notwithdanding the great celebrity he
had fo long enjoyed, there is a paflage in Cicero,
which fays, that Aridotle, in the third book of his
Poetics, which is now lod, doubted if fuch a perfon as
Orpheus ever exijled. But as the^work of Cicero, in
which this paffage occurs, is in dialogue, it is not
eafy to difeover what was his own opinion upon the
fubjed, the words ci:ed being put into the mouth of
Caius Cotta. And Cicero, in other parts of his wri¬
tings, mentions Orpheus as a perfon of whofe ex,id-
32 N 3 ence
O R P [ 5762 ] O R P
Orpheus, ence he had no doubts. There are feveral ancient au¬
thors, among whom is Suidas, who enumerates five
perfons of the name of Orpheus> and relates fome par¬
ticulars of each. And it is very probable that it has
fared with Orpheus as with Hercules, and that wri¬
ters have attributed to one the actions of many. But,
however that may have been, we fliall not attempt to
colleft all the fables that poets and mythologifts have
invented concerning him ; they are too well known to
need infertion here. We fhall, therefore, in fpeak-
ing of him, make ufe only of fuch materials as the
belt ancient hiftorians, and the mod refpeftable wri¬
ters among the moderns, have furnilhed towards his
hiftory.
Dr Cudworth, in his Intclkttual Syjlem, after exa¬
mining and confuting the obje&ions that have been
made to the being of an Orpheus, and with his ufual
learning and abilities clearly eftablilhing his exift-
ence, proceeds, in a very ample manner, to fpeak of
the opinions and writings of our bard, whom he re¬
gards not only as the firft mufician and poet of anti¬
quity, but as a great mythoiogift, from whom the
Greeks derived the Thracian religious rites and my-
- fteries.
“ It is the opinion (fays he) of fome eminent phi-
lologers of later times, that there never was any/uch
perfon as Orpheus, except in Fairy-land ; and that
his whole hiftory was nothing but a mere romantic al¬
legory, utterly devoid of truth and reality. But there
is nothing alleged for this opinion from antiquity, ex¬
cept the one paffage of Cicero concerning Ariftotle :
who feems to have meant no more than this, that
there was no fuch poet as Orpheus, anterior to Ho¬
mer; or that the verfes vulgarly called Orphical, were
not written by Orpheus. However, if it (hould be
granted that Ariftotle had denied the exiftence of fuch
a-man, there feems to be no reafon why his Angle te-
ftimony fhould preponderate againft the univerfal con-
fent of all antiquity : which agrees, that Orpheus was
the fon of Oeager, by birth a Thracian, the father
or chief founder of the mythological and allegorical
theology amongft the Greeks, and of all their moft
facred religious rites and myfteries ; who is common¬
ly fuppofed to have lived before the Trojan war, that
is, in the time of the Ifraelitifli judges, or at lead to
have been fenior both to Hefiod and Homer ; and to
have died a violent death, moft affirming that he was
torn in pieces by women. For which reafon, in the
vifion of Herus Pamphylius, in Plato, Orpheus’s foul
palling into another body, is faid to have chofen that
of a fwan, a reputed mufical animal, on account of the
great hatred he had conceived for all women, from the
death which they had infli&ed on him. And the hi-
ftoric truth of Orpheus was not only acknowledged
by Plato, but alfo by Ifocrates, who lived before A-
riftotle, in his oration in praife of Bufiris; and con¬
firmed by the grave hiftorian Diodorus Siculus, who
fays, that Orpheus diligently applied himfelf to litera¬
ture, and when he had learned or the
mythological part of theology, he travelled into E-
gypt, where he loon became the greateft proficient
among the Greeks in the myfteries of religion, theolo¬
gy, and poetry. Neither was his hiftory of Orpheus
contradi&ed by Origen, when fo juftly provoked by
Celfus, who had preferred him to our Saviour 5 and,
according to Suidas, Orpheus the Thracian was the Orpheus,
firft inventor of the religious myfteries of the Greeks, u
and that religion was thence called Threjkeia, as it was
a Thracian invention. On account of the great anti¬
quity of Orpheus, there have been numberlefs fables
intermingled with his hiftory, yet there appears no
rcafon that we ffiould difbelieve the exiftence of fuch a
man.”
The biffiop of Gloucefter fpeaks no more doubtful¬
ly of the exiftence of Orpheus, than of Homer and
Hefiod, with whom he ranks him, not only as a
poet, but alfo as a theologian, and founder of reli¬
gion.
The family of Orpheus is traced by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton for feveral generations : “ Sefac palling over the
Hellefpont, conquers Thrace ; kills Lycurgus, king
of that country ; and gives his kingdom and one of
his finging-women to Oeagrus,the fon of Tharops, and
father of Orpheus; hence Orpheus is faid to have had
the mufe Calliope for his mother.”
He is allowed by moft ancient lauthors to have ex¬
celled in poetry and mufic, particularly the latter; and
to have early cultivated the lyre, in preference to every
other inftrument: fo that all thofe who came after
him were contented to be his imitators; whereas he
adopted no model, fays Plutarch; for before his time
no other mufic was known, except a few airs for the
flute. Mufic was fo clofely conneded in ancient times Burnet's
with the moft fublime fciences, that Orpheus united it Hi/?- of
not only with philofophy, but with theology. He ab- Mujic,
ftained from eating animal food; and held eggs in ab- P-
horrence as aliment, being perfuaded that the egg
fubfifted before the chicken, and was the principle of
all exiftence: both his knowledge and prejudices, it is
probable, were acquired in Egypt, as well as thofe of
Pythagoras many ages after.
With refpeft to his abftaining from the flefli of
oxen, Gefner fuppofes it may have proceeded from
the veneration ftiewn to that animal fo ufeful in tillage,
in the Eleufinian myfteries, inftituted in honour of
Ceres, the goddefs of agriculture. He might have
added that, as thefe myfteries were inftituted in imi¬
tation of thofe eftablilhed in Egypt in honour of Ofiris
and Ifis, this abftinence from animal food was of the
the origin, and a particular compliment, to Apis. But
likeabbe Fraguier, in an ingenious diflertation upon the
Orphic Life, gives ftill more importance to the prohi¬
bition ; for as Orpheus was the legiflator and huma-
nizer of the wild and favage Thracians, who were ca-
nibals, a total abolition of eating human flefli could
only be eftablifhed by obliging his countrymen to ab-
ftain from every thing that had life.
With refpeft to theology, Diodorus Siculus tells
us, that his father Oeagrus gave him his firft inftruc-
tions in religion, Imparting to him the myfteries of
Bacchus, as they were then pradlifed in Thrace. He
became afterwards a difciple of the Idas! Daftyli in
Crete, and there acquired new ideas concerning reli¬
gious ceremonies. But nothing contributed fo much
to his fkill in theological matters, as his journey into
Egypt; where being initiated into the myfteries of I-
fis and Ofiris, or of Ceres and Bacchus, he acquired
a knowledge concerning initiations, expiations, fune¬
ral rites, and other points of religious worfhip, far fu-
perior to any on« of bis age and country. And being
much
O R P [ 5763 ] O R P
Orphcns. much connefled with the defcendants of Cadmus, the ties themfelves, whom he rendered fo far propitious to
- founder of Thebes in Beotia, he refolved, in order to his intreaties as to reftore to him Eurydice, upon con-'
honour their origin, to tranfport into Greece the dition that he would not look at her till he had quit-
whole fable of Ofiris, and apply it to the family of ted their dominions; a bleffing which he foon forfeit-
Cadmus. The credulous people eafily received this ed by a too eager and fatal curiofity.
tale, and were much flattered by the inftitution of the
Al! dangers part, at length the lovely bride
In fafety goes, with her melodious guide;
Longing the common light again to (hare,
And draw the vital breath of upper air :
He firft, and clofe behind him follow’d Ihe ;
For fuch was Proferpine’s fevere decree.
When flrong defires th’ impatient youth invade,
By little caution, and much love betray’d :
A fault which eafy pardon might receive.
Were lovers judges, or could hell forgive.
For near the confines of etherial light.
And longing for the glitnm’ring of a fight,
Th’ unwary lover caft a look behind.
Forgetful of the law, nor mailer of his mind.
Straight all his hopes exhal’d in empty fmoke;
And his long toils were forfeit for a look.
Dry den’s Virgil.
Tzetzes explains the fable of his drawing his wife
ceremonies in honour of Ofiris. Thus Orpheus, who
was held in great veneration at the Grecian Thebes, of
which he was become a citizen, admirably adapted
this fable, and render it refpeftable, not only by his
beautiful verfes, and manner of finging them, but by
the reputation he had acquired of being profoundly
/killed in all religious concerns.
At his return into Greece, according to Paufanias,
he was held in the higheft veneration by the people, as
they imagined he had difcovered the fecret of expia¬
ting crimes, purifying criminals, curing difeafes, and
appeafing the angry gods. He formed and promul¬
gated an idea of a hell, from the funeral ceremonies
of the Egyptians, which was received throughout
all Greece. He inftituted the mvfteries and worfliip . „
of Hecate among the Eginetes, and that of Ceres at Eurydice from hell, by his great ftill in medicine, with
Sparta. which he prolonged her life, or, in other words,
Juftin Martyr fays, that he introduced among the fnatched her from the grave. iEfculapins, and other
Greeks near 360 gods; Hefiod and Homer purfued phyficians, have been faid to have raifed from the
his labours, and followed the fame clue, agreeing in dfad» thofe whom they had recovered from dangerous
the like dodlrines, having all drank at the fame E- difeafes.
gyptian fountain. The bifhop of Gloucefter, in his learned, ample,
Profane authors look upon Orpheus as the inventor and admirable account of the Eleufinian myfteries,
of that fpecies of magic called evocation of the manes, fays» “ WhiIe thefe myfteries were confined to Egypt
or raifing ghofts ; and indeed the hymns which are at- ^eir native country, and while the Grecian lawgivers
tributed to him are moftly pieces of incantation, and weut thither to be initiated, as a kind of defignation
real conjuration. Upon the death of his wife Eury- to their office, the ceremony would be naturally de¬
dice, he retired to a place in Threfprotia, called Med in terms highly allegorical. This way of
Aomas, where an ancient oracle gave anfwers to fuch fpeaking was ufed by Orpheus, Bacchus, and others;
as evoked the dead. He there fancied he faw his and continued even after the myfteries were introdu-
dear Eurydice, and at his departure flattered himfelf ced into Greece, as appears by the fables of Hercules,
that (he followed him ; but upon looking behind him, Caftor, Pollux, and Thefeus’s defeent into hell; but
and not feeing her, he was fo afflidled, that he foon the allegory was fo circumftanced, as to difeover the
died of grief. truth concealed under it. So Orpheus is faid to get
There were perfons among the ancients who made t0 ^7 the P°wer of his harp :
public profeffion of conjuring up ghofts, and there Tbr'eUia fretus cithard, fidibufque canons.
were temples where the ceremony of conjuration was Virg. JEn.^d. ver. up,
to be performed. Paufanias fpeaks of that which was That is, in quality of lawgiver; the harp being the
in Tbefprotia, where Orpheus went to call up the known fymbol of his laws, by which he humanized a
ghoft of his wife Eurydice. It is this very journey, and rude and barbarous people.—Had an old poem, un-
tlie motive which put him npon it, that made it believed der the name of entitled, A defeent into
he went down into hell. Hell, been now extant, it would perhaps have fhewn
But it is not only the poets who fpeak of conjuring us, that no more was meant than Orpheus’s initia-
up fpirits; examples of it are to be found both in fa- tion”
cred and profane hiftory. Periander, the tyrant of Many ancient writers, in fpeaking of his death, re-
Corinth, vifited the Thefprotians, to confult his wife late, that the Thracian women, enraged at being
about fomething left with her in truft ; and we arc abandoned by their hufbands, who were difciples of
told by the hiftorians, that the Lacedaemonians ha- Orpheus, concealed themfelves in the woods, in order
ving ftarved Paufanias their general to death, in the to fatiate their vengeance; and, notwithftandingthey
temple of Pallas, and not being able to appeafe his poftponed the perpetration of their defign fome time
manes, which tormented them without intermiffion, thro’ fear, at length, by drinking to a degree of in-
fent for the magicians from Theflaly, who, when they toxication, they fo far fortified their courage as to put
had called up the ghofts of his enemies, fo effeflually him to death. And Plutarch aflures us, that the Thra-
put to flight the ghoft of Paufanias, that it never more cians ftigmatized their women, even in his time, for
chofeto ihew its face. the barbarity of this a&ion.
The poets have embellifhed this ftory, and given Our venerable bard is defended by the author of the
to the lyre of Orpheus, not only the power of filen- Divine Legation, from fome infinuations to his difad-
cing Cerberus, and of fufpending the torments of vantage in Diogenes Laertius. “ It is true (fays he)
Tartarus, but alfo of charming even the infernal dei- if uncertain report was to be believed, the myfteries
Orpheus.
Orpheus.
O R P [ 5464 ] O R R
were corrupted very early; for Orpheus himfelfisfaid
to have abufed them. But this was an art the de¬
bauched myftae of later times employed to varnifli their
enormities ; as the detefted pederafts of after-ages,
fcandalized the blamelefs Socrates. Befides, the ftory
is fo ill laid, that- it is detefted by the furetl records
of antiquity: for in confequence of what they fabled
of Orpheus in the myfteries, they pretended he was
torn in pieces by the women; whereas it appeared
from the infeription on his monument at Dium in
Macedonia, that he was ftruck dead with light¬
ning, the envied death of the reputed favourites of the
gods.”
This monument at Dium, confifting of a marble
urn on a pillar, was ftill to be feen in the time of Pau-
fanias. It is faid, however, that his fepulchre was
removed from Libethra, upon mount Olympus, where
Orpheus was born, and from whence it was transfer¬
red to Dium by the Macedonians, after the ruin of
Libethra by a fudden inundation which a dreadful
Ilorm had occafioned. This event is very minutely re¬
lated by Paufanias.
Viigil bellows the lirft place in his Elyfium upon
the legiflators, and thofe who brought mankind from a
fate of nature into fociety:
Magnanimi heroes, nati meliorihus annis.
At the head of thefe is Orpheus, the moll renowned
of the European law-givers, but better known under
the charafler of poet: for the firft laws being written
in meafure, to allure men to learn them, and, when
learnt, to retain them, the fable would have it, that
by the force of harmony Orpheus foftened the favage
inhabitants of Thrace:
 Threicius longa cum vejle facer Jos
Obloquitur numeris feptum-diferimna vocum :
Jamque eadem digitis, jam peBine pul fit eburno.
Mis. lib. vi. ver. 645.
The feven firings given by the poet in this paflage
to the lyre of Orpheus, is a circumftance fomewhat
hiilorical. The firft Mercurean lyre had, at moll,
but four firings. Others were afterwards added to it
by the fecond Mercury, or Amphion : but according
to feveral traditions preferved by Greek hiftorians, it
was Orpheus who completed the fecond tetrachord,
which extended the fcale to a heptachord, or feven
funds, implied by the feptem diferimina vocum. For
the afiertion of many writers, that Orpheus added two
new firings to the lyre, which before had feven, clafhes
with the claims of Pythagoras to the invention of
the o&achord, or addition of the found ptofambano-
vienos to the heptachord, of which almoft all antiqui¬
ty aflows him to have been the inventor. And it is
.not eafy to fuppofe, that the lyre fhould have been
reprefented in ancient fculpture with four or five firings
only, if it had had nine fo early as the time of Or¬
pheus, who flourifhed long before'fculpture was known
in Greece. See the article Lyre.
With refpevl to the writings of Orpheus,he is men¬
tioned by Pindar as author of the Argonautics, and
Herodotus fpeaks of his Orphics. His hymns, fays
Paufanias, were very fhort, and but .few in dumber:
the Lyeomides, an Athenian family, knew them by
heartland had an exclufive privilege of finging them,
and thofe of their old poets, Mufasus, Onomacritus,
Pamphus, and Olen, at the celebration of the Eleufi- Orpheut
nian myfleries : that is, the priefthood was hereditary „ ill
in this family. °rrerr-
Jamblicus tells us, that the poems under the name
of Orpheus were written in the Doric dialed, but
have fince been tranfdialeded, or modernifed. It was
the common opinion iq antiquity that they were ge-j
nuine; but even thofe who doubted of it, gave them
to the earlidt Pythagoreans, and fome of them to Pyr
thagoras himfelf, who has frequently been called the
follower of Orpheus, and been fuppofed to have adop¬
ted many of his opinions.
Of the poems that are ftill fubfifting: under the
name oi Orpheus, which were colleded and publifh-
ed at Nuremberg 1702, by Andr. Chritl. Efchenf
bach, and which have been fince reprinted at Leipfie
1764, under the title of oPtUEns aiianta, feveral have
been attributed to Onimacritus, an Athenian, who
flourifhed under the PyfiftratidEe, about 500 years
before Chrilt. Their titles are, x. The Argonautics,
an epic poem. 2. Eighty-fix hymns; which are 10
full of incantations and magical evocation, that Daniel
Heinfius has called them vcramSatanaliturgiam, “ the
true liturgy of the devil.” Paufanias, who made no
doubt that the hymns fubfiftiqg in his time were com-
pofed by Orpheus, tells us, that tho’ lefs elegant, they
had been preferred for religious purpofes to thofe of
Homer. 3. De lapidibus, a poem on precious ftones.
4. Fragments, collected by Henry Stevens. Orpheus
has been called the inventor, or at lead the propagator,
of many arts and doftrines among the Greeks. 1. The
combination of letters, or the art of writing. 2. Mufic,
the lyre, or cithara, of feven firings, adding three to
that of Mercury. 3. Hexameter verfe. 4. Myfleries
and theology. 5. Medicine. 6. Magic and divina¬
tion. 7. Aflrology. Servius upon the iixth JEneid,
p. 450, fays Orpheus firft inftituted the harmony of the
fpheres. 8. He is faid likewife to have been the firfl
who imagined a plurality of worlds, or that the moon
and planets were inhabited.
ORPIMENT, in natural hiftory, a foflile fubfiance
ufually found in copper-mines, compofed of thin flakes
like the talcs; thefe eafily fplit, are flexible, not ela-
ftic, foluble in oil, fufible in a moderate fire, and
yield in burning an offenfive fmdl like garlic.
ORPINE, in botany. See Sedum.
ORRERY, a curious machine for reprefenting the
motions or phafes of the heavenly bodies. See Astro¬
nomy, n9 317.
It would be too great an undertaking here to give
an account of the mechanifm of the larger fort of or¬
reries, which reprefent the movements of all the hea¬
venly bodies ;. nor indeed can it be done either by
diagram or defeription, to render it intelligible to the
molt difeerning reader: but, inftead of that, we fhall
exhibit an idea of the theory and ftrudture of an ufe-
ful, concife, and portable planetarium, which any
gentleman may have made for a fmall expence, and
will exhibit, very juftly, the motions of all tlie pri¬
mary planets about the fun, by wheel-work; and thofe
that have fecondaries, or moons, may have them placed
about their primaries moveable by the hand, fo that
the whole fhall be a juft reprefentation of the folarfy-
ftem, or true ftate of the heavens, for any given time
of the year.
In
OKS [ 57
Orrery In ordef to this we muft compare, and find out the
Oif to Proponion, which the periodical times, or revolutions
r at°' of the primary planets, bear to that of the earth: And
they are fueh as are exprefied in the table below,
where the iiril column is the time of the earth’s period
in days and decimal parts; the feqond, that of the
planets ; the third and fourth are numbers in the fame
proportion to each other : as,
365,25 : 88 $ : : 83 : 20, for Mercury.
365,25 : 224,7 $ : : 52 : 32, for Venus.
365,25 ; 686,9: j1 : : 40 : 75, for Mars.
365,25 : 4332,5 m = : 7 : 83’ for Jupiter.
365,25 : 10759,3 f> : : 5-: 148, for Saturn.
If we now fuppofe a fpindle or arbour with fix
wheels fixed upon it in an horizontal pofition, having
the number of teeth in each, correfponding to the
Plate numbers in the third column, viz. the wheel AM
CCXXX. 0f gg teeth, BL of 52, CK of 50 (for the earth),
DI of 40, EH of 7, and FG of 5; and ano¬
ther fet of wheels moving freely about an arbor, ha¬
ving the number of teeth in the fourth column, viz.
AN of 20, BO of 32, CP of 50 (for the earth), DQ^
of 75, ER of 83, and FS of 148 ; then, if thofe two
arbors of fixed and moveable wheels are made of the
fize, and fixed at the diltanee from each other, as here
reprefented in the fcheme, the teeth of the former will
take thofe of the latter, s#nd turn them very freelywhen
the machine is in motion.
Thefe arbors, with their wheel, are to be placed in
a box', of an adequate fize, in a perpendicular pofi¬
tion : the arbor of fixed wheels to move in pivots at
the top and bottom of thebox; and the arbor of move-
able wheels to go thro’ the top of thebox, to a proper
height, on the top of which is to be placed a round ball,
gilt with gold to reprefent the fun. On each of the move-
able wheels is to be fixed a focket, or tube, afeending
above the top of the box, and having on the top a wire
fixed,- and bent at a' proper dillance into a right angle
upwards, bearing on the top a fmall round ball, re-
prefenting its proper planets.
If then on the lower part of the arbor of fixed
wheels be placed a pinion of fcrew-teethra winch turn¬
ing a fpindle with an ehdlefs ferew, playing in the teeth
of the arbour, will turn it with all its wheels ; and
thefe wheels will move the others about, with their
planets, in their- proper and refpe&ive periods of time,
very exaftly. For while the fixed wheel CK moves
its equal CP once round, the wheel AM will move
AN a little more than four times round, and fo will
nicely exhibit the motion of Mercury; and the wheel
FG will turn the wheel FS about—— round, and fo
29’5
will truly reprefeut the motion of Saturn : and the
fame is to be obferved of all the reft.
Orrery (Ear’s of). See Boyle.
ORR1CE. See Iris.
ORSATO (Sertorio), a celebrated antiquarian, hi-
ftorian, and poet, was born at Padua, in 16x7, and
early difeovtred a tafte for literature and the fciences.
He applied himfelf to fearching out antiquities and an¬
cient inferiptions; for which purpofe he travelled thro’
all the different parts of Italy, and in the mean time
poetry was his amufement. When advanced in age,
he iaught ilatural philofophy in the univerfity of Pa¬
dua. He was alio a member of the academy of the
55 ] O R T
Ricovrati. Having prefented to the doge and fenate 0l'fi
of Venice, the hiftory of Padua, which he had dedi-
cated to them, he made a long fpeech, during which rphy.
he ftruggled with a natural want, and died of fuppref-,.— 
fion of urine, on the 3d of'July 1678. He wrote a
great number of books which are efteemed, fome in
Latin, and others in Italian.
He ought not to be confounded with yohn Bap-
tiji Orsato, „an able phyfician and antiquary, who
was born at Padua, in 1673, anc^ wrote, I. Dijfertatio
epijlolaris de Lucernis antiquis. 2. A diflertation De
patera antiquarian. 3. A (mall treatife De Jiernis ve-
terum ; and fome other works.
ORSI (John Jofeph), an ingenious philologer and
poet, was born at Bologna in the year 1652 ; and
ftudied polite literature, philofophy, the civil law, and
mathematics. His houfe was a kind of academy,
where many perfons of literature regularly afiembled.
He wrote many ingenious fonnets, paftorals, and other
works in Italian, and died in 1733.
ORTEGAL cape, the moft northern promontory
of Spain, where there is alfo a caftle of the fame
name. W. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 44. o.
ORTELIUS (Abraham), "a celebrated geogra¬
pher, born at Antwerp, in 1527, was well flcilled in
the languages and the mathematics; and acquired fuch
reputation by his (kill in geography, that he was fur-
named the Ptolemy of his time. Julius Lipfius, and
moft of the great men of the 16th century, were Or-
telius’s friends. He refided at Oxford, in the reign
of Edward VI. and came a fecond time into England,
in 1577. His Theatrum Orbis was the completed
work of the kind that had ever been publilhed, and
gained him a i-eputation equal to his immenfe labour
in compiling it. He aifo wrote feveral other excel¬
lent geographical woi-ks; the principal of which are
his Thefauras, and his Synonima Gedgraphica. . The
world is likewife obliged to him for the Britannia,
which he perfuaded Cambden to undertake. He died
at Antwerp, in 1598.
ORTHODOX, in church-hiftory, an appellation
given to thofe who are found in all the articles of the
Chriftian faith.
ORTHOGRAPHIC projection e/*Me Sphere,
that wherein the eye is fuppofed to be at an infinite
diftance ; fo called, becaufe the perpendiculars from-
any point of the fphere will all fall in the common
interfe&ion of the fphere with the plane of the pro-
jedlion. See Geography, n° 13. 41. and Projec¬
tion.
ORTHOGRAPHY, that part of grammar which
teaches the nature andaffeftions of letters, and the juft
method of fpelling or writing words, with all the pro¬
per and necefiary letters; making one of the four great-
eft divifions or branches of grammar. See Grammar.
Orthography, in geometry, the art of drawing
or delineating the fore-right plan of any objedl, and of
exprefBng the heights or elevations of each part. It.
is called Orthography, for its determining things by
perpendicular lines falling on the geometrical plane.
Orthography, in architedlure, the elevation of a
building.
Orthography, in perfpedlive, is the fore-right
fide of any plane, i. e. the fide or plane that lies pa¬
rallel to aftraight line* that may be imagined to pafs.
throughi
O R Y
[ 5766 ]
O R Y
O.thopnoea through the outward convex points of the eyes, conti-
I1 nued to a convenient length.
ORTHOPNOEA, a fpecies or degree of.afthma,
where there is fuch a difficulty of refpiration, that the
patient is obliged to fit or ftand upright, in order to
be able to breathe. See Medicine, n° 396.
ORTNAU, a county of Germany, in the circle of
Snabia, lying along the Rhine, and feparating it from
Alface. It is bounded on the fouth by Breflau, on
the north by the margravate of Baden, and on the
eaft by the duchy of Wirtemberg. It contains
three imperial towns; namely, Offenburg, Gegen-
bach, and Zell. It belongs partly to the houfe of Au-
Hria, partly to the biihopric of Spire, and partly to
the county of Hannan.
ORTIVE, in aftronomy, the fame with eajlern.
The ortive or eaftern amplitude, is an arch of the hori¬
zon intercepted between where a ftar rifes, and the eaft
point of the horizon, or point where the horizon and
equator Interfeft.
ORVIETO, a town of Italy in the patrimony of
St Peter, with a biihop’s fee and a magnificient pa¬
lace. In this place there is a deep well, into which
mules defcend by one pair of ftairs to fetch up water,
and afcend by another. It is feated on a craggy rock,
near the confluence of the rivers Pagli and Chiana.
E. Long. 12. to. N. Lat. 42. 42.
ORYZA, rice ; a genus of the digynia order, be-
longing to the hexandria clafs of plants. There is
but one fpecies, namely the fativa or common rice.
This plant is greatly cultivated in moft of the ea¬
ftern countries, where it is the chief fupport of the in¬
habitants; and great quantities of it are brought into
England and other European countries every year,
where it is much efteemed for puddings, &c. it being
too tender to be produced in thefe northern countries
without the affiftance of artificial heat; but from fome
feeds which were formerly fent to Carolina, there
have been great quantities produced, and it is found
to fucceed as well there as in the eattern countries.
This plant grows upon moifl: foils, where the ground
can be flowed over with water after it is come up. So
that whoever would cultivate it in this country fhould
fovv the feeds upon a hot-bed ; and when the plants
are come up, they fhould be removed into pots filled
with light rich earth, and placed in pans of water, which
fhould be plunged into a hot-bed ; and, as the water
wades, it mud from time to time be renewed again.
In July thefe plants may be fet abroad in a warm fi-
tuation, dill preferving the water in the pans, other-
wife they will not thrive; and, toward the latter end
of Augud, they will produce their grain, which will
ripen tolerably well, provided the autumn proves fa¬
vourable—The leaves of rice are long, like the reed,
and flefliy; the flowers blow on the top, like barley;
but the feed which follows is difpofed in cluders, each
of which is inclofed in a yellow hufk, ending in a
fpiral threa’d. The feed is oblong, or rather oval and
white.
Rice is the chief commodity and riches of Damieta
in Egypt. Dr Haflclquid gives the following de-
fcription of the manner in which they drefs and fepa-
rate it from the hulks. “ It is pounded by hollow
iron pedles of a cylindrical form, lifted up by a wheel
worked by oxen. A perfon fitting between the two
pedles, puflies forward the rice when the pedles are Oryza,
rifing; another fifts, winnows, and lays it under the (^orn~
pedles. In this manner they continue working it un¬
til it is entirely free from chaff and hulks. When
clean, they add a 30th part of fait, and pound them
together ; by which the rice, formerly grey, becomes
white. After this purification, it is palled through
a fine fieve to part the fait from the rice; and then
it is ready for fale.” Damieta fells every year
60,800 facks of rice, the greateft part of which
goes to Turky, fome to Leghorn, Marfeilles, and
Venice.
Rice, according to Dr Cullen, is preferable to all
other kinds of grain, both for largenefs of produce,
quantity of nourifhment, and goodnefs. This, he fays,
is plain from macerating the different grains in water ;
for, as the rice fwells to the larged fize, fo its parts arc
more intimately divided. Rice is faid to affedl the
eyes; but this it purely prejudice. Thus it is alleged a
particular people of Afia, who live on this grain, are
blind-eyed : but if the foil be fandy, and not much
covered with herbage, and as thefe people are much
employed in the field, this affe&ion of their eyes may
be owing to the drong reflexion of the rays of light
from this fandy foil; and our author is the more in¬
clined to this opinion, becaufe no fuch effe& is ob-
ferved in Carolina, where rice is very commonly ufed.
Dr Percival informs us, that as a wholefome nouridi-
ment, rice is much inferior to falep. He digeded feveral
alimentary mixtures prepared of mutton and water, beat
up with bread, fea-bifeuit,falep, rice flour, fago powder,
potato, old cheefe, &c. in a heat equal to that of the
human body. In 48 hours they had all acquired a
vinous fmell, and were in bride fermentation, except
the mixture with rice, which did not emit many air-
bubbles, and was but little changed. The third day
feveral of the mixtures were fweet, and continued to
ferment; others had lod their intedine motion, and
were four; but the one which contained the rice was
become putrid. From this experiment it appears that
rice, as an aliment, is flow of fermentation, and a very
weak corredlor of putrefaction. It is therefore an im¬
proper diet for hofpital patients ; but more particu¬
larly for failors, in long voyages, becaufe it is inca¬
pable of preventing, and will not contribute much to
check the progrefs of, that fatal difeafe, the fea-feurvy.
Under certain circumdances, rice feems difpofed of it-
felf, without mixture, to become putrid. For by long
keeping, it fometimes acquires an offen five foe tor. Nor,
according to our author, can it be confidered as a very
nutritive kind of food, on account of its difficult fo-
lubility in the domach. Experience confirms the truth
of this conclufion; for it is obferved by the planters
in the Wed-Indies, that the negroes grow thin, and
are lefsable to work, whild they fubfid upon rice.
OSBORN (Francis), an eminent Englilh writer
in the 17th century. He was educated in a private
manner; and at ripe years frequented the court, and
was mader of the horfe to William earl of Pembroke.
Upon the breaking out of the civil wars, he adhered to
the parliament party, and had feveral public employ¬
ments conferred upon him. In the latter part of his
life he lived at Oxford, in order to print feveral books,
and to look after his fon, for whom, by the favour
of the parliament, he procured a fellowlhip in All-
foul*
Ofiris
II
Gfnaburg.
O S N [
fouls college. His Advice to a Son, fo foon as it was
publiflied, being complained of to Dr John Tenant,
.vice-chancellor of Oxford, as of irreligious tendency,
there was a propofal made to have it publicly burnt;
but that taking noeffedi, it was ordered that no booki
feller or others (hould fell it, which only made it fell
the fafter. He wrote alfo Hiflorieal Memoirs of the
reigns of queen Elizabeth and king James L; A Dif-
courfe on the greatnefs and corruption of the church
of Rome ; A Difcourfe upon Machiavel, &c. He
died in '659.
OSIRIS, the fon of Jupiter and Niobe, reigned
oyer the Argiyes ; but afterwards delivered his king¬
dom to his brother iEgialeus, and took a voyage into
Egypt, of which he made himfelf mafter, and married
lo or Ifis. He efiablifhed good laws there, and
they were both after their death wqrfhipped as gods.
OSNABURG, a bilhopric of Germany, fituated in
the centre of the circle of Weftphalia between the
Wefer and the Ems, having Minden on the eaft,
Munfter on the weft, Diephok on the north-eaft, and
Ravehfburg on the fouth weft. It is about 45 miles
long and 25 broad, producing fome rye, feveral forts
of turf, coals, marble, and good pafturage. The in¬
habitants, who are a mixture of Proteftants and Ro¬
man-catholics, breed a confiderable number of cattle,
efpecially hogs, of which they make excellent bacon
land hams; but a great part of the country confifts of
heaths. By the treaty concluded here in 1648, the
bilhopric was to be an alternative between the Roman-
catholics and Lutherans ; and the Lutheran bilhop
was to be a younger prince of the houfe of Brun-
fwic Lunenburg, or, on failure thereof, of Brun-
fwic Wolfenbuttle. In confequence of this fettle-
ment, his Britannic majefty’s fecond fon is now bilhop
of Ofnaburg. The bilhop is able to raife 2500
men, his revenue being between 20,000 and 30,000 1.
The chief manufactures of the country are a coarfe
kind of linen cloth and yarn, which are faid to bring
into it annually above 1,000,000 of rix-dollars. There
are alfo fome woollen manufactures in Ofnaburg and
Bramfche. The land-eftates of the bilhopric, are the
chapter, the knights, and the four towns. The diets
are held at Ofnaburg, when called together by the
bilhop. The count of Bar is hereditary fenefchal or
fteward, and prefident of the college of knights.
The bilhop is a prince of the empire; and, in the
matricula, is rated at 6 horfe and 36 foot, or 216
florins monthly in lieu of them. To the chamber
of the empire he contributes, each term, 81 rix-
‘ dollars, 14 kruitzers and a half. The capital of this
bilhopric is
Osnabrug, or Ofnalruck. It was formerly an
imperial city, and one of the Hanfe-tovvns; but
is now fubjeCI to the bilhop, though it ftill enjoys
many privileges, and a revenue of about 8000 or 9000
rix-doliars. It has its name from a bridge over the
river Hafe, or Ofe, which divides it into the Old and
New Town, and Hands 67 miles Weft of Hanover,
and 30 north-eaft of Munfter, being furrounded with
walls and ditches, but commanded by a mountain
within cannon-Ihot. The magiftracy of this city,
which is rechofen yearly on the fecond of January,
is Lutheran; and the churches belong, fome to the
Lutherans, and fome to the Papifts. Both parties
Vol. VIII. !
5767 ] OSS
have the full and free exercife of their religion, whe- Ofnaburg
th(*r the hifhnn is Prnteftant Panifl- hlfhnn’c li
palace was built by hilhop Erneft-Auguftus, brother^,
to king George I. It is well fortified, and feparated
from the town by a bridge. In one of the apartments
of it flfed king George I. in the arms of his brother,
on the 11th of June 1722. This was the firft town
in Weftphalia which received the Lutheran dofinne.
Osnaburg Ijland, one of the illands in the South
Sea difeovered by captain Wallis in 1767. It is a
high, round ifland, not above a league in circuit; in
fome parts covered with trees, in others a naked rock.
S. Lat. 22. 48. W. Long. 141. 34.
OSSA, a mountain of Theffaiy, near the Peneus,
which runs between this mountain and Olympus; fa¬
mous in the fabulous ftoryof the giants, (Homer, Vir¬
gil, Horace, Seneca, Ovid.) The bending and un¬
bending of its pines, on the blowing of a ftrong north
wind, formed a clalhing found like thunder, (Lucan.)
OSS AT (Arnauld de),‘born in thediocefe of Auch
in 1536, of mean parentage, was taken notice of by a
gentleman in the diocefe, who made him ftudy with
bis ward the Lord of Caftlenau de Magnoac. He
ftudied the law at Dijon under Cujace, and applied
himfelf to the bar at Paris. He was fgcretary at
Rome to M. de Foix, archbilhop of Touloufe; to car¬
dinal Efte ; and afterwards to cardinal de Joyeufe, by
the French king’s exprefs command. After rifing to
the higheft dignities both in church and ftate, in 1599
he was created a cardinal by pope Clement VIII. He
died in 1604. A0 eminent French writer gives him
the following chara&er. “ He was a man of prodi¬
gious penetration; applied himfelf fo clofely to affairs,
and efpecially was fo judicious in forming his refolu-
tions, that it is almoft impoffible to find out one falfe
ftep in the many negociations in which he was con¬
cerned.” His works, and efpecially his letters, have
been much efteemed in the learned world.
OSSIAN, the fon of Fingal *, a celebrated Celtic * See the ar-
poet, who flourifhed about the end of the third and dele Fin-
beginning of the fourth century. Several incidents in *
bis poems point out this as his tera: particularly thepjix.
engagement of Fingal with Caracul, or Caracalla, the
fon of the emperor Severus, ftyled by Oflian, The Son
of the King of the ’world; and another expedition under
the condud of Ofcar, again ft the ufurper Caraufius,
the Caros of Oflian, who aflumed the purple in the
year 287. This correfponds pretty nearly with the ac¬
count given by the Irifh hiftories, which place the
death of Fingal in the year 283, and the death of Of-
car (who died many years before his father Oflian) in
the year 296.
At fuch a diftance of time, it cannot be expec¬
ted we fliould be able to give a particular account of
the life of Oflian. The iirft expedition on which his
father fent him was, to raife a (lone on the banks
of Crona, to perpetuate the memory of a viftory
which the king of Morven had obtained at that place.
The Highlanders talk of this as being emblematical of
that immortality which heroes were to receive from his
future compofitions. In this expedition he was ac¬
companied by Tofcar, father to the beautiful Malvina,
the amiable companion of his grief, after the death of
her beloved Ofcar, his fon. It appears from his poems,
that, in one of his early expeditions to Ireland, he had
32 O fallen
OSS
f Fingal,
©ffian. fallen in love with and married Evirallin, daughter to
Branno, petty king of Lego. “ I went in fuitof the
maid of Lego’s fable furge ; twelve of my people
“ were there, the fons of ftreamy Morven. We came
to Branno, friend of ftrangers; Branno of the found-
“ ing mail.—‘ From whence,’ he faid, ‘ are the arms
** of fteel ? Not eafy to win is the maid that has denied
“ the bine-eyed fons of Erin. But bleft be thou, O
“ fon of Fingal! happy is the maid that waits thee.
“ Though twelve daughters were mine, thine were the
“ choice, thou fon of fame.’—Then he opened the hall
“ of the maid ; the dark-haired Evirallin This
Eviraliin was the mother of his fon Ofcar, whofe ex¬
ploits he celebrates in many of his poems, and whofe
death he laments in the firfl book of Temora. Eviral¬
lin died fome time before Ofcar, (FinG. B. iv.), who
feems to have been her only child ; and Offian did not
marry afterwards: fo that his pofterity ended in the
death of Ofcar; who feems to have died as he was a-
bout to be married to Malvina, the daughter of Tof-
car. Several of her lamentations for her lover are re¬
corded by Offian, which paint her grief in the ftrong-
eft and moll beautiful colours.^—“ It is the voice of
“ my love! few are his vifits to my dreams.—But
“ thou dwelled in the foul of Malvina, fon of mighty
“ Offian. My fighs arife with the beams of theead;
“ my tears defeend with the drops of night. I was a
“ lovely tree in thy prefence, Ofcar, with all my
“ branches round me: but thy death came like a blaft
“ from the defart, and laid my green head low; the
“ fpring returned with its Ihowers, but no green leaf
“ of mine arofe.” Pern i?/'Croma.
The principal refidence of Offian was in the vale of
Cona, now Glenco, in Argyldhire. See Fingal, in
APPENDIX.
His poems relate many of his expeditions to Ire¬
land, Scandinavia, Clyde, and Tweed or Teutha.
His exploits on thefe occafions, after making a large
allowance for poetical exaggeration, {hew him to have
been no lefs a warrior than a poet. See Ossian’s
Works, in the poems Calthon and Colmal, Latbmon,
Berratlmn, &c. By thefe expeditions, which were al¬
ways undertaken for the relief of the didreffed, the
mind of Offian feems to have been cultivated and en¬
larged beyond what is ufuslly to be met with in fo
rude a period of foeiety as that in which he lived. His
poems breathe throughout, fuch a fpirit of generofity
and tendernefs, efpecially towards the fair fex, as is
[ 57^ ]
OSS
your courfe. Let the tomb open to Offian, for his Offian.
“ drength has failed. The'fons of the fong are gone"  
“ to red; my voice remains, like a blad, that roars,
“ lonely, on the fea-furrounded rock, after the winds
“ are laid. The dark mofs whidles there, and the di-
“ dant mariner fees the waving trees f.” “ But^,^*®^
“ Offian is a tree that is withered. Its branches are
bladed and bare ; no green leaf covers its boughs.
“ From its trunk no young ffioot is feen to fpring.
“ The breeze whidlcs in its grey mofs: the blad {hakes
“ its head of age.—The dorm will foon overturn it,
(i and drew all its dry branches with thee, O Dermid!
“ and with all the red of the mighty dead, in the * Gaj-c ^
“ green winding vale of Cona*.” Equities,
It is not certain at what age Offian died; but from his poem of
having been long blind with years, and from the many Fiermd,
contrads, between his prefent and pad fituations, in
poems compofed, as it would appear, at a confiderable
didance of time from each other, it is mod likely he
lived to an extreme old age. The current tradition is,
that he died in the houfe of a Culdee, called the Son of
Fllpin, with whom he is faid to have held feveral con¬
ferences about the doftrines of Chridianity. One of
thefe dialogues is dill preferved, and bears the genuine
marks of a very remote antiquity; (Differtation pre¬
fixed to Ojjians Works.) Several of Offian’s poems
are addreffed to this fon of Alpin, who was probably
one of thofe Chridians whom the perfecution under
Dioclefian had driven beyond the pale of the Roman
empire.
The poems of Offian, tho’always held in the highed;
edeem by thofe who knew them, were allowed to remain
in the obfeurity of their original Galic, till Mr Mac-
pherfon, about 20 years ago, tranflated a colle&ion of
them into Engliffi, which immediately attrafled tire at¬
tention of every perfon who had a true tade for poetry.
Dr Blair, in particular, introduced thefe poems into
the world with thofe critical remarks, which do no
lefs honour fo himfelf than to the poet. According to
that eminent critic, the two great charadteridics of Of¬
fian’s poetry are tendernefs and fublimity. Offian is,
perhaps, the only poet who never relaxes, or lets him¬
felf down into the light and amufing drain. He moves
perpetually in the high region of the grand and pathe¬
tic. The events which he records are all fe -'ous and
grave ; the feenery wild and romantic. We find not
in him an imagination that fports itfelf and drefles out
gay trifles to pleafe the fancy. His poetry, more per-
feldom or never to be met with in the compofitions of haps than that of any other, deferves to be dyled the
other poets who lived in a more advanced flat^of
lifation. He lived to an extreme old age; having fur-
vived all his family and friends, many of whom perifli-
ed by a fatal accident, recorded in one of his poems
•' See Galic called the Fall o/Tura*. Malvina, alone, the love of
Antiquities, fois f0n Ofcar, remained with him till within a few
years of his death, and paid him every attention that
could be expedled' from the tender relation in which fhe
flood to him. To her he addrefies many of his poems,
which feem to have been compofed for the mofl part
in his old age. Her death is pathetically lamented by
him in the poem of Berrathon : towards the clpfe of
which, lie gives the prefages of his own departure; an
event which he often vvifhes for, under the blindnefs
and other calamities of his declining years. “ Roll
c‘ on, ye. dark-brown yearsj for ye bring no joy on
poetry of the heart. It is a heart penetrated with noble
fentiments, with fublime and tender paffions; a heart
that glows and kindles the fancy ; a heart that is full,
and pours itfelf forth. Of all the great poets, Ho¬
mer is the one whofe manner and whofe times come
the nearefl to Offian’s. Homer’s ideas were more en¬
larged, and his charafters more diverfified. Offian’s
ideas fewer, but of the kind fitteft for poetry; the
bravery and generofity of heroes, the tendernefs of lo¬
vers, and the attachment of friends. Homer is dif*
fufe; Offian abrupt and concife. His images are a
blaze of lightning, which flafii and vanifh. Homer
has more of impetuofity and fire; Offian of a folemn
and awful grandeur. In the pathetic, Homer has great
power; but Offian exerts that power much oftener,
and has the chara&er of tyidernefs more deeply im¬
printed
G/ITaBf
Offian.
Works" S
poem of
Berrathon.
f Galic An
tiquities,
poem of
Irathal.
4 II. poem
®f Dargo.
OSS [ 5769 ] OSS
printed on his works. No poet knew better how to
“feize and melt the heart. With regard to dignity of
fentiment, we mult be furprifed to find that the pre¬
eminence mult clearly be given to the Celtic bard. This
appears nowhere more remarkable than in the fenti-
ments which he exprelfes towards his enemies. “ U-
<£ thal fell beneath my fword, and the fons of Berra-
“ thon fled.—It was then I law him in his beauty,
“ and the tear hung in my eye. Thou art fallen, young
“ tree, I'faid, with all thy beauty round thee. Thou
“ art fallen on thy plains, and the field is bare. The
“ winds come from the defart, and there is no found
“ in thy leaves! Lovely art thou in death, fon of car-
“ borne Larthmore *!” His fuppofition, that all the
little feuds and differences of this life fhouid be forgot
in a future ftate, and that thofe who had onee been
foes would “ llretch their arms to the fame (hell in
“ Loda,” gives us the higheft idea of the man as well
as of the poet. “ Daughter of beauty, thou art low!
“ A flrange fhore receives thy corfe. But the ghofls
“ of Morven will open their halls, when they fee thee
“ coming. Heroes around the feaft of dim (hells, in
“ the midfl of clouds, fhall admire thee; and virgins
- “ fhall touch the harp of miftf.” “ The feuds of
“ other years by the mighty dead are forgotten. The
“ warriors now meet in peace, and ride together on
“ the tempefl’s wing. No clang of the fhield, no noife
V of the fpear, is heard in their peaceful dwellings.
“ Side by fide they fit, who once mixed in battle their
“ fteel. There, Lochlin and Morven meet at the mu-
f‘ tual feaft, and liften together to the fong of their
“ bards J.”
But the fublimity of moral fentiments, if they want¬
ed the foftening of the tender, would be in hazard of
giving a ftiff air to poetry. It is not enough that we
admire. Admiration is a cold feeling in comparifon
of that deep intereft the heart takes in tender and pa¬
thetic fcenes. With fcenes of this kind Offian abounds;
and his high merit in thefe is inconteftable. He may
be blamed for drawing tears too often from our eyes;
but that he has the power of commanding them, no
man who has the leaft fenfibility can queftioh. His
poems awake the tendered fympathies, and infpirethe
molt generous emotions. No reader can rife from him
without being warmed with the fentiments of humani¬
ty, virtue, and honour.
But the excellency of thefe poems occafioned in
many perfons a doubt of their authenticity. Their
genuinenefs, however, has been very ably defended by
Dr Blair and Lord Karnes, and warmly fupported by
the author of the Ga/ic Antiquities, who has given the
public fome more remains of Offian’s poetry.
As the nature of our work will not allow us to
treat this matter at full length, we fhall only give a
brief view of the arguments offered in fupport of the
authenticity of thefe poems, referring our readers to
the authors juft now mentioned for fuller fatisfadion.
Thefe compofitions, fay they, have all the internal
marks of antiquity fo ftrongly imprefled. upon them,
that no reader of tafte and judgment can deny their
claim to it. They exhibit fo lively a pi&ure of
cuftoms which have difappeared for ages, as could be
drawn only from nature and real life. The features
are fo diftinft, that few portraits of the life continual¬
ly palling before us are found to be drawn with fo
much likenefs. The; manners uniformly relate to a
very early ftage of fociety ; and no hint, no allufion
to the arts, cuftoms, or manners, of a more advanced
period, appears throughout the poems. To that di-
ftin&ion of ranks, which is always found in adult fo-
cieties, the poet appears to have been a perfedl
ftranger. The firft heroes prepare their own repafts,
and indifcriminately condefcend to the moft menial
fervices. Their quarrels-arife from caufes generally
flight, but in fuch a period extremely natural. A ri-
valfhip in love, an omiffion at a feaft, or an affront at
a tournament, are often the foundation of a quarrel
among Angle heroes. And the wars in which whole
tribes are engaged, are carried on with a view, not to
enlarge their territory, but to revenge perhaps the kill¬
ing of a few deer on their mountains, or the taking
forcibly away one of their women. Their occupation
was war and hunting, and their chief ambition was to
have their fame in the fongs of the bards.
The notions of a future ftate, exhibited in thefe
poems, are likewife ftrongly marked with the charac¬
ters of antiquity. A creed fo uncommon that the ima¬
gination of a modern could not be fuppofed to grafp
fo ftrong an idea of it from mere fancy, is uniformly
fupported throughout. This creed is extremely fimple,
but admirably fuited to the times.
The language too, and the ftrmSure, of thefe poems,
bear the moft ftriking chara&ers of antiquity. The
language is bold, animated, and metaphorical, fucli
as it is found to be in all infant-ftates; where the
words, as well as the ideas and objefts, muft be few ;
and where the language, like the imagination, is ftrong
and undifciplined. No ahftraft, and few general, terms
appear in the poems of Offian. If objedfs are but in¬
troduced in a fimile, they are always particularized.
It is “ the young pine of Inifhuna it is “ the bow
of the fhowery Lena.” This charadter, fo confpicuou»
in the poems of Offian, is a linking feature in the lan¬
guage of all early ftates; whofe objedls and ideas are few
and particular, and whofe ordinary converfation is of
courfe highly figurative and poetical. A pidhire, there¬
fore, marked with fuch ftriking features, could not be
drawn without an original.
The whole texture of the compofition is alfo, like
the language, bold, nervous, and concife ; yet always
plain and artlefs; without any thing of that modern
refinement, or elaborate decoration, which attend the
advancement ofliterature. No foreign ornaments are
hunted after. The wild and grand nature which lay
within the poet’s view, is the only fource from which
he draws his ornaments. Beycnd this circle, his ima¬
gination, though quick and rapid, feldom made any
excurfion. We perceive his language always to be
that of a perfon who faw and felt what he deferibes;
who bore a part in the expeditions which he cele¬
brates, and who fought in the battles which he fings.
In giving the external and more pofitive proofs of the
authenticity of Offian’s poems, it is obferved,—That
there have been in the Highlands of Scotland, for fome
ages back, a vaft many poems aferibed to Offian :
That thefe poems have been held in the higheft vene¬
ration, repeated by almoft all perfons, and on all oc-
caiions. Thefe are fads fo well known, that no¬
body as yet has been hardy enough to deny them;
There is pot an old man in the Highlands, who will
32 O 2 not
OSS
[ 577^ T
oss
Ofinn. not declare, that be heard fuch poems repeated by his cultivated with moil fuccefs in the earlieft Rages of (b-
~ father and grandfather, as pieces of the moft remote
antiquity, There is not a diftridt in the Highlands
where there are not many places, waters, ifles, caves,
and mountains, which, from time immemorial, are
called after the names of Offian’s heroes.—There is not
a lover of ancient tale or poetry, however illiterate,
who is not well acquainted with almoft every fingle
tiame, charadter, and incident, mentioned in thofe tranf-
lations of Offian’s poems, which he may have never
heard of.-—Bards, who are themfelves feveral centut its
old, quote thofe poems, imitate them, and refer to
ciety ; that in Greece, Orpheus, Linus, Hefiod, and”
Homer, wrote their admirable poems fome ages belore
any thing had been written in profe in the Greek lan¬
guage ; that the book of Job, written in a very early
period of fociety, is highly poetical; that among the
tribes of Lapland and America, there have been found,
in the earlieft Rate, fome excellent pieces of poetry.
That the Caledonians in particular, had fome peculiar
inftitutions, which tended to improve their poetry :
their druids were among the moft learned phiiofophers
which perhaps any age or country produced; their
them.—The ordinary converfation and comparifons of bards or poets were the difciples of thofe druids, and
the Highlanders frequently allude to the cuftoms and
characters mentioned in them;—and many of their
moft common proverbs, eltablifhed by the moft ancient
* See ex- ofe, are lines borrowed from the poems of Gffian
amples un- ’p^e moft ancient of the clans boaft of deriving their
thdTheads Pe^'gree5 eac^ from one of Offian’s heroes;—and
in the Galicm*nY l^e %ns armorial affumed by them, are drawn
jintiquities, from the feats afcribed to their predeceflbrs in thofe
were always a (landing order, to which none but the
moft promifmg genittfes were admitted. This (land¬
ing college of poets was furniftied, not only with the
fruits of their own long ftudy and obfervation, but al-
fo with as much as merited to be preferved of the com-
pofitions of their predeceffgrs in office, fince the“ light
of the fong” firft dawned. They had the advantage
of one another’s converfation; which would excite their
P-93,94,9s.poemsf.—Manufcripts are mentioned, in which fome emulation, and make them afpite to eminence: They
t j-t/id, r .1 r. 1  u—   r— „j -f. 1   r.—«.  1   •   
f Ibid.
p. IP4.
of thefe have been preferved for feveral centuries J;
and a lift of living names, in different parts of the
$ Karnes's Highlands, is appealed to, as perfons who (till repeat
Sketches, a part 0f thefe poems ||.—Whillt Mr Macpherfon was
d en^aSe<^ 'n l^e tranflation, many refpeftable perfons,
tiquliies, gentlemen and clergymen, avowed to the public, that
q>. 95. n8. thefe were Offian’s poems, with which they had long
§ See lift of been acquainted, and that the tranftatioh was literal f.
i r- /* • r *
were always prefent, and generally engaged, in every
grand operation that was tranfaCted ; which could mrt
fail to infpire their mufe with the trueft poetic fire.
The cafe of Offian was particularly favourable. He
lived in an age when manners came to a confiderable
degree of refinement under the care of the Bards and
Druids. Poetry in his day was confiderably advanced ;
and the language, though (Irong and figurative, had
ifKifoctoDr^19 aPPears a^° frontt the large fpecimens of the ori- undergone fome degree of cultivation, and learned to
1^1 • > t-. • r- mnals rmhl 1 a nrl r»5i k-v r*rr\nf»r i nrlrrPQ. Amur in rpmi1<»r nnmkprc tkp kiifn tkp fa-
fertation,
Ofjian's
Works,
sd edit.
iginals lay a confiderable time in the hands of the vourite inftrument of the times. As a prince and a
bookfeller, for the infpeftion of the curious ; they have warrior, his mind muft have been expanded and much
been afterwards (hown frequently to many of the bed enlarged by his excurfions to other countries. At
judges, and offered for publication if the editior had home he had Ullin, Alpin, Carril, and Ryno, to con-
been favoured with fubfcriptions. In like manner, pro- verfe with ; all of them poets of eminence, who would
pofals are now circulating for printing the originals of have advantaged him greatly by their example and
the ancient poems lately tranflated by Mr Smith ; a converfation. All thefe advantages, meeting with a
copy of which, in the event of fubfcriptions not coming native fire and enthufiafm of genius, as in the cafe of
in, is depofited with the Secretary to the Highlaud So- Offian, may well be fuppofed to have produced poems
ciety in London. It is likewife argued in lupport of that might challenge the veneration of ages,
the authenticity of thefe poems, that candid fceptics, But it is not to their merit alone that we owe the
on hearing fome of them repeated by illiterate perfons, prefervation of thefe poems fo long by oral tradition,
who had never feen the tranflation, caufed them to Othercircumftances concurred; of which, theinftitution
give the meaning of what they repeated, by an extern- of the Bards deferves particular notice. In a country,
pore tranfiation into Englifh, and by this means had all the only one perhaps in the world in which there was
* Pref. to their doubts of the authenticity of Offian removed *. always, from the earlieft period almoft to the prefent
I>r Percy’s They urge further, that fuch paffages of Offian’s works age, a (landing order of poets, we cannot reafonably
efd^En Uth as are ^ rePcate^ by fome old men, are among the moft be furprifed, either at finding excellent poems compo-
Poctry, beautiful parts of Offian’s poems ; fuch as the battle of fed, or, after being compofed, carefully preferved
iff edit. Lora, the moft affeAiug parts of Carthon, Berrathoti, from oblivion. A great part of the bulincfs of this or-
the death of Ofcar, and Darthula, or the children of der was to watch over the poems of Offian. In every
Ufnoth, &c.: which gives a credibility to his being family of diftin&ion there was always one principal
equal to the other parts of the colle&ion, none of it bard, and a number of difciples, who
being fuperior to thefe in merit.
To thefe, and the like arguments advanced in fup-
port of the authenticity of the poems afcribed to Of¬
fian, we find little objedled by fuch as are fceptics on
ied with each.
other in having thefe poems in the greateft perfe&ion.
Should the inftitution of the bards lall for ever, the
poems of Offian could never perilh.
Nor were they only the bards of great families who
this head, except general affertions, That Cuch poems took an intereft in thefe poems : the vaffal, equally
could not have been compofed in fo early a period ;—
that tradition could not preferve them fo long ;—and
the remains to be met with from oral recitation are
Sow to inconfiderable.
To this it has been anfwered, That poetry has been
fond of the fong with his fuperior, entertained him-
felf in the fame manner. This, with a life free from
care, a fpirit unbroken by labour, and a fpace of time
unoccupied by any other employment or diverfion,
contributed to render the Highlanders a nation of
fingers
Offlan.
OSS t 57
OfTIan. finjrrrs an^ poets. From fuch a people, the fuperinr
merit of OITian’s poems would naturally procure every
encouragement, which they always retained as long as
the manners of the people remained unchanged.
Many other reafons confpired to preferve the poems
of Ofiian. The martial and intrepid fpirit which they
breathed, made it the imereti of the chieftains to pre¬
ferve them : the drain of juftice, generofity, and hu¬
manity, which runs through them, recommended them
to the fuperintendants of religion, who well knew how
much the morals of a people muft be tin&ured with
thofe fongs which they are continually repeating, and
which have all the advantages of poetry and of mufic.
In fuperditious ages, the people revered thefe poems
from their being addrefled generally to fome “ fon of
“ the rock,” fuppofed to be the tutelar faint of the
place, or the great Iriih apoftle St Patrick. Befides,
every hill and dale which the natives of the Highlands
walked over, was claffic ground. Every mountain,
rock, and river, was immortalized in the fong. This
fong would naturally be fuggelled by the light of thefe
obje&s, and every body would hum it as he walked
along. All the proverbs and cuftoms to which thefe
poems gave rife, would operate in the fame manner.
The fon would alk what they meant, and the father
would repeat the fong from which they were taken.
The diftinft and unfubdued ftate in which the High¬
landers remained for fo long a courfe of ages, every
clan, one generation after another, inhabiting the fame
valley, till towards the prefent century, contributed
much to preferve their traditions and their poems ;
and the conftant and general cuftom of repeating thefe
in the winter-nights, kept them always alive in their
remembrance.
To thefe caufes and cuftoms the prefervation of
Offian’s poems, for fo many ages, has been aferibed.
But thefe caufes and cuftoms have ceafed to exift; and
the poems of Ollian, of courfe, have ceafed to be
repeated.—Within a century back, the Highlands of
Scotland have undergone a greater revolution than it
had done for ten before that period. With a quicker
pace the feudal fyftem vanifhed ; property fluctuated ;
new laws and new cuftoms ftept in, and fupplanted
the old: and all this, with fuch hidden and fuch
violent convulfions, as may well account for the (baking
of a fabric which had ftood fo many ages, that it
feemed to have bidden defiance to all the injuries of
time. Even fince Mr Macpherfon gathered the poe* s
in his collection, the amufements, employments, and
tafte of the Highlanders are much altered. A greater
attention to commerce, agriculture, and pafturage, has
quite engrofled that partial attention which was paid,
even then, to the fong of the bard. In twenty years
hence, if manners continue to change £b fall as they
do at prefent, the fainted traces will fcarce be found
of thCfe tales and poems. “ Oflian himfelf is the laft
“ of his race ; and he too (hall foon be no more, for
“ his grey branches are already ftrewed on all the
“ winds.”
Among the caufes which make thefe poems vaniih
fo rapidly, poverty and the iron rod (hould come in
for a large (hare. From the baneful (hade of thofe
imtrdeters of the mufe, the light of the fong muft faft
retire. No other reafon needs be given why the pre¬
fent Highlanders neglect fo much ihe fongs of their
71 ] o s T
fathers.—Once, the humble, but happy vafifal, fat at Oflnm
his cafe, at the foot of his grey rock or green tree, ]
Few were his wants, and fewer ftill his carts ; for he _ . Z11'e'
beheld his herds fporting around him, on his then un-
meafured mountain. He hummed the carelefs fong,
and tuned his harp with joy, while his foul in filence
blcflcd his children.—Now, we wtre going to draw the
comparifon:
———fed Cyntbius anrem
Veil'll et admennit.
It is more agreeable to remark, as another caufe for
the neglect of ancient poems and traditions, the
growth of induftry, which fills up all the blanks of
time to more advantage, and efpecially the increafe
of more ufeful knowledge.—But above all, the ex¬
tinction of the order of the bards haftened the cata-
ftrophe of Oflian’s poems. By a happy concidence
Macpherfon overtook the very laft that remained of this
order, (Macvurich, bard to Clanronald), and got his
treafure. This faCt (with the red book furniihed by
Mr Macdonald of Croidart,and fome other MSS.) ac¬
counts for MrMacpherfon’s having found thefe poems in
greater number and perfection than they could ever
fince be met with. The fragments, however, which
have fince been gathered, give a credibility to every
thing that has been faid of the original grandeur of
the building.
After giving this abftraCt of the arguments urged
for the authenticity of Oflian’s poems, and of the
anfwers to objections darted againft them, we (hall
Conclude with referring thofe who wi(h to fee the
fubjeCt difeufled on a different footing, namely, by an
appeal to fa£lst to two pamphlets recently publiftied,
Shanu's Inquiry, and Clark's Anfuer: From the
former of which, the authenticity of Offian’s poems
feemed to fullain a very formidable attack ; till the
latter appeared, expofed the impotence of the attempt,
and (hewed the unfliaken bails on which the objeCt of
it refted. So that now we feem authorifed to conclude,
without the imputation of partiality, that the contro-
verfy is at laft come to an end; and that the genuine-
nefs of the poems will be as univerfally eftabliftied in
other nations, as the originals have been admired for
ages in the Highlands.
OSSIFICATION, the formation of bones ; but
more particularly the converfion of parts naturally foft
to the hardnefs and confidence of bones.
OSSORY, the weft divifion of Queen’s-county in
Ireland.
Ossory (Bale bilhop of). See Bale.
OSTADE (AdrianVan), an eminentDutch painter
born at Lubec in 1610. He was a difciple of Francis
Hals, in whofe fchool Brouwer was cotemporary with
him, where they contracted an intimate friendihip.
The fubjeCts of his pencil were always of a low kind,
he having nearly the fame ideas as Teniers; diverting
himfelf with clowns and drunkards in (tables, ale-
houfes, and kitchens. His pictures are fo tranfparent
and highly finifhed, that they have the polilh and luftre
of enamel: they have frequently a force fuperior to
Teniers; yet it were to be wiftied that he had not de-
figned his figures fo (hort. He is perhaps one of the
Dutch mailers who bed underftood the chiaro obfeuro;
and he was often employed to paint figures for the beft
land(cape painters of his countrymen. He* died in
1685:-
o S T [ 5772 ] O S T
Offuna 1685. His works, efpecially thofe of his belt time
11 and manner, are very fcarce; fo that when they are to
Oftervald, be purchafed, no price is thought too much for them.
His prints etched by himfelf, large and fmall, confiil
of 54 pieces.
OSSUNA, an ancient and confiderable town of An-'
dalufia in Spain; with an univeffity, an hofpital, and
the title of a duchy. N. Lat. 37. 8. W. Long. 4. 18.*
OSTALRIC, a town of Spain, in Catalonia. It
had a drong caftle, but was taken by the French and
demoliflred in 1695. It is feated on the river Tordera,
in E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 24. 44.
OSTEND, a very ftrong fea-port town of the Ne¬
therlands, in Auftrian Flanders, with a good harbour,
and a magnificent town-houfe. It is not very large,
but is very well fortified. This place was taken by
the Dutch in 1706, but reftored to the emperor in
1723 ; when an Eaft India company was eftablifhed
here, but entirely fuppreffed by treaty in 1731. It
was taken by the French in Auguft 1745, after ten
days fiege; but rendered back by the treaty of Aix la
Chapelle. E. Long. 2. 48. N. Lat. 51. 17.
OSTEOCOLLA, in natural hitlory, though fup-
pofed by many to be an earth, is truly a cruftated kind
of fpar debafed by earth, and therefore not tranfpa-
rent. It is ufually found coating over vegetables, or
other bodies, in form of incrultations; fo that the true
ofteocolla is a tubular crultaceous fpar of a very foul
and coarfe texture; and carries with it much more the
appearance of a marl than of a fpecies of fpar. The
maffes of ofteocolla, though regularly of the fame fi¬
gure, are very different in fize; fome of them not be¬
ing thicker than a crow quill, while others are five and
fix inches in diameter; it is always, however, of a tu¬
bular figure, and a wrinkled rough furface. Olleo-
colla is frequent in Germany; where it is foun J bu¬
ried near the furface of the eurth, fom^times in ftrata
of land, but more frequently among marls: it fhould
be chofen, for ufe, the pureft that can be had, of a pale
brown colour, and of a tolerably firm and clofe tex¬
ture.—It has long been famous for bringing on a cal¬
lus in fra&ured bones; its name, ojleocolla, fignifies
“ bone-glue,” or the “ bone-binder.” It is alfo re¬
commended as a diuretic, and as good in the fluor al-
Lus; but the prefent praftice has rejected it.
OSTEOLOGY, that part of anatomy which treats
of the bones. See Anatomy, Part I.
OSTERVALD (John Frederick), a famous Pro-
teftant divine, was born at Neufehatel in 1663; and
made fuch rapid progrefs in his ftudies, that he be¬
came mailer of arts at Saumur before he was 16 years
of age. He afterwards ftudied at Orleans and at Pa¬
ris. At his return to Neufchatel in 1699, he be¬
came paftor of the church there; and contradfed a
itridl friendfhip with the celebrated John Alphonfus
Turretin of Geneva, and the illuftrious Samuel We-
renfels of Bafil. The union of thefe three divines,
which was called the Triumvirate of the divines of
Swifferland, lafted till his death. Mr Oftervald ac¬
quired the higheft reputation by his.virtues, his zeal
in inftrudling bis difciples, and reftoring ecclefiaftical
difeipline. He wrote many books in French; the
principal of which are, 1. A Treatife concerning the
Sources of Corruption; which is a good moral piece.
2. A Catechifm, or Inftrudlion in the Chriftian Reli-
2
gion; which has been tranflated into German, Dutch, Oftia
and Englifh; and the Abridgment of the Sacred Hi- II,
ftory, which he prefixed to it, was tranflated and print- oflracifm-
ed in Arabic, in order to be fent to the Eaft Indies,
by the care of the Society for the propagation of the
Gofpel: and that Society, eftabliftied in London, ho¬
noured him, by admitting him an honorary member.
3. A treatife againft Impurity. 4. An edition of the
French Bible of Geneva, with Arguments and Reflec¬
tions, in folio. 5. Ethica Chrifiana. 6. Theologize
Compendium, &c. He died in 1747, regretted by all
who knew him.
OSTIA, a town formerly of note, on the left or
fouth fide and at the mouth of the Tiber, whence its
name; the firft Roman colony led by Ancus Martins,
called Colonia Ofienfts. At this day it lies in ruins,
only retaining its name. There were falt-works there,
called Salinze Ofienfes, as early as the times of A'hcus
Martins, (Livy); from which the Via Solaria, which
led to the Sabines, took its name, (Varro) It gave
name to one of the gates of Rome, which was called
Of ienfs, (Ammian).
OSTIACKS, a people of Siberia in Afia, who in¬
habit the banks of the river Oby. See Siberia.
OSTRACION, in zoology, a genus of the amphi¬
bia nantes cl a Is. It has ten long cylindrical obtufe
teeth in each jaw; the aperture is linear; the body is
covered with a bony iubftance, and it has no belly-
fins. There are nine-fpecies; principally diftinguifhed
by the angles of their bodies, and number of fins near
their tail.
OSTRACISM, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the
banifhment of luch perfons whofe merit and influence
gave umbrage to the people of Athens, left they fhould
atternpt any thing againft the public liberty. This
punifhment was called oftracifm, from the Greek word
os-fKxovj which properly fignifies a “ (hell;” but when
applied to this objed, it is ufed for the billet on which
the Athenians wrote the names of the citizens whom
they intended to banifh. The learned are divided with
regard to the fubftance of which this billet was form¬
ed: fome infift that it was a fmall (tone, or a piece of
brick; fome, that it was a piece of bark ; and others
affert, that it was a fhell. The word admits moft of
thefe interpretations. But what determines .its true
fenfe, is the epithet given it by ancient authors, of
ceramice maflix; which words fignify, “ The punifli-
ment of potter’s clay:” and this expreffion feems to
us a proof, that the word orp«r.ov} when applied on this
occaiion, fignifies a “ piece of baked earth, in the form
of a (hell;” and undoubtedly the Latin authors had
this idea of the word here, for they tranflated it by
tefu/a.
The ancients are likewife divided with regard to the
time when oftracifm was inftituted. But they all agree,
that the perfon who moved the law, was its fiiu vic¬
tim. But as to the name of its patron, and the time
of its eftabliftiment, they differ extremely. Many are
of opinion, that oftracifm owes its origin to very re¬
mote times.
However that be, the puniftiment of oftracifm was
infli&ed by the Athenians when their liberty was ia
danger. If, for inftance, jealoufy or ambition had
fowed difeord among the chiefs of the republic; and if
different parties were formed, which threatened fome
revolution
O S T [ 5773 ] O S T
©ftraeifm. revolution in the ftate; the people aflembled to propofe
- "-»■ meafures proper to be taken in order to prevent the
confequences of a divifion which in the end might be
fatal to freedom. Oftracifm was the remedy to which
they ufually had recourfe on thefe occafions; and the
confultations of the people generally terminated with a
decree, in which a day was fixed for a particular af-
fembly, when they were to proceed to the fentence of
oftracifm. Then they who were threatened with ba-
niihment, omitted no afliduity or art which might
gain them the favour of the people. They made ha¬
rangues to evince their innocence, and the great inju-
ftice that would be done them if they were banifhed.
They folicited, in perfon, the intereft of every citizen;
all their party exerted themfelves in their behalf; they
procured informers to vilify the chiefs of the oppofite
faftion. Some time before the meeting of the affem-
bly, a wooden inclofure was raifed in the forum, with
ten doors, /. e. with as many as there were tribes in
the republic; and when the appointed day was come,
the citizens of each tribe entered at their refpe&ive
door, and threw into the middle of the inclofure the
fmall brick on which the citizen’s name was written
whofe banilhment they voted. The archons and the
,fenate prefided at this affembly, and counted the bil¬
lets. He who was condemned by 6000 of his fellow-
citizens, was obliged to quit the city within ten days;
for 6000 voices, at leaft, were requifite to banifh an
Athenian by oftracifm.
The Athenians, without doubt, forefaw the incon¬
veniences to which this law was fubjedt ; but they
chofe rather, as Cornelius Neposhath remarked, fome-
times to expofe the innocent to an unjuft cenfure, than
to live in continual alarms. Yet as they were fenfible
that the injufticeof confounding virtue and vice would
have been too flagrant, they foftened, as much' as
they could, the rigour of oftracifm. It was not ag¬
gravated with the circurriftances which were matt dif-
bonourable and fhocking in the ordinary mode of
exile. They did not confifcate the goods of thofe
who were baniihed by oftracifm. They enjoyed the
produce of their effedis in the places into which they
were banifhed ; and they were banifhed only for a
certain time. But in the common banifhment,"the
goods of the exiles were always confifcated, and no
hopes were given them of ever returning to Athens.
The fcholiaft of Ariftopbanes informs us of a third
difference betwixt oftracifm and the common banifh¬
ment. He fays, that a particular place of retirement
was affigned to thofe who were banifhed by oftracifm,
which was not appointed to the other exiles. Wc fuf-
pedl, however, the truth of this obfervation; forThe-
miftocles was certainly not limited in his banifliment.
That great man, as we are told by Thucydides, tho’
his chief refidence. was at Argi, travelled over all the
Pdoponnefus.
This punifhment, far from conveying the idea of
infamy, became, at Athens, -a proof of merit, by the
objedls on which it was inflidled ; as Ariftides the fo-
phift juftly obferves, in his fecond declamation againft
the Gorgias of Plato, where he fays, that oftracifm
was not an eflfedt of the vindidlive fpirit of the people
againft thofe whom it condemned ; that the law, whe¬
ther good or bad (for he enters not into an examina¬
tion of the queftion), was only meant to prune the
luxuriant growth of tranfcendent merit; that it con- Oftracifm
demned to an exile of ten years, only thofe illuftrious (I
men who were accufed of being exalted far above oflrea'
other citizens by their confpicuous virtue; and that
none of that public indignation was fhewn to the exiles
by oftracifm, which commonly breaks out againft cri¬
minals.
Such were the mitigations with which this law was
introduced among the Athenians: and by them we fee
that they were fenfible of all the inconveniences to
which it was fubjeft. They were indeed too enlight¬
ened a people, not to forefee the many inftancesof in-
juftice which it might produce ; that if in fome re-
fpefts it would be favourable to liberty, in others it
would be its enemy, by condemning citizens without
allowing them a previous defence, and by making a
capricious and envious people arbiters of the fate of
great men ; that it might even become pernicious to
the ftate, by depriving it of its heft fubjefts, and
by rendering the adminiftration of public affairs an
odious employment to men of capital talents and
virtue.
However great the inconveniences of Oftracifm
were, it would not have been impofiible to avoid them;
and we may add, that this law would have been of
fervice to the ftate, if the people by whoba it was in-
ftituted had always had difcernment enough only to
give it force on fuch occafions as endangered liberty.
But its fate was like that of almoft all other laws which
the wifeft legiflators have planned for the good of com¬
munities. Deftined by their inftitution to maintain
order, to reprefs injuftice, and to protect innocence,
men have found ways to pervert their application, and
have made them inftruments to gratify their private
paffions. Thus oftraciftn was eftablilhed to prevent
the dangerous enterprifes of the great, and to preferve
the vigour of the democracy; but the people of A-
thens, naturally jealous and envious, exerted that law,
to remove men of eminent merit from the Jlate, by
whofe prefence they were reproved and intimidated.
The fear of tyranny was commonly but a fpecious
pretext with which they veiled their malignity. The
repeated vi&ories which they had gained over the Per-
fians, had rendered them, fays Plutarch, proud and
infolent. Intoxicated with their profperity, they arro¬
gated all its glory to themfelves ; they were jealous of
thofe citizens, whofe political and military talents were
the fubjefts of public culogium. They thought the
glory acquired by great men diminiihed the'ir own re¬
putation. An Athenian no fooner diftinguilhed himfelf
by a fplendid aftion, than he was marked out as a vic¬
tim by public envy. His reputation was a fufficient -
reafon for his banilhment.
OSTRACITES, in natural hiftory, the name
which authors have given the fofiile oyiter-ftiell. O-
ftracites has the fame medical virtues with other ab-
forbent and calcareous earths.
OSTREA, the oyster, in zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of vermes teftacea. The ihell has
two unequal valves ; the cardo has no teeth, but a fma’l
hollowd it with tranfverle lateral ftreaks. Thereiare
31 fpecies, principally diftinguilhed by peculiarities
in their (hells. The common oyfter is reckoned an
excellent food; and is eaten both raw, and varioully
prepared.
o S T [ 5774 I o S T
Oftrea. Britain has been noted for oyftcrs from the time of
” Juvenal, who, fatyrizing an epicure, fays,
Circxh nataforent, an
Lucrimm ad Saxum, Rutupinove edita fundo,
OJirea, callebat primo dcprendere morfu.
He, whether Circe’s rock his oyflers bore,
Or Lucrine iake, or diftant Richborough’s Hi ore
Knew at fir(l tafle.
The luxurious Romans were very fond of this
fifh, and had their layers or ftews for oytlefs as we
have at prefent. Sergius Grata was the firft inventor,
38 early as t^ie t'mek* Craffus the orator. He did
vol. iv.M ' not ma^e them for the fake of indulging his appetite,
p. ioi. but thro’avarice, and made great profits from them.
Grata got great credit for his Lucrine oyfters ; for,
fays Pliny, the Britifli were not then known.
The ancients eat them raw, and fometimes roaft-
ed. They had alfo a cuftom of ftewing them with
mallows and docks, or with fifh, and efieemed them
very nouri filing.
Britain ftill keeps its fuperiority in oyfters over
other countries. Moft of our coafts produce them
naturally ; and in fuch places they are taken by dred¬
ging, and are become an article of commerce, both
raw and pickled. The very (hells, calcined, become
an ufeful medicine as an abforbent. In common with
other (hells, they prove an excellent manure.
Stews or layers of oyfters are formed in places
which nature never allotted as habitations for them.
Thofe near Colchefter have been long famous ; at pre¬
fent there are others that at lead rival the former, near
the mouth of the Thames. The oyfters, or their fpats,
are brought to convenient places, where they improve
in ;a!te and (ize. It is an error to fuppofe, that the
fine green obferved in oyfters taken from artificial beds,
is owing to copperas; it being notorious how deftruc-
tive the fubftance or the folution of it is to all fifh. We
cannot give a better account of the caufe, or of the
whole treament of oyfters, than what is preferved in
the learned bifhop Sprat’s hiftory of the Royal Socie¬
ty, from p. 307, to 309.
“ In the month of May, the oyfters caft their fpawn,
(which the dredgers call their it is like to
a drop of candle, and about the bignefs of a half¬
penny.
“ The fpat cleaves to ftones, old oyfter-fhells, pieces
of wood, and fuch like things, at the bottom of the
fea, which they call cultch*
“ It is probably conje&ured, that the fpat in 24
hours begins to have a (hell.
“ In the month of May, the dredgers (by the law
of the admiralty court) have liberty to catch all man¬
ner of oyfters, of what fize foever.
“ When they have taken them, with a knife they
gently raife the fmall brood from the cultch, and then
they throw the cultch in again, to preferve the ground
-for the future, unlefs they be fo newly fpat, that they
cannot be fafely fevered from the cultch ; in that cafe
they are permitted to take the (tone or (hell, &c. that
the fpat is upon, one (hell having many times 20
fpats.
“ After the month of May, it is felony to carry
away the cultch, and punilhable to take any other
oyfters, unlefs it be thofe of fize, (that is to fay) about
the bignefs of an half-crown piece, or when, the two Oftrea
(hells being (hut, a fair (hilling will rattle between Oftrieh. ^
them.
“ The places where tbefe oyfters are chiefly catched,
are called the Pent-Burnham, Malden, and Colne-wa¬
ters ; the latter taking its name from the river of
Colne, which pafleth by Colne-Chefter, gives the
name to that town, and runs into a cresk of the
fea, at a place called the Hythe, being the fuburbs of
the town.
“ This brood and other oyfters, they carry to the
creeks of the fea, at Brickel-Sea, Merfy, Langno,
Fingrego, Wivenho, Tolelbury, and Saltcoafe, and
there throw them into the channel, which they call
their beds or layers, where they grow and fatten, and
in two or three years the fmalleft brood will be oyfters
of the fize aforefaid.
“ Thofe oyfters which they would have green, they
put into pits about three feet deep in the falt-marihes,
which are overflowed only at fpring-tides, to which
they havefluices, and let out the falt-water until it is
about a foot and half deep.
“ Thefe pits, from fome quality in the foil co-ope¬
rating with the heat of the fun, will become green,
and communicate their colour to the oyfters that are
put into them in four or five days, tho’ they common¬
ly let them continue there fix weeks or two months, in
which time they will be of a dark green.
“ To prove that the fun operates in the greening,
Tolefbury pits will green only in fummer; but that
the earth hath the greater power, Brickel-Sea pits green
both winter and fummer : and for a further proof, a
pit within a foot of a greening-pit will not green; and
thofe that did green very well, will in time lofe their
quality.
“ The oyfters, when the tide comes in, lie with
their hollow (hell downwards; and when it goes out,
they turn on the other fide: they remove not from
their place, unlefs in cold weather, to cover themfelves
in the oufe.
“ The reafon of the fcarcity of oyfters, and confe-
quently of their dearnefs, is, becaufe. they are of late
years bought up by the Dutch.
“ There are great penalties by the admiralty court,
laid upon thofe that fifti out of thofe grounds which
the court appoints, or that deftroy the cultcb, or that
take any oyfters that are not of fize, or that do not
tread under their feet, or throw upon the (hore, a fifh
which they call a five finger, refembling a fpur-rowel,
becaufe that fifh gets into the oyfters when they gape,
and fucks them out.
“ The reafon that fuch a penalty is fet upon any
that (hall deftroy the cultch, is, becaufe they find
that if that be taken away, the oufe will increafe,
and the mufcles and cockles will breed there, and de¬
ftroy the oyfters, they having not whereon to (tick
their fpat.
“ The oyfters are fick after they have fpat; but in
June and July they begin to mend, and in Augult
they are perfe&ly well: the male oyfter is black-fick,
having a black fubftance in the fin ; the female white-
fick (as they term it), having a milky fubftance in the
fin. They are fait in the pits, falter in the layers, but
failed at fea.”
OSTRICH, in zoology. See Struthio.
OTA [ 5775 ] OTA
Oftuni OSTUNI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
II. Naples, and in the Terra di Otranto, with a bilhop’s
Ouheitee. fee> jts territory is well cultivated, and abounds with
olives and almonds. It is feated on a mountain near
the gulph of Venice, in E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat.
49* 59*
OSWEGO, a fort of North America, feated on the
fouth fide of the lake Ontario, in W. Long. 70. 35.
N. Lat. 45. 15.
OSWEIZEN, a town of Poland, in the Palatinate
of Cracovia, with the title of a duchy. It carries on a
great trade in fait, and is feated on the river Viftula.
E. Long. 19. 47. N. Lat. 50. t.
OTACOUSTIC instrument, or Auricular Tube,
an inftrument to facilitate the hearing. See Acou¬
stics, n° 26.
OTAHEITEE, a celebrated ifland of the South
Sea, fituated in W. Long. 149. 13. S. Lat. 17.46.
It was difcovered by Captain Wallis in 1767 ; after¬
wards Mr Bougainville touched here, and it was vifit-
ed by Captain Cook in 1773 and 1774.
The ifland confifts of two diftinft kingdoms, which
are united by a narrow neck of land; the larger be¬
ing called by the natives Tiarrabou, or O-Taheifee-Nut;
the fmailer one, Opoureonou, ox O-Taheitee-Ete. The
t circumference of both iflands is about 40 leagues ; the
Appearance larger kingdom being divided into 43 dillri&s. The
ofthecoun-country has a delightful romantic appearance. The
tfy* coaft. viewed from the fea, prefents a moft beautiful
profpeft, being elevated like an amphitheatre. The
ifland is Ikirted with a reef of rocks, and towards the
fea is level, being covered with fruit-trees of various
kinds, particularly the cocoa-nut. At the diftance of
about three miles from the ftiore, the country rifes in¬
to lofty hills that are covered with wood, and termi¬
nate in peaks, from which large rivers are precipitated
into the fea. The ftones every where appear to have
been burnt, not one being found which did not give
manifeft figns of fire ; fo that there is great reafon for
fuppofing, that this and the neighbouring iflands are
either the (battered remains of a continent, or were
torn from rocks, which from the creation of the world
have been the bed of the fea, and thrown up in heaps
to a height which the waters never reach. What is
further extraordinary, the water does not gradually
grow (hallow as we approach the (hore, but is of im-
menfe depth clofe by the land ; and the iflands in this
neighbourhood are almoft every where furrounded by
reefs, which appear to be rude and broken in the
manner that fome violent concuifion would naturally
leave the folid fubftance of the earth ; and Mr Forfter
faw a rock with projecting longitudinal angles of black
compaft bafaltes. The exterior ranges of hills are
fometimes entirely barren, and contain a great quan¬
tity of yellowiflr clay, mixed with iron ochre; but
others are covered with mould and wood like the moun¬
tains in the internal parts of the country. Pieces of
quartz are fometimes met with here ; but no indica¬
tions of precious minerals or metals of any kind have
*, been obferved, iron only excepted.
Climate. The air is extremely healthy and pleafant; the heat
is not troublefome; and frefli meat will keep very well
for two days, and fi(h one day. The winds do not
blow conftantly from the eaft, but generally a little
breeze from eaft to fouth-fouth eaft. The tide rifes
Vox.. VIII.
very little ; dnd, being governed by the winds, is very Otahekec*
uncertain. “ The climate,” fays Mr Bougainville, “ is
fo healthy, that notwithftanding the hard labour of the
(hips companies while on (bore, though the men were
continually in the water, and expofed to the meridian
fun, though they dept upon the bare foil, and in'the
open air, none of them fell fick ; thofe who were af¬
flicted with the fcurvy, and were fent on (bore, regain¬
ed their ftrength : although they were obliged to affift
in the ereCting of a fort, and had fcarce one uninter¬
rupted night, yet they were fo far recovered in the
(hort fpace of time they continued there, that they
were afterwards perfectly cured on board.” 3
Notwithftanding the great height of the inland Highmoun-
mountains of Otaheitee, none of their rocks have thetains*
appearance of barrennefs, every one of them being co¬
vered with woods. “ We hardly believed our eyes,”
fays M. de Bougainville, “ when we faw a peak cover¬
ed with woods up to its higheft fummit, which rifes
above the level of the mountains in the anterior parts
of the fouthern quarter of this ifland. Its apparent
fize feemed to be more than 30 toifes in diameter, and
grew lefs in breadth as it rofe higher. At a diftance
it might have been taken for a pyramid of immenfe
height, which the hand of an able fculptor had adorn¬
ed with garlands and foliage.” One of the mates of
the dolphin, with a party of marines and feamen, pe¬
netrated into the interior parts of the ifland; and ha¬
ving alcended, with great difficulty, a mountain which
they fuppofed to be a mile high, they difcovered
mountains before them fo much higher, that with re-
fped to them they feemed to be in a valley: towards
the fea the view was enchanting, the fides of the hills
were beautifully clothed with wood, villages were
every where interfperfed, and the valleys between them
afforded a ftill richer profpeft; the houfes flood thicker,
and the verdure was more luxuriant; and Mr Forfter,
with other gentlemen, afeended to the fummit of one
of the higheft mountains in the ifland, from whence
they had a profpeCt of the ifland of Huahine, and
fome others lying at the dittance of 40 leagues; from
which we may form fome judgment of the prodigious
height of that mountain. The view of the fertile plain
below them, and of a river making innumerable me¬
anders, was delightful in the higheft degree. The ve¬
getation on the upper part of the mountains was luxu¬
riant, and the woods confided of many unknown forts
of trees and plants. 4
The foil of this ifland is a rich fat earth, of a black-Soil and
ifh colour. It produces fpontaneoufly, or with thePro^uce*
flighteft culture imaginable, a great variety of the
moft excellent fruits; fuch as bread-fruit, cocoa nuts,
bananas of 13 forts, plantains, potatoes, yams, a fruit
known here by the name ai jambu, and reckoned moft
delicious; fugar-canes, which the inhabitants eat raw }
ginger ; turmeric ; a root of the falep kind, called by
the inhabitants pea ; a plant called etbee, of which the
root only is eaten; a fruit that grows in a pod like
that of a large kidney-bean, by the natives called
a tree called <wharra, which produces fruit fomething
like the pine-apple, and which is known in the Eaft
Indies by the name of pandanes ; a (hrub called nono i
the morinda, which alio produces fruit; a fpecies of
fern ; a plant called thebe; and the Chinefe paper-
mulberry, of the bark of which they make their cloth;
32 P at»
OTA t 5776 ] OTA
Otaheitse, an herb which the inhabitants eat raw, its flavour
fomewhat refembling that of the Weft. India fpinage
called calletoon, but its leaf very different; a plant
which the natives call ava or eava, from the root of
which they exprefs a liquor, which, if drank to excels,
intoxicates like wine or diftilled fpirits. Here are a
fort of ftiady trees covered with a dark-green foliage,
bearing golden-coloured apples, which, in juicinefs
and flavour, refemble the ananas or pine-apple. One
of the moft beautiful trees in the world received here
the name of Barringtonia ; it had a great abundance
of flowers larger than lilies, and perfectly white, ex¬
cepting the tips of their numerous chives, which were
of a deep crimfon. Such a quantity of thefe flowers
were feen dropped off, that the ground underneath the
tree was entirely covered with them. The natives
called the tree buddov; and faid, that the fruit, which
is a large nut, when bruifed and mixed up with fome
fhell-fifh, and thrown into the fea, intoxicates the fiih
for fome time, fo that they come to the furface of the
water, and fuffer themfelves to be taken with people’s
hands. Several other maritime plants in tropical cli¬
mates are found to have the fame quality. Mr Dal-
rymple defcribes the method of catching fifh with thefe
plants as follows : The plant is thruft under the coral
rocks or hollows where the lifh haunt; the effedt is
moft fenfible in ftill water, though it is effeftual in
the open fea ; for the fame gentleman fays, he has feen
fifh foon after float on the furface of the water half
dead, and fome totally without life ; and where the
effeft is lefs violent, the fifh will be feen under the
water to have loft their poife, without coming up to
the furface. Fifh caught in this manner are not in the
s leaf! noxious or ill tatted.
Animals. In this ifland they havedomeftic poultry exaftly re¬
fembling thofe of Europe : befides which there are
wild ducks ; alfo beautiful green turtle-doves ; large
pigeons of a deep blue plumage and excellent tafte ;
a fmall fort of paroquets, very lingular on account of
the various mixture of red and blue in their feathers ;
alfo another fort of a greenifh colour, with a few red
pots j the latter are frequently tamed, and are valued
on account of their red feathers. Here is a king-
fifher of a dark green, with a collar of the fame hue
round his white throat; a large cuckoo, and a blue
heron. Small birds of various kinds dwell in the fhady
trees; and, contrary to the generally received opinion
that birds in warm climates are not remarkable for
their fong, have a very agreeable note. There were
no quadrupeds but dogs, hogs, and rats ; and for thefe
laft the natives were faid to have a fcrupulous regard,
infomuch that they would by no means kill them ;
however, Capt. Cook, in 1773, turned about 14 cats
on the ifland, which have probably reduced the num¬
ber of thefe vermin. No frogs, toads, fcorpions, cen¬
tipedes, or any kind of ferpent, have been found here:
the ants, however, are troublefome, but not very nu¬
merous. When the Endeavour firft arrived here in
1679, the flies were found exceffively troublefome ;
but mufquetto nets and fly-flaps in fome meafure re¬
moved the inconvenience. Sydney Parkinlon, in his
journal, fays, that notwithftanding thele flies are fo
great a nuifance, the natives, from a religious prin¬
ciple, will not kill them. But there is a Itrange dif-
agreernent in the accounts of different voyagers con¬
cerning this matter. For Mr Bougainville fays, 11 this Otaheitee.
ifland is not infefted by thofe myriads of troublefome  
infers that are the plague of other tropical countries.”
And Mr Forfter fays, “ not a gnat or mufquetto hum¬
med unpleafantly about us, or made us apprehenfive
of its bite.” This inconvenience mult therefore be felt
at certain feafons of the year, and in certain diitridts
of the country, more feniibly than at other times and
places. There is great variety of excellent tilh ; and,
according to Aitourou, a native who embarked with
M. de Bougainville, there are fea-fnakes on the (here
of Otaheitee, whole bite is mortal. g
The inhabitants of Otaheitee are a ftout, well-made, Defcription
aftive, and comely people. The ftature of the men, the inha-
in general, is from five feet feven to five feet ten inch- hhan15,
es; the tailed man feen by Captain Wallis meai'ured
fix feet three inches and an half; and Captain Cook,
in his fecond voyage, defcribes O-Too, the king of
Otaheitee, to be of that height. “ In order to paint
“ an Hercules or a Mars,” fays M. de Bougainville,
“ one could nowhere find fuch beautiful models.”
They are of a pale brown complexion ; in general their
hair is black, and finely frizzled; they have black
eyes, flat nofes, large mouths, and fine white teeth y
the men wear their beards in many falhions, all of them
plucking out a great part, and have prominent bellies^
Moft of them fmell ftrong of the cocoa-nut oil. The
women, in general, are much fmaller, efpecialiy thofe
of the lower rank <Sr tawtows, which is attributed to
their early and promifeuous intercourfe with the men ;
whilft the better fort, who do not gratify their paf-
fions in the fame unbridled manner, are above the
middle ftature of Europeans. Their Ikin is moft de¬
licately fmooth and foft; they have no colour in their
cheeks; their nofe is generally fomewhat flat, but their
eyes are full of expreflion, and their teeth beautifully
even and white. “ The women,” fays M. de Bou¬
gainville, “ have features not lefs agreeable than the
generality of Europeans, and a fymmetry of body and
beautiful proportion of limbs which might vie with any
of them.” The complexion of the men is tawny;,
but thofe who go upon the water are much more red
than thofe who live on Ihore. Some have their hair
brown, red, or flaxen, in which they are exceptions
to all the natives of Alia, Africa, and America, who
have their hair black univerfally ; here, in the children
of both fexes, it i% generally flaxen. The ftrongeft
expreffion is painted in the countenances of thele peo¬
ple ; their walk is graceful, and all their motions are
performed with great vigour and cafe. “ I never be¬
held ftatelier men,” fays Sydney Parkinfon. “ The men
of confequence on the ifland wear the nails of their
fingers long, which they confider as a very honourable
badge of diftin&ion, fince only fuch people as have no
occafion to work can fuffer them to grow to that
length. This cuftom they have in common with the
Chinefe ; but the nail of the middle finger on the right
hand is always kept Ihort, the meaning for which pe—
culiarity could not be learned. Only one Angle cripple
was met with among them, and he appeared to have
been maimed by a fall. The women always cut their
hatr. Ihort round their heads. Both lexes have a cu¬
ftom of liaining their bodies, which they call tattow
ing; both men and women have the hinder part of
their thighs and loins marked very thick with black
lines
OTA [ 5777 J OTA
Otahcitee. lines ia various forms ; thefe marks are made by ftri-
~ king the teeth of an inftrument fomewhat like a comb
juft through the (kin, and rubbing into the pun&ureg
a kind of palte made of foot and oil, which leaves an
indelible (lain. The boys and girls under twelve years
of age are not marked; a few of the men, whole legs were
marked in chequers by the fame method, appeared to be
perfon sof fuperior rank and authority. MrBanksfawthe
operation of tattowing performed upon the backlide of a
girl about thirteen years old. The intlmment ufed upon
this occalion had thirty teeth ; and every (troke, of
which at lealt a hundred were made in a minute, drew
an ichor or ferum a little tinged with blood. The girl
bore it with moll lloical refolution for about a quarter
of an hour ; but the pain of fo many hundred puncr
lures as (he had received in that time, then became in¬
tolerable. She firft complained in murmurs, then wept,
and at lad burft into loud lamentations, earnellly im¬
ploring the operator to defift. He was, however, in¬
exorable ; and when (he began to ftruggle, (he was
held down by two women, who fometimes foothed
and fometimes chid her ; and now and then when (he
was mod unruly, gave her a fmart blow. Mr Banks
ftaid in a neighbouring houfe an hour, and the opera¬
tion was not over when he went away; yet it was per¬
formed but upon one (ide, the other having been done
fome time before ; and the arches upon the loins, in
which they mod pride themfelves, and which give
more pain than all the red, were dill to be done. Both
men and women are not only decently but gracefully
cloathed, in a kind of white cloth that is made of the
bark of a (hrub, and very much refembles coarfe China
paper. Their drefs confiils of two pieces of this cloth;
one of them, having a hole made in the middle to put
the head through, hangs down from the Shoulders to
the mid-leg before and behind ; another piece, which
is between four and five yards long, and about one
yard broad, they wrap round the body in a very eafy
manner: This cloth is not woven ; but is made like
paper, of the macerated fibres of the inner bark fpread
out and beaten together. Their ornaments are fea¬
thers, flowers, pieces of (hell, and pearls ; the pearls
Are worn chiefly by the women. In wet weather they
wear matting of different kinds, as their cloth will not
bear wetting. The drefs of the better fort of women
confiils of three or four pieces ; one piece, about two
yards wide and eleven long, they wrap feveral times
round their waift, fo as to hang down like a petticoat
as low as the middle of the leg ; and this they call pa-
rou. This fimple drapery affords the fex an opportu¬
nity of difplaying an elegant figure to thegreateft ad¬
vantage, according to the talents and talle of the wear¬
er : no general falhions force them to disfigure inftead
of adorning themlelves, but an innate gracefulnefs is
the companion of fimplicity. To this cloth they give
T a very (Irong perfume.
Of their The chief ufe which they make of their houfes is to
ou es* deep in them ; for unlefs it rains, they eat in the open
air under the (hade of a tree. Thefe honfes are no other
than (beds, all built in the wood between the fea and
the mountains: they are erefled on an oblong fqnare;
their width is nearly half of their length ; they are
nothing more than a roof, not quite four feet from the
ground, raifed on three rows of pillars, one row on
each fide, and one in the middle. The roof refemblcs
our thatched houfes in England, and confiils of two Otaheitre.
flat fides inclining to each other. Their thatch con- 
fifts of palm-leaves. The floor of their dwelling is
covered with hay, over which they fpread mats. Som
of thefe ere&ions are furnifhed with a (tool, which is
appropriated folely to the ufe of the mailer of the
family : they confift. of no other furniture except a few
blocks of wood, which being fquare, one fide is hol¬
lowed into a curve; and thefe they ufe as pillows, and
with their apparel they cover themfelves. In thefe
open dwellings the whole family repofe themfelves at
night. The fize of the houfe is proportioned to the
number that conftitutes the family. The eilabliflied
order in thefe dormitories is, for the mafter and his
wife to deep in the middle; round them the married
people ; in the next circle the unmarried women; and
in the next, at the fame dillance, the unmarried men;
and the fervants at the extremity of the (bed; but in
fair weather, the latter deep in the open air. Some
few dwellings, however, conftru&ed for greater pri¬
vacy, are entirely inclofed with walls of reeds, con¬
nected together with tranfverfe pieces of wood, fo as
to appear fomewhat like large bird-cages clofely lined;
in thefe houfes there is commonly a hole left for the
entrance, which can be clofed up with a board.
Their candles are made of the kernels of a kind of
oily nut, which they (lick one above another on a
(kewer that is thrull through the middle of them ; the
upper one being lighted burns to the fecond, at the
fame time confuming that part of the (kewer that goes
through it ; the fecond taking fire burns in the fame
manner down to the third, and fo to the lad; they
burn a confiderable time, and afford a pretty gond
light. The natives generally retire to reft about an hour
after it is dark. s
The food of the common people entirely confifts of Food, me-
vegetables. Thefe are, the bread-fruit, with bananas,thod °f
plantains, yams, apples, and a four fruit, which, though ^°kery:»
not pleafant by itfelf, gives an agreeable relifli to roafted^’
bread-fruit, with which it is frequently beaten up. See
the article Bread-7ra*. The flefh, which is referved
for the tables of the great, is either poultry, hogs, or
dogs ; the fle(h of their fowls is not well tafted, but that
of dogs is efteemed by the natives beyond pork. The
fmaller filh are generally eaten raw, as we eat oyfters:
every thing that can be procured from the fea is made
an article of their food; for they will eat not only
fea-infetfts, but what the feamen call blubbers, though
fome of them are fo tough that they are obliged to
fuffer them to become putrid before they can be chewed.
A very large (hark being caught by the Dolphin’s peo¬
ple was given to the natives ; who foon cut it to pieces,
and carried it away with great fatisfadlion.
They kill the animals they intend for food by fuffo-
cating them, which is done by Hopping the mouth
and nofe with their hands ; they then finge off the
hair, by holding the animal over a fire, and feraping
him with a (hell: with this intlrument they cut him up,
and take out the entrails; which arc walhed, and put
into cocoa-nut (hells, together with the blood. Dogs
are eaten that are fed wholly upon bread-fruit, cocoa-
nuts, yams, and other vegetables, and are never fuf-
fered to talle any animal food ; and thofe who have
tailed the flelh of a dog thus fed, have declared it to
be little inferior to Englilh lamb. In order to drefs
32 P a their
OTA f 5778 ] OTA
Otaheitee. their food, they kindle a fire, by rubbing the end of
one piece of dry wood upon the fide of another, in the
manner as a carpenter with us whets a chifel. They
then dig a pit about half a foot deep, and two or
three yards in circumference ; they pave the bottom
with large pebble (tones, which they lay down very
fmooth and even, and then kindle a fire in it with dry
wood, leaves, and the hulks of cocoa-nuts. When
the (tones are fufficiently heated, they take out the
embers, and rake up the afhes on every fide ; they
then cover the (tones with a layer of green cocoa-nut
leaves, and wrap up the animal that is to be dreffed
in the leaves of the plantain. If it is a fmall hog, they
wrap it up whole ; if a large one, they fplit it. When
it is placed in the pit, they cover it with the hot
embers, and lay upon them bread-fruit and yams,
which are alfo wrapped up in the leaves of plantain.
Over thefe they fpread the remainder of the embers,
mixing among them fome of the hot (tones, with more
cocoa-nut-tree leaves upon them, and then clofe up
all with earth, fo that the heat is kept in ; the oven
is kept thus clofcd a longer or (horter time, according
to the (ize of the meat that is dreffed. The meat,
when taken out, is faid to be better dreffed than any
other way. They ufe (hells for knives; and carve very
dexteroufly with them, always cutting from themfelves.
One of the principal attendants on Oberea, attempt¬
ing the ufe of the knife and fork, could not feed himfelf
therewith ; but, by the mere force of habit, his hand
came to his mouth, and the vi&uals at the end of his
fork went way to his ear.
They are quite unacquainted with the method of
boiling water, as they have no veffels among them
that will bear the fire. Whilft the noble Oberea was
one morning at breakfaft with captain Wallis on
board the Dolphin, the furgeon filled the tea-pot by
turning the cock of a vafe that flood upon the table.
One of the lady’s attendants obferved this praflice
very attentively, and foon after turning the cock him¬
felf, received the water upon his hand ; he no fooner
felt himfelf fealded, than he roared and danced about
in an extravagant manner. The other Indians, unap-
prifed of the caufe of thefe emotions, flood gazing at
him in amazement, and not without fome mixture of
terror: but the gentlemen in company, who foon per¬
ceived the caufe of the outcry, difpelled the appre-
henfions of their vifitants; and fome ointment being
applied to the feald, good-humour and confidence
were again reftored. The gunner of the (hip, who
was appointed comptroller of the market which was
eftabliflied on (hore with the natives, ufed to dine on
the fpot; the aflonifhment of thefe people was very
great to fee him drefs his pork and poultry in a pot;'
at length an old man, who was extremely ferviceable
in bringing down provifions to be exchanged, was put
into poffeffion of an iron pot, and from that time he
and his friends ate boiled meat every day. Several
iron pots were likewife given to Oberea and fome of
the chiefs ; which were in conftant ufe, and drew every
body to fee them ; but although the particulars of two
fucceffive voyages of captain Cook to this ifland are
eircumftantially related, we hear no more of this im¬
provement in the culinary art, or of the further afii-
itance which has been rendered thofe people in fup-
plying them with pots for boiling; but however de-
firous the natives might be to eat boild meat, it was Otahextes.
not advifable to have fuch an article of barter as iron
kettles, when a few fpike nails, or a common hatchet,
would procure one of their larged hogs.
Salt water is the ufual fauce to their food ; thofe
who live near the-fea have it furniflied as it is wanted,
others at a didance keep it in large bamboos. The
kernels of the cocoa-nuts furnifli them with another
fauce : thefe, made into a pade fomething of the con¬
fidence of butter, are beat up with fait water, which
has a very drong flavour ; but though at fird it feemed
very naufeous, yet when the tade became familiar, it
was much relifhed.
Their general drink is water, or the milk of the
cocoa-nut. They (hewed in general an averfion to
drong liquors; and whenever anyone of them hap¬
pened to drink fo freely with* any of the (hip’s com¬
pany as to be intoxicated, he refolutely refufed to
tade any thing that was likely to produce the fame
effedl again ; but they have a plant which they call
ava ava, from the root of which they procure a
liquor which has an inebriating quality. Their man¬
ner of preparing this drong drink is as Ample as it is
difguding to an European. Several of the people
take fqme of the root, and chew it till it is foft and
pulpy; they then fpit it out into a platter or other
veffel, every one into the /ame : into this general re¬
ceptacle water is poured according to the quantity
prepared. The juice thus diluted, is drained through
fome fibrous (tuff like fine (havings, after which it is
fit for drinking, and it is always prepared for prefent
ufe : it has a pepperilh tade ; drinks flat, and rather
infipid; and though it intoxicates, yet captain Cook
faw but one inftance where it had that effe6t, as the
natives generally drink it with great moderation, and
but little at a time. Sometimes they chew this root
as Europeans do tobacco, and fometimes they will eat
it wholly.
They eat alone, or at lead only in company with a
gued that happens to call in; and the men and women
never fit down together to a meal: the (hade of a fpread-
ing tree ferves them for a parlour; broad leaves fpread
in great abundance ferve for a table-cloth ; and if a
perfon of rank, he is attended by a number of fervants
who feat themfelves round him; before he begins his
meal, he waflies his mouth and hands very clean, and
repeats this feveral times whild he is eating. The
quantity of food whicluthefe people eat at a meal is
prodigious. Captain Cook fays, he has feen one man
devour two or three fiflies as big as a pearch ; three
bread-fruits, each bigger than two fids ; 14 or 15
plantains, or bananas, each fix or feven inches long
and four or five round, and near a quart of the pound¬
ed bread-fruit. Men of rank are condantly fed by
their women; and one of the chiefs who dined on board
the (hips in 1769, (hewed fuch relu&ance to feed him¬
felf, that one of the fervants was obliged to feed him
to prevent his returning without his meal. In one of
the excurfions which the gentlemen of the (hips made
into the country in 1773, they arrived at a neat houfe,
where a very fat man, who feemed to be a chief of the
didrifl, was lolling on his wooden pillow; before him
two fervants were preparing his defert, by beating up
with water fome bread-fruit and bananas in a large
wooden bowl, and mixing with it a quantity of fermen-
OTA [ 5779 ] OTA
Otaheitee. ted four pafte called mahis. While this was doing, a
' ' woman who fat down near him, crammed down his
throat by handfuls the remains of a large baked fifli,
and feveral bread-fruits, which he fwallowed with a vo¬
racious appetite ; his countenance was the pi&ure of
phlegmatic infenfibility, and feemed to teftify that all
his thoughts centered in the gratification of his appe¬
tite. He fcarce deigned to look at the ftrangers; and
a few monofyllables which he uttered, were extorted
from him to remind his feeders of their duty, when by
gazing at them they grew lefs attentive to him.
That thefe people, who are remarkably fond of fo«
ciety, and particularly that of their women, fhould ex¬
clude its pleafures from the table, where, among all
other nations, whether civil or favage, they have been
principally enjoyed, is truly inexplicable. How a meal,
which every where elfe brings families and friends to¬
gether, comes to feparate them here, was a Angula¬
rity much inquired about, but never accounted for.
“ They ate alone,” they faid, “ becaufe it was right;”
but why it was right to eat alone, they never attemp¬
ted to explain. Such, however, was the force of habit
in this infiance*- as it is in every other, that they ex-
prelfed the ftrongeft diflike, and even difgult, at their
vifitants eating in fociety, efpecially with women, and
of the fame vi&uals. “ At firft (fays captain Cook)
we thought this ftrange Angularity arofe from fome
fupcrftitious opinion; but they conftantly affirmed the
contrary. We obferved alfo fome caprices in the cu-
ftom, for which we could as little account as the
cullom itfelf. We could never prevail with any of the
women to partake of the viduals at our table, when
we were dining in company ; yet they would go five
or fix together into the fervants apartments, and there
eat very heartily of whatever they could find: nor were
they in the leaft difconcerted if we came in while they
were doing it. When any of us have been alone with
a woman, ffie has fometimes eaten in our company;
but then (he has expreffed the great unwillingnefs that
it fhould be known, and always extorted the ftrongelt
promifes of fecrecy. Among themfelves, even two
brothers and two fillers have each their feparate ba-
fkets of provifions, and the apparatus of their meal.
When they firfi vlfited us at our tents, each brought
his bafket with him ; and when we fat down to table,
they would go out, fit down upon the ground, at two
or three yards diftance from each other, and turning
their faces different ways take their repaft without
exchanging a fingle word. The women not only ab-
ftain from eating with the men, and of the fame vic¬
tuals, but even have their vi&uals feparately prepared
by boys kept for that purpofe, who depofit it in a fe¬
parate (bed, and attend them with it at their meals.
But though they w»uld not eat with us, or with each
other, they have often afked us to eat with them,
when we have vifited thofe with whom we were parti¬
cularly acquainted at their houfes; and we have of¬
ten upon fucb occafions eaten out of the fame ba¬
fket, and drank out of the fame cup. The elder
women, however, always appeared offended at this li¬
berty; and if we happened to touch their vi&uals, or
even the balket that contained it, they would throw it
away.”
After meals, and in the heat of the day, the middle-
aged people of the better fort generally fleep. They
are indeed extremely indolent; and fleeping and eat- Otaheifee.
ing are almoft all that they do. Thofe that are older
are lefs drowfy, and the boys and girls are kept awake
by the natural a&ivity and fprightlinefs of their age. 9
Thefe ifianders, who inhabit huts expofed to all theDifcate;,.
winds, and hardly cover the earth, which ferves them
for a bed, with a layer of leaves, are remarkably healthy
and vigorous, and live to an old age without enduring
any of its infirmities ; their fenfes are acute, and they
retain their beautiful teeth to the lad. M. de Bougain¬
ville defcribes an old man, whom they faw on their
landing, who had no other charafter of old age, than
that refpe&able one which is imprinted on a fine figure.
His head was adorned with white hair, and a long,
white beard; all his body was nervous and flelhy; he
had neither wrinkles, nor fhewed any others tokens of
decrepitude. This venerable man feemed difpleafed at
the arrival of thefe itrangers; he even retired without
making any returns to the courteiies they paid to him ;
but he gave no figns either of fear, aftoniffiment, or
curiofity: very far from taking any part in the rap¬
tures which the multitude expreffed, his thoughfuland
fufpicious air feemed to indicate, that he feared the ar¬
rival of a new race of men would interrupt the happi-
nefs he had fo long enjoyed. From whence it may be
inferred, that his mind was not a whit more impaired
than his body. There are, however, feveral forts of
leprous complaints on this ifiand, which appear in cu¬
taneous eruptions of the fcaly kind; fome were feen
that had ulcers upon different parts of their bodies: yet
they feemed little regarded by thofe who were afflic¬
ted with them, and no application whatever was ufed
to them, not fo much as to keep off the flies. But in-
flances of them are rare, as the excellency of their cli¬
mate, and the fimplicity of their vegetable food, pre¬
vent almoft all dangerous and deadly diforders. They
are fometimes afflitted with the cholic, and coughs are
not unknown among them ; and the chiefs, who fare
more fumptuoufly, as a punilhment for their voluptu-
oufnefs are fometimes attacked with a diforder fimilar
to the gout, in which the legs are fwelled and excef-
fively painful. M. de Bougainville's furgeon affured
him, that he had feen many with marks of the fmall-
pox.
The ufual method employed here to reftore the fick
to health, is by pronouncing a fet form of words; after
which the exorcift applies the leaves of the cocoa-tree
plaited, to the fingers and toes of the fick; fo that na¬
ture is left to conflid with the difeafe, without being
affifted with any falutary application of art. But tho’
they feem utterly deftitute of medical knowledge, they
appear to be no inconfiderable proficients in furgcry,
which they had an opportunity of proving while the
Dolphin lay here. One of the feamen, when on fflore,
ran a large fplinter into his foot ; and the furgeon not
being at hand, one of his comrades endeavoured to
take it out with a pen-knife ; but after putting the
poor fellow to a great deal of pain, he was obliged to
give it over: an old native, who had been very adive
and fuccefsftil in eftablilhing a good underftanding be¬
tween the ftiip’s company and his countrymen, hap¬
pening to be prefent, called a man from the other fide
of the river, who having examined the lacerated foot?
fetched a ffiell from the beach, which he broke to a
point with his teeth ; with which inftrument he laid
ope a
OTA [ 5780 ] OTA
©taheitee. open the wound, and extra&ed the fplinter. Whilft this
operation was performing, the old man went a little
way into the wood, and returned with fome gum, which
he applied to the wound upon a piece of the cloth
that was wrapped round him, and in two days time it
was perfefty healed. This gum was produced by the
apple-tree ; the furgeon of the (hip procured fome of
it, and ufed it as a vulnerary balfam with great fuc-
cefs. Captain Cook, in 1769, faw many of the na¬
tives with dreadful fears; one man, in particular, whofe
face was almoft entirely deftroyed : his nofe, including
bone, was perfeftly flat; and one cheek and one eye
were fo beaten in, that the hollow would almoft receive
a man’s fift; yet no one ulcer remained.
The venereal difeafe is faidto have been entailed up¬
on thefe people by the crew of M. de Bougainville’s
fhips, who vifited this ifland a (hort time after Cap¬
tain Wallis had left it. In 1 769, more than one-half
of the crew in Captain Cook’s (hip had contrafted it,
during a month’s flay here. The natives dittinguiftied
it by a name of the fame import with rottennefs, but
of a more extenfive fignification. They deferibed, in
the moft pathetic terms, the fufferings which the firft
victims to its rage endured; and told him that it caufed
the hair and the nails to fall off, and the flelh to rot
from the bones; that it fpread an univerfal terror and
confternation among the inhabitants, fo that the fick
were abandoned by their neareft relations, left the ca¬
lamity (hould (pread by contagion, and were left to'
eri(h alone in fuch mifery as till then had never been
nown among them. But there feems to be fome rea-
fon to hope that they had found out a fpecific cure for
it, as none were feen on whom it had made a great
progrefs ; and one who went from the (hip infeded,
returned, after a (hort time, in perfeft health. Both
Captain Cook and Mr Forfter, in their relations of
their voyage in the Refolution, endeavour to eftablirti
the opinion, that this fcourge of licentioufnefs was felt
in the South-Sea iflands, previous to any of the mo¬
dern voyages that have been made thither, and that it
was an indigenous difeafe there. But if that conclufion
is well founded, how comes it, that at all the places
where the Refolution touched in 1773, which had
been before viuted by the Endeavour in 1769, fuch as
New Zealand for inftance, the crew, more or lefs, be¬
came infefled by their commerce with the women, and
mot at all fo at places which they vifued, for the firft
time, in the Refolution ?
Manufac- The principal manufa&ure among the Otaheiteans
tures. is their cloth. This is made of the bark of trees,
which are of three kinds, viz. the Chinefe mulberry-
tree, or aouta; the bread fruit tree, or eoroo; and one
that is deferibed by Dr Hawkefworth as refembling
the wild fig-tree of the Weft Indies. Of all thefe the
paper mulberry affords the beft cloth ; what is made
from that being both finer, fofter, whiter, and better
fuited to take a colour;, the ooroo produces cloth much
inferior in contexture ; and the laft is very coarfe, in
colour refembling the darkeft brown paper; but this
laft is the only kind that withftands Water. See
the article Bark. They likewife prepare a red
dye; which is made by mixing the yellow juice' of
a fmall fpecies of fig, which the natives call mat-
tee, with the greenifli juice of a fort of fern or
bindweed, or of feveral other plants, which produce a
bright crimfon t and this the women hub with their Otaheitee.
hands, if the piece is to be uniformly of a colour ; or *
they make ufe of a bamboo reed if the piece is to be
marked, or fprinkled into different patterns. The co¬
lour fades very foon, and becomes of a dirty red ; but
notwithftanding this defeft, and its being liable to be
fpoiled by rain, the cloth thus ftained is highly valued,
and is worn only by the principal inhabitants of the
country. The inhabitants perfume their clothes with
certain plants ; concerning which, Mr Forfter made
all poffible inquiry. Tahea, a friendly native, (hewed
him feveral plants which are fometimes ufed as fubfti-
tutes; but the moft precious fort he either could not,
or would not point out: and from the account of Omai
it appears, that there are no lefs than 14 different forts
of plants employed for this purpofe.
Matting is another Otaheitean manufafture ; and in
this they are fo dextrous, that they produce finer mats
than any made in Europe. Rudies, grafs, the bark
of trees, and the leaves of a plant called luharrou, are
the materials which they work up for this purpofe.
Their matting is applied to various ufes: the coarfer
kind is employed for deeping on in the night, or fit¬
ting on through the day ; the finer fort is converted
into garments in rainy weather, their cloth being foon
penetrated by Wet. They are very dextrous in ma¬
king bafleet and wicker-work : their bafleets are of a
vaft number of different patterns, many of them ex¬
ceedingly neat; and the making them is an art prac-
tifed by every one, both men and women.
Inftead of hemp, they make ropes and lines of the
bark of a tree; and thus they are provided with fifh-
ing-nets; the fibres of the cocoa-nut furnifii them with
thread, with which they fallen the different parts of
their canoes, &c. The bark of a nettle which grows
in the mountains, and is called orawa, fupplies them
with excellent fi(hing-lines, capable of holding any
kind of fi(h ; and their hooks are made of mother-of-
pearl, to which they fix a tuft of hair, made to re¬
ferable the tail of a fi(h. Inftead of making them
bearded, the point is turned inwards. They make alfo
a kind of feine of a coarfe broad grafs, the bladder of
which are like flags. Thefe they twift and tie toge¬
ther in a loofe manner, till the net, which is about as
wide as a large fack, is from 60 to 80 fathoms long.
This they haul in fmooth (hoal water; and its own
weight keeps it fo clofe to the ground, that fcarcely a
Angle fi(h can efcape. They make harpoons of cane,
and point them with hard wood; with which they can
ftrike fifh more effe&ually than an European can with
one headed with iron. u
The tools ufed by the Otaheiteans for all their pur-Working-
pofes are, an adze, made of (lone; a chifel or gouge,tools'
made of bone, generally the bone of a man’s arm be¬
tween the wrift and elbow ; a vafp of coral, and the
(kin of a fting-ray; alfo coral and (and, as a file or po-
liftier; and with thefe they fell timber, cleave and po-
li(h it, and hew (lone. The (lone which makes the
blade of their adzes is a kind of bafaltes, of a grey or
blackifh colour; not very hard, but of confidtrable
toughnefs ; they are formed of different fizes ; fome
that are intended for felling, weigh from fix to eight
pounds; others that are ufed for carving, not more
than as many ounces: but it isneceffary to (harpen thefe
rude tools almoft every minute ; for which purpole a
x cocoa-
OTA [ 5781 ] OTA
©ubeitee. cocoa-nut (hell full of water and a ftone are always at
—   hand. With fuch tools they generally take up feveral
days in felling a tree; but after it is down, and fplit
into planks, they fmooth them very dexteroufly and
expeditioufly with their adzes, and can take off a thin
n coat from a whole plank without miffing a ftroke.
Weapons. Their weapons are flings, which they ufe with great
dexterity; pikes headed with the flings of fling-rays;
and plubs of about fix or feven feet long, made of a
very hard wood. Thus armed, they are faid to fight
with great obflinacy ; and to give no quarter to man,
woman, pr child, who happens to fall into their hands
during the battle, nor for fome time afterwards, till
their paffion fubfides. They have likewife bows and
arrows ; but the arrows are good for nothing except to
bring down a bird, being headed only with ftone, and
none of them pointed. They have targets of a femi-
circular form, made of wicker-work, and plaited firings
of the cocoa-nut fibres, covered with glofly, bluiffi-
green feathers belonging to a kind of pigeon, and or¬
namented with many fhark’s-teeth, arranged in three
concentric circles.
Canoes. Their boats or canoes are of three different forts.
Some are made out of a fingle tree, and hold from
two to , fix men. Thefe are principally employed
in fiftiing; the others are conftru&ed of planks very
dexteroufly fewed together; they are of different
fizes, and will hold from 10 to 40 men : they gene¬
rally larti two of thefe together, and fet up two mafts
between them; or if they are fingle, they have an on-
trigger on one tide, and only one mail in the middle;
and in thefe veffels they will fail far beyond the fight
of land. The third fort feems to be principally de-
figned for pleafure or ftrew. Thefe are very large, but
have no fail ; and in (hape refemble the gondolas of
Venice. The middle is covered with a large awning;
and fome of the people fit upon it, and fome under it.
The plank of which thefe veffels are conftrufted, is
made by fplitting a tree, with the grain, into as many
thin pieces as poffible. The boards are brought to the
thicknefs of about an inch, and are afterwards fitted
to the boat with the fame exa&nefs that might be ex-
pe&ed from an expert joiner. To fatten thefe planks
together, holes are bored with a piece of bone fixed
into a flick for that purpofe. Through thefe holes a
kind of plaited cordage is pa fled, fo as to hold the
planks ftrongly together. The feams are caulked with
dry ruflies; and the whole outfide of the veffel is paint¬
ed over with a kind of gummy juice, which fupplies
the place of pitch.
Glnrafter, The Otaheiteans are a very induftrious people, and
manners, friendly in their difppfitioos; but, like all other nations
&c* not fully civilized, their paffions are extremely vio¬
lent, and they are very fickle. The manner of Ang¬
ling out a man here for a chofen friend is by taking
off a part of your clothing and putting it upon him.
Their ufual manner of expreffing their refpeft to
ftrangers, or to their fuperiors, at a firft meeting, is by
uncovering themfelves to the middle. They have a co-
ftom of faluting thofe who fneeze, by faying
t eatoua, “ May the good eatoua awaken you,” or
“ May not the evil eatoua lull you afleep !”
Their propenfity to theft is very great, infomuch,
that Mr Bougainville fays, “ dven in Europe itfelf one
cannot fee more expert filchers than the people of this
country;” and indeed, in all the voyages made by Otaheiiee.
Captain Cook and others, they had abundant expe-
rience of this difpofition of the natives, which often
produced quarrels, and fometimes even fatal effccls. la
their behaviour they are extremely lafcivions, almoft:
beyond credibility. A woman of diflinftion who vi-
fited Mr Banks ufed the following ceremony on her
firft approach to the ftranger. After laying down fe¬
veral young plantain-leaves, a man brought a large
bundle of cloth ; which having opened, he fpread it
piece by piece on the ground, in the fpace between
Mr Banks and his vifitants. There were in all nine
pieces: having fpread three pieces one upon ano¬
ther, the lady came forward, and, ftepping upon
them, took up her garments all around her to her
waift ; fhe then turned three times round, after which
fhe dropped the veil: when other three pieces were
fpread, fhe praftifed the fame ceremony ; and fo the
third time, when the laft three pieces were laid out:
after which the cloth was again rolled up, and deliver¬
ed to Mr Banks as a prefent from the lady, who with
her attending friend came up and faluted him. From
the unbridled licentioufnefs of thefe people, the French
gave this ifland the name of the New Cythera. Nay,
to fuch a degree do they carry their libidinous exceffes,
that a number of the principal people, it is related, have
formed themfelves into a fociety, in which every woman
is common to every man. This fociety is diftinguifhed
by the name of Arreoy, the members of which have
meetings from which all others are excluded. At thefe
meetings the paffions are excited by a ftudied courfe
of fenfuality, and the coarfeft and moft brutal plea-
fures are enjoyed by the whole company. If, however,
notwithftanding thefe exceffes, any of the female mem¬
bers of this community fhould prove with child, unlefs
fhe can procure fome man to adopt the child as his
own, not all the ftrong affe&ions of a mother, if fuch
are not entirely eradicated by a courfe of life fubver-
five of the feelings as well as the modefty of nature,
can fave the life of the precondemned innocent; but
the child as foon as born is fmoothered, and the mo¬
ther is left at liberty to renew her former courfe of ex¬
ecrable proftitution. Should any man be found to co¬
operate with a woman in favingthe life of a child, they
are both excluded for ever from the arreoy, and are
confidered as roan and wife. The woman from that
time is diftinguifhed by the term whannow-mw, “the
bearer of children ;” which in this part of the world
only is confidered as a term of reproach; and fo de¬
praved are thefe people, that being a member of fuch
a fociety is boafled of as being a privilege, inftead of
being ftigmatifed as the foulett crime. The arreoys
enjoy feveral privileges, and are greatly rtfpected
throughout the Society Iflands, as well as at Ota-
heitee ; nay, they claim a great fliare of honour from
the circumftance of being childlefs. Tupia, one of the
molt intelligent natives, when he heard that the king
of England had a numerous offspring, declared, that
he thought himfelf much greater, becaufe he belonged
to the arreoys. That this fociety indulge therofelves
in promifeuous embraces, and that every woman is
common to every man, is contradifted by MrForfter.
He fays, that thefe arreoys choofe their wives and
miftreffes from among the proftitutes ; and from this
circumflance, as well as their extreme voiuptuoufnefs,
OTA
[ 5782 1
OTA
©taheitee. they have feldom any reafon to dread the intrufion of
children. He had the following circtimftances related
to him by Omai or Omiah, one of the natives, who
was brought to England. He faid, that the pre-emi¬
nence and advantages which a man enjoyed as arreoy
were fo valuable, as to urge him againft his own feel¬
ings to deftroy his child ; that the mother was never
willing to confent to the murder; but that her huiband
and other arreoys perfuaded her to yield up the child ;
and that where intreaties were not fufficient, force was
fometimes made ufe of. But above all, he added, that
this aftion was always perpetrated in fecret; infomuch,
that not even the toivtoivs or attendants of the houfe
were prefent; becaufe, if it were feen, the murderers
would be put to death.
Both men and women conftantly wa(h their whole
bodies three times a-day in running water, and are re¬
markably cleanly in their clothes. They are moft ex¬
pert fwimmers, being accuftomed to the water from
their infancy. Captain Cook relates the following re¬
markable inftance of their expertnefs. On a part of
the fhore where a tremendoufly high furf broke, info-
much that no European boat could live in it, and the
belt European fwimmer, he was perfuaded, would have
been drowned, as the (here was covered with pebbles
and large ftones, yet here were to or 12 Indians fwim-
ming for their amufement, Whenever a furf broke
near them, they dived under it, and rofe again on the
other fide. The (lern of an old canoe added much to
their fupport. This they took out before them, and
fwam with it as far as the outermoft breach; when two
or three getting into it, and turning the fquare end to
the breaking wave, were driven in towards the (hore
with incredible rapidity, fometimes almoft to the beach:
but generally the wave broke over them before they
got half way ; in which cafe they dived, and rofe to
the other fide with the canoe in their hands, and fwim-
mingout with it again, were again driven back. This
amazing expertnefs drew the Captain’s attention for
more than half an hour; during which time none of
the fwimmers attempted to come afitore, but feemed to
enjoy the fport in the higheft degree. At another
time, one of the officers of the quarter-deck intending
to drop a bead into a canoe for a little boy of fix years
of age, it accidentally miffed the boat, and fell into
the fea ; but the child immediately leaped overboard,
dived after it, and recovered it. To reward him for
■ this feat, fome more beads were dropped to him; which
excited a number of men and women to amufe the of¬
ficers with their amazing feats of agility in the water,
and not only fetched up feveral beads fcattered at once,
but likewife large nails, which, from their weight, de-
feended quickly to a confiderable depth. Some of
thefe people continued a confiderable time under wa¬
ter; and the velocity with which they were feen to go
down, the water being extremely clear, was very fuf-
prifing. Here a green branch of a tree is ufed as an
emblern of peace, in exad conformity to the cuftom of
jS the ancient nations.
I.anguage, The language of thefe iflanders is foft and melo-
&c- dious; it abounds with vowels, and the pronunciation
of it is eafily acquired : but it was found exceffively
difficult to teach the natives to pronounce a fingle
Englifh word ; probably not only from its abounding
with confonants, but from fome peculiarity in its
ftrufture ; for Spanifh and Italian words, if ending in Otaheitet.
a vowel, they pronounced with the greateft eafe. A “ ' j
fufficient acquaintance has not been formed with it to
determine whether it is copious or not; but it is cer¬
tainly very imperfeft, being totally without inflexion
either of nouns or verbs. Few of the nounshave more
than one cafe, and few of the verbs more than one
tenfe. It was impoffible to teach the iflanders to pro¬
nounce the names of their guefts. They called Cap¬
tain Cook Tootc ; Mr Hicks, the firft lieutenant
&c. and in this manner they formed names for almoft
every man in the (hip. In fome, however, it was not eafy
to find any traces of the original; and they were perhaps
not mere arbitrary founds formed upon the occafion,
but fignified words in their own language ; and it feems
that they could perfedly remember thefe appellations
at the diftance of' four years, by their inquiries after
fuch gentlemen as were abfent on the fecond voyage
by name. Mr Monkhoufe, a midihipman, they call¬
ed Matte, which in their language fignifies dead; be¬
caufe he commanded a party that killed a man for
ftealing a mufltet. The neareft imitation they could
reach of king George, was by calling him Kiiiargo.
A map of Otaheitee, engraved for Captain Cook’s
firft voyage, was taken out, and laid before Tuahow the
high admiral, without informing him of what it was ;
however, he immediately found it out, and was over¬
joyed to fee a reprefentation of his own country. He
pointed out all the diftri&s of it, naming every one of
them in their order.
Thefe people have a remarkable fagacity in foretel¬
ling the weather, particularly the quarter from whence
the wind will blow. In their long voyages they tteer
by the fun in the day, and in the night by the liars ;
all of which they diftinguilh by feparate names, and
know in what part of the heavens they will appear in ^
any of the months during which they are vifible in
their horizon. They alfo know the times of their an¬
nual appearing and difappearing, with more precifion
than would eafily be believed by an European aftro-
nomer. Their time they feem to reckon by moons,
13 of which make a year. The day they divide into
fix parts, and the night into an equal number. They
judge of the time of the day by the height of the fun,
but they cannot afeertain the time of the night by the
ftars. In numeration, the greatell length they can go
is 2CO ; that is, when they have counted each of their
fingers and toes ten times over. When they take the
dillance from one place to another, they exprefs it by
the diftance which is required to pafs it. ’,5
The government of the Otaheiteans feems greatly Govern*
to refemble the early ftate of the European nations un- ment*
der the feodal fyftem. Their orders of dignity are
earee-rahie, which anfwers to king ; earee, baron ;
manahouni, vaffal ; and to'ivto'W, villein. There are
two kings in the ifland, one being the fovereign of
each of the peninfulas of which it confifts. Each of
them is treated with great refpeft by all ranks, but
does not appear to be invefted with fo much power as
is exercifed by the earees in their own diftrids. When
the king, whom they called 0-Too, made a vifit to
Captain Cook, the chiefs, who happened to be there
before him, immediately ftripped themfelves in great
hafte. Captain Cook took notice of it, upon which
they faid earee^ earee} fignifying, that it was on ac¬
count
OTA f 5783 ] OTA
Oulieitee, count of O-Too being prefent: but this was the on-
' ly outward token of refpeft they paid him ; for
they never rofe from their feats, or made any other
obeifance.
The earees are lords of one or more of the diftri&s
into which each of the peninfulas is divided, and of
which there are 43 in the larger one. Thefe parcel
out their territories to the manahounis, who fuperin-
tend the cultivation of the ground. The lowed: clafs,
called ioju-to'ws, feem to be nearly under the fame cir-
cumftances with the villeins in feodal governments.
They do all the laborious work, cultivate the land,
catch fiih, fetch wood and 'water, &c. Each of the
earees keeps a kind of court, and has a great number
of attendants, chiefly the younger brothers of their
own tribe; and among thefe fome hold particular offi¬
ces, but of which little more is known than fome of
their names.
In this country a child fucceeds to his father’s titles
and authority as foon as he is born ; and thus the king
no fooner has a fon born, than his fovereignty ceafes.
A regent is then chofen ; and the father generally re¬
tains his power under that title, until his child be¬
comes of age. The child of the baron fucceeds to the
titles and honours of its father as foon as it is born,
as well as the fon of the king; fo that a baron who
was yefterday called earee, and was approached with
the ceremony of lowering the garments, fo as to un¬
cover the upper part of the body, is to-day, if his wife
happens to be delivered of a child, reduced to the rank
of a private man ; all marks of refpedt being transfer-
j-ed to the child, if it is fuffered to live, though the
father ftill continues poflefibr and adminillrator of his
eitate. But the acquiefcence which the lower clafs of
people, or towtoiusy yield to the command of their
chiefs, is very remarkable. They are not fuffered to
tafte any animal-food, although they are employed in
feeding it for their lords. They endure patiently vtry
fevere blows, if, when colledled into a large body,
they in any manner prefs upon or annoy the king or
a chief in his progrefs: and all this paffive fpirit is
preferved without any power being lodged in the hands
of the king to exaft it ; for he ufes no military force,
nor is even attended with body-guards.
There are but few adtions which are reckoned crimes
among the Otaheiteans. Adultery, however, is fome-
times punifhed with death ; but in general, the wo¬
man efcapes with a fevere beating, and the gallant
paffes unnoticed. The regulation of public jultice is
not confined to the magiftrate ; for the injured party
redrefles his own wrong by inflidting whatever punifh-
ment he can upon the offender: but in matters of no-
. torious wrong, the chiefs fometimes interpofe. The
nobility have livery for their fervants ; and in pro¬
portion as the mailer’s rank is more or lefs elevated,
thefe falhes are worn higher or lower, being fattened
clofe under the arms of the fervants belonging to the
■ chiefs, and going round the loins of thofe belonging
to the lowelt clafs of nobility. Several parts of the
ifland feem to be private property, which defcend to
the heir of the poirdfor on his death, and the defcent
feems to fall indifferently on man or woman. Captain
Cook was of opinion, that the number of inhabitants
on the whole ifland amounted to 304,000, including
women and children.
Vox.. VIII. 2
The religious language of the Otaheiteans, like that Otafieifre.
of the Gentoo Bramins, is different from what is ufed
in common difcourfe ; but, according to the accounts
we have of their notions concerning the origin of the
world, nothing can be more ridiculous. They ima- ,7
gine that the Supreme Deity, befides a great many Religion,
female defcendants, has one fon named Taneto
him they diredt thtdr worlhip, though they do not be¬
lieve that the good or bad condudl of mankind here
on earth makes them more or lefs acceptable to this
divinity. They believe the exillence of the foul after
death, and of a greater or leffer degree of happinefs'to
be then enjoyed ; but they feem to have no conception
of a Hate of punilhment or of fuffering hereafter. The
lhare of happinefs which they imagine every individual
will enjoy in this future Hate, will be affigned to him
according to the rank he holds on earth. We are not,
however, told wherein they fuppofe the happinefs of
this future Hate to confift ; but it is moft probably a
pretty exadl imitation of a Mahommedan paradife,
for thefe voluptuaries can hardly be fuppofed capable
of imagining any pleafure independent of the inter-
courfe of the fexes.
The priefthood feems to be hereditary in one family
or tribe ; and as it is faid to be numerous, probably
thofe of that order are rellrained from becoming mem¬
bers of the Arreoy : but whether or not any peculiar
decorum is neceffary to be obferved, hath not yet ap¬
peared. Thefe priefts are profeffedly the men of fcience?
but their knowledge is altogether frivolous and ufelefs;
for it confills in being converfant with the names of
their different divinities, and fuch abfurd traditions as
have been handed down among them from one gene¬
ration to another. Their religious notions being de-
pofited in an unknown tongue, they are refpedted be-
caufe they are not underllood ; and as the cure of the
foul is no objedt of regard, the moll important con¬
cern to thefe people, the cure of their bodies, is com¬
mitted to the priefts, and much parade is ufed in their
attempts to recover the fick, though their remedies
confift of ridiculous ceremonies and enchantments rather
than any thing elfe.
The marriages of thefe people are merely fecular
contradts: but no one has a right to perform the ope¬
ration of tattowing, except the priefts ; and this being
a cuftom univerfally adopted by the natives, it may be
fuppofed, that the performing it is a very lucrative em¬
ployment. The males in general undergo a kind of
circumcifion, which it is difgraceful not to comply
with, and which is likewife the exclufive privilege of
the priefts to perform. But what moft eftablilhes the
credit of this order of men is their Hull in aftronomy
and navigation.
Captain Cook, who had fome reafon to believe that,
among the religious cuftoms of this people, human
facrifices were fometimes offered up to their deities,
went to a moral, or place of worfliip, accompanied by
Captain Furneaux, having with them a failor who fpoke
the language tolerably well, and feveral of the natives.
In the marai was a tupapow, a kind of bier, with a
fhed eredted over it, on which lay a corpfe and fonts
provifions. Captain Cook then allied if the plaintain
were for the Eatua ? If they facrificed to the Eatua
hogs, dogs, fowls, &e. ? To all of which an intelli¬
gent native anfwered in the affirmative. He then alk-
32 CL
OTA [ 5784 ] OTA
Otaheitee. eJ if they facrifked men to the Eatua ? He was an-
' fwered, taato eno, “ bad men they did ; firft tiparrahy,
beating them till they were dead.” He then afked if
good men were put to death in this manner ? His an¬
swer was no, only taato eno. The Captain then afked
if any Earees were? The native replied, they had
hogs to give the Eatua, and again repeated taato eno.
He was then afked if towtows, who had no hogs, dogs,
or fowls, but yet were good men, were ever facrificed
to the Eatua ? The anfwer ftill was no, only bad
men. Many other queftions were put to him; all his
anfwers to which feemed to confirm the ideas that men
for certain crimes were condemned to be facrificed to
the gods, provided they did not poffefs any property
which they might give for their redemption. Howe*
ver, in purfuing fuch inquiries as thefe, no certain in¬
formation could be obtained, on account of the flight
knowledge which had been acquired of the language
of the country: but according to further accounts
which Captain Cook received from Omai, it feems to
reft with the high-prieft to Angle out the viftims for
facrifice; who, when the people are affembled on any
folemn occafion, retires alone into the houfe of God,
and flays there for fome time ; when he comes out, he
informs the affembly that he has feea and converfed
with the great god, (the high-prieft alone having that
privilege), and that he has afked for a human facri-
iice ; and tells them he has defired fuch a perfon, na¬
ming a man prefent, who has moft probably, on fome
account or other, rendered himfelf obnoxious to this
ghoftly father. The words are no fooner gone out of
his mouth, than the devoted wretch is put to death ;
for his guilt cannot be doubted, after the oracle has
pronounced his doom.
On this ifland was feen the figure of a man con-
ftru&ed of bafket-work, rudely made, but not ill de-
figned: it was fomething more than feven feet high,
and rather too bulky in proportion to its height. This
wicker fkeleton was completely covered with feathers,
which were white where the fkin was to appear, and
black in the parts which it is their cuftom to paint or
flain, as well as upon the head, which wasdefigned to
reprefent hair. Upon the head alfo were four protu¬
berances ; three in front, and one behind, which the
Indians called tate ete, little men. The image was
called Manioe ; it was a reprefentation of Mauiue, one
of their Eatuas, or gods of the fecond clafs, and was
faid to be the only one of the kind on Otaheitee.
Thefe people pray at fun-rife and fun-fet. They
have alfo a number of fuperftitious pra&ices, in order
to conciliate the influence of evil genii. E-Tee, a
chief, who feemed to be the king’s prime minifter in
1774, very ferioufly afked Mr Forfter whether they
had a god (Eatau) in their country, and whether they
prayed to him {epoore?) When he told them that
they acknowledged a Divinity who had made every
thing, and was invifible, and that they were accu-
ftomed to addrefs their petitions to him, he feem¬
ed to be highly pleafed, and repeated their words
with comments of his own, to feveral perfbns who fat
round him ; feeming thereby to intimate, that the ideas
of his countrymen correfponded with theirs in this re-
fpeft. _
Their marais are ufed both as burying-grounds and
places of worfhip j they are approached with the moft
wonderful expreflions of reverence and humility ; and Otaheitee.
this, it fhould feem, not becaufe any there is efteemed '
facred, but becaufe they there worfhip an invifible be¬
ing, for whom they entertain the molt reverential re-
fpetft, although not excited by the hope of reward, or
the dread of punifhment. Though they do not ap¬
pear to have any vifible objeft of worfhip, yet, fays
Captain Cook, this ifland, and indeed the reft that lie
near it, have a particular bird, fome a heron, and
others a king-fifher, to which they pay a particular
regard, and concerning which they have fome fuper¬
ftitious notions, refpefting good or bad fortune, as v/e
have of the fwallow and robin-redbreaft, and will on
no account moleft or kill them. One of thefe ceme-
tries, or places of worfhip, was known to Captain
Cook, on his firft voyage, by the name of Tootahah’s
marai, then the regent; but when, on his fecond voy¬
age, after the death of that chief, he called it by that
name, Maratata, a chief that accompanied the party,
interrupted him, intimating, that it was no longer
Tootahah’s after his death, but was then known asO-
Too’s marai, the then reigning prince. A fine moral
for princes ! daily reminding them of mortality whilft
they live, and teaching them, that after death they
cannot call even that ground their own which their
dead corpfe occupies 1 The chief and his wife, on paf-
fingby it, took their upper garments from their fhoul-
ders. From hence it fhould feem, that the royal fa¬
mily have a particular marai, and that it always bears
the name of the reigning prince. l8
An Indian, who had fnatched away a mufket from Funerals,
a fentry whilft on duty, was, by the inhumanity of a
midfhipman who commanded the guard, purfued and
fhot. The unhappy fate of this poor fellow gave an
opportunity for feeing the manner in which thefe
people treat their dead. They placed the corps in the
open air till the bones became quite dry : a (bed was
ere&ed clofe by the houfe where the deceafed had re-
fided; it was about 15 feet long, and eleven broad ;
one end was left quite open ; the other end, and the
two fides, were partly inclofed with a fort of wicker¬
work. The bier was a frame of wood, like that on
which the fea-beds, called cots, are placed, with a mat¬
ted bottom, and fupported by four polls, at the height
of about four feet from the ground. The body was
covered firft with a mat, and then with white cloth ;
by the fide of it lay a wooden mace, one of their
weapons of war; and near the head of it, which lay
next to the clofe end of the (hed, lay two cocoa-nut
fhells; at the other end a bunch of green leaves, with
fome dried twigs, all tied together, were ftuck in the
ground, by which lay a ftone about as big as a cocoa-
nut. Near thefe lay one of the young plaintain-Ieaves
that are ufed for emblems of peace, and clofe by it a
ftone ax. At the open end of the fhed alfo hung, in
feveral firings, a great number of a palm-nuts; and
without the fhed was ftuck up in the ground a ftem of
a plantain tree, about fix feet high, upon the top of
which was placed a cocoa-nut fhell full of frefh water;
againfl the fide of one of the polls hung a fmall bag,
containing a few pieces of bread-fruit ready roafted,
which had not been put in all at one time, fome being
frefh, and others ftale. This minute examination of
their manner of treating their dead, feemed to be very
unwelcome to the natives. The food fo placed by the
corps
OTA [ 5485 ] OTA
Otaheitee, corps is dcfigned as an offering to their gods. They
catt in, near the body, {mall pieces of cloth, on which
the tears and blood of the mourners have been (hed ;
for in their paroxifms of grief it is an univerfal cuftom
to wound themfelves with a (bark’s tooth. The mourn¬
er is always a man ; and he isdreffed in a very fingular
habit. When the bones are (tripped of their flefh, and
become dry, they are buried. This regard to their
dead is very remarkable: one of the (hip’s company
happening to pull a flower from a tree which grew on
one of their fepulchral inclofures, an Indian came fud-
denly behind him and ftruck him ; and a party of
failors, who were fent to get fome (tones for ballad for
the (hip, had like to have been embroiled with the na¬
tives, by pulling down fome part of an inclofure of
this kind. The (hade under which their dead are laid
is called tupapo'w; the inclofure in which their bones are
depofited is called moral; thefe latter, as has been al¬
ready related, are alfo places of worfltip. As foon as
a native of Otaheitee is known to be dead, the houfe
is filled with relations, who deplore their lofs; fome by
loud lamentations, and fome by lefs clamorous, but
more genuine expreffions of grief. Thofe who are in
the neared degree of kindred, and are really affe&ed
by the event, are filent; the red, are one moment ut¬
tering pafiionate exclamations in a chorus, and the next
laughing and talking without the lead appearance of
concern. In this manner the remainder of the day on
which they affemble is fpent, and all the fucceeding
night. On the next morning the body is (hrouded in
their cloth, and conveyed to the fea-fide on a bier,
which the bearers fupport upon their (boulders, at¬
tended by the pried, who having prayed over the body
repeats his fentences during the proceffion. When it
arrives at the water’s edge, it is fet down upon the
beach; the pried renews his prayers, and taking up
fome of the water in his hands, fprinkles it towards the
body, but not upon it. It is then carried back 40 or 50
yards; and foon after brought again to the beach, where
the prayers and fprinkling are repeated. It is thus
removed backwards and forwards feveral times ; and
while thefe ceremonies have been performing, a houfe
has been built, and a fmall fpace of ground railed in.
In the centre of this houfe, or tupapo'w, as they term
it, pods are fet up to fupport the bier, which is at
length conveyed thither, and placed upon it; and
here the body remains to putrify, till the fle(h is whol¬
ly waded from the bones. Thefe houfes of corrup¬
tion are of a fize proportioned to the rank of the per-
fon whofe body they are to contain. Thofe allotted
to the lower clafs are jud fufficient to cover the bier,
and have no railing round them. The larged that was
feen was 11 yards long; and fuch are ornamented ac¬
cording to the abilities and inclination of the furviving
kindred, who never fail to lay a profufion of good
cloth about the body, and fometimes almod cover the
outfide of the houfe. Garlands of the fruit of the
palm-nut, or pandanus, and cocoa-leaves, twifled by
the prieds in myderious knots, with a plant called by
them ethee no moral, which is particularly confecrated
to funeral folemnities, are depofited about the place;
provifion and water are alfo left at a little didance.
As foon as the body is depofited in the tupapow, the
mourning is renewed. The women affemble, and are
led to the door by the neared relation, who drikes a
(bark’s tooth feveral times into the crown of her head; Oteheuee.
the blood copioufly follows, and is carefully received r
upon pieces of linen, which are thrown under the bier.
The red of the women follow this example; and the ce¬
remony is repeated at the interval of two or three days,
as long as the zeal and forrow of the parties hold out.
The tears alfo which are (hed upon thefe occafions, are
received upon pieces of cloth, and offered as oblations
to the dead. Some of the younger people cut off their
hair, and that is thrown under the bier with the other
offerings. This cuttom is founded on a notion, that
the foul of the deceafed, which they believe to exid in
a feparate date, is hovering about the place where the
body is depofited ; that it obferves the aftions of the
furvivors, and is gratified by fuch tedimonies of their
affe&ionate grief. Whild thefe ceremonies are car¬
rying on by the women, the men feem to be wholly
infenfible of their lofs ; but two or three days after,
they alfo begin to perform a part. The neared rela¬
tions take it in turn to affume the drefs, and perform
the offices.
The chief mourner carries in his hand a long flat
dick, the edge of which is fet with (harks teeth ; and
in a phrenzy, which his grief is fuppofed to have in-
fpired, he runs at all he fees, and if any of them hap¬
pen to be overtaken, he drikes them mod unmerciful¬
ly with his indented cudgel, which cannot fail to
wound them in a dangerous manner. The proceffions
continue at certain intervals for five moons ; but are
lefs and lefs frequent, by a gradual diminution, as the
end of that time approaches. When it is expired,
what remains of the body is taken down from the bier;
and the bones, having been feraped and waflied very
clean, are buried according to the rank of the perfon,
either within or without a morai. If the deceafed was
an earee, or chief, his (kull is not buried with the red
of his bones, but is wrapped up in fine cloth, and put
in a kind of box made for that purpofe, which is alfo
placed in the morai. This coffin is called ewbarre no
te orometua, “ the houfe of a teacher, or mafter.”
After this the mourning ceafes, except fome of the
women continue to be really afflifted at the lofs, and
in that cafe they will fuddenly wound themfelves with
the (hark’s tooth wherever they happen to be. The
ceremonies, however, do not ceafe with the mourn¬
ing ; for prayers are (fill faid by the pried, and offer¬
ings made at the morai. Some of the things, which
from time to time are depofited there, are emblemati¬
cal : a young plantain is faid to reprefent the decea¬
fed, and a bunch of feathers the Deity who is invo¬
ked. The pried places himfelf overagaind the fym-
bol of the god, accompanied by fome of the relations,
who are furnifhed with a fmall offering: he repeats
his orifon in a fet form, confiding of feparate fenten¬
ces; at the fame time weaving the leaves of the cocoa-
nut into different forms, which he afterwards depofits
upon the ground where the bones have been interred :
the Deity is then addreffed by a (hrill fcreech, which
is ufed only upon that occafion. When the pried re¬
tires, the tuft of feathers is removed, and the provi-
fions are left to putrify, or be devoured by the rats.
This ceremony of mourning, as deferibed above, was
performed by Tirope, one of the wives of Tubourai
Tamaide ; who, when the bleeding from the wounds
which (he had thus given herfelf ceafed, looked up
32 CL2
OTA [ 5786 ] O T I
Otaheitee. with a fmile on the company round her, and who had he remained in England. He is defcribed as poflefiing Otaheitec
* before inquired of her, very earneftly, the caufe of a good underftanding, quick parts, and honeft prin-
her behaviour, without receiving any anfwer, or ha¬
ving been at all noticed by hef. She then began to
pick up fome fmall pieces of cloth which die had
fpread to catch the blood; and having got them all
together, ihe went to the (bore, and threw them into
the fea. She then plunged into the river; and having
waflied her whole body, returned to the company as
cheerful as ever. To add to the Angularity of this
condudt, the Indians who ftood round her all the time
that this frantic diftrefs was performing, converfed
with great indifference and jocularity.
There is not a rpore ancient cuftom handed down to
us than that of cutting the body to exprefs grief and
diftrefs of mind. In the code of laws delivered by
Mofes to the Ifraelites, 1400 years before the Chri-
ilian sera, this pradlice is exprefsly forbidden to that
people : “ Ye (hall not cut yourfelves, or make any
baldnefs between the eyes for the dead,” I)eut. xiv. 1.
Hence it may be fuppofed.that this rite prevailed in'
Egypt, from whence the Jews derived moft of thofe
prbpenikies which were inhibited by their great legi-
ilator. We are told likewife in the book of Kings, of
the priefts of Baal wounding themfelves, after they
. ad.long- waited in vain for the fupernatural interven-
tio* of their idol. D’Arvieux informs us, that the
irfbdern Arabs retain the fame cuftom, and that the
part they chiejly wound is their arms. The difference
in the pra<Sice as now prevailing in O-Taheitee and
Arabia feerrfs. to be, that in the firft none but the wo¬
men make ufe of it, and in the latter it is confined to
the men, and generally ufed to exprefs their defperate
pafiion for fom'e favourite miftrefs.
The mourning wrhich is worn here is an head-drefs
offeathers, the colour of which is confecrated to death,
and a veil over the face. This drefs is called eeva.
The whole nation is faid to appear thus on the death
of their king. The mourning for fathers is very long.
The women mourn for their hulbands, but not the huf-
bands for their wives.
We {hall conclude this account of Otaheitee with
the hiftory of Omdi, or as he is improperly called 0-
miah, who was brought over to England. He was a
native of Ulietea, or Raietea ; and embarked at Hua-
hine with Captain Furneaux, on board the adventure,
in September 1773; and the two (hips feparating in a
ftorm on the coaft of New-Zealand a few months af¬
terwards, the voyage of the Adventure was brought
to a much earlier conclufion than that of the Refolu-
tion, for (he arrived at Spithead the 14th of July fol-
• lowing. This youth is faid to have had fome proper¬
ty in his native foil, of which he was difpoffeffed by
the people of Bolabola; but he was not .one of the
earees, or gentry of that country, but of the middling
clafs of people. He was eminent neither for figure,
Ihape, nor complexion ; his colour being of a deep
hue, refembling a towtow, or one of the common
people ; and both Captain Cook and Mr Forfter agree
in thinking him no proper fample of the inhabitants of
thofe iflands, in refpedl to perfonal beauty. However,
they are both of opinion, that the qualities of his
heart and head refembled thofe of his countrymen in
general, and that no one of the natives would have
given mere general fatisfattion by his behaviour whilft
ciples : not an extraordinary genius like Tupia ; yet 
not at all deficient in intelligence, which appears from
his knowledge of the game of chefs, in which he made
an amazing proficiency. His principal patrons, whdff
in England, were, the earl of Sandwich, Mr Banks,
and Do&or Solander. His noble patron introduced
him to his Majefty at Kew ; and, during his ftay in
England, he was careffed by many of the principal no¬
bility. He naturally imitated that eafy and elegant
politenefs which is prevalent among the great, and
which is one of the ornaments of civilised fociety. In¬
deed he adopted the manners, the occupations, and
amufements of his companions in general, and gave
many proofs of a quick perception, and a lively fancy.
He appears, however, to have been treated, whilft he
refided here, rather as a faftiionable exhibition, than
as a rational being. No attention feems to have been
paid to the enriching bis mind with ufefnl knowledge,
fuch as might have rendered him a valuable acquifition
to his country on his return thither ; no means were
ufed to inftruct him in agriculture, or any mechanical
art or ufeful manufacture; and, above all, to poffefs
him with a moral fenfe; to teach him the exalted ideas
of virtue, and the fublime principles of revealed reli¬
gion. After"a ftay of two years in England, and ha¬
ving been inoculated for the fmall-poxj he embarked
with Captain Cook, on board the Refolution, on his
return home, loaded with a profufion of prefents. At
parting with his friends here, his tears flowed plenti¬
fully, and his whole behaviour befpoke him to be fm-
cerely affeCted at the reparation : but though he lived
in the midft of amufements during his refidence in
England, his return to his native country was always
in his thoughts ; and tho’ he was not impatient to go,
he expreffed a fatisfaftion as the time of his return ap¬
proached.
OTALGIA, the Ear-ach, in medicine. See there
n° 314. and p. 4869.
OTIS, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of grallae. There are four fpecies, prin¬
cipally diftinguirtied by their colour. One of the
fpecks, the tarda, or buftard, is the largeft of the
Britifh land-fowl; the male at a medium weighing
25 pounds ; there are inftances of fome very old ones
weighing 27 : The breadth nine feet ; the length
near four. Befides the fize and difference of colour,
the male is diftinguifhed from the female by a tuft of
feathers about five inches long on each fide of the
lower mandible. Its head and neck are afti-coloured:
the back is barred tranfverfely with black and bright
ruft-colour: the greater quill-feathers are black : the
belly white : the tail is marked with broad red and
black bars, and confifts of twenty feathers : the legs
duflty.
The female is about half the fize of the male : the
crown of the head is of a deep orange, traverfed with
black lines ; the reft of the head is brown. The
lower part of the fore-fide of the neck is afti-coloured:
in other rcfpe&s it refemble^the male, only the colours
of the back and wings are far more dull.
Thefe birds inhabit moft of the open countries of
the fouth and eaft parts of this ifland, from Dorfet-
ftiire, as far as the Wolds in Yorkftiire. They are
exceeding
O T W [ 5787 ] O V E
Otranto exceeding rtiy, and difficult to be (hot ; run very fad,
II and wlun on the wing can fly, though (lowly, many
tway' miles without refting. It is faid that they take flight
with difficulty, and are fometimes rnn down with
grehounds. They keep near their old haunts, feldom
wandering above 20 or 30 miles. Their food is corn
and other vegetables, and thofe large earth-worms that
appear in great quantities on the Downs before fun-
riling in the ftimmer. Thefe are replete with moifture,
anfwer the purpofe of liquids, and enable them to live
pi l°ng without drinking on thofe extenfive and dry
CCXXXIIl tra^s' Befides this, nature hath given the males an
admirable magazine for their fecurity againft draught,
being a pouch, whofe entrance lies immediately under
the tongue, and which is capable of holding near
feven quarts ; and this they probably fill with* water,
to fupply the hen when fitting, or the young before
they can fly. Bullards lay only two eggs, of the fize
of thofe of a goofe, of a pale olive-brown, marked
with fpots of a dark colour; they make no nell,
only fcrape a hole in the gronnd. In autumn they
are (in Wiltlhire) generally found in large turnep-
fields near the Downs, and in flocks of 50 or more.
OTRANTO, or Terra d’Otranto, a province
of Italy in the kingdom of Naples; bounded on the
north by the Terra di Bari and by the gulph of
Venice, on the call by the fame gulph, and on the
fouth and weft- by a great bay which is between that
and the Balilicata. It is a mountainous country,
abounding in figs, olives, and wine. It is often
vifited by locufts, and by Algerine pirates, who carry
off all the people they can catch into flavery. But to
keep them off, there are a great many forts on the
coafts.
Otranto, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and capital of the province of the fame name,
with a commodious harbour, an archbilhop’s fee,
and a ftrong citadel where the archbilhop relides. It
was taken by the Turks in 1480, who did a great
deal of mifchief: and it has frequently fuffered much
from the Algerines. It is a large handfome place,
feated on the gulph of Venice, in E. Long. 18. 35.
N. Lat. 40. 21.
OTWAY (Thomas) an eminent tragic poet, was
the fon of Mr Humphry Otway, reifforof Wolbeding
in Suffix ; and was born at Trottin in that county,
on the 3d of March 1651. He was educated at
Oxford; when, leaving the univerlity without a degree,
he retired to London, where he commenced player,
but with indifferent fuccefs. However, the fprightli-
nefs of his converfation gained him the favour of
Charles Fitz-Charles earl of Plymouth, who pro¬
cured him a cornet’s commiffion in one of the new-
raifed regiments Cent into Flanders ; but he returned
from thence in very neceffitous circumftances, and ap¬
plied himfelf again to writing for the ftage. In
comedy he has been deemed too licentious; which,
however, was no great objeftion to his pieces in
the profligate days of Charles II. But, in tragedy,
few Englilh poets have ever equalled him; and
perhaps none ever excelled him in touching the paf-
fions, particularly the tender paffion. There is ge¬
nerally fomething familiar and domeftic in the fable
of his tragedies, and there is amazing energy in
his cxpreffion.—The heart that doth not melt at
the diftreffes of his Orphan muft be hard indeed ! Ov4
But though Otway poffeffed in fo eminent a de- H
gree the rare talent of writing to the heart, yet he °verbl]rv-
was not very favourably regarded by fome of his co¬
temporary poets, nor was he always fuccefsful in his
dramatic compofitions. After experiencing many re-
verfes of fortune in regard to his circumftances, but
generally changing for the worfe, he at laft died
wretchedly in a public houfe on Tower-hill ; whither,
it is fuppofed, he had retired in order to avoid the
preffure of his creditors. Some have faid, that down¬
right hunger compelling him to fall too eagerly on a
piece of bread, of which he had been for fome time in
want, the firft mouthful choaked him, and inftantly
put a period to his days.— His dramatic writings are
nine in number; the mod admired of which are, The
Orphan, and Venice Preferved. He had alfo made
fome tranllations, and wrote feveral mifcellaneous
poems. His whole works are printed in two pocket-
volumes.
OVAL, an oblong curvilinear figure, otherwife
called ellipfts. See Ellipsis. However, the proper
oval, or egg-lhape, differs confiderably from that of
the ellipfis, being an irregular figure, narrower at one
end than at another ; whereas the ellipfis, or mathe¬
matical oval, is equally broad at each end : though,' •
it muft be owned, thefe two are commonly con¬
founded together; even geometricians calling the ov^l
a falfe ellipjh.
OVARY, in anatomy, that part of a female animal
wherein the ova or eggs are formed or lodged. See
Anatomy, n° 372, m. *
OVARIUM, in botany, a name by which bo-
tanills, who are fond of affimilating jrhe animal and
vegetable kingdoms, have diftinguilhed the germen or
feed-bud, as containing the rudiments of the future
feed.:
OVATION, in the Roman antiquity, a leffer
triumph, allowed to commanders for victories won
without the effufion of blood ; or for defeating a mean-
and inconfiderable enemy. The (how generally began
at the Albanian mountain, whence the general with
his retinue made his entry into the city on foot, with
many flutes or pipes founding in concert as be palled:
along, and wearing a garland of myrtle as a token of
peace. The term ovation, according to Servius, is
derived fromov/V, a (heep; becaufe on this occafion the
conqueror facrificed a Iheep, as in triumph he facrificed
a bull.
OUDENARDE, a rich and ftrong town of Au-
ftrian Flanders, in the middle of which there is a
coniiderable fort. The river Scheld runs acrofs this
place with its environs, whofe foil is very fertile, and
forms a confiderable chatellany. They have here a
manufacture of very fine linen and curious tapeftry.
This town was befieged by the French in 1708 ; but
they were obliged to raife the liege by the duke of
Marlborough and prince Eugene, who entirely defeated-
their army, killing 3000 on the fpot, and taking 7000
prifoners. E. Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 50. 49.
OVERBURY (SirThomas), a learned and-worthy
Englilh gentleman, was-born in 1581 ; and ftudied at
Queen’s college, Oxford, after which he removed- to
the Middle-temple London. He afterwards travelled
for fome time, and returned a moft accjmpliihed per-
£on j
o v E [5:
Overlmry. f0n; when he contrafled an intimate acquantance
ll with Sir Robert Carr, knight of the bath, who be-
 ver' ing foon after taken into his majefty’s favour, had Mr
Overbury knighted at Greenwich. Sir Thomas per¬
ceiving the familiarity which fubfifted between his
atron Carr, now made vifcount Rochefter, and the
idy Frances, the wife of Robert earl of Efiex, was
fo much difpleafed at it, that he endeavoured to diffuade
him from keeping her company, and from proceeding
in the bafe defign he had formed of having her firtt
divorced from her hufband, and then marrying her.
The vifcount, refenting this honeft advice, told what
he had faid to the lady, who was as remarkable
for her wickednefs as for her beauty ; on which they
immediately refolved on his deftru&ion. About this
time, the king wanting to fend an ambafiador abroad,
the vifcount recommended Sir Thomas Overbury.
His majefty approving the choice, the vifcount im¬
parted the king’s intentions to Sir Thomas ; but,
under a treacherous (hew of friendlhip, diffuaded him
from accepting of that employment, as it might
hinder him from a better way of advancement ; pro-
mifing that he would prevent his majefty from being
difpleafed at his refufal. The vifcount then went
to the king, and artfully incenfing his majefty againft
Sir Thomas for refufing to obey his commands, that
gentleman was committed to the tower for his con¬
tempt, on the 21 ft of April 1613, where he con¬
tinued till he was difpatched by poifon on the 15th
of September following, and his body was interred in
the tower-chapel the fame day. About two years
after, the whole contrivance of his death was difco-
vered. On this feveral perfons were condemned and
executed ; but tho’ Carr, earl of Somerfet, and the lady
Frances his countefs, were condemned to death for
contriving the murder, and hiring the perfons who
were concerned in it, the king only banilhed them
from court, and afterwards pardoned them. Sir Tho¬
mas Overbury wrote feveral poems, &c. and an account
his travels.
OVEN, a kind of domeftic furnace, ufed for baking
bread, pies, tarts, &c. of a circular ftructure, with a
very low roof, well lined, both on the top, bottom,
and fides, with ftone ; it has a fmall entrance in the
front, which is exa&ly fitted by a kind of door, which
being clapped to the mouth of the oven confines the
heat, while bread, pies, or puddings, are baking. Over
this, paftry-cooks, &c. have another oven built much
in the iame manner, which is ufed for fuch things as
require a lefs degree of heat. Ovens are heated by
burning dry wood, faggots, &c. in them, till all the
parts are equally hot.
OVER-hauling, the aft of opening and extending
the feveral parts of a tackle, or other aftemblage of
ropes, communicating with blocks or dead-eyes. It is
ufed to remove thofe blocks to a fufficient diftance
from each other, that they may be again placed in a
flate of aftion, fo as to produce the effeft required.
Q\v.%-Hauling, is alfo vulgarly expreffed of an exa¬
mination or infpeftion into the condition of a perfon
or thing.
Ov.ER-7?«f?, among feamen: When a fiiip riding at
anchor fo overbeats herfelf into an high fea, that (he is
wafhed by the waves breaking in upon her, they fay
the waves over-rake her.
•88 ] O V I
OvvK-Reach, in farriery. See there, § xl. 2. Over
OVERSMAN, in Scots law, a perfon appointed
by arbiters, or by the parties fubmitters, to determine Vl *
the matter fubmitted, in cafe the parties difagree in
their opinion.
OVERT, the fame with “open:” thus an overt aft
fignifies an aft which, in law, muft be clearly proved;
and fuch is to be alleged in every indiftment for high
treafon.
OVERTURE, or Ouverture, opening or prelu¬
ding: a term ufed for the folemnities at the beginning
of a public aft or ceremony ; an opera, tragedy, co¬
medy, concert of mufic, &c.—The overture of the
theatre or feene, is a piece of mufic ufually ending
with a fugue ; the overture of a jubilee is a general
proceflion, &c-
OVERYSSEL, one of the Seven United Provinces;
bounded on the eaft by the biftiopric of Munfter, on
the north by Friefland and the territority of Gronin¬
gen, on the weft by the river Yflel, and on the fouth
by the county of Zutphen and the bilhopric of Mun¬
fter. It is divided into three diftinft parts; which are,
the territories of Drenfe, Twente, and Salland. There
are many morafles in this province, and but few inha¬
bitants, in comparifon of the reft. Its greateft riches
confift in turfs; which are dug up here, and fent to
the neighbouring provinces, particularly Holland.
OVIEDO, a town of Spain, and capital of Afturias
d’Oviedo, with a biftiop’s fee, and an univerfity; feat-
ed at the confluence of the rivers Ove and Deva, which
form the Afta, 50 miles north-weft of Leon, and 208
north-weft, of Madrid. W. Long. 5. 47. N. Lat. 43.
23-
OUGHTRED (William), an eminent mathemati¬
cian, was born at Eton in 1573, and educated in the
fchool there, whence he was elefted to king’s college
in Cambridge, of which he afterwards became fellow.
Having received holy orders, he left the univerfity a-
bout the year 1603, and was prefented to the reftory
of Aldbury, near Guildford in Surry; and about the
year 1628, was appointed by the earl of Arundel to
inftruft his fon in the mathematics. He kept a corre-
fpondence by letters with fome of the moft eminent
fcholars of his time, upon mathematical fubjefts ; and
the moft celebrated mathematicians of that age owed
moft of their (kill to him, whofe houfe was full of
young gentlemen that came from all parts to receive
his inftruftion. It is faid, that, upon hearing the news
of the vote at Weftminfter for the reftoration of king
Charles II. he expired in a fudden tranfport of joy,
aged 88. He wrote, 1. Clavis Mathematica; which
was afterwards publilhed in Englifh. 2. A defeription
of the double horizontal dial. 3. Opufcula Mathema¬
tica; and feveral other works. He left alfo behind him
a great number of papers upon mathematical fubjefts,
which are now in the mufeum of William Jones, Efq;
F. R. S.
OVID, or PaW/W OVidius Nafo, a celebrated La¬
tin poet of the Auguftan age, was a Roman knight,
born at Sulmo, in the 43d year before the Chriftian
asra. He ftudied rhetoric under Arelius Fufcus, and
for fome time frequented the bar; but was afterwards
difgufted with that ftudy, and applied himfeif entirely
to poetry. Ovid, after having obtained the efteem of
Auguftus, incurred his difpleafure ; and was banifhed
to
O V I [ 5789 1 O V I
Ovilia to Tomos, a city on the Pontus Euxinus, near the
mouth of the Danube, when he was 50 years of age.
V15' Several writers have faid that he was banifhed for be¬
ing one of the lovers of Julia the daughter of Au-
guftus, whom, according to them, he mentions under
the name of Corinncr, but Aldus Minutius has plainly
refuted this notion. Ovid himfelf fays, that his being
fent into exile was occafioned by the licentioufnefs of
his verfes, and his having feen by accident and invo¬
luntarily fomething which he ought not to have feen.
He in vain made ufe of all the turns of his wit to ap-
peafe the emperor ; but not all his addrefs could pro¬
cure his being again received into favour. He died in
the country of the Getse, aged 57, after having fpent
feven years in his banifhment. His works and their
chara&er are well known.
OVILIA, or Septa, in ancient Rome, a place in
the Campus Martius, at firft railed in like a iheep-pen,
whence its name. Afterwards it was mounted with
marble, and beautified with walks and galleries, as alfo
with a tribunal, or feat of juftice. Within this pre-
cinft or inclofure, the people were called to give their
fuffrages for the eledlion of magiftrates. The afcent
into the ovilia was not by (lairs, but by pontes, or nar¬
row boards, laid there for the occafion ; on which ac¬
count de ponte dejici, fignified “ to be deprived of the
privilege of voting;” and perfons thus dealt with were
called depontani.
OVIPAROUS, a term applied to fuch animals as
bring forth their young from eggs; as birds, infe&s,
&c.
OVIS, the Sheep, in zoology, a genus of the mam¬
malia clafs, and of the order of pecora; the charac¬
ters of which are thefe: The horns are concave, turn¬
ed backwards, and full of wrinkles ; there are eight
fore-teeth in the under-jaw, and no dog-teeth. The
fpecies are,
1. Aries, or ram.and ewe, the horns of which are
fliaped h'ke a half-moon, and comprefled.
The (beep, unqueftionably a mild and gentle crea¬
ture, is alfo reprefented by Buffon as the mod ftupid,
defencelefs, and timid of all quadrupeds ; infomuch
that, without the afiiftance of man, it could never, he
thinks, have fubfifted or continued its fpecies in a wild
date.
_ ~ . “ The female is abfolutely devoid of every art and
Nat. Bifi. °f every mean of defence. The arms of the ram are
Vol. IH. feeble and awkward. His courage is only a kind of
p. 4rt3. petulance, which is ufelefs to himfelf, incommodious
to his neighbours, and is totally dedroyed by cadra-
tion. The wedder is dill more timid than the (heep.
It is fear alone that makes (beep fo frequently affemble
in troops: upon the fmalled unnufual noife, they run
dole together; and thefe alarms are always accompa¬
nied with the greated dupidity. They know not how
to fly from danger, and feem not even to be confcious
of the hazard and inconvenience of their fituation.
Wherever they are, there they remain obdinately fix¬
ed ; and neither rain nor fnow can make them quit
their dation. To force them to move or to change
their route, they mud be provided with a chief, who
is learned to begin the march : the motions of this
chief are followed, dep by dep, by the red of the
flock. But the chief hirnfelf would alfo continue im¬
moveable, if he were not pulhed off by the (hepherd.
or by his dog, an animal which perpetually watches Ovir.
over their fafety, which defends, directs, feparates, af- "
fembles, and, in a word, communicates to them every
movement neceffary to their prefervation.
“ Of all quadrupeds, therefore, (beep are the mod
dupid, and derive the fmalled refources from indindl.
The goat, who fo greatly refembles the (heep in other
refpedls, is endowed with much more fagacity. He
knows how to conduct himfelf on every emergency :
he avoids danger with dexterity, and is esfi'.y recon¬
ciled to new objeds. But the (heep knows neither
how to fly nor to attack : however imminent her dan¬
ger, (he comes not to man for affidance fo willingly
as the goat; and, to complete the pi&ure of timidity
and want of fentiment, (he allows her Iamb to be .car¬
ried off, without attempting to defend it, or (howing
any marks of refentment. Her grief is not even ex-
preffed by any cry different from that of ordinary
bleating.”
But the annotator upon this article in the Edin¬
burgh tranilation of Buffon, denies the above to be the
natural charader of the animal. “ All tame ani¬
mals,” he obferves, “ lofe a portion of that fagacity, ^ p ^
dexterity, and courage, which they are obliged to cm- notes.
ploy againd their enemies in a wild (late; becaufe
they have been long accudomed to rely upon the pro-
tedion of man. Sheep, when enflaved by men, tremble
at the voice of the (hepherd or his dog. But, on thofe
extenfive mountains where they are allowed to range
without controul, and where they feldom depend on
the aid of the (hepherd, they affume a very different
mode of behaviour. In this fituation, a ram or a
wedder boldly attacks a Angle dog, and often comes
off vidorious. But when the danger is of a more
alarming nature, like man, they trud not to the
prowefs of individuals, but have recourfe to the col-
leded drength of the whole flock. On fuch occafions,
they draw up into one compad body ; they place the
young and the females in the centre; and the dronged
males take the foremod ranks, keeping clofe by each
others fides. Thus an armed front is prefented on all
quarters, and cannot be attacked without the greatell
hazard of dedrudion. In this manner they wait, with
firmnefs and intrepidity, the approach of the enemy.
Nor does their courage fail them in the moment of at¬
tack. For, if the aggreffor advances within a few
yards of the line, the ram darts upon him with fuch
impetuofity, as lays him dead at their feet, unlefs he
faves himfelf by flight. Againd the attacks of (ingle
dogs, or foxes, they are, when in this fituation, per¬
fectly fecure. Belides, a ram, regardlefs of danger,
often engages a bull, and never fails to conquer him;
for the bull, by lowering his head, without being fen-
fible of his defencelefs condition, receives between his
horns the droke of the ram, which ufually brings him
to the ground.
“ In the feledion of food, few animals difeover
greater fagacity than the (heep; nor does any domedic
animal (how more dexterity and cunning in its attempts
to elude the vigilance of the (hepherd, and to deal fuch
delicacies as are agreeable to its palate. When perfe&ly
tamed, and rendered domeflic, the fportive gambols
and troublefome tricks of the animal, are too well known
to require any defeription.”
As to the accufations contained in the latter part of
the
O V I [ 5790 ] O U N
Ov's. the character above quoted ; every perfon, it is obfer-
ved, who has attended to thofe animals, at lead in this
country, mud know that they are not altogether jud.
- Hid. p.466.et Individuals in a date of fubje&ion, feem to have no
notes. j^ea 0f redding the attacks of an enemy. But they
foon learn that their protefHon lies in the (hepherd or
his dog : for, when it becomes neceffary, in Britain,
to watch the folds, in order to prevent adaults from
foxes or dogs, upon the fird alarm the whole flock
run with violence to the place where the watchmen are
dationed ; fo that, when they chance to fleep, they
are often hurt by the (beep trampling upon them. On
other occafions, they never choofe to make a veryclofe
approach either to men or dogs ; but the fenfe of im¬
mediate danger makes them forget their ofual timidity,
and their fagacity teaches them where their fafety lies.
When the female is robbed of her lamb, (lie bleats in
a manner that drongly marks the anguilh (he feels. In
the eagernefs of her fearch, her eye-balls feem to
dart from their fockets ; and her irregular and di-
flrafted motions, joined to the violence and condancy
of her bleatings, are evident indications of the mod
puxgent grief.”
But whatever may be its manners or its mental qua¬
lities, this animal is of the mod extenfive utility to
man. We are clothed by its fleece. The flefh is a de¬
licate and wholefome food. The Ikin, drefled, forms
different parts of our apparel; and is ufed for covers of
books. The entrails, properly prepared and twided,
ferve for drings for various mufical indruments. The
bones calcined (like other bones in general), form ma¬
terials for teds for the refiner. The milk is thicker
than that of cows, and confequently yields a greater
quantity of butter and cheefe; and in fome places is fo
rich, that it will not produce the cheefe without a mix¬
ture of water to make it part from the whey. The
dung is a remarkably rich manure ; infomuch that the
folding of ffieep is become too ufeful a branch of huf-
bandry for the farmer to negleft. Nature, in fliort,
has given this animal nothing that does not redound to
our benefit. -
The ram is capable of generation at the age of 18
months; and the ewe can be impregnated when a year
old. One ram is fufficient for 40 or or 40 ewes. He
ought to be large and well proportioned ; his head
Ihould be thick and drong, his front wide, his eyes
black, his nofe flat, bis neck thick, his body long
and tall, his tedicles maffy, and bis tail long. White
is the bed colour for a ram. The ewes whole wool
is mod plentiful, bufhy, long, foft, and white, are
-mod proper for breeders, efpecially when at the fame
time they are of a large fize, have, a thick neck, and
move nimbly.
In this climate ewes fed in good padures admit the
ram in July or Augud; but September or Oclober are
the months when the greated part of our ewes, if left
to nature, take the ram. They go with young about
five months, and generally bring forth but one at a
time, though frequently two : in warm climates, they
may bring forth twice in a year ; but in Britain,
France, and mod parts of Europe, only once. They
give milk plentifully for feven or eight months. They
live from 10 to 12 years: they are capable of bringing
forth as long as they live, when properly managed ;
but are generally old and ufelefs at the age of fe¬
ven or eight years. The ram, who lives 12 or 14 Ovis,
years, becomes unfit for propagating when eight years 0un<te-
old.
When the male lambs are not intended to be kept
for propagation, but fattened for food, they ought to
be cadrated at the age of five or fix months. This
operation is performed two ways: in the one, an in-
cifion is made, and the pedicles taken out; in the
other, a ligature'is tied tight round the ferotum, above
the tedicles, which foon dedroys the veffels which
nourifli them. After cadration they are called nued-
ders.
The ram, ewe, and wedder, when one year old,
lofe the two foreteeth of the under jaw ; fix months
afterwards, they lofe the two foreteeth next to thefe;
and at the age of three years, the teeth are all re¬
placed. The age of a ram may likewife be difeover-
ed by their horns, which always appear the fird year,
and frequently as foon as they are brought forth.
Thefe horns uniformly acquire an additional ring every
year, as long as the creature lives. The ewes common¬
ly have no horns, but a kind of long protuberances in
place of them : however, fome of them have two, and
fome four horns.
In Spain, and the fourhern parts of Europe, the
flocks are kept in (hades or dables during the night:
but in Britain, where there is now no danger from
wolves, they are allowed to remain without, both night
and day ; which makes the animals more healthy, and
their flefli a more wholefome food. Dry and mous*
tainous grounds, where thyme and (beep’s fefeue grafa
abound, are the bed for the paduring (beep.
The (beep is fubjeft to many difeafes: fome arife
from infe&s which depofit their eggs in different parts
of the animal: others are caufed by their being kept
in wet padures; for as the (beep requires but little
drink, it is naturally fond of-a dry foil. The dropfy,,
vertigo, (the pendro of the Welfh), the pthifis, jaun¬
dice, and worms in the liver, annually make great ha¬
voc among our flocks: for the fird difeafe, the (hep-
herd finds a remedy by turning the infe&ed into fields
of broom; which plant has been alfo found to be very
efficacious in the fame diforder among the human fpe-
cies.—The (beep is alfo infeded by different forts of
infers: like the horfe, it has its peculiar osdrus or gad¬
fly, which depofits its eggs above the nofe in the fron¬
tal finufes; when thofe turn into maggots, they become
exceffive painful, and caufe thofe violent agitations that
we fo often fee the animal in. The French fhepherds
make a common pra&ice of eafing the (beep, by tre¬
panning and taking out the maggot ; this praftice is
fometimes ufed by the Englifli (hepherds, but not al¬
ways with the fame fuccefs. Befides thefe infers, the
(beep is troubled with a kind of tick and loufe, which
magpies and darlings contribute to cafe it of, by light¬
ing on its back, and picking the infedts off.
2. The guineenfis, or Guinea (beep, has pendulous
ears, lax hairy dew lips, and a prominence on the hind
part of the head. The wool is (hort, like that of a
goat. It is a native of Guinea.
3. The drepficeros, or Cretan (beep, has drait ca-
rinated horns, twided in a fpiral manner. It is a na¬
tive of mount lola.
OUNCE, a little weight, the i6:h part of a pound
avoirdupoi.e, and the 12th part of a pound Troy. The
word
OWE [ 5791 ] OWE
Ounce word is derived from the Latin, mcia, ct the twelfth He was the author of “ Reports in the tfomrtiori pleas,
iS part of any whole,” called as/ particularly in geome- wherein are many choice cafes, moll of them throughly
Owen. t|.;ca] meafures, an inch, or the 12th part of a foot, argued by the learned ferjeants, and after argued and
See Inch and As. refolved by the grave judges of thofe times, with many
Ounce, in zoology. See Leo. cafes wherein the difference of the year-books are re-
OVOLO, or Ovum, in architedure, a round mould- conciled and explained.” Lond. 1656, fob
ing, whofe profile, or fweep, in the Ionic and Compo- Owen (Dr John), an eminent and learned diffent-
fite capitals, is ufually a quadrant of a circle: whence ing minifter, was born in 1616, at Hadham, in Ox-
it is alfo commonly called the quarter round. It is fordlhire, of which place his father was vicar. He
ufually cut with reprefentations of eggs and arrow-heads made fuch furprifing proficiency in learning, that at
or anchors placed alternately. twelve years of age he wras admitted into Queen’s
OUSE, a river which rifes in the north of Yorkffu're, , College, Oxford, and in 1635 was made mailer of
runs fouth-eaff by York, Cawood, and Selby, and falls arts : but foon after, difapproving the new regulations
into the Humber to the w'eft of St Cay. made by archbilhop Laud their chancellor, with which
Ouse, a river which rifes near Fitwell in Oxford- he refufed to comply, he was obliged, in 1637, to
fliire, and proceeds to Buckingham, Stony-Stratford, leave the college ; when taking orders, he became
and Newport-Pagnel, in Buckinghamlhire; from thence chaplain to Sir Robert Dormer of Afcot in Oxford-
it proceeds to Bedford, and, turning north-eaft, it paffes Ihire, and was at the fame time tutor to his eldeft fon.
on to Huntingdon and Ely, till at length it arrives at He was afterwards chaplain to John Lord Lovelace
Lynn-Regis in Norfolk, and falls into the fea. of Hurley, in Berklhire ; when the civil war breaking
OUSTIOUG, a town of the Ruffian empire, and out, he openly avowed the caufe of the parliament ;
capital of a province of the fame name, with an arch- which was fo refented by an uncle, who had intended
bilhop’s fee and a caftle; feated on the river Suchana, to leave him his eftate, that hedifcarded him, and left
over-againll the mouth of the Jug, in E. Long. 43. 25. it to another. Yet though Lord Lovelace fided with
N. Lat. 6r. 48. the king, he treated his chaplain with great civility:
Oustioug, a province of the Ruffian empire, bound- but on his going to join the royal army, Mr Owen
ed on the north by Dwina, on the ealt by the foreft went to London, and foon after joined the non-con-
of Zirani, on the fouth by Wologda, and on the weft formifts. In 1642 he publiihed his book, intitled, A
by Cargapol and Waga. It is divided into two parts difplay of Arminianifm, which laid the foundation of
by the river Suchana; is full of forefts; and the rivers his future advancement: for the committee for purging
yield plenty of fifh, which the inhabitants dry in the the church of fcandalous minifters were fo pleafed with
iun, and which make their principal nourifhment. it, that Mr White their chairman fent him a prefen-
OUT-posts, in a military fenfe, a body of men tation of the living of Fordham in Eflex: but when
polled beyond the grand guard; called out pq/is, as be- he had been there about a year and a half, the patroa
ing the rounds or limits of the camp. hearing that the fequeftered incumbent was dead, pre-
OUTLAW, fignifies one that is deprived of the be- fented another to the living ; upon which the Earl of
nefit of the law, and therefore held to be out of the Warwick gave Mr Owen the living ofCoggelhal. He
king’s prote&ion. See the next article. had not, however, been long at that town before he
OUTLAWRY, is where a perfon is outlawed, and left the Prefbyterians ; and, joining the independants,
o that account lofes the benefit of a fubjeA.—-The formed a church there. He was now fent for feveral
procefs of outlawry lies in indiftments of treafon or fe- times to preach before the parliament ; and among the
lony, and alfo of trefpafs vi et armis, confpiracy, See. reft on the 28th of February 1648-9, the day of hu-
And by ftatute, perfons may be outlawed in many civil miliation for the intended expedition to Ireland. Crom-
aftions; as debt, cafe, covenant, See. well, who was prefent at this lad difeourfe, and had
OVUM anguinum. See Anguinum. never heard him before, was extremely pleafed with it,
OUTWORKS, in fortification, all thofe works and defired his company into Ireland, and that he would
made without-fide the ditch of a fortified place, to co- refide in the college of Dublin. This he did ; but re-
ver and defend it. See Fortification. turned in about half a year. Soon after Cromwell fent
OUZEL,fin ornithology; a fpecies of Motacilla. him into Scotland ; but he alfo returned from thence
OWEN (Thomas), a judge of the common-pleas, after about half a year’s flay at Edinburgh. He was
was the fon of Richard Owen, Efq; of Condover in then promoted to the deanery of Chrift-church, Ox-
Shropfhire, and educated at Oxford; whether in Chrift- ford ; whither he went in 1651; and Cromwell, being
church college, or Broadgate hall, is not determined, now chancellor of the univerfity, nominated him his
Having taken a degree in arts, he left the univerfity, vice-chancellor. The next year he was created doftor
and entered himfelf of Lincoln’s inn in London, where of divinity by diploma. Dr Owen enjoyed the poft
in procefs of time he became an eminent counfellor. of vice-chancellor five years; during which he behaved
In 1583 he was defied Lent-reader to that fociety. In with the greateft moderation : for, though often foli-
1590 he was made ferjeant at law, and queen’s ferjeant cited, he never molelled the meeting of the royalifts
foon after. He arrived at length at the dignity of at the houfe of Dr Willis the phyfician, where divine
judge of th$ common-pleas; which office he is faid to fervice was performed according to the liturgy of the
have executed, during five years, with great abilities church of England ; and though he was a commifiion-
and integrity. He died in 1598; and was buried on er for eje&ing fcandalous minitters, he frequently over-
the louth fide of the choir in Weftminfter abbey, where ruled his brethren in favour of thofe royalitls who were
a monument was ereded to his memory. He had the diftinguifhed by their merit. At the death of Crom-
reputation of a learned man, and • patron of literature, well, he was removed from the vice-chancellorfhip;
Vox.. VIIL 2 32 R flnd
Owl
.11
O X F [ 5792 ] O X F
and at the Reftoration waseje&ed from his. deanery of
Chrift-church. But he had provided himfelf a com-
. fortable retreat at an eftate he had purchafed at Had-
ham. He now employed himfelf in preaching as oft¬
en as he had an opportunity, and in writing books;
one of which, intitled Fiat Lux, falling in the hands
of Lord Clarendon, he was fo pleafed with it, or (as
is faid) from policy pretended to be fo, that he fent
for Dr Owen, and, acknowledging the fervice he had
done by it to the Proteftant religion, offered to prefer
him in the church, if he would conform ; but he defi-
red to be excufed.—His moderation drew him refpeft
from perfons of oppofite principles and in the num¬
ber of his friends were Dr Wilkins bifhop of Chelter,
and Dr Barlow bifhop of London. He died at Eal¬
ing in 1683. His works are printed in feven volumes,
folio.
OWL, in ornithology. See Srttix.
OWLING, fo called from its being ufually carried
on in the night, is the offence of transporting wool or
fheep out of this kingdom, to the detriment of its ftaple
manufacture. This was forbidden at common law,
and more particularly by ftatute 11 Edw. III. c. 1,
when the importance of our woollen manufacture was
firft attended to ; and there are now many later fta-
tutes relating to this offence, the mod ufeful and prin¬
cipal of which are thofe enaCted in the reign of Q_ueen
Elizabeth, and fince. The ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 3. makes
the tranfportation of live fheep, or embarking them on
board any (hip, for the firft: offence forfeiture of goods,
and imprifonment for a year, and that at the end of
the year the left hand (hall be cut off in fame public
market, and (hall be there nailed up in the opened
place; and the fecond offence is felony. The datutes
12 Car. II. c. 32. and 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 28. make
the exportation of wool, fheep, or fuller’s ea'rth, liable
to pecuniary penalties, and the forfeiture of the inte-
red of the fhip and cargo by the owners, if privy ; and
eonfifcation of goods, and three years imprifonment to
the mader and all the mariners. And the datute 4
Geo. L c. 11. (amended and farther enforced by 12
Geo. II. c. 21. and 19 Geo. II. c. 34.) makes it
tranfportation for feven years, if the penalties be not
paid.
OXALIS, woodsorrel ; a genus of the pentagynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants. There
are feven fpecies; of which the only remarkable is the
acetofella, or common wood-forreh This grows natu¬
rally in moid fhady woods, and at the fides of hedges
in many parts of Britain, fo is but feldom admitted
into gardens. The roots are compofed of many fealy
joints, which propogate in great plenty. The leaves
arife immediately from the roots upon Angle long foot-
ftalks, and are compofed of three heart4haped lobes.
They are gratefully acid, and of ufe in the fcurvy and
other putrid diforders.
OXFORD, the capital of a county of the fame name
in England, celebrated for its univerfity, and pleafant-
ly fituated in a plain, with a fine fruitful country all
around. The compofition of the name is obvious. In
the Britifh times it feems to have been a place of ftudy ^
but in the Saxon aera, it was noted only for a religious
houfe dedicated-to St Fridefwide, till Alfred built three
colleges, one for grammarians, another for philofo-
phers^ and a third for divines. Learning continued
to flourifti till the city was lacked and bnrnt by the
Danes in the reign of Etheldred ; and after that, Ha-'
rold, furnamed Harefoot, treated it with great feverity
upon fome provocation he had received. It feems to
have been befieged and taken by William the Conquer¬
or, and to have been deferted by the learned from that
time till about the year 1129, when one Robert Pu-
lein began to read ledlures in divinity : and fuch was
the refort of ftudents to it, that in the reign of King
John there were not fewer than three thoufand. Ro¬
bert d’Oily, a Norman, to whom William the Con¬
queror had given the greateft part of it, built a caftle
on the weft fide in 1071 ; and he is alfo fuppofed to
have furrounded it with walls. In a palace built by
Henry I. was born Richard I. commonly called C%ur
els Lion. About the tenth of King John, there hap¬
pened a quarrel between the citizens and ftudents ; in
confequence of which many of the latter quitted it,
but returned again a few years afterwards. Here Hen¬
ry III. held a parliament to fettle the differences ber
twixt him and his barons; when he corifirmed the pri¬
vileges granted to the univerfity by his predeceffors,
and added others of his own. In this reign the ftu¬
dents are faid to have been 30,000; who were all ex¬
communicated by the pope for fome rudenefs to his le¬
gate. In Edward Ill’s time, they were fplit into two
factions, called the northern and fouthern men ; a divi-
fion which was attended with many diforders and much
violence, but in a fhort time concord and harmony a-
gain prevailed. As colleges began about this time to
be founded and endowed, we fhall here prefent our
readers with a lift of them, together with the time when,
and the perfons by whom, they were founded.
Colleges.
Univeifity.
Baliol.
Merton.
Oriel.
Exeter.
Queen’s.
New College.
Lincoln.
All Souls.
Magdalen.
Brazen- Nofe.
Edward I.
Edw. JI.
Founders. Kings reigns.
King Alfred. Alfred,
f Sir John Baliol, father to the king1? ..
1 of Scots. Henry III.
CWalter Merton, lord chancellor'
(_ and. bifhop of Rochefter.
Edward the Second.
Walter Stapleton, bifhop.
Robert Eglesfield, B. D. Edw. III.
f William of Wickham, bifhop of r? ,
I Wincheftcr, lord chancellor. y Edw. 111.
^■Richard Fleming, bifhop of Ein-^
a.nryVL
C William Wainfket, bifhop of Win-7 rr
{ chaw,. i,„4
Cojpf-Chrifli. { RS"d,'j Hcn.VJII,
Chrifl-Church. Henry VIII. Hen.VIII.
Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope. Mary.
c.t u o .-a I Sir Thomas White, merchant of-7 tut
Stjohu Baptift, £ London. j Mary-
Jefus. Queen Elizabeth. Elifabeth.,
Wadhatn. Nicholas and Dorothy Wadham. James I.
-r, , , f Thomas Tifdale, Efq; and Dr7 T t
Pembroke. | Richard Whit^ck. j James I.
Worcefler was called Gloucefier-ball till .lately, that it was en¬
dowed by Sir Thomas Coke, and made collegiate.
Hartford was Hurt-hull till 1740, that it was erefted into a col¬
lege.
All thefe are richly endowed, and have fine gardens,
libraries, chapels, &c. The halls in . which the ftu¬
dents maintain themfelves, except a few that have ex¬
hibitions, are thefe: St Edmund’s, belonging to Queen’s
college ;. Magdalen,, to Magdalen college; St Al-
han!s
Oxford.
o x F [ 5793 ]
Oxford, ban’s, to Merton ; St Mary’s, to Oriel ; New-Inn,to
New-College. Several perfons have been great bene*
faftors to particular colleges, as Dr Ratclift’e to Uni-
verfity-college ; colonel Codrington and Dr Clarke,
to All-fouls; queen Caroline, to (Queen’s; the before*
mentioned Dr Clarke and Mrs Eaton, to Worceller ;
Dr Wake, archbifhop of Camerbury, to Chrilt-church.
The moft confidcrable of thefe colleges are Magdalen’s
and Chrill-Church, which are as noble foundations as
any in the wlorld. The church of the latter is the ca¬
thedral, and has a dean, eight canons, eight chaplains,
eight hnging men, eight choirliters, a teacher of ma¬
lic, and an qrganift. Each of the colleges has its vi-
fitor appointed by its ftatues, except Chrift-Church,
which is fubje&to the vilitation of the Sovereign alone.
The other remarkable buildings belonging to the uni-
verfity are, firft, the public fchools ; fecondiy, the Bod¬
leian or public library ; -thirdly, Ratclifft’s library, a
moft elegant ftru£ture, for building and furnilhing
which, Dr Ratcliffe left 40,000!.; fourthly, the theatre,
built by Sheldon, archbilhop of Canterbury ; fifthly,
the mufeum, in which is an elaboratory and a repofi-
toryfor natural and artificial rarities and antiquities ;
fixthly, the Clarendon printing-houfe, fo called, be-
eaufe it was built partly with the money arifing to
t)ie univerfity by the fale of Lord Clarendon’s hifiory.
To the fouth of Magciaien college lies the phyfic gar¬
den, iniiituted by the Earl-of Danby, and much im¬
proved by Dr Sherrard. It contains five acres, in
which is a complete feries of.fucb plants as grow natu¬
rally, difpofed in their refpedfive claffes ; together with
two neat and convenient green-houfes, flocked with a
valuable colleftion of exotics, and a hot-houfe, where
various plants brought from the warmer climates are
raifed. The whole body of thr univerfity, including
profeffors, fellows, and fludents of a)l forts, exceeds
3000. Each college has its particular flatutes and
rules for its government. There are four terms in the
year for public exercifes, &c. and particular days and
hours for public lectures by the feveral profeflbrs. The
univerfity is governed by a chancellor, high-fteward,
Vice-chancellor, two proctors, a public orator, a keep¬
er of the archives, a' regifler, three fquire-beadles', and
three yeomen-beadles. As to the city, it has had the
fame privileges granted to it as London, particularly
an exemption from toll all over England, It is go¬
verned by a mayor, high-fteward, recorder, four al¬
dermen, eight afliflants, two bailiffs, a town clerk, two
chamberlains, all that have borne the office of bailiff
and chamberlain, and twenty-four common-council
men ; but thefe are fubjeft to the chancellor or vice-
chancellor of the univerfity in all affairs of moment}
and not only the mayor; but the principal citizens,
and Iheriff of the county, take an oath to maintain the
privileges of the univerfity. The city, including the
colleges, is one of the largeft in England, having thir¬
teen parifh-churches, befides the cathedral, well built,
clean, and regular. At the entrance of the town from
the Woodftock and Banbury roads, a neat hofpital hath
been lately ereeled by the truftees of Dr Ratcliffe’s be-
neiaftion, out of the furplus money remaining after
defraying the expence of his library. The male line
of the family of Vere, to whom the city had given the
title of earl fdr 500 years, failing in Aubrey de Vere,
who was twentieth earl, queen Anne conferred the title
O X Y
upon Robert Harley, a defeendant of the Veres, in Oxftn
whofe family it ftill continues. The chief trade of the fit
city is in malt, conveyed in barges to London. ycr~
Oxfordshire, a county of England, bounded on
the weft by GloucefteHhire ; on the fouth, where it is
broadeft, the river Ifis divides it from Bcrklhire ; on
theeafi, it is botlnded by Buckinghamfhire ; and on the
north, where it terminates in a narrow point, it has on
the one fide Northamptonlhire, and on the other War-
wickfliire. It extends from Cleydon to Caverlham 42 ,
miles in length, and from Cleydon to Farringdon 26
in breadth, making about 130 in circumference; with¬
in which are contained one city, 15 market-towns, 280
parilhes, ^hundreds, 534,oooacres, andabout 1 20,000
fouls. The air is fweet and pleafant, and the foil rich and
fertile. The lower parts confiftof meadows and corn¬
fields, and the higher were covered with woods till the
civil wars; in which they were fo entirely deftroyed,
that wood is now extremely fcarce and dear, except in
what is called the chiltern, and fo is coal ; of confe-
quence fuel bears an exorbitant price. The county is
extremely well watered ; for befides the Ifis, Tame,
Cherwell, Evenlode, and Windnifh, there is a great
number of leffer rivers and brooks. One of the four
great Roman ways paffes quite through it, entering at
the parifh of Chinner, and going out at that of Go¬
ring. There is another leffer one, that extends between
Colnbrook and Wallinford, called Gremefdike. The
county fends nine members to parliament, viz. two for
the {hire, two for the city, two for the univerfity, two
for new Woodftock, and one for Banbury.
OXGANG, orOxGATE, is generally taken, incur
old Jaw-books, for 15 acres, or as much ground as a
fin.-It- ox can plough in a year.
OXUCL2E, in natural hiftory, the name of a ge¬
nus of foffils of the clafs of felenitae, but of the colum¬
nar, not the rhomboidal kind. Of this genus there are
only two known fpecies: 1. A fine kind with thin flakes
and tranfverfe filaments, found in the clayey banks of
the river Nen, near Peterborough in Northampton-
fliire ; and, 2. A dull kind with thick plates and lon¬
gitudinal filaments. This is not uncommon in York-
fttire, and lies fometimes in a yellow, and fometimes
in a blue clay.
OXUS, orJiHUN, a large river of'Afia, which ri-
fes in the mountains north of India ; and running
tiorthvveft, through Ufbec Tartary, feparatesthat coun¬
try from Perfia, and falls into the Cafpian fea in 440
N. Lat. #
OXYCRATE, in pharmacy, a mixture of vinegar
and water, proper to affuage, cool, and refrefh. The
ufual proportion is one fpOonful of vinegar to five or
fix fpoonfiils of water.
OXYGLYCU, a fpecies of drink prepared of the
fweeteft honey-combs macerated and boiled. The combs,
from which all the honey has been expreffed, are put
into a pot with pure water, and boiled till they feem
to have depofited all their contained honey in the water.
This liquor is to be kept ; and, when diluted with cold
water, is to be drank in the fummer-time, in order to
remove third.
OXYMEL, in pharmacy, a coropofition of vinegar
and honey. See Pharmacy.
OYER, in law-books, feems to have been anciently
ufed for what is now called afpfss. See Assise.
32 R 2* OYES,
O yts
Oyfter.
O Y S [ 5794 ] O Z A
0 YES, a corruption of the Frertch Oyez, Heavy:;
a term or formula frequently ufed by the criers in our
courts on making proclamations, or to enjoin filence.
OYSTER, in zoology, fee Ostrea.
The oyfter affords the curious in microfcopic obfer-
vations a very pleafing entertainment. In the clear li¬
quor many little round living animalcules have been
found, whofe bodies being conjoined, form fpherical
figures, with tails not changing their place otherwife
than by finking to the bottom, as being heavier than
the fluid ; thefe have been feen frequently feparating,
and then coming together again. In other oyfters,
animalcules of the fame kind were found, not conjoin¬
ed, but fwimming by one another, whence they feem-
ed in a more perfect ftate, and were judged by Mr
Lieuwenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or femen
of the oyfter.
A female oyfter being opened, incredible multitudes
of fmall embryo oyfters were feen, covered with little
fhells, perfeftly tranfparent, and fwimming along flow-
ly in the liquor ; and in another female, the young
ones were'found of a browner colour, and without any
appearance of life or motion.
Monfieur Joblot alfo kept the water running from
oyfters three days, and it appeared full of young oy¬
fters fwimming about nimbly in it ; thefe increafed in
fize daily ; but a mixture of wine, or the vapour of vi¬
negar, killed them.
In the month of Auguft oyfters are fuppofed to breed,
becaufe young ones are then found in them. Mr Lieu-
wenhoek, on the 4th of Auguft, opened an oyfter, and
took out of it a prodigious number of minute oyfters,
all alive, and fwimming nimbly about in the liquor,
by means of certain exceeding fmall organs, extending
a little way beyond their (hells ; and thefe he calls their
beards. In thefe little oyfters, he could difcover the
joinings of the fhells ; and perceived that there were
tome dead ones, with their fhells gaping. Thefe, tho’
fo extremely minute, are feen to be as like the large
oyfters in form as one egg is to another.
As to the fize of them, he computes, that 120 of
them in a row would extend an inch ; and confe-
quently, that a globular body, vyhofe diameter is an
inch, would, if they were alfo round, be equal to
1,728,000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are
in one oyfter, and found many of the embryo oyfters
among the bairds ; fome faftened thereto by (lender fi¬
laments, and others lying loofe : he likewife found
animalcules in the liquor 500 times lefs than the em*
bryo oyfters.
It is not very uncommon to fee on oyfter-fhells,
when in a dark place, a fhining matter or bluifh light,
like a flame of brimftone, which flicks to the fingers
when touched, and continues fhining and giving light
for a confiderable time, though without any fenfible
heat. This fhining matter being examined with a mi-
crofcope, was found to confift of three forts of animal¬
cules ; the firft whitifh, and having 24 or 25 legs on
a fide, forked, a black fpeck on one part of the head,
the back like an eel with the fkin ftripped off. The
fecond fort, red, refembling the common glow-worm,
with folds on its back, but legs like the former; a
nofe like a dog’s, and one eye in the head. The third
fort, fpeckled, with a head like a foal, with many tufts
of whitifh hairs on the fides of it. Some much larger
and greyifh might be feen, having great heads, two
horns like a fnail’s, and fix or eight whitifh feet} but
thefe did not feem to fhine.
Oyster-See Hematopus. r
Oyster-5^///. See Chemistry, n° 345.
OZiENA, a foul and malignant ulcer of the nofe,
diftinguifhed by its foetor, and often accompanied with
a caries of the bones of the nofe.
OZELL (John), a well known tranflator, was edu¬
cated in Chrift’s Hofpital, was pofilffed of a compe¬
tent fortune, and always enjoyed good places; being
auditor-general of the city and bridge accounts, of
St Paul’s cathedral, and of St Thomas’s hofpital.
Notwithftanding his attention to bufinefs, he ftill re¬
tained a love for polite literature : and though he did
not appear as an original author, yet having made
himfelf mafter of mod of the living languages, he fa¬
voured the world with many tranfiations from thefe, as
well as from the Latin and Greek ; which, if they are
not the moft elegant, are generally faithful and true
to the originals. He died in the year 1743.
OZANAM (James), an eminent French mathema¬
tician, born at Boligneux in Breffe, in 1640, of a
wealthy family. His father gave him a good educa¬
tion, and defigned him for the church : but fome ma¬
thematical books falling into his hands, infpired him
with a love for that fcience; and though he had no
matter to inftruft him, he made fuch progrcfs in it,
that, at 15 years of age, he wrote a piece in mathe¬
matics, which be thought proper to infert in the works
he afterwards publifhed. He at length taught that
fcience at Lyons; and hisfmathematical leffons brought
him in a confiderable revenue, till the year 1701 : at
which period, a war breaking out on the fucceflion to
the crown of Spain, he loll almoft all his fcholars, and
was reduced to a very melancholy fituation ; and his
wife dying the fame year, he was fo affli&ed, that he
never perfe&ly recovered it. In 1702, he was admit-
tep into the Royal Academy of Sciences; and died
of an apoplexy, in 1717*—He was of a mild and fe-
rene temper, of Angular generofity, and of a cheerful
difpofition.—He would not allow himfelf to know
more of religion than the common people. He nfed
to fay, that “ it was the bufinefs of the doflors of
Sorbonne to difpute, of the Pope to decide, and of a
mathematician to go to heaven in a perpendicular line.”
His works are very numerous, and have met with the
approbation of the learned. The principal are, 1. Prac¬
tical geometry, i2mo. 2. A mathematical didlionary.
3. A courfe of mathematics, 5 vols, 8vo. 4. Mathe¬
matical and philofophical recreations, the moft complete
edition of which is that of 1724, in 4 vols 8vo. 5. An
eafy method of furveying. 6. New elements of alge¬
bra, a work much commended by Monf. Leibnitz.
7. Theoretical and pradlical perfpedlive, &c.
Oyfter
Ozanam.
T.
PAG
[ 5795 ]
P-
PAG
P T) er p, the 15th letter and t tth confonant of the
If * alphabet; the found of which is formed by ex-
?ice' prefling the breath fomewhat more fuddenly than in
forming the found of b; in other refpefts thefe two
founds are pretty much alike, and are often confound¬
ed one with another. When p ftands before * or f>
its found is loft; as in the words pfalms, pfychology, pto-
Icmaic, ptifan, &c. When placed before h, they
both together have the found of/; as in philofophy,phy-
J!c, &c.
As an abbreviation, P. ftands for Publius, Pondo, &c.
P.A.DIG. for Patricia Dignitas ; P. C. for Patres
Confcripti; P. F. for Publii Films; P. P. for Propoji-
tutn, or Propojitumpublicd; P. R. for Populus Romanus}
P.R.S. for Prxtoris fcntentia, P. R. S. P. for Prafes
provincia.
In the Italian mufic, P. ftands for piano, or “ foft-
ly and P. P. P. forpiamjftmo, or “ very foftly.”
Among aftronomers, P. M. is ufed to denote pojl
meridiem, or afternoon.
Among phyficians, P. ftands for pugil, or the eighth
part of an handful, P. FcL. partes cequales, or equal
parts of the ingredients; P. P. fignifies pulvis pa-
trum, or Jefuit’s bark in powder; andppt. praparatus,
or prepared.
As a numeral, P fignifies the fame with G, viz. 400;
and with a dafti over it thus, g, 400,000.
PABULUM, among natural philofophers, the fame
with Fuel.
PACE, a meafure taken from the fpace between
the two feet of a man in walking ; ufually reckoned
two feet and a half, and in fome men a yard or three
feet. The geometrical pace is five feet; and 60,000
fuch paces make one degree on the equator.
Pace, in the manege, is of three kinds, viz. walk,
trot, and gallop ; to which may be added an amble,
becaufe fome horfes have it naturally.
Hoffes which go fhuffling, or with mixed paces be¬
tween the walk and amble, are for the mod part of no
value ; which commonly proceeds from their fiery tem¬
per, but fometimes from a weaknefs in their reins or
kgs.
Pace (Richard), a learned Englifhman, born about
the year 1482. He was educated at the charge of
Thomas Langton bifttop of Winchefter, whom he
ferved as an amanuenfis, and afterwards entered into
the fervice of cardinal Bainbridge. His accomplifh-
ments rendered him fo acceptable to Henry VIII. that
he made him fecretary of ftate; and, entering into or¬
ders, he was admitted prebendary in the church of
York, archdeacon of Dorfet, and dean of St Paul’s,
&c. which preferments were conferred on him during
his abfence on foreign embaflies. In 1524, he was
lent to Rome on the death of pope Leo X. to folicit
the papal chair for cardinal Wolfey; but a new Pope
was eledted before his arrival, a circumftance that pro¬
ved the epocha of his troubles. He fell under the dif-
pleafure of the difappointed cardinal; and being foon
after employed as ambaffador at Venice, he was fo ne-
glefted and hardly ufed, that he was feized with a
phrenzy: Upon which the king ordered him home; Pachamac
and being carefully attended by the phyficians at the 'l
king’s command, he was in a ftiort time rettored to the Packa&ft
ufe of his reafon, and then applied himfelf to the ftu-
dy of the Hebrew tongue. Being now introduced to
his Majefty, he remonftrated againft the Cardinal’s
cruelty: who being ordered to clear himfelf, fummon-
ed Pace before him, fitting in judgment with the duke
of Norfolk and others; who condemned Pace, and fent
him to the Tower ; where he remained two years, till
he was discharged by the king’s command.—When he
was enlarged, he refigned his deaneries, and died iti
retirement at Stepney in 1532; after having wrote fe-
veral works, and enjoyed the tfteem of the learned
among his cotemporaries ; efpecially of Sir Thomas
More, and Erafmus.
PACHAMAC, a valley of Peru, in South Ame¬
rica, ten miles fouth of Lima ; celebrated for its plea-
fantnefs and fertility, but more on account of a mag¬
nificent temple built by the Incas of Peru, to the ho¬
nour of their god. When the Spaniards conquered
Peru, they found immenfe riches therein.
PACHODECARHOMBIS, in natural hiftory,
the name of a genus of fofiils, of the clafs of falemi~
tee, exprefling a thick rhomboidal body compofed of
ten planes.
PACHSU, a fmall ifland in the Mediterranean fea,
near the coaft of Epirus, and in European Turky. It
lies fouth of Corfu, and is fubjeft to Venice.
PACIFIC ocean, that vaft ocean which feparates
Afia from America. It is called Pacific, from the mo¬
derate weather the firft mariners who failed in it met
with between the tropics: and it was called South Sea,
becaufe the Spaniards crofled the ifthmus of Darien
from north to fouth, when they firft difeovered it; tho*
it is properly the Weftern ocean, with regard to Ame¬
rica.
PACK, in commerce, denotes a quantity of goods,
made up in loads, or bales, for carriage.
A pack of wool is 17 ftone and 2 pounds, or a
horfe’s load.
PACKET, or Packet .5^/, a veflel appointed by
the government to carry the mail of letters, packets,
and exprefles, from one kingdom to another by fea,
in the moft expeditious manner. Thus, the packet-
boats, under the direction of the poft-mafter-general
of Great Britain, carry the mails from Dover to Ca¬
lais, from Falmouth to Lifbon, from Harwich toHel-
voetfluys, and from Parkgate to Dublin.
PACTOLUS (anc. geog.), a river of Lydia, call¬
ed Chryforrhoas, from its rolling down golden fand,
according to Herodotus, Plutarch, Pliny, and Stra¬
bo ; rifing in mount Tmolus, (Strabo). From this
river Croefus is thought to have had all his riches. In
Strabo’s time it ceafed to roll down any. It ran thro’
Sardes ; after which it fell into the Hermus, and both
together into the Aegean Sea at Phocaea in Ionia. A
river celebrated by Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Ly'cophron,
Horace, Apollonius.
PACKAGE, is a fmall duty of one penny in the
pound.
PAD
ppacos pound, paid for all goods not particularly rated.
!1 PACOS, in zoology. See Camelus.
Padefborn- PACUV1US (Marcus), of Brundufiucn in Gala-
bria, a tragic poet in high reputation about the year
of Rome 600. He was nephew of Ennius; publifh d
feveral theatrical pieces, tho’ we have only fome frag¬
ments of his poetry remaining ; and died at Tarentum
at above 90 years of age.
PA DAN ARAM (Bible), literally the plains of
Aram, or Syria; tranflated by the Seventy, Amply
Mefopotamia, or Mofopotamia, of Syria ; by the Vul¬
gate, Syrian; the .Syrians on this and on the other
fide of the Euphrates, not differing remarkably from
each other in language and manners, as Jofephus al¬
lows.
PADDOC, or Paddoc-Ccar/e, a piece of ground
encompaffed with pales or a wall, and taken out of a
park for exhibiting races with gre-hounds, for plates,
wagers, or the like.
A paddoc is generally a mile long, and a quarter
of a mile broad : at the one end is a little houfe where
the dogs are to be entered, and whence they are flip¬
ped ; near which are pens to inclofe two or three deer
for the fport. Along the courfe are feveral pofts, viz.
the low poft, which is 160 yards from the dog-houfe
and pens; the quarter of a mile poft, half-mile poft,
and pinching poft ; befides the ditch, which is a place
made to receive the deer, and preferve them from far¬
ther purfuit. And near this place are feats for the
judges chofen to decide the wager.
The keepers, in order to flip the dogs fairly, put a
falling collar upon each, flipped round a ring; and the
deer being turned loofe, and put forward by a teazer,
as foon as he is arrived at the low-poft, the dog-houfe
door is thrown open, and the dogs flipped. If now the
deer fwerve fo much, as that his head is judged nearer
the dog-houfe than the ditch before he arrive at the
pinching-poft, it is no match, and muft be run over
again three days after: but if the deer runs ftraight
beyond the pinchipg-poft, then that dog which is
ntareft when he fwerves, or is blanched by any acci¬
dent, wins the match ; but if no fuch fwerve hap¬
pens, then the match is won by the dog who firft leaps
the ditch.
PADERBORN, a duchy of Germany in the circle
of Weftphalja, has the county of JLippe on the north
and weft; Heffe-CafTel and Waldeck, on the fouth ;
and Munfter, with the duchy of Weftphalia, on the
weft. Its greateft length from eaft to weft is about 40
miles, and its breadth where wideft 30. Some parts
of it yield good pasture, and breed abundance of
-cattle ; but it is not very fruitful in corn. There is
a heath called the Senne or Ser.de, of great extent, but
very barren and dcfolate. There are, however, good
iron mines in the country, with fait and medicinal
fprings, plenty of deer and other game; and it
is watered with feveral rivers abounding with ftfh,
as the Wcfcr, the Dimer, the Bcvcr, the Nette, the
great Emmer, the Lippe, the Alme, and the Padtr.
It contains 54 parifhes, in which are 25 market-towns,
and 16 monasteries. The Roman Catholic is the pre¬
dominant religion of the country,- yet there are alfo
many Proteftants in it. The bifhopric was erefted by
Charlemagne, towards the clofe of the eighth century ;
^nd the cathedral was confeerated by pope Leo in
PAD
perfon, anno 796. The bifhop is fovereign of the PaderbonW
country, a prince of the empire, and fuffragan of the Pa^ua‘ \
archbifhop of Mentz. His revenue is about 30,000
pounds a year, and he is able to raife 3000 men. In
the matricula, his affefTment is 18 horfe and 34 foot,
or 352 florins monthly in lieu of them. Towards the
charges of the fovereign courts of the empire, he payg
for each term, 162 rix-dollars and 29 krnitzers. Ttie
chapter conflfts of 24 capitular canons, who muft prove
their noble extra&ion by four defeents. The arms of
the bilhopric are a crofs or, in a field gules. For
the government of it, and the adminiftration of juftice,
there are feveral councils and colleges under the bi¬
fhop. Here are alfo a hereditary marfhal, fewer, cup¬
bearer, chamberlain, fteward, and purveyor. It was
in this bifhopric that Qujntilius Varus, with the Ro¬
man army under his command, was routed by the
Germans under Arminius.
Padderborn, the capital of the above bifhop¬
ric. It ftands 40 miles north-weft of Cafftl, 50
fouth-eaft of Munfter, and 60 fouth-weft of Hano¬
ver; being a large, populous, well built, and well
fortified city. Its name is compounded of pader, a ri¬
vulet, which rifes juft under the high altar of the ca¬
thedral, and horn, i. e. a fpring. It was one of the
Hanfe-tovvns ; and, till 1604, an imperial city. The
cathedral is a grand fabric, inferior to few in the em¬
pire. There fs a gold crucifix in it of 60 pounds
weight, prefented by Otho II. The umverfity, of
which the Jcfuits have the direftion, was founded in
1592, and the walls were built in the beginning of the
1 uh century. In 1530, an attempt was made to in¬
troduce Lutheranifm ; but 16 of the principal citizens
who had embraced it were executed, and the reft; ob¬
liged to abjure it. Duke Chriftian of Brunfwic car¬
ried off.from hence, in 1692, the filver images of the
12 apoftles, and the filver coffin of St Lotharius; and
had them coined into money, with this infeription,
God's Friend, the Priejis Enemy. The trade of this
town, though formerly great, is now incopfiderable ;
and the inhabitants fubfift moftly by agriculture, and
breeding of cattle. Though the bifhop has a palace
in the city, he refides (when he vouchfafes to vifit this
country, which is feldom, having other and more va¬
luable benefices) at Neuhaus, feven miles off, where
he has a magnificent caftle.. Charlemagne, and other
emperors, fometimes refided here, and held diets of
the empire.
PADUA, an ancient, large, and celebrated city of
Italy, with an univerfity and a bilhop’s fee. It is alfo
capital of the Paduano; but is much lefs confiderable
than it was formerly : for it now contains no more than
30,000 inhabitants, whereas it formerly had 100,000,
and many of the houfes are gone to ruin : however,
the hall where juftjee is adminiftered, is a t’uperb ftruc-
ture. Tne cathedra! church, and the college of the
univerfity, are in that part called the Old Town ; and
there are piazzas under all the houfes, -where perfons
may Walk w ithout being expofed to the weather. The
garden of the univerfity is curious, on account of the
number of plants. Here a ftudent may take his de¬
grees, let him be of what fe& of Chriliianity he will ;
nay, though he (hould be a Jew or a Turk. The pa¬
tron of this city is St Anthony, who lies in the ca¬
thedral ; they have fuch a veneration for him, that the
[ 5796 ]
P iE O [ 5797 ] PAG
‘adiuno beggars do not aflc charity in the name of God, but
l| , for the love of St Anthony. The Jews live in a di-
?goma. part 0f city; and the neighbouring moun¬
tains produce excellent wine and oil, with delicious
fruit. It was taken by the Venetians in 1706. It is
feated on the rivers Brentac and Bachiglione, in a
fine plain ; and is about feven miles in circumference.
E. Long. 11. 55. N. Lat. 45. 24.
. PADUANO, a fmall province of Italy, in the ter¬
ritory of Venice, bounded on the eaft by the Dogado,
on the fouth by the Poldino di Rovigo, on the weft
by the Veronefe, and on the north by the Vicentino.
Its foil is well watered; and is one of the mod fertile
in Italy. The province is about 40 miles in length,
and 35 in breadth. Padua is the capital town.
PADUAN, among the medalifts, a modern medal
ftruck in imitation of the antique, or a new medal
ftruck with all the marks and chara&ers of antiquity.
This name is properly applicable to thofe medals only
that were ftruck, in the feventh century, by an Ita¬
lian painter, born at Padua ; who fucceeded fo well
in the impofture, that the beft judges are at a lofs to
diftinguilh his medals from the genuine ones. Tho’
it is frequently ufed in general for all medals of this
kind.
PADUS, anciently called Eridanus, efpecially by
the Greeks; a river famous for the fable of Phaeton,
(Ovid). It rifes in mount Vefulus, in the Alpes Co-
thias, from three fprings, dividing the Cifalpine Gaul
into the Tranfpadana and Cifpadana, (Strabo) ; and,
fwelled by other rivers falling into it on each fide from
the Alps and Appennines, it difcharges itfelf with a
courfe from weft to eaft, at feven mouths, into the A-
driatic, (Mela). The lake thro’ which it difcharges it¬
felf into the fea, is called by the natives the Seven Seas.
Now the Po.
PADUS, in botany. See Prunu*.
PjEAN, among the ancient pagans, was a fong of
rejoicing fung in honour of Apollo, chiefly ufed on oc-
caiions of victory and triumph. See Apollo.
P^an, in the ancient poetry, a foot confilling of four
fyllables; of which there are four kinds, the paean pri¬
mus, fecundus, &c.
The paean primus confifts of one long fyllable and
three fhort ones, or a trochasus and pyrrhichius, as
temporibus; the paean fecundus confifts of a fhort fyl-
iable, a long, and two fhbrt, or an iambus and a pyr¬
rhichius, as potentia ; the paean tertius confifls of two
fhort fyllables, a long and a fhort one, or a pyrrhichius
and a trochaeus, as animatus; the pasan quartus confifts
of three fhort fyllables and a long one, or a pyrrhichius
and iambus, as celeritas.
PiEDO-baptism; infant-baptifm, or that conferred
on children.
PiEONIA, Piony; a genus of the digynia order,
belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. There are
two fpecies, both of them very hardy, and will flourifh
in any common foil. They are large herbaceous flow¬
ery perennials, with tuberous roots, fending up ftrong
annual {talks from one to three feet in height; termi¬
nated by very large flowers of a beautiful red colour,
and much larger than any rofe. The common offici¬
nal, or male piony, alfo is remarkable for its capfules
turning backward, opening and difplaying their red
iafide, together with the numerous feeds, in a Angular¬
ly agreeable order, appearing very ornamental after the IhcfUim
flower is paft. The plants may be propagated either I
by parting the roots, or by feed. This plant was for- Pagninu*
merly celebrated in nervous diftempers, but the pre*
fent pra&ice pays very little regard to it.
PJESTUM, called Poftdotiia by the Greeks, a town
of Lucania, on the Sinus Pseftinus: an ancient colony
prior to the firft Punic war, according to Livy ; but
later, according to Velleius. Peejlanse rofa were in
great efteem, and -produced twice a-year. (Virgil,
PAGAN, a heathen, gentile, or idolater; one who
adoies falfe gods. See Mythology.
PAGANALIA, certain feftivals obferved by the
ancient Romans in the month of January. They were
inftituted by Servius Tullius, who appointed a certain
number of villages (pdgi), in each of which an altar
was to be raifed for annual facrifices to their tutelar
gods; at which all the inhabitants were to affift, and
give prefents in money, according to their fex and age,
by which means the number of country-people was
known. The fervants upon this occafion offered cakes
to Ceres and Tellus, to obtain plentiful harvefts.
PAGANELLUS, in ichthyology. See Gobius,
PAGANISM, the religious worfhip and difcipline
of pagans; or, the adoration of idols and falfe gods.
See Idolatry and Mythology.
PAGEANT, a triumphal car, chariot, arch, or
other like pompous decoration, varioufly adorned with,
colours, flags, &c. carried about in public fhews, pro-
Ccffions, &c.
. PAGI (Antony), a very famous Cordelier, and one
of the able ft critics of his time, was born at Rogne in
Provence in 1624. He took the habit in the convent
at Arles in 1641, and was at length four times pro¬
vincial of bis order; but his religious duties did not
prevent his vigorous application to the ftudy of.xhro-
nology and ecclefiaftical hiftory, in which he excelled.
His moft confiderable work is, “ A Critique upon the
Annals of Baronins;” where, following the learned car¬
dinal year by year, he has'reftified an infinite number
of millakes, both in chronology and in the reprefenta-
tion of fads. He publiflted the firft volume in 1689,
dedicated to the clergy of France, who allowed him a
penfion : the whole was *printed after his death, in
4 vols, folio, at Geneva, in 1705, by the care of his
nephew Francis Pagi, of the fame order. He wrote
fome other things before his death, which happened in
1699; and had the chara&er of an able hiftorian as
well as of a learned and candid critic. His nephew,
Francis, above mentioned, wrote “ A Chronological
Abridgment of the hiftory of the Popes,” in Latin,
3 vols, 410. Francis had alfo a nephew, Anthony Pagi,
who added three more volumes to the Hiftory of the
Popes ^ of which two m6re were intended, if not exe¬
cuted.
PAGNINUS (Sandes), a Dominican, illuftn’ous
for his {kill in the Oriental languages, was born at
Lucca in 1466.' He applied himfelf to examine the
vulgar tranflation of the Scriptures; and believing it
to be either not of Jerom, or greatly corrupted, he un¬
dertook a new one from the prefent Hebrew text. It
appears by a letter from Picus MirUndula to him, that
he fpent 23 years on this work, which is the firft mo¬
dern tranflation from the Hebrew; and the Jews who
read
P A I [ 5798 ] P A I
read it, affirmed it to be more exa& than the ancient
tranflations: this, however, was his fault; for his fcru-
pulous fervile adherence to the letter of the original
text, has, according to father Simon, made his tranfla-
tion obfeure, barbarous, and full of folecifms. He af¬
terward tranflated the NewTeftament from the Greek,
as he had done the Old from the Hebrew, laying the
Vulgar all the while before him ; and dedicated it to
pope Clement VII. He was alfo the author of a He¬
brew Grammar and Lexicon, which Buxtorf made great
ufe of in compiling his; and died in 1536.
PAGOD, or Pagoda, a name whereby the Eaft
Indians call the temples where they worfhip their gods.
Pagod, or Pagoda, is alfo the name of a gold and
lilver coin, current in feveral parts of the Eaft Indies.
PAIN. See MxTAPHysics, n° 23, 71.
As the brain is the feat of fenfation, fo it is of
pain. Boerhaave, and moft other authors on this
fubjeft, affign a ftretching of the nerves as the only
immediate caufe of pain: but as the nerves do not ap¬
pear to coniift of fibres, this caufe of pain does not
feem to be well-founded; nor indeed will it be eafy to
treat this fubjeft clearly, but in proportion as the means
of fenfation are underftood.
Many kinds of pain are met,with in authors : fuch
as, Agravitative pain; in which there is a fenfe of weight
on the part affefted, which is always fome flelhy one,
as the liver, &c. A pulfative pain ; which, Galen fays,
always fucceeds fome remarkable inflammation in the
containing parts, and is obferved inabfcefTes while fup-
purating. A tenfive pain, which is alfo called a dijlend-
ing pain ; it is excited by the diftenfion of fome ner¬
vous, mufcular, or membranous part, either from fome
humour, or from flatulence. An acute pain is, when
great pain is attended with quick and lively fenfations:
A dull pain is, when a kind of numbnefs is as much com¬
plained of as the pain is.
The mediate and more remote caufes of pain are ge¬
nerally obvious; and when fo, the cure will confift for
the moft part in removing them: for though in many
inftances the chief complaint is very diftanl from the
feat of thefe caufes, yet their removal is the proper me¬
thod of relief. See Medicine,
Perhaps all pains maybe included, with irritation, in
thofe that have fpafm or inflammation for their fource.
When pain is owing to inflammation, the pulfe ?is
quicker than in a natural ftate; it is alfo generally full,
hard, and tenfe; the pain is equal, throbbing, and un¬
remitting. If a fpafm is the caufe, the pulfe is rarely
affe&ed; at intervals the pain abates, and then returns
with fome degree of aggravation ; gentle motion fome-
times abates, or even cures, in fome inftances: but in
inflammatory cafes no fuch effedts are ever experien¬
ced. See Dr Lobb’s Treatife on Painful Diftempers.
The pain fo frequently attendant on child-bed wo¬
men, called after-pains (from their happening only
after being delivered of a child), are often occafioned
by fcooping to fetch away coagulated blood, which is
a needlefs endeavour. When no improper treatment
in delivering the fecundines can be fufpefled, the irri¬
tability of the uterus alone is to be confidered as the
caufe. Care fhould be taken not to confound thefe af¬
ter-pains with, or miftake the pains attending puerpe¬
ral fevers for, the colic. After-pains come by fits, and
foon go off; but return at different intervals, which are
longer each day, and after two or three days are ufu-
ally at an end, thoiugh fometimes they continue feven
or eight: notwithftanding thefe pains, the lochia flow
properly, and generally more abundantly after the cef-
fation of each fit; this does not happen in colicky com¬
plaints, nor is the belly fo free from tumefa&ion when
the purperal fever is attendant.
As thefe pains are of the fpafmodic kind, anodynes
and gentle opiates, with frequent draughts of warm
caudle, camomile tea, &c. are all that are required in
order to their relief.
Among the various caufes of pain, a fingular one is
related in the third vol. of the Lond. Med. Obf and In q.
p. 241, &c. Some perfonswho had taken cold dnring
their being falivated, were afflifted with pains which
refifted all the ufual methods of relief: at length the
author of the narrative referred to, fuggefted the caufe;
and by exciting a frefh falivation, the pains abated ;
the fpittingwas kept up a little while, and permitted
to abate with fome caution; and thus the cures were
completed.
Pain
PAIN
yjA-INTING is the art of reprefenting to the eyes,
■*- by means of figures and colours, every objedt in
nature that is difcernible by the fight; and of fome¬
times expreffing, by figures, the various emotions of
the mind.
1. It is to be imagined that men muft naturally and
very early have conceived an idea of the firft principles
of the art of painting: the (hadow of each plant and
animal, and of each edifice, muft have afforded them
the means of conceiving the method of imitating the
figures of all bodies whatever. But as in the firft ages
of the world the art of writing was unknown, as man¬
kind were ignorant of aftronomy, and as their year cer¬
tainly did not confift of the fame number of days as
does that of the moderns, how is it poffible to deter¬
mine the epoch, the precife date, of the rife of each art
or fciencei The Egyptians pretend that painting was irt
TING.
ufe among them many ages before it was known among
theGreeks: And the matter is highly probable; for the
Egyptians being the moft ancient people, the Greeks
drew from them many other'branches of learning; the
hieroglyphics of the former were, moreover, a fort of
painting. Diodorus Siculus, l. it. c. 4. relates, that
Semiramis, having re-eftabliftied Babylon, built there a
wall of two leagues and a half in circumference, the
bricks of which were painted before they were burnt,
and reprefented various kinds of animals. He adds,
that fhe had another wall, on which were the figures of
all forts of animals painted in their natural colours:
and that there were among them even- pidtures which
reprefented hunting-matches and combats. This is, in
faft, an anecdote of great antiquity.
2. The Greeks were acquainted with the art of wri¬
ting: they were highly oftentatious, and hadamongtbem
mea
5799
Part I. PAIN
men of real genius. This was fufficient to make them
attribute the invention cf all the arts and fciences to
tbemfelves. Their authors, however, do not agree
about the inventor of painting. Pliny, in his Natural
Hirtory, /. xxxv. c. 12. affures us, that Dibutades, a
potter of Sicyonia, invented the art of making figures
in clay; but that he owed the .invention to his daugh¬
ter, who, on taking leave of her lover that was going
to a diilant country, contrived to trace on_a wall, by
the means of a lamp, the outline of his fhadow: the
father, by applyiugj his clay to thofe lines, formed a
ftatue, which he hardened in his ftove; and which was
preferved in the tentple of the Nymphs, till the time
that Mummius fignalized himfelf by the deftru&ion of
Corinth. Love, therefore, was the firft: mafter of paint¬
ing; and that god feems, at this day, to have renewed
in France that method of the Greeks, by thofe por¬
traits drawn from fhadows, which they call a la Sil¬
houette. It Ihould feem, however, that neither the
Greek hiftorians, nor Pliny, were acquainted with that
book of Mofes intitled Genejis; for they would have
there feen, in the xxxi chapter, that Rachel, the wife
of Jacob, ftole from her father Laban his images, or
little figures of houfehold gods; which was in the time
of the higheft antiquity : that Aaron afterwards made
in the defart a golden calf; that the ark of the cove¬
nant of the Hebrews was ornamented with figures of
cherubims ; that Mofes forbad the people the ufe of
images: all of which fuppofes a knowledge of defign.
Be this as it may, the Greeks feem to have carried
the art to great perfe&ion ; if we may believe the fto-
ries related of their Apelles and Zeuxis.
3. The Romans were not without confiderable matters
in this art, in the latter times of the republic, and un¬
der the firft emperors ; but the inundation of barba¬
rians, who ruined Italy, proved fatal to painting, and
TING.
almoft reduced it to its firft elements. It was in Italy,
however, that the art returned to its ancient honour,
and in the beginning of the 15th century; when Ci-
mabue, betaking himfelf to the pencil, tranflated the
poor remains of the art, from a Greek painter or two,
into his own country. He was feconded by fome Flo¬
rentines. The firft who got any reputation was Ghir-
landai, Michael Angelo’s mafter; Pietro Pcrugino, Ra¬
phael Urbin’s matter; and Andrea Verocchio, Leo¬
nardo Da Vinci’s mafter. But live fcholars far furpaf-
fed the matters; they not only effaced all that had been
done before them, but carried painting to the high¬
eft perfe&ion of which it is capable. It was not by
their own noble works alone that they advanced paint¬
ing ; but by the number of pupils they bred up, and
the fchools they formed. Angelo, in particular, found¬
ed the fchool of Florence; Raphael, the fchool of Rome;
and Leonardo, the fchool of Milan ; to which muft be
added the Lombard fchool, eftablifhed about the fame
time, and which became very confidei;able under Gior¬
gione and Titian.
Btfides the Italian mafters, there were others on this
fide the Alps, who had no communication with thofe
of Italy: fuch were Albert Durer, in Germany; Hol-
bens, in Switzerland; Lucas, in Holland; and others
in France and Flanders. But Italy, and particularly
Rome, was the place where the art was praftifed with
the greateft fuccefs; and where, from time to time, the
greateft mafters were produced.
To Raphael’s fchool, fucceeded that of the Carac-
cios; which haslafted, in its fcholars, almofl; to the pre¬
fen t time.
It is of the different parts of this art thus re-efta-
blifhed, extended, and improved, that we are here to
treat.
PART I. Principles of the Art, and the Order of the Artifl’s Studies.
Sect. I. Of the Fir ft Exercifes of a Painter.
4. TT is not a matter of fo little importance, as fome
are, perhaps, apt to imagine, upon what drawings
a pupil is firft put to exercife his talents. Let the firft
profiles, the firft hands, the firft feet, given him to copy,
be of the beft mafters, fo as to bring his eye and his
hand early acquainted with the moil elegant forms, and
the moft beautiful proportions. A youth, employed
in copying the work of a middling painter, in order to
proceed afterwards to fomething of Raphael’s, having
faid, in the hearing of a matter, That he did it in or¬
der to bring his hand in ; the mafter, as fenfibly as
wittily, replied, “ Say rather, to put it out.” A pain¬
ter, who has early acquired a fine ftyle, finds it an eafy
matter to give dignity to the meaneft features, while even
the works of a Praxiteles or a Glycon are fure to fuffer
in the hands of another. A veffel will ever’retain the
feent which it has firft contrafted.
It would be proper alfo to make the pupil copy fome
fine heads from the Greek and Roman medals: not fo
much for the reafons juft now laid down, as to make
him acquainted, if we may ufe the expreflion, with
thofe perfonagts which in time he may have occafion to
introduce into his pieces; and, above all, to improve him
Vol. VIII. i
early in the art of copying from relief. Hence he will
learn the rationale of light and lhade, and the nature
of that chiar-ofcurot by which it is, properly fpeaking,
that the various forms of things are diftinguiftied. To
this it is owing, that a boy will profit more by draw¬
ing after things in relief, though but meanly executed,
than by copying the moft; excellent drawings. But,
whatever he does, care (hould be taken to make him do
it with delight, and finifh it in the moft accurate man¬
ner. Nothing in the world is fo neceflary as diligence;
efpecially at the firft entrance upon any ftudy. Nor
muft he ever expe£ to have the compaffes in his eye,
who has not firft had them for a long time in his hand.
Sect. II. Of Anatomy.
5. To a Ik if the ftudy of anatomy is requifite to a
painter, is the fame thing as to.afk if, in order to learn
any fcience, a man muft firft make himfelf acquainted
with the principles of it. It would be throwing away
time to cite, in confirmation of this truth, the autho¬
rities of the ancient mafters, and the moft celebrated
fchools. A man, who is unacquainted with the form
and conftru&ion of the feveral bones which fupport and
govern the human frame, and does not know in what
manner the mufcles moving thefe bones are fixed to
32 S them,
5808 P A I M
Anatomy, tliem, can make nothing of what appears of them thro’
“ the integuments with which they are covered ; and
■which appearance is, however, the nobleft objeft of the
pencil. It is impoffible for a painter to copy faithfully
what he fees, unlefs he thoroughly underftands it. Let
him employ ever fo much time and ftudy in the at¬
tempt, it cannot but be attended with many and great
miftakes: juft as it muft happen to a man, who under¬
takes to copy fomething in a language which he does
not underhand; or to tranflate into his own, what has
been written in another, upon a fubjeft with which he
is not acquainted.
It feldom happens, that nothing more is required
of a painter than to copy exaftly an objeft which he
has before him. In ftill and very languid attitudes, in
which every member is to appear motionlefs and dead,
» living mqdel may, no doubt, yield for a long time a
faithful image, an'd prove an ufeful pattern to him,
But in regard to gellures any way fudden, motions any
way violent, or thofe momentary attitudes which it is
more frequently the painter’s bufinefs to exprefs, the
cafe is quite different. In thefe a living model can hold
but an inftantor two; itfoon grows languid, and fettles
into a fixed attitude, which is produced by an inftan-
taneous concourfe of the animal-fpirits. If, therefore,
a painter poffeffes not fo thoroughly all the principles
of anatomy, as to be at all times able to have imme¬
diate recourfe to them ; if he knows not the various
manners in which the feveral parts of the human body
play, according to their various pofitions; living mo¬
dels, far from proving an ufeful pattern to him, will
rather tend to lead him aftray, and make him lofe fight
of truth and nature, by exhibiting the very reverfe of
what is required, or at leaft exhibiting it in a very faint
and imperfeft manner. In living models, we often be¬
hold thofe parts flow, which fhould be very quick; thofe
cold and torpid, which fhould have the greateft fhare
of life and fpirit in them.
Nor is it, as fome may be apt to imagine, merely
to reprefent athletic and vigorous bodies, in which
the parts are moft bold and determined, that anatomy
is requifite: it fhould be underftood, to reprefent
perfons of the moft delicate frame and condition, even
women and children, whofe members are fmootheft and
rounded, though the parts made known by it are not
to be ftrongly expreffed in fuch objects; juft as logic
is equally requilite under the polifhed infinuations
of the orator and the rough arguments of the phi-
lofopher.
But it is needlefs to fpend much time in proving,
that a painter fhould be acquainted with anatomy; or
in fhowing, how far his acquaintance with it fhould
extend. For inftance, it is unneceffary for him to
enter into the different fyftems of the nerves, blood-
veffels, bowels, and the like ; parts which are re¬
moved from the fight, and which therefore may be
left to the furgeon and the phyfician, as being a
guide in the operations of the former and in the pre-
fcriptions of the latter. It is enough for the painter,
to be acquainted with the fkeleton ; in other words,
with the figure and coneflion of the bones, which
are, in a manner, the pillars and props of the human
body ; the origin, progrefs, and fhape, of the mufcles,
which cover thefe bones ; as alfo the different degrees
which nature has cloathed the mufcles with fat,
TING. Part I.
for this fubftance lies thicker upon them In fome Anat.my,
places them in others. Above all, he fhould know,  
in what manner the mufcles effeft the various mo¬
tions and geftures of the body. A mufcle is compofed
of two tendinous and flender parts, one called the head,
the other the tail, both terminating at the bones; and
of an intermediate part, called the belly. The aftion
of a mufcle confifts in an extraordinary fwelling of
this intermediate part, while the head remains at reft,
fo as to bring the tail nearer the head, and confe-
quently the part, to which the tail of the mufcle is
fixed, nearer to that part into which the head is in-
ferted.
There are many motions, to effedf which feveral of
the mufcles (for this reafon called co-operating mufcles)
muft fwell and operate together, while thofe calculated
to effedt a contrary motion (and therefore called anta-
gonifl mufcles) appear foft and flaccid. Thus, for ex¬
ample, the biceps and the brachiasus internus labour
when the arm is to be bent, and become more promi¬
nent than ufual; while the gemellus, the brachiseus
externus, and the anconaeus, whofe office is to extend
the arm, continue, as it were, flat and idle. The
fame happens refpe&ively in all the other motions of
the body. When the antagonift mufcles of any part
operate at one and the fame time, fuch part becomes
rigid and motionlefs. This adtion of the mufcle is
called tonic.
/ Michael Angelo intended to have given the public
a complete treatife upon this fubjeft ; and it is no
fmall misfortune, that he never accomplilhed fo uftful
a defign. This gre^t man, having obferved, as we
are told in his life by Condivi, that Albert Durer was
deficient on the fubjeft, as treating only of the various
meafures and forms of bodies, without faying a word
of their attitudes and geftures, though things of much
greater importance, refolved to compofe a theory,
founded upon his long praftice, for the fervice of all
future painters and ftatnaries. And, certainly, no
one could be better qualified to give anatomical pre¬
cepts for that purpofe, than he, -who, in competition
with Da Vinci, defigned that famous cartoon of naked
bodies, which was ftudied by Raphael hirrrfelf, and
afterwards obtained the approbation of the Vatican,
the greateft fchool of the art we are now treating of.
The want of Michael Angelo’s precepts may, in
fome meafure, be fupplied by other books written on
the fame fubjeA by Moro, Cefio, and Tortebat ; and
lately by Boucherdon, one of the moft famous ftatu-
aries in France. But nothing can be of equal fervice
to a young painter, with the leffons of fome ablediffec-
tor; under whom, in a few months, he may make
himfelf mafter of every branch of anatomy which he
need to be acquainted with. A courfe of ofteology is
of no great length: and of the infinite number of
mufcles difcovered by curious myologifts, there are not
above 80 or 90, with which nature fenfibly operates
all thofe motions which he can ever have occafion to
imitate or exprefs. Thefe, indeed, he ftiould clofely
ftudy, thefe he Ihould carefully ftore up in his memory,
fo as never to be at the leaft lofs for their proper figure,
fituation, office, and motion.
But there is another thing befides the difle&ion of
dead bodies, by which a young painter may profit
greatly; and that is, anatomical calls. Of thefe we
have
Part I. PAIN
Anatomy, have numbers by feveral authors; nay fome, which
" pafs under the name of Buonarroti himfelf. But there
is one, in which, above all the reft, the parts are moft
diftin&ly and lively exprefled. This is the perfor¬
mance of Hercules Lelii, who has, perhaps, gone
greater lengths in this kind of ftudy than any other
mailer. We have, befides, by the fame able hand,
ibme cafts of particular parts of the human body, fo
curioufly coloured for the ufe of young painters, as to
reprefent thefe parts exatily as they appear on re¬
moving the integuments ; and thus, by the difference
in their colour as well as configuration, render the
tendinous and the flefhy parts, the belly and the ex¬
tremities, of every mufcle fuprifingly diftinft; at the
fame time that, by the various diredion of the fibres,
the motion and play of thefe mufcles become very
obvious ; a work of the greateft ufe, and never enough
to be commended! Perhaps, indeed, it would be an
improvement, to give the mufcles various tints; thofe
mufcles efpecially, which the pupil might be apt to
miftake for others. For example, though the maftoi-
des, the deltoides, the fartorius, the fafeia lata, the
gafterocnemii, are, of themfelves, fufficiently diftin-
guifhable, it is not fo with regard to the mufcles of
the arm and of the back, the right mufcles of the
belly, and fome others, which, either on account of
the many parts into which they branch, or of their
being interwoven one with another, do not fo clear- '
ly and fairly prefent themfelves to the eye. But
let the caufe of confufion to young beginners be what
it will, it may be effe'dually removed by giving, as
already hinted, different colours to the different muf¬
cles, and illumining anatomical figures; in the fame
manner that maps are, in order to er^able us readliy
to diftinguifh the feveral provinces of every kingdom,
and the fcveral dominions of every prince.
The better to underftand the general effefl, and
remember the number, fituation, and play of the
mufcles, it will be proper to compare, now and then,
the anatomical cafts, and even the dead body itfelf,
with the living body covered with its fat and Ikin ;
and above all things, with the Greek ftatues ftill in
being. It was the peculiar happinffs of the Greeks,
to be able to chara&erize and exprefs the feveral parts
of the human body much better than we can pretend
to do; and this, on account of their particular appli¬
cation to the ftudy of naked figures, efpecially the
fii e living ones which they had continually before
their eyes. It is well known, that the'mufcles moft
■fed are likewife the moft protuberant and confpi-
cuous ; fuch as, in thofe who dance much, the muf¬
cles of the legs; and in boatmen, the mufcles of the
back and arms. But the bodies of the Grecian youth,
by means of their conftant exertion of them in all the
gymnaftic fports, were fo thoroughly exercifed, as to
fupply the ftatuary with much more perfeft models
than ours can pretend to be. It is not to be doubted,
but that, for the fame reafon, the Greek painters at¬
tained the higheft degree of perfection in the figures
of thofe pieces of theirs fo much cried up by ancient
authors; and it is a great pity, that we have not even
thofe copies of nature to diredl our ftudies. For the
faults obCervable in the ancient paintings, which have
been dug up in great numbers, efpecially within thefe
few years, do not fo much tend to prove that the
2
TING. 5801
Greeks were any Way deficient in this art, as the Anatomy,
pieces themfelves, taken all together, that they had *
carried it to the higheft degree of perfection. For,
if in pictures drawn upon walls, which it was therefore
impofiible to refeue from fire, and in little country
towns, and at a time when the art was at its lowett
ebb, there appears, in the opinion of the beft judges,
fuch excellence of defign, colouring, and compofition,
that one would apt to atribute melt of them to the
fchool of Raphael; what muft we think of the pictures,
drawn at an earlier period, by their ableft mailers and
for their moft flourifhing cities and moft powerful mo-
narchs; of picture* admired in a country like Greece,
where every art was brought to fuch a degree of per¬
fection, that no paffion could refill their mufic, no fen-
timent refill their mimic arts ; of pictures cried up a#
Pliny *, the foundnefs of whole judgment in matters jjb xxxv/ *
this kind difplays itfelf in fo many palfages of his works; e. i j,
collefted at fuch expence by Julius Casfarf, ofwhofefinef Suetonius,
tafie, the works compofed by him, and Hill extant, are ain Vlt* Cael-
moft inconteftable proof? But what evinces ftill bettercap*
theexcellenceof theancients in painting, is that to which
they arrived in ftatuary, her fitter art. Both daughters
of defign, they both enjoyed in commonthefame models,
which, more perfeCt in the happy climate of Greece
than in any other part of the globe, mult have been of
as great fervice to the Apellefes and the Zeuxifes, in
the drawing of their figures, as they were to the Apol-
loniufes, the Glycons, and the Agahes, in carving thofe'
ftatues which the world has ftill the happinefs of pofftf-
fing. Thefe mailers, being befides affilted by a proper
infight into anatomy, and thoroughly acquainted with
the various play of the mufcles acecording to the va¬
rious attitudes of the body, and with the different de¬
grees of ftrength with which each particular mufcle was
to be expreffed in each particular attitude, were thereby
enabled to give truth, motion, and life, to all their works.
There are a great many exercifes, which a young
painter fhould go through while engaged in the ftudy
of anatomy, in order to make himfelf more thoroughly
mailer of that fcience. For example : The thighs of
any figure, a Laocoon for inftance, being given, he
Ihouldadd to them legs fuitable to that ftate in which
the mufcles of the thighs are reprefented, that is, the
mufcles which ferve to bend and extend the legs, and
to effeCiuate in them fuch a precife pofition and no
other. To the lirnple contour of an anatome, or a
ftatue, he fhould add the parts included by it, and
give it a fyftem of mufcles conformable to the quality
of that particular contour; for every contour denotes
fome one certain attitude, motion, exertion, and no
other. Exercifes of this kind would foon eftablilh
him in the moft fundamental principles of painting,
efpecially if he had an opportunity of comparing his
drawings with the ftatue or call from which the parts
given him to work upon were taken, and thereby dif-
covering and correcting his miftakes. This method is
very like that ufed by thofe who teach the Latin
tongue ; when, having given, their fcholars a paffage
of Livy or Casfar already tranflated into their mother-
tongue, to tranllate back into Latin, they make them
compare their work with the original next.
Sect. III. Of Perfpeftive.
6* Tfifi ftudy of perfpeCtive Ihould go hand in band
3282 witfi
5802 PAIN
Perfpeaive. with that of anatomy, as not lefs fundamental and
~ neeeflary. In faft, the contour of an objeft drawn
upon paper or canvas, reprefents nothing more than
fuch an interfe&ion of the vifual jays fent from the
extremities of it to the eye, as would arife on a glafs
put in the place of the paper or canvas. Now, the
fituation of an objeft at the other fide of a glafs being
given, the delineation of it on the glafs itfelf depends
entirely on the fituation of the eye on this fide of the
glafs ; that is to fay, on the rules of perfpedtive : a
fcience which, contrary to the opinion of moft people,
extends much farther than the painting of fcenes,
, floors, and what generally goes under the name of
quadratura. Perfpe&ive, according to that great
inafter da Vinci, is to be confidered as the reins and
rudder of painting. It teaches in what proportion
the parts fly from, and leflen upon, the eye ; how fi¬
gures are to be marflialled upon a plain furface, and
fore-fhortened. It contains, in fhort, the whole ra¬
tionale of defign.
Such are the terms which the mailers bell ground¬
ed in their profefiion have employed to define and
commend perfpe&ive: fo far were they from calling
it a fallacious art., and an infidious guide; as fome
amongft the moderns have not blulhed to do, infilling
that it is to be followed no longer than it keeps the
high road, or leads by eafy and pleafarit paths. But
thefe writers plainly Ihow, that they are equally ig¬
norant of the nature of perfpe&ive, which, founded as
it is on geometrical principles, can never lead its vo¬
taries allray; and of the nature of their art, which,
without the affiftance of perfpeftive, cannot, in rigour,
expedt to make any progrefs, nay, not fo much as
delineate a Ample contour.
Thofe, too, w'lio would perfuade us, that the
ancient mailers of Greece knew nothing of perfpeftive,
fhow, that they themfelves know little or nothing of
paint-ing. They allege, as a proof of this their idle
affertion, that the rules of perfpe&ive are violated in
the moft of the ancient pi&ures that have reached us 5
as though the miftakes and blunders of middling artifts
were a fufficient ground for calling in queftion the
merit of others, who were allowed to excel in their
*■ profefiion. Now, not to infill on the abfurdity of
fuch a fuppofition, which we have already expofed,
Pamphilus, the mailer of Apelles, and the founder of
the nobleft fchool of all Greece, has affirmed in the
moft exprefs terms, that, without geometry, painting
fPHnii mull fall to the ground f. It is well known, befides,
Lb^xxxv t^iat t^e anc‘cnts Pra&ifed the art of painting in per-
c. 10. * fpe&ive upon walls, in the fame way that it is now done
* Vitruvius,by the moderns*; and that one of the walls of the
ilb.vii. c. j. theatre of Claudius Pulcher, reprefenting a roof co¬
vered with tiles, was finilhed in fo mafterly a manner,
that the rooks, a bird of no fmall fagacity, taking it
\.TPUn. for a real roo^ often attempted to alight upon it J.
Hb^'xxxv are hkewife told, that a dog was deceived to fuch
c, 4, ' a degree, by certain Heps in a perfpe£tive of Dento’s,
that, expedting to find a free paflage, he made up
to them in full fpeed, and dalhed cut his brains; thus
immortalizing by his death the pe icil of the artift,
which had'been the occafion of it. But, what is Hill
U” ^ more, Vitruvius || tells us in exprefs terms, by whom,
1 ' vu‘ and at what time, this art was invented. It was firft
pradtifedby Agatharcus, a contemporary of iEfchylus,
TING. Part I.
in the theatre of Athens ; and afterwards reduced t o Perfpetfive,
certain principles, and treated as a fcience, by Anaxa- — —
goras and Democritus; thus faring like all other arts,
which exifted in pradtice before they appeared in the¬
ory. The thing, perhaps, may be thus accounted
for. Some painter, who happened to be a very ac¬
curate obferver of nature, firft exadlly reprefented
thofe effefls which he faw conftantly attend the images
offered to our eyes by exterior objedls ; and thefe
effedls came afterwards to be demonltrated by geome¬
tricians as fo many necefiary confequences, and re¬
duced to certain theorems: juft as from thofe chef
d’ceuvres of the human mind, the Iliad of Homer, .
and Oedipus of Sophocles, both built upon the moft
accurate obfervations of nature, Ariftotle found means
to extradl the rules and precepts contained in his art of
poetry. It is therefore clear, that, fo early as the
age of Pericles, perfpedtive was reduced into a com¬
plete fcience; which no longer continued confined to
the theatre, but made its way into the fchools of
painting, as an art not lefs necefiary to painters in
general, than it had been found to feene-painters in
particular. Pamphilus, who founded in Scion the
moft flourifhing fchool of defign, taught it publicly :
and from the time of Apelles, Protogenes, and the
other bright luminaries of painting amongft the an¬
cients, it was praftifed by the Greek painters, in the
fame manner that it was, fo many ages after, by
Bellini, Pietro Perugino, and others, down to the
days of Titian, Raphael, and Corregi, who put the
laft hand to painting, and gave it all that, perfeftion
it was capable of receiving.
Now, a painter having formed a feene in his mind,,
and fuppofed, as it is cuftomary, that the capital fi¬
gures of this feene lie clofe, or almoft clofe, to the back
of his canvas, he is, in the next place, to fix upon fome
point on this fide of the canvas, from which he would
choofe his piece ftiould be feen. But in choofing this
point, which is called the point of fight, regard (hould
be had to its fituation to the right or left of the middle
of the canvas: but, above all things, to its diftance
and its height with refpeft to the lower edge of the
canvas ; which edge is called the hafe line, and is pa¬
rallel with the horizontal line that paffes through the
eye. For by affuming the point of fight, and confe-
quently the horizontal line, too low, the planes, upon
which the figures Hand, will appear a great deal too
fhallow; as, by affuming it too high, they will appear
too fteep, fo as to render the piece far lefs light and
airy than it ought to be. In like manner, if the point
of fight is taken at too great a diftance from the can¬
vas, the figures will not admit of degradation enough
to be feen with fufficient diftin&ntfs ; and if taken too
near it, the degradation will be too quick and precipi¬
tate to have an agreeable effeft. Thus, then, it ap-~
pears, that no fmall attention is requifite in the choice
of this point.
When a pifture is to be placed on high, the point
of fight (hould be affumed low, and vice verfa ; in or¬
der that the horizontal line of the picture may be, as
near as poffible, in the fame horizontal plane with that
of the fpe&ator; for this difpolition has an amazing
effect. When a pifture is to be placed very high, as,
amongft many others, that of the purification by Pao¬
lo Veronefe, engraved by le Fevre, it will be proper
to-
Part. I.
Perfpeftive. to aflume tTie point of fight fo low, that it tnay lie
quite under the picture, no part of whofe ground is, in
that cafe, to be vifible ; for, were the point of fight to
be taken above the picture, the horizontal ground
of it would appear Hoping to the eye, and both fi¬
gures and buildings as ready to tumble head foremott.
It is true, indeed, that there is feldom any necelTity
for fuch extraordinary exa&nefs ; and that, unlefs in
fome particular cafes, the point of fight had better be
rather high than low: the reafon of which is, that, as
we are more accufteiped to behold people on the fame
plane with ourfelves, than either higher or lower, the
figures of a piece mult (trike us molt when handing
on a plane nearly level with that upon which we our¬
felves hand. To this it may be added, that by pla¬
cing the eye low, and greatly fhortening the plane, the
heels of the back figures will feem to bear againlt the
heads o£ the foremolt, fo as to render the diftance
/ between them far lefs perceptible than otherwife it
would be.
The point of fight being fixed upon, aceording to
the fituation in which the pidture is to be placed, the
point of diftance is next to be determined. In doing
_ this, a painter fhould carefully attend to three things:
firft, that the fpe&atbr may be able to take in, at one
glance, the whole and every part of the compofuion ;
fecondly, that he may fee it diftin&ly ; and thirdly,
that the degradation of the figures and other objefts
of the pidture be fufficiently fenfible. It would take
up too much time to lay down certain and precife
rules for $oing all this, confidering the great varie¬
ty in the fizts and fhapes of pidtures; for which rea¬
fon we muft leave a great deal to the difcretion of the
painter.
But there is a point ftill remaining, which will riot
admit of the lead latitude. This is, the delineation of
the pidture, when once the point of fight has been fix¬
ed upon. The figures of a pidlure are to be confider-
ed as fo many columns eredted on different fpots of
the fame plane ; and the painter muft not think of de-
figning any thing, till he has laid down, in perfpec-
tive, all thofe columns which are to enter his compo-
fition, with the moll fcrupulous exadtnefs. By pro¬
ceeding in this manner, he may not only be fure of
not committing any miftake in the diminution of his
figures according to their different dillances, but may
flatter himfelf with the thoughts of treading in the
fteps of the greateft mailers, efpecially Raphael, in
whofe (ketches (fuch was his refpedt to the laws of
perfpedlive) we frequently meet with a fcale of de¬
gradation. It is to the pundtual obfervance of thefe
laws, that we are to attribute the grand effedl of Tome
paintings by Carpazio and Mantegna, fo carelefs in
other refpedls ; whereas a Angle fault againft them is
often fufficient entirely to fpoil the works of a Gui-
* do, in fpite of the fublimity and beauty of his fupe-
rior ftyle.
Now, as the demonftration of the rules of perfpec-
tive depends on the dodtrine of proportions, on the
properties of fimilar triangles, and on the interfedtion
of planes, it will be proper to put an abridgement of
Euclid into the hands of the young painter, that he
may underftand thefe rules fundamentally, and not
ftaud confined to a blind pradlice of them : but, then,
there is nothing in.this author, relative to the art of p.aint-
5803
ing, which may not be eafily acquired in a few months. Symmetry.
For, as it would be of no ufe to a painter to lanch'
. out into the anatomical depths of a Monro or an Al-
binus, it would be equally fuperfluous to perplex bim-
felf with the intricacies of the higher geometry
with a Taylor, who has handled perfpedlive with that
rich profonndnefs, which we cannot help thinking
does a great deal more honour to a mathemati¬
cian, than it can poflibly bring advantage to a Ample
art iff.
But though a much longer time were requifite to
become a perfedt mailer of perfpedlive, a painter, fure-
ly, ought not to grudge it; as no time can be too
long to acquire that knowledge, without which he
cannot poflibly expedl to fucceed. Nay, we may
boldly affirm, that the (hortell road in every art is that
which leads through theory to pradlice. It is from
theory that arifes that great facility, by means of which
a man advances the quicker, In proportion as he is
furer of not taking a wrong ftep: whilft thofe, who
are not grounded in the fcience, labour on in perpe¬
tual doubt; obliged, as a certain author expreffes it, to
feel out their way with a pencil, juft as the blind, with
their Hicks, feel for the ftreets and turnings, with,
which they are not acquainted.
As pradtice, therefore, ought in every thing to be
built upon principle, the ttudyof Optics, as far as it
is requifite to determine the degree in which objedts
are to be illuminated or (haded, (hould proceed hand
in hand with that of perfpedlive : And this, in order
that the (hade's, call by figures upon the planes on
which they (land, may fall properly, and be neither
too ftrong nor too light; in a word, that thofe moll
beautiful effedls of the chiar-ofcuro may run no rifle of
ever receiving the lie from truth, which fooner or la¬
ter difeovers itfelfto every eye.
Sect. IV. Of Symmetry.
7. The ftudy of fymmetry, it is obvious, fliould
immediately follow that of anatomy*: for it would avail-
us little to be acquainted with the different parts of the
human body, and their feveral offices, were we at the
fame time ignorant of the order and proportion of
thefe parts in regard to the whole in general, and each
other in particular. The Greek ftatuaries diftinguifh-
ed themfelves above alk others, as much by the juft
fymmttry of their members, as by their (kill in anato¬
my;, but Polycletes furpaffed them all by a (latue, call¬
ed the Rule, from which, as from a molt accurate pat-p//n!y
tern, other artiils might take meafures for every part Nat. HiJK.
of the human body. Thefe meafures, to fay nothing ht}, XX3dVk-
of the books which treat profeffedly of them, may nowCi 8-
be derived from the Apollo of Belvedere, the Lao-
coon, the Venus of Medieis, the Faunus, and parti¬
cularly the Antinous, which laft was the rule of the
learned Pouffin.
Nature, which in the formation of every fpecies
feems to have aimed at the lall degree of perfedtion,
does not appear to have been equally folicitous in the
production of individuals. She coufiders, one would
think, thofe things as nothing, which have a begin¬
ning and an end, and whofe exiffence is of fo (hort a
duration, that they may be faid, in a manner, to come
into the world merely to leave it. She feems, in fome
fort, to abandon individuals to (ecoiid caufes; and if
fronfci
PAINTING.
5804
Symmetry. from them there now and then breaks forth a primi-
~ live ray-of perfeftion, it is too foon eclipied by the
clouds of imperfe&ion that conftantly attend it. Now,
Art foars up to the archtypes of Nature ; colle&s the
flowers of every beauty, which it here and there meets
with ; combines all the perfedl models that come in
its way; and propofes them to men for their imita¬
tion. Thus, the painter, who had before him a com-
| In Gala- pany of naked Calabrian girls, traced, as la Cafa f in-
tca. See al-gen-;ou{]y expreffes it, the refpeftive beauties which
they had as it were borrowed from one Angle body;
by Carlo ' that, by making each of them reftore to this imagi-
Dati, nary form what fhe had borrowed from it, he might
note ir. be furniihed with a complete pattern ; rightly imagi¬
ning, that from fuch an union, and of fuch beauties,
mufl refult the beauty of an Helen. This was likewife
the pra&ice of the ancient ftatuaries, when about to
form in brafs or marble the ftatues of their gods or he¬
roes. And, thanks to the hardnefs of thefe materials,
fome of their works, containing united all that pof-
flble perfeftion which could be found fcattered here
and there in individuals, fubfift to this day as patterns
not only of exa& fymmetry, but of fupereminent
grandeur in the parts, gracefulnefs and contrail in the
attitudes; in Ihort, as paragons in every kind, and the
very mirrors of beauty. In them we behold precept
joined with example : in them we fee where the great
mailers of antiquity deviated with a happy boldnefs
from the common rules ; or rather made them bend to
the different cbara£lers they were to reprefent. In
their Niobe, for inftance, which was to breathe majefty
like Juno, they have altered fome parts that appear
more delicate and flender in their Venus, the pattern
of female beauty. The legs and thighs of the Apollo
of Belvidere, by being made fomewhat longer than
the common proportion- of thefe limbs to the reft of
the body feems to admit, contribute not a little to give
him that eafe and freedom which correfpond fo well
with the aclivity attributed to that deity; as, on the
other hand, the extraordinary thicknefs of the neck
adds ftrength to the Farnefian Hercules, and gives him
fomething of a bull-like look and robuftnefs.
It is the general opinion of painters, that the an¬
cients were not as happy in reprefenting the bodies of
children, as they are allowed to have been in repre¬
fenting thofe of women and men ; efpectally thofe of
their gods ; in which they excelled to fuch a degree,
that with thefe gods were often worlhipped the artifts
who had carved them. Yet the Venus of Gnidus by
Praxiteltes was not more famous than her Cupid, on
■\ Cic. in whofe account alone people flocked to Thefpiae f. To
i'rrrem, children, fay they, the ancients knew not how to im-
^ fig™- part that foftnefs and effeminacy, which Fiammingo
lib^ix’ has fincecontrived to give them, by.reprefenting their
Pli„. cheeks, hands, and feet, fwelled, their heads large,
Hifl. and with fcarce any belly. But fuch critics feem to
lib. xxxvi. forget, that thefe firft fketches of nature very feldom
s‘ come in the painter’s way, and that this puny and de¬
licate ftate has not in its form even the lead glimmer¬
ing of perfedlion. The ancients never undertook to
reprefent children lefs than four or five years old ; at
which age the fuperfluous humours of the body be¬
ing in fome meafure digefted, their members be¬
gin to affume fuch a contour and proportion, as may
fcrve to point out what they are afterwards likely to
Part L
This obfervation is confirmed by the children Symmetry,
which we meet with in ancient baffo-relievos and paint-
ings: for they are all doing one thing or another; like
thofe moft beautiful little Cupids in a pidlure at Ve¬
nice, who are playing with the arms of Mars, and lift¬
ing up the ponderous fword of that deity; or that
little urchin in the Danae of Caracci, who empties a
quiver of its arrows, in order to fill it with the golden
ftiower. Now, what can be a greater blunder in point
of coftume, than to attribute adtions, which require
fome degree of ftrength and judgment, to infancy, to
that raw and tender age fo totally unable to govern
and fuppoft itfelf?
Let a young painter confider the Greek ftatues ever
fo often, of whatever character or age they may be re-
prefented, it is impoflible he fliould ever confider them
without difeovering new beauties in them. It is there¬
fore impoflible he fhould copy them too often, accor¬
ding to that judicious motto placed by Moratti on his
print called The fchool. This truth was acknowledged
by Rubens himfelf: for though, like one bred, as he
was, in the foggy climate of the Low Countries, he
generally painted from the life ; in fome of bis works
he copied the ancients; nay, he wrote atrtatife on the
excellency of the ancient ftatues, and on the duty of a
painter to lludy and imitate them. As to the fatirical
print, or rather pafquinade, of the great Titian, in
which he has reprefented a parcel of young monkeys
aping the groupe of Laocoon and his fons; he intend¬
ed nothing more by it than to lafh the dulnefs and po¬
verty of thofe artifts, who cannot fo much as draw a
figure without having a ftatue before them as a mo¬
del.
In fa£l, reafon requires, that an artift fttould be fo
much mafter of his art, as feldom to Hand in need of
a pattern. To what other purpofe is he to fweat and
toil from his infancy, and fpend fo many days and
nights in ftudying and copying the bell models ; efpe-
cially the fineft faces of antiquity, which we are Hill
poftlffed of; fuch as the two Niobes, mother and
daughter ; the Ariadne, the Alexander, the young
Nero, the Silenus, the Nile; and likewife the fineft
figures ; for inftance, the Apollo, the Gladiator, the
Venus, and others ; all which (as was faid of Pietro
Fdta), he fhould have, as it were, perfeftly by heart?
With a flock of excellencies like thefe, treafured up in
his memory, he may one day hope to produce fome¬
thing of his own without a model; form a right judge¬
ment of thofe patural beauties which fall in his way ;
and, when occaiion offers, avail himfelf properly of
them.
It is very ill done to fend boys to an academy to
draw after naked figures, before they have imbibed a
proper relifh for beautiful proportions, and have been
well-grounded in the true principles of fymmetry.
They fhould firft learn, by ftudying the precious re¬
mains of antiquity, to improve upon life; and difeera
where a natural figure is faulty through ftiffnefs in the
members, or clumfinefs in the trunk, or in any other
refpeft ; fo as to be able to corredl the faulty part,
and reduce it to its proper bounds. Painting, in thiV
branch, is, like medicine, the art of taking away and
adding.
It muft not, however, be diffembled, that the me¬
thods hitherto laid down are attended with fome dan¬
ger;
PAINTING.
be.
Part I. PAIN
Symmetry, gey • for by too flavifti an attention to ftatues, the
— young painter may contraft a hard and dry manner ;
and by ftudying anatomies too fervilely, a habit of re-
prefenting living bodies as ftripped of their (kin : for,
after all, there is nothing but what is natural, that,
befides a certain peculiar grace and livelinefs, poffefies
that fimplicity, eafe, and foftnefs, which is not to be
expefted in the works of art, or even in thofe of nature
when deprived of life. Pouffin himfelf has now and
then given into one of thefe extremes, and Michael An¬
gelo very often into the other: but from this we can
only infer, that even the greateft men are not infallible.
It is, in (bore, to be conlhdered as one inftance, among
a thoufand, of the ill ufe thofe are wont to make of the
beft things, who do not know how to temper and
qualify them properly with their contraries.
But no fuch danger can arife to a young painter
from confining himfelf for a long time to mere defign,
fo as not to attempt colouring till he has made him¬
felf mailer of that branch, if, according to a great
•f Pouffin; mailer f, colours in painting are in regard to the eye
in his Life, what numbers in poetry are in regard to the ear, fo
y Bcllori. many charms y0 allure and captivate that fenfe ; may
we not affirm, that defign is in the fame art what pro¬
priety of language is in ^writing, and a juft utterance
of founds in mufic ? Whatever fome people may think,
a pi&ure defigned according to the rules of perfpedive
and the principles of anatomy, will ever be held in
higher efteem by good judges, than a pidure ill de¬
figned, let it be ever fo well coloured. Annibal
Caracci fet fo great a value upon the art of con¬
tour, that, according to fome expreffions of his which
have reached us, he confidered almoft every thing elfe
as nothing in comparifon with it. And this his judg¬
ment may be juftified, by confidering, that nature,
though Ihe forms men of various colours and complec-
tions, never operates in their motions contrary to the
mechanical principles of anatomy, nor, in exhibiting
thefe motions fo the eye, againft the geometrical laws
of perfpedive : a plain proof, that, in point of defign,
no millake is to be deemed trifling. Hence we are en¬
abled to feel all the weight of thofe words in which
Michael Angelo, after he confidered a pidure drawn
by a prince of the Venetian fchool, addrefled Vafari:
41 What a pity it is,” faid he, “ that this man did not
fet out by ftudying defign !” As the energy of nature
ffiines moft in the fmalleft fubjeds, fo the energy of
ait Ihines moft in imitating them.
Sect. V. Of Colouring.
8. It muft likewife be of great fervice to a painter de-
firous to excel in colouring, to be well acquainted with
that part of Optics which has the nature of light and
colours for its objed. Light, however Ample and
uncompounded it may appear, is neverthelefs made up,
as it were, of feveral diftind fubftances ; and the num¬
ber, and even dofe, of thefe ingredients, has been hap¬
pily difeovered by the moderns. Every undivided ray,
let it be ever fo fine, is a little bundle of red, orange,
yellow, green, azure, indigo, and violet rays, which,
while combined, are not to be diftinguiffied one from
another, and from that kind of light called ’white; fo
white is not a colourferje, as the learned da Vin-
tteUaPU- C' ^ ^ar> 'hfceros, the precurfor of Newton) exprefs-
tura, c. 14. ty affirms, but an affemblage of colours. Now, thefe
TING. 580;
colours, which compofe light, although immutable in Colouring,
themfelves, and endued with various qualities, are con- "
tinually, however, feparating from each other in their
refledion from and paffage through other fubftances,
and thus become manifeft to the eye. Grafs, for ex¬
ample, refleds only green rays, or rather refleds green
rays in greater number than it does thofe of any other
colour ; and one kind of wine tranfmits red rays, and
another yellowiffi rays; and from this kind of fepara -
tion arifes that variety of colours with which nature ha»
diverfified her various produdions. Man, too, has con
trived to feparate the rays of light by making a por¬
tion of the fun’s beams pafs through a glafs prifm ; for
after paffing through it, they appear divided into feven
pure and primitive colours, placed in fucceffion one by
the other, like fo many colours on a painter’s pallet.
Now, though Titian, Correggio, and Vandyke, have
been excellent colourifts, without knowing any thing
of thefe phyfical fubtleties, that is no reafon why
others ftiould negled them. For it cannot but be of
great fervice to a painter to be well acquainted with the
nature of what he is to imitate, and of thofe colours
with which he is to give life and perfedion to his de-
figns; not to fpeak of the pleafure there is in being able
to account truly and folidly for the various eflfeds and
appearances of light. From a due tempering, for ex¬
ample, and degrading, of the tints in a pidure; from
making colours partake of each other, according to the
refledion of light from one objed to another; there
arifes, in fome meafure, that fublime harmony which
may be confidered as the true mufic of the eye. And
this harmony has its foundation in the genuine priii’
ciples of optics. Now this could not happen in the
fyftem of thofe philofophers, who held, that colours did
not originally exift in light, but were, on the contra¬
ry, nothing elfe than fo many modifications which it un¬
derwent in refleding from or paffing through other
fubftances; thus fubjed to alterations without end, and
every moment liable to perilh. Were that the cafe,
bodies could no more receive any hues one from ano¬
ther, nor this body partake of the colourof that, than
fcarlet, for example, becaufe it has the power of chan¬
ging into red all the rays of the fun or Iky which im¬
mediately fall upon it, has the power of changing into
red all the other rays refleded to it from a blue or any
other colour in its neighbourhood. Whereas, allowing
that colours are in their own nature immutable one in¬
to another, and that every body rtfleds more or lefs
every fort of coloured rays, though thofe rays in the
greateft number which are of the colour it exhibits,
there muft neceffarily arife, in colours placed near one
another, certain particular hues or temperaments of co¬
lour; nay, this influence of one colour upon another
may be fofar traced, that three or four bodies of dif¬
ferent colours, and likewife the intenfenefs of the light
falling upon each, being affigned, we may eafily deter¬
mine in what fituations, end how much, they would
tinge each other. We may thus, too, by the fame '
principle of optics, account for feveral other things
pradifed by painters ; infomuch that a perfon, who
has carefully obferved natural effeds with an eye di-
reded by folid learning, rtiall be able to form general
rules, where another can only diftinguifh particular
cafes.
But after all, the pidures of the beft colourifls are,
it
5806
Colouring, ,'t is untvcrfaHy allowed, the books in which a young
painter muft chiefly look for the rules of colouring;
that is, of that branch of painting which contributes fo
much to exprefs the beauty of objeAs, and is fo requi-
fite to reprefent them as what they really are. Gior-
gone and Titian feem to have difcoveted circumftances
in nature, which others have entirely overlooked ; and
the lad in particular has been happy enough to exprefs
them with a pencil as delicate as his eye was quick and
piercing. In his works we behold that fweetnefs of
colouring which is produced by union ; that beauty
which is confident with truth ; and all the infenfible
tranfmutations, all the foft tranfitions, in a word, all
the plealing modulations, of tints and colours. When
a young painter has, by clofe application, acquired
frctn Titian, whom he can never fufBciently dwell up¬
on, that art which, of all painters, hehasbeft contri¬
ved to hide, he would do well to turn to Baffano and
Paolo, on account of the beauty, boldnefs, and ele¬
gance of their touches. That richnefs, foftnefs, and
frefhnefs of colouring, for which the Lombard fchool
is fo juftly cried up, may likewife be of great ferviee
to him. Nor will he reap lefs benefit by (ludying the
principles and praflice of the Flemifh fchool ; which,
chiefly by means of her varniflies, has contrived to give
a moil enchanting luftre and tranfparency to her co¬
lours.
But whatever pi&ures a young painter may choofe
to ftudy the art of colouring upon, he muft take great
care that they are well preferved. There are very few
pieces which have not fuffered more or lefs by the
length, not to fay the injuries, of time ; and perhaps
that precious patina, which years alone can impart to
paintings, is in fome meafure akin to that other kind
which ages alone impart to medals; inafmuch as, by
giving teftimony to their antiquity, it renders them
proportionably beautiful in the fuperftitious eyes of the
learned. It muft indeed be allowed, that if, on the
one hand, this patina beftows, as it really does, an
extraordinary degree of harmony upon the colours of a
pi&ure, and deftroys, or at leaft: greatly lefiens, their
original rawnefs, it, on the other hand, equally im¬
pairs the frelhnefs and life of them. A piece feen ma¬
ny years after it has been painted, appears much as it
would do, immediately after painting, behind a dull
glafs. It is no idle opinion, that Paolo Veronefe, at¬
tentive above all things to the beauty of his colours,
and what is called Jlrepito, left entirely to time the care
of harmonizing them perfe&ly and (as we may fay)
raellowing them. But. moft of the old mafters took
that talk upon themfelves; and never expofed their works
to the eyes of the public, until they had ripened and
finilhed them with their own hands. And who can fay
whether the C^rj^of Moneta, or the of Baffano,
have been more improved or injured (if we may fo
fpeak) by the touchings and retouchings of time, in
the courfe of more than two centuries? It is indeed
impoffible to be determined. But the ftudious pupil
may make himfelf ample amends for any injuries which
his originals may have received from the hands of time,
by turning to truth, and to Nature which never grows
old, but conftantly retains its primitive flower of youth,
and was itfelf the model of the models before him. As
fqon, therefore, as a young painter has laid a proper
foundation for good colouring, by ftudying the bell
Part I*
mafters, he fhould turn all Ms thooghts to truth and Camera
nature. And it would perhaps be well worth while to 0bfcura-
have, in.the academies of painting, models for colour¬
ing as well as defigning ; that as from the one the pu¬
pils learn to give their due proportion to the feveral
members and mufcles, they may learn from the other
to make their carnations rich and warm, and faithfully
copy the different local hues which appear quite dif-
tinft in the different parts of a fine body. To iiluftrate
ftill farther the ufe of fuch a model, let us fuppofe it
placed in different lights ; now in that of the fun, now
in that of the fky, and now again in that of a lamp or
candle ; one time placed in the (hade, and another in
a reflected light. Hence the pupil may learn all the
different effedts of the completion in different circum¬
ftances, whether the livid, the lucid, or tranfparent ;
and, above all, that variety of tints and half-tints, oc-
cafioned in the colour of the Ikin by the epidermis ha¬
ving the bones immediately under it in fome places,
and in others a greater or lefs number of blood-vtftels
or quantity of fat. An artift who had long ftudied
fuch a model, would run no rifle of degrading the beau¬
ties of nature by any particularity of ftyle, or of giving
into that prepofterous fulnefs and floridnefs of colour
which is at prefent fo much the tafte. He would not
feed his figures with rofes, as an ancient painter of
Greece fhrewdly expreffed it, but with good beef; a
difference, which the learned eye of a modern writer
could perceive between the colouring of Barocci and dial. j.
that of Titian. To pra&ife in that manner, is, ac¬
cording to a great mailer, no better than inuring one’s
felf to the commiffion of blunders. What ftatues are
in defign, nature is in colouring; the fountain-head of
that perfe&ion to which every artift, ambitious to ex¬
cel, (hould conftantly afpire: and accordingly the
Flemifh painters, in confequence of their aiming fole-
ly to copy nature, are in colouring as excellent as they
are wont to be aukward in defigning.
Sect. VI. Of the Camera Obfcura.
9. Wl may well imagine, that could a young pain¬
ter but view a pidlure by the hand of nature herfelf,
and ttudy it at his leifure, he would profit more by it
than by the moft excellent performances by the hand
of man. Now, nature is continually forming fuch pic'-
tures in eur eye. The rays of light coming from ex¬
terior objeds, after entering the pupil pafs through the
cryftalline humour; and, being there refraded in confe¬
quence of the lenticular form of that part, proceed to
the retina, which lies at the bottom of the eye, and
ftamp up it, by their union, the image of the objed
towards which the pupil is direded. The confeqnencfe
of which is, that the foul, by means as yet unknown
to us, receives immediate intelligence of thefe rays, and
comes to fee the objeds that fent them. But this grand
operation of nature, the difeovery of which was refer-
ved for our times, might have remained an idle amufe-
ment of phyfical curiofity, without being of the leaft
fervice to the painter, had not means been happily found
of imitating it. The machine contrived for this pnr-
pofe, confifts of a lens and mirrror fo fituated, that the
fecond throws the-pidure of any thing properly expo-
pofed to the firft, and that too of a competent large-
refs, on a clean ftieet of paper, where it may be feen
and contemplated at leifure.
PAINTING.
Part I
Camera
Obfcura.
PAIN
As tliis artificial eye, ufually called a camera optica
or obfcura, gives no admittance to any rays of light,
but tbofe coming from the thing whofe reprefentation
is wanted, there refuits from them a pidure of inex-
preffible force and brightnefs; and as nothnig is more
delightful to behold, fo nothing can be more ufeful to
ftudy, than fuch a pidure. For, not to fpeak of the
juftnefs of the contours, the exadnefs of the perfpedive
and of the chiarofcura, which exceeds conception ; the
colours are of a vivacity and richnefs that nothing can
excel ; the parts which ftand out moft, and are mod
expofed to the light^^ppear furprifingly loofe and re-
fplendent; and this loofenefs and refplendency declines
gradually, as the parts themfelves fink in, or retire from
the light. The fliades are ftrong without harfhnefs,
and the contours precife without being (harp. Where-
ever any refleded light falls, there appears, in confe-
quence of it, an infinite variety of tints, which, with¬
out this contrivance, it would be imppffible'to difcern.
Yet there prevails fuch a harmony amongft all the co¬
lours of the piece, that fcarce any one of them can be
faid to clalh with another.
After all, it is no way furprifing, that we fhould,
by means of this contrivance, difcover; what otherwife
we might juftly defpair of ever being acquainted with.
We cannot look diredly at any objed that is not fur-
rounded by fo many others, all darting their rays to¬
gether into our eyes, that it is. impoffible we Ihould di-
llinguifli all the different modulations of its light and
colours. At lead we can only fee them in fo dull and
confufed a manner, as not to be able to determine any
thing precifely about them. Whereas, in the camera
obfcura, the vifual faculty is brought wholly to bear
upon the objed before it; and the light of every other
objed is, as it were, perfedly extinguifhed.
Another mod adonifhing perfedion in pidures of
this kind is, the diminution of the fize, and of the in-
tenfenefs of light and colour, of the objeds and all
their parts, in proportion to their didance from the eye.
At a greater didance, the colours appear more faint,
and the contours more obfcure. The fhades, likewife,
are a great deal weaker in a lefs or more remote light.
On the other hand, thofe objeds, which are larged in
themfelves, or lie neared to the eye, have the mpd ex-
ad contours, the dronged fhades, and the brighted co¬
lours: all which qualities are requifite to form that
kind of perfpedive which is called aerial; as though
the air between the eye and external objeds, not only
veiled them a little, but in fome fort gnawed and prey¬
ed upon them. This kind of perfpedive conditutes a
principal part of that branch of painting, which regards
the forefhortening of-figures, and likewife the bring¬
ing them forward, and throwing them back in fuch a
manner as to make us lofe fight of the ground upon
which they are drawn. It is, in a word, this kind of per¬
fpedive, from which, affided by linear perfpedive, arife
Dolco cofe a vedere, e dolci inganni ;
“ Things fweet to fee, and fweet deceptions.”
Nothing proves this better than the camera obfcura,
in which nature paints the objeds which lie near the
eye, as it were, with a hard and (harp pencil, and thofe
at a didance with a foft and blunt one.
The bed modern painters among the Italians have
availed themfelves greatly of this contrivance; nor is it
pofiible they fhould have otherwife reprefented things
Vol. VIII. i
TING.
fo much to the life. It is probable, too, that feveral
of the Tramontane maders, confidering their fuccefs in
expreffing the minuted objeds, have done the fame.
Every one knows of what fervice it has been to Spag-
noletto of Bologna, fome of whofe pidures have a
grand and mod wonderful tffed. We once happened
to be prefent where a very able mader was fhewn this
machine for the fird time. „ It is impoffible to exprefs
the pleafure he took in examining it. The more he
confidered it, the more he feemed to be charmed with
it. In fhort, after trying it a thoufand different ways,
and with a tboufand different models, he candidly con-
fcfTtd, that nothing could compare with the pidures of
fo excellent and inimitable a mader. Another, no lefs
eminent, has given it as his opinion, that an academy,
with no other furniture than the book of da Vinci, a
critical account of the excellencies of the capital pain¬
ters, the cads of the fined Greek datues, and the pic¬
tures of the camera obfcura, would alone be fufficient
to revive the art of painting. Let the young painter,
therefore, begin as early as poffible to dudy thefe di¬
vine pidures, and dudy them all the days of his life,
for he never will be able fufficiently to contemplate
them. In fhort, painters fhould make the fame ufe of
the camera obfcura which naturalids and adronomers
make of the microfcope and telefcope; for all thefe in-
druments equally contribute to make known and re-
prefent nature.
Sect. VII. Of Drapery.
10. Drapery is one of the mod important branches
of the whole art, and accordingly demands the greatefl
attention and dudy. It feldom happens that a painter
has nothing but naked figures to reprefent ; nay, his
fubjeds generally confid of figures clothed from head
to foot. Now the flowing of the folds in every gar¬
ment depends chiefly upon the relief of the parts that
lie under it. A certain author, we forget his name,
obferves, that as the inequalities of a furface are dif-
coverable by the inequalities in the water that runs over
it, fo the poflure and fhape of the members mud be
difcernible by the folds of the garment that covers
them. Thofe idle windings and gatherings, with
which fome painters have affeded to cover their figures,
make the clothes made up of them look as if the body
had fled from tinder them, and left nothing in its place
but a heap of empty bubbles, fit emblems of the brain
that conceived them. As from the trunk of a tree
there iffue here and there boughs of various forms, fo
from one midrefs-fold there always flow many lefler
ones : and as it is on the quality of the tree that the
elegance, compadnefs, or opennefs of its branches
chiefly depends ; it is, in like manner, by the quality
of the fluff of which a garment is made, that the num¬
ber, order, and fize of its folds mud be determined.
To fum up all in two words; the drapery ought to be
natural and eafy, fo as to (how what duff it is, and what
parts it covers. It ought, as a certain author expreffes
it, to cover the body, as it were merely to (how it.
It was formerly the cudom with fome of our maders
to draw all their figures naked, and then drape them;
from the fame principle that they fird drew the fleele-
tons of their figures, and afterwards covered them w-ith
mufcles. And it was by proceeding in this manner
that they attained to fiicli a degree of truth in expref*
32 T ling
5S07
Of
Drapery.
jSoS PAIN
Of fing the folds of their drapery, and the joints and di-
Landfcape. redtion of the principal members that lay under it, fo
as to exhibit in a molt ftriking manner, the attitude of
the perfon to whom they belonged. That the ancient
fculptors clothed their ftatues with equal truth and
grace, appears from many of them that are ftill in be-
ing; particularly a Flora lately dug up in Rome, whofe
drapery is executed with fo much judgment, and in fo
grand and rich a ftyle, that it may vie with the fineft of
their naked ftatues, even with the Venus of Medicis.
The ftatue's of the ancients had fo much beauty when
naked, that they retained a great deal when clothed.
But here it mull be confidered, that it was ufual with
them to fuppofe their originals clothed with wet gar¬
ments, and of an extreme finenefs and delicacy, that,
by lying clofe to the parts,, and in a manner clinging
to them, they might the better fhow what thefe parts
were. For this reafon a painter is not to confine him-
felf to the ftudy of the ancient ftatues, left he (hould
contra& a dry ftyle, and even fall into the fame faults
with fome great matters who, accuftomed to drape with
fuch light fluffs as fit clofe to the body, have after¬
wards made the coarfeft lie in the fame manner, fo as
plainly to exhibit the mufcles underneath them. It is
therefore proper to ftudy nature herfelf, and thofe mo¬
dern mailers who have come neareft to her in this
branch ; fuch as Paolo Veronefe, Andrea del Sarto,
Rubens, and above all, Guido Reni. The flow of
their drapery is foft and gentle; and the gatherings
and plaits are fo contrived, as not only not to hide the
body, but to add grace and dignity to it. Their gold,
filk, and woollen fluffs, are fo diftinguifhable one from
another, by the quality of their feveral luftres, and the
peculiar light and fhade belonging to each, but above
all by the form and flow of their folds, that the age
and fex of their figures are hardly more difcoverable
by their faces. Albert Durer is another great matter
in this branch, infomuch that Guido himfelf was not
alhamed to ftudy him. There are fttH extant feveral
drawings made with the pen by this great man, in
which he has copied whole figures from Albert, and
fcrupuloufly retained the flow of his drapery as far as
his own peculiar ftyle, lefs harfh and fharp, but more
eafy and graceful, would allow. It may be faid that
he made the fame ufc of Albert, that our modern wri¬
ters ought to make of the beft authors of the 13th cen¬
tury.
S£ct. VIII. Of Landfcape and Architecture.
11. When our young painter has made a fufficient
progrefs in thofe principal branches of his art, the de-
figning, perfpeftive, colouring, and drapery of human
figures, he fhould turn his thoughts to landfcape and
architefture : for, by ftudying them, he will render
himfelf univerfal, and qualified to undertake any fub-
jeft 5 fo as not to refemble certain literati, who, tho’
great matters in fome articles, are mere children in
every thing elfe.
The moft eminent landfcape painters are Pouffin,
Lorenefe, and Titian.
Pouflin was remarkable for his great diligence. His
pieces are quite exotic and uncommon ; being fet off
with buildings in a beautiful but Angular ftyle ; and
with learned epifodes, fuch as poets reciting their verfes
to the woods, and youths exencifing themfdves in the
TING. Part L
feveral gymnaftic games of antiquity 5 by which it Architec.
plainly appears, that be was more indebted for his fub-111 lc-
jefts to the deferiptions of Paufanias, than to nature
and truth.
Lorenefe applied himfelf chiefly to exprefs the va¬
rious phenomena of light, efpecially thofe perceivable
in the heavens. And, thanks to the happy climate of
Rome, where he ftudied and exercifed his talents, he
has left us the brighteft flties, and the richeft and moft
glorioufly cloud-tipt horizons that can be well concei¬
ved. Nay, the fun himfelf, which, like the Almighty,
can be reprefented merely by his effedls, has fcarce
efcaped his daring and ambitious pencil.
Titian, the great confident of nature, is the Homer
of landfcape. His feenes have fo much truth, fo much
variety, and fuch a bloom in them, that it is impoffible
to behold them, without wilhing, as if they were real,
to make an excurfion into them. And perhaps the,
fineft landfcape that ever iffued from mortal hands, is
the back ground of his Martyrdom of St Peter; where
by the difference between the bodies and the leaves of
his trees, and the difpofition of their branches, one im¬
mediately difeovers the difference between the trees
themfelves; where the different foils are fo well expref-
fed, and fo exquifitely clothed with their proper plants,
that a botanift has much ado to keep his hands from
them. See Part II. Se<ft. ii.
Paolo Veronefe is in archite&ure, what Titian is in
landfcape. To excel in landfcape, we muft, above all
things, ftudy nature. To excel in archite&ure, we muft
chiefly regard the fineft works of art; fuch as the fronts
of ancient edifices, and the fabrics of thofe moderns
who have beft ftudied and beft copied ant iquity. Next to
Brunellefchi and Alberti, who were the firft revivers of
architedlure, came Bramante, Giulio Romano, Sanfo-
vino, Sanmicheli, and laftly Palladio, whofe works the
young painter ftiould above all the reft diligently ftudy
and imprint deeply on his mind. Nor is Vignola to
be forgot; for fome think he was a more fcrupulous
copier of antiquity, and more Cxaft, than Palladio him¬
felf, infomuch that moft people confider him as the firft
architeft among the moderns. For our part, to fpeak
of him, not as fame, but as truth feems to require, we
cannot help thinking, that rather than break through
the generality of the rules contrived by him to facili¬
tate pra&ice, he has in fome inftances deviated from
the moft beautiful proportions of the antique, and is
rather barren in the diftribution and difpolition of cer¬
tain members. Moreover, the extraordinary height of
his pedellals and cornifties hinders the column from
fliowing in the orders defigned and employed by him,
as it does in thofe of Palladio. Amongft that great
variety of proportions to be met with in ancient ruins,
Palladio has been extremely happyin choofing the beft.
His profiles are well contrafted, yet eafy. All the parts
of his buildings hang well together. Grandeur, ele¬
gance, and beauty, walk hand in hand in them. In
fliort, the very blemifhes of Palladio, who was no flave
to conveniency, and fometimes perhaps was too profufe
in his decorations, are pi&urefque. And we may rea-
fonably believe, that it was by following fo great a
matter, whofe works he had continually before his eyes,,
that Paolo Veronefe formed that fine and mafterly talte
which enabled him to efnbcllilh his eompofitions witk
fuch beautiful, ftru&ures.
Sect.
Part I. ‘ PAIN
CuftuBie. Sect, IX. Of the Coftnme.
12. The ftudy of archite&ure cannot fail, in ano¬
ther refpeft, of being very ufeful to the young painter,
inafmuch as it will bring him acquainted with the form
of the temples, thermae, bafilics, theatres, and other
buildings of the Greeks and Romans. Befides, from
the baffo-relievos with which it was cuftbmary to adorn
thefe buildings, he may gather, with equal delight and
profit, the nature of their facrifices, arms, military en-
figns, and drefs. The ftudy of landscape, too, will
' render familiar to him the form of the various plants
peculiar to each foil and climate, and fuch other things
as ferve to charadterife the different regions of the
earth. Thus by degrees he will learn what we call co-
Jiume, one of the chief requifites in a painter; fince, by
means of it, he may exprefs with great precifion the
time and place in which his fcenes are laid.
The Roman fchool has been exceedingly chafte in
this branch. So was the French, as long as it conti¬
nued under the influence and dire&ion of Pouffin, whom
we may juftly ftyle the Learned Painter; whereas the
Venetian fchool has been to the laft degree carelefs,
not to fay licentious. Titian made no difficulty of in¬
troducing in an Ecce Hoftio of his, pages in a Spanifli
garb, and the Auftrian Eagle on the fhieldsof the Ro¬
man foldiers. It is true indeed, that once he placed
in the background of a Crowning-Djith-Thonif, a buft
carrying the name of the emperor Tiberius, under
whom our Saviour fuffered: but it is likewife true, that,
as if he thought it unbecoming a painter to pay any
regard to fuch minutiae of learning and the coftume, he
fhewed himfelf perfectly indifferent about them in all
his other works. Tintoret, in a Fall of Manna, has
armed bis figures with mufquets. And Paolo Vero-
nefe, in a Lajl-Supper, prefents us with Swifs, Le¬
vantine, and other ftrange figures. In fhort, he has
been fo carelefs in this way, that his pieces have been
often confidered as fo many beautiful mafquerades.
It is impoffible to exprefs how much a pi&ure fuf-
fers by fuch loofenefs and fancy, and finks as a baftard
of the art in the efteem of good judges. Some people,
indeed, are of opinion that fo fcrupOlous an obier-
vance of the coftume is apt to hurt pi&ures, by
depriving them of a certain air of truth arifing, they
think, from thofe features and habits to which we are
accuftomed ; and which are therefore apt to make a
greater imprtffion, than can be expe&ed from things
drawn from the remote fources of antiquity ; adding
withal, that a certain degree of licence has ever been
allowed thofe artifts who in their works muft make
fancy tlieir chief guide. See, fay they, the Greeks;
that is, the matters of Raphael and Pouflin themfelves.
Do they ever trouble their heads about fuch niceties?
The Rhodian ftatuaries, for example, have not fcrupled
to reprefent Laocoon naked; that is, the Prieft of A-
pollo naked in the very aft of facrificing to the gods,
and that too in prefence of a whole people, of the vir¬
gins and matrons of Ilium. Now, continue they, if it
was allowable in the ancient ftatuaries to negleft pro¬
bability and decency to fuch a degree, to have a bet¬
ter opportunity of difplaying their flcil! in the anatomy
of the human body ; why may it not be allowable in
modern painters, the better to attain the end»of their
art, which is deception, to depart now and then a little
TING. j8b<j
from the ancient manners and the too rigorous laws of Invention,
the coftume ? But thefe reafons, we beg leave to ob- r“
ferve, are more abfurd than they are ingenious. What!
are we to draw conclufions from an example, which,
far from deciding the difpute, gives occalion to ano¬
ther ? The learned are of opinion, that thofe Rhodian
matters would have done much better, had they looked
out for a fubjeft in which, without offending fo much
againft truth, and even probability, they might have
had an equal opportunity of difplaying their know¬
ledge of the naked. And certainly no authority or
example whatever, fhould tempt us to to do any thing
contrary to what both decency and the reafon of things
require, unlefs we intend, like Carpioni, to reprefent
Sogni d’infer mi, e foie di romanzi.
“ The dreams of fick men, and the tales of fools.”
No: a painter, the better to attain the end of his
art, which is deception, ought carefully to avoid mix¬
ing the antique with the modern, the domeftiewith the
foreign; things, in fhort, repugnant to each other, and
therefore incapable of gaining credit. A fpeftator will
never be brought to confider himfelf as aftually pre-
fent at the feene, the reprefentation of which he haS
before him, unlefs the circumttances which enter it
perfeftly agree among themfelves, and the field of ac¬
tion, if we may ufe the expreffion, in no fliape belies
the aftion itfelf. For inftance, the eircumftances, or,
if you pleafe, the acceffories, in a Finding of Mofes, are
not, furely, to reprefent the borders of a canal plant¬
ed with rows of poppies, and covered with country-
boufes in the European tafte; but the banks of a great
river fliaded with clutters of palm-trees, with a Sphinx
or an Anubis in the adjacent fields, and here and there
in the back-ground a towering pyramid. And indeed
the painter, before he takes either canvas or paper in
hand, Ihould on the wings of fancy tranfport himfelf
to Egypt, to Thebes, or to Rome ; and fummoning
to his imagination the phyfiognomy, the drefs, the
plants, the buildings, fuitable to his fubjeft, with the
particular fpot he has chofen to lay his feene, fo ma¬
nage his pencil, as, by the magic of it, to make the en¬
raptured fpeftators fancy themfelves there along with,
him.
Sect. X. Of Invention.
13. As the operations of a general ftiould, all, ul¬
timately tend to battle and conqueft ; fo ftiould all the
thoughts of a painter to perfeft invention. Now, the
ftudies which we have been hitherto recommending,
will prove fo many wings by which he may raife him¬
felf, as it were, from the ground, and foar on high,
when defirous of trying his ftrength this way, and pro¬
ducing fomething from his own fund. Invention is the
finding out probable things, not only fuch as are adap¬
ted to the fubjeft in hand, but fueh, befides, as by
their fublimity and beauty are moft capable of exciting
fuitable fentiments in the fpeftator, and of making
him, when they happen to be well executed, fancy that
it is the fubjeft itfelf in its greateft perfeftion, and not
a mere reprefentation of it; that he has before him. We
do not fay true things, but probable tjfings; becaufe
probability or verifimilitude is, in faft, the truth of
thofe arts which have the fancy for their objeft. It
i^, indeed, the bufinefs and duty of both naturalifts
and hiftorians, to draw objefts as they find them, and
32 T 2 re-
58i°
Invention.
PAINTING.
reprefent them with all thofe Imperfections and ble-
mifhes, to which, as individals, they are fubjeCt. But
an Ideal painter, and fuch alone is a true painter, re-
fembles the poet: jnftead of copying, he imitates ;
that isr he works with his fancy, and reprefents ob-
jeCts endued with all that perfeddion which belongs to
the fpecies and may be conceived in the archetype.
“ ’77/ nature all, but nature methodifed
fays an eminent poet, fpeaking of poetry: And
the fame may be faid of painting; but it is na*
ture methodized, and made perfedt. Infomucb, that
the circumftances of the adtion, exalted and fub-
limed to the higheft degree of beauty and boldnefs
they are fufceptible of, may, though poffible, have ne¬
ver happened exaftly fuch as the painter fancies and
thinks proper to reprefent them. Thus, the piety of
iEneas, and the anger of Achilles, are things fo per-
feCt in their kind, as to be merely probable. And it
is for this reafon that poetry, which is only another
word for invention, is more philofophical, more in-
ftrudtive, and more entertaining, than hiftory.
'Here it is proper to obferve, what great advantages
the ancient had over the modern painters. The hiftory
of the times they lived in, fraught with great and glo¬
rious events, was to them a rich mine of the moft
noble fubjefts, which, befides, often derived no fmall
fublimity and pathos from the mythology upon which
their religion was founded. So far were their gods
from being immaterial, and placed at an infinite di-
ftance above their worfhippers; fo far was their reli¬
gion from recommending humility, penance, and
felf-denial, that, on the contrary, it appeared calcu¬
lated merely to flatter the fenfes, inflame the palfions,
and poifon the fancy. By making the gods partake of
our nature, and fubjeCting them to the fame paffions,
it gave man hopes of being able to mix with thofe
who, though greatly above him, refembled him, not-
withftanding, in fo many refpe&s. Befides, thofe dei¬
ties of theirs were in a manner vifible, and to be met at
every ftep. The fea was crowded with Tritons and
Nereids, the rivers with Naiads, and the mountains
with Dryads. The woods fwarmed with Fauns and
Nymphs, who, in thefe obfeure retreats, fought an
afylum for their ftolen embraces. The moft potent
empires, the moft noble families, the moft celebrated
heroes, all derived their pedigree from the greater di¬
vinities. Nay, gods interefted themfclves in all the con¬
cerns of mankind. Apollo, the god of long arrows,
flood by the fide of HeClor in the fields of Troy, and
infpired him with new ftrength and courage to batter
down the walls and burn the fhips of the Greeks.
Thefe, on the other hand, were led on to the fight
and animated by Minerva, preceded by Terror, and fol¬
lowed by Death. Jove nods, his divine locks fhake
on his immortal head ; Olympus trembles. With that
countenance, which allays the tempeft, and reftores fe-
renity to the heavens, he gathers kifies from the
mouth of Venus, the delight of gods and of men. A-
mong the ancients, every thing fported .with the fan¬
cy ; and in thofe works which depend entirely on the
imagination, fome of our greateft maftershave thought
they could not do better than borrow from,the Pagans,
if we may be allowed to fay it, their pi&ures of Tar¬
tarus, in order to render their own drawings of hell
more ftriking.
After all, there have not been wanting able iuven-
Part I.
tors in painting among the moderns. Michael An-Invention,
gelo, notwithftanding the depth and boldnefs of his
own fancy, is not'afhamed, in fome of his compofi-
tions, to Dantize; as Phidias and Apelles may be
faid formerly to have Homerized. Raphael, too, tutor¬
ed by the Greeks, has found means, like Virgil, to
extradl the quinteffence of truth ; has feafoned his
works with grace and noblenefs, and exalted nature,
in a manner, above herfelf, by giving her an afpeft
more beautiful, more animating, and more fublime,
than ftie is, in reality, accuftomed to wear. In
point of invention, Domenichino and Annibal Ca-
racci come very near Raphael, efpecially in the pieces
painted by them in Rome; nor does Pouflin fall
very ftiort of him in fome of his pictures, particu¬
larly in his EJlher before Abaufuerus, and his Death
of Germanicus, the richeft jewel belonging to the Bar-
berine family. Of all the painters who have acquired
any extraordinary degree of reputation, no one ftudied
lefs to fet off his pieces by bold and beautiful circum¬
ftances, or was more a ftranger to what is called poeti¬
cal perfettion, than Jacopo Baffano. Among the num-
berlefs inftances we could produce of his careleffnefs
this way, let it fuffice to mention a Preaching of St.
Paul painted by him in a place, near that of his birth,
called Marofega. Inftead of reprefenting the apoftle
full of a divine enthufiafm, as Raphael has done, and
thundering againft the fuperftitions of the heathen in
an affembly of Athenians; inftead of exhibiting one of
his auditors ftruck to the quick, another perfuaded, a
third inflamed ; he makes him hold forth, in a village
of the Venetian date, to a parcel of poor peafants and
their wives, who take not the lead notice of him ; the
women efpecially, who feem to mind nothing but the
country labours in which he had found them employ¬
ed. After all, this is an admirable piece ; and would
be a perfect one, had the painter not difgraced it fo
much by the poverty of his ideas.
With regard to invention, painting and poetry re-
femble each other fo much in many other refpects, be¬
fides that of combining in every a&ion all the beauty
and elegance it will admit, that they well deferve the
name of ftfter arts. They differ, however, in one
point, and that too of no fmall importance. It is this.
The poet, in the reprefentation of his ftory, relates
what Has' already happened, prepares that which is ftill
to come, and fo proceeds, ftep by ftep, through all
the circumftances of the a&ion ; and, to operate the
greater effe£l on his hearers, avails himfelf of the fuc-
ceffion of time andiplace. The painter, on the con¬
trary, deprived of fuch helps, muft be content to de¬
pend upon one Angle moment. But what a moment1
A moment, in which he may conjure up, at once, to
the eyes of the fpe&ator, a thoufand obje&s ; a mo¬
ment, teeming with the moft beautiful circumftances
that can attend the aftion ; a moment, equivalent
to the fucceffive labours of the poet. This the works
of the greateft mafters, which are every where to be
feen, fnfficiently evince; among others, \he St Paul
at Lyftra, by Raphael, whom it is impofiible not to
praife as often as this picture is mentioned. In order
to give the fpe&ator a thorough infight into the fub-
je£l of this piece, the painter has placed, in the front
cf it, the cripple already reftored to his limbs by the
Apoftle, fired with gratitude towards his benefa&or,
and exciting his countrymen to yield him all kinds of
honour,..
Part L
Invention, honour. Round'the cripple are feme figures lifting
^up the fleirts of his cost, in order to look at the legs re¬
duced to their proper fhape, and acknowledging by
geftures full of aftonifhment the reality of the mi-
Welb, racle ; an invention, fays a certain author, a profeffed
dial. 7. admirer of antiquity, which might have been propofed
as an example in the happieft age of Greece.
We have another fhining inltance of the power of
painting to introduce a great variety of objects on the
feene at the fame time, and of the advantage jt has in
this refpedt over poetry, in a drawing by the celebra¬
ted la Fage, which, like many other pieces of his, has
not as yet been engraved, though worthier, perhaps,
of that honour than any other performance of the
kind. This drawirtg repfefents the defeent of iEneas
into hell. The field is the dark caverns of Pluto’s
kingdom, through the middle of which creeps flowly
the muddy and melancholy Acheron. Nearly in the
centre of the piece appears iEneas with the golden
bough in his hand, and with an air of aftonifhment at
what he fees. The Sybil, who accompanies him, is
anfwering the queftions which he alks her. The per-
fonage there is the ferryman of the pitchy lake, by
which even the gods themfelves are afraid to fwear.
Thofe, who, crowding in to the banks of the river,
v numberlefs as the leaves fhaken off the trees by autum¬
nal blafts, exprefs, with outllretched hands, an impa¬
tience to be ferried to the oppofite fhore, are the un¬
happy manes, who, for want of burial, are unqualified
for that happinefs. Charon, accordingly, is crying
out to them, and with his lifted-up oar driving them
from his boat, which has already taken in a number
of thofe who had been honoured with the accuftomed
funeral rites. Behind iEneas and the Sybil we difeover
a confufed groupe of wretched fouls, lamenting bitterly
their misfortune in being denied a pafiage ; two of
them wrapped up in their clothes; and, in a fit of de-
fpair, funk upon a rock. Upon the firll lines of the
piece Hands a third groupe of uninbutned fhades, Leu-
cafpes, Orontes, and, in the midft of them, the good
old Palinurus, formerly mailer and pilot of the hero’s
own veffel, who with joined hands mod earneftly de¬
fires to be taken along with him into the boat, that,
after death, at leaf!, he may find fome repofe, and his
dead body no longer remain the fport of winds and
waves. Thus, what we fee fcattered up and dowq in
many verfes by Virgil, is here, as it were, gathered
into a focus, and concentered by the ingenious pencil
of the painter ; fo as to form a fubje£f well worthy of
being expofed, in more fiiapes than one, to the eyes
of the public.
When a painter'takes a fubjeft in hand, be it hifto-
rical, be it fabulous, he (liould carefully perufe the
books which treat of it, imprint well on his mind all
the circumllances that attend it, the perfons concern¬
ed in it, and the paffions with which they tnuft have
been feverally animated ; not omitting the particulars
of time and place. His next bufinefs is to create it,
as it were, anew, obferving the rules already laid down
for that purpofe: From what is true, choofing that
which is moil finking; and clothing his fubjeft with
fuch acceflbry ciicumftances and adlions, as may render
it more confpicuons, pathetic, and noble, and bed dif-
play the powers of the inventive faculty. But, in do¬
ing this, great diferetion is requifite ; for, let bis ima-
58U
gination grow everfo warm, his hand is never to exe-IIlventi<tn-
cute any thing that is not fully approved by his judg- ' ’
ment. Nothing low or vulgar fhould appear in a lof¬
ty and noble argument; a fault, of which fome of the
greateft mafters, even Lampieri and Poufiin, have been
now and then guilty.
The action muft be one, the place one, the time
one. We need not fay any thing of thofe pain¬
ters, who, like the writers of the Chinefe and Spanifh
theatre, cram a variety of a&ions together, and fo
give us, at once, the whole life of a man. Such blun¬
ders, it is prefumed, are too grofs to be feared at
prefent. The politenefs and learning of the age feem,
to demand confiderations of a more refined nature; fuch
as, that the epifodes introduced in the drama of a pic¬
ture, the better to fill and adorn it, fhould be not on¬
ly beautiful in themfelves, but indifpenfably requifite.
The games celebrated at the tomb of Anchifes in Si¬
cily, have a greater variety in them, and more fources
of delight, than thofe that had been before celebrated
at the tomb of Patroclus under the walls of Troy. The
arms forged by Vulcan for JEneas', if not better tem¬
pered, are at lead better engraved than thofe which
the fame god had forged feveral ages before for A-
chilles. Neverthelefs, in the eyes of judges, both the
games and the arms of Homer are more pleafing than
thofe of Virgil, becaufe the former are more necefiary
in the Iliad, than the latter in the jEneid. Every part
fiiould agree with, and have a relation to, the whole
Unity -ftiould reign even in variety; for in this, beauty
confifts. This is a fundamental maxim in all the
arts whole objeft it is to imitate the works of na¬
ture.
Pictures often borrow no fmall grace and beauty
from the fidions of poetry. Albani has left us, in fc-
veral of his works, fufficient proofs of the great fliare
the belles letters had in refining his tafie. But Ra¬
phael, above all others, may, in this branch too, be
confidered as a guide and mailer. To give but one
inftance out of many ; what a beautiful thought was it
to reprefent the river himfelf, in a Paffage of Jordan,
fupporting his waters with his own hands, in order ti>
open a way to the army of the Ifraelites f Nor has he
difplayed lefs judgment in reviving, in his defigns en¬
graved by Agoftino of Venice, the little loves of Ae-
tius, playing with the arms of Alexander, conquered
by the beauty of Roxana.
Among the ancients, Apelles and Parrhafius were
thofe who diftinguilhed themfelvs molt in allegorical
fubjeds, in which the inventive faculty fiiows itfelf to
the greateft advantage ; the firft by his pidure off SeeLucum
Calumny f , the fecond by that of the Genius of the}'!5011 Ca-
Athenians*. The ancient painter called Galaton, gave cTrlo 'iha'^
likewife a fine proof of his genius in this branch, by in the Life
reprefenting a great number of poets greedily quench-
ing their third in the waters guftiing from the mouth ^ott ^°;
of the fublime Homer. And to this allegory, ac- Hiji1
cording to Guigni, Pliny J has an eye, wjien he calls Ht. xxxv.*
that prince of poets, the fountain of wits. But it is,c. 10.
after all, no way furprifing that we ftiould often t lib.
meet fuch fine flights of fancy in the ancient artifts.xv"'c‘tp'5-
They were not guided in their works by a blind prac¬
tice : they were men of polite education ; converfant TfM,
with the letters of the age in which they lived; and
the companions, rather than the fervants, of the great
suea
PAINTING.
5812 PAIN
Pifpofition. men who employed them. The fineft allegorical
~~~ : painter among the moderns was Rubens ; and he was,
accordingly, much celebrated for it. The belt critics,
however, find fault with his uniting in Luxemburg
dial's Kallery> t^e queen-mother, in council, with two car-
13 ‘ 1 * dinals and Mercury. Nor is there lefs impropriety in
his making Tritons and Nereids, in another piece of
the fame gallery, fwim to the queen’s veffel through
the galleys of the knights of St Stephen. Such
freedoms are equally difguftful with the prophecies of
Sannazaro’s Proteus, concerning the myftery of the
incarnation; or the Indian kings of Camoens, reafon-
ing with the Portuguefe on the adventures of Ulyffes.
The heft modern performances in pi&urefque alle¬
gory are, certainly, thofe of Poufiin ; who availed
himfelf, with great diferetion and judgment, of the
raft treafures with which, by a clofe ftudy of the
ancients, he had enriched his memory. On the other
hand, le Brim, his countryman, has been very un¬
happy this way. Ambitious to have every thing his
own, inftead of allegories, he has filled the gallery of
Verfatlles with enigmas and riddles, of which none but
himfetf was qualified to be the Oedipus. Allegory
muft be ingenious, it is true ; but then it muft be
equally perfpicuous ; for which reafon, a painter fbould
avoid all vague and indeterminate allufions, and like-
wife thofe to hiftory and heathen mythology which
are too abftrufe to be underftood by the generally
of fpedfatos. The befl way, perhaps, to fymbolize
moral and abftraft things, is to reprefent particu-
SeeBelhri'sfar events: as Caracci did, by advice of Monfig-
Life ofCa- nore Agucchi, in the Farnefian palace. For example,
what can better exprefs a hero’s love towards his
country, than the virtuous Decius confecrating him¬
felf boldly to the infernal gods, in order to fecure
viftory to his countrymen over their enemies ? What
finer emblems can we defire, of emulation, and an in-
fatiable thirft for glory, than Julius Caefar weeping
before the ftatue of Alexander in the temple of Her¬
cules at Gades ? of the inconftancy of fortune, than
Marius fitting on the ruins of Carthage, and receiving,
inftead of the acclamations of an army joyfully fain¬
ting him imperator, orders from a ii&or of Sextilius
to quit Africa ? of indiferetion, than Candaules, who,
by flrewing the naked beauties of his wife to his
friend Giges, kindled a paffion that faon made him
repent his folly ? Such reprefentations as thefe require
no comment ; they carry their explanation along with
them. Befides, fuppofing, and it is the worft we can
fuppofe, that the painter’s aim in them fhould happen
not to be underftood, his piece would ftill give de¬
light. It is thus that the fables of Ariofto prove fo
entertaining, even to thofe who underftand nothing
of the moral couched under them ; and likewife the
^ineis, though all do not comprehend the allufions
and double intent of the poet.
Sect. XI. Of Difpofttion.
14. So much for invention. Difpofition, which may
be confidered as a branch of invention, confifts in the
proper ftationing of what the inventive faculty has
imagined, fo as to exprefs the fubjeft in the mod lively
manner. The chief merit of difpofition may be faid
to confift in that diforder, which, wearing the ap¬
pearance of mere chance, is, in faft, the moft ftudied
TING. Part I.
effeft of art. A painter, therefore, is equally to Dhpofition
avoid the drynefs of thofe ancients who always plant¬
ed their figures like fo many couples in a procefiion,
and the affe&ation of thofe moderns who jumble
them together as if they were met merely to fight
and fquabble. In this branch Raphael was happy
enough tochoofe the juft medium, and attain perfec¬
tion. The difpofition of his figures is alway exactly
fuch as the fubjett requires. In the Battle of Con'
Jlantine, they are confufedly cluttered with as much
art, as they are regularly marlhalled in Chrijl's com-
viittnent of the keys to St Peter and conftituting him
prince of the apoftles.
Let the inferior figures of a piece be placed as they
will, the principal figure fhould ftrike the eye moft,
and ftand out, as it were, from among the reft. This
may be effe&ed various ways, as by placing it on the
foremoft lines, or in foroe other confpicuous part of
the piece ; by exhibiting it, in a manner, by itfelf;
by making the principal light fall upon it ; by giving
it the moft refplendent drapery ; or, indeed, by feveral
of thefe methods, nay, by all of them together. For,
being the hero of the pi&urefque fable, it is but juft
that it fhould draw the eye to itfelf, and lord it, as it
were, over all the other obje&s.
According to Leon Batifta Alberti, painters fhould
follow the example of comic writers, who compofe
fheir fable of as few perfons as pofiible. For, in faft,
a crowded pifture is apt to give as much pain to the
fpe&ator, as a crowded road to the traveller.
Some fubjedfts, it muft be granted, require a num¬
ber, nay, a nation, as it were, of figures. On thefe
occafions, it depends entirely on the fkill of the paint¬
er to difpofe of them in fuch a manner, that the prin¬
cipal ones may always make the principal appearance;
and contrive matters fo, that the piece be not over¬
crowded, dr want convenient refts and paufes. He
muft, in a word, take care that his piece be full, but
not charged. In this refpetft, the Battles of Alexan¬
der by Le Brun are mafter-pieees which can never be
fufficiently ftudied ; whereas nothing, on the other
hand, can be more unhappy than the famous Paradife
of Tintoret, which covers one entire fide of the great
council-chamber at Venice. It appears no better than
a confufed heap of figures, a fwarm, a cloud, a chaos,
which pains and fatigues the eye. What a pity it is
that he did not difpofe this fubjeifl after a model of his
own, now in the gallery ofBevilacqita at Verona! In
this laft, the feveral choirs of martyrs, virgins, bi-
fhops, and other faints, are judicioufly thrown into fo
many clufters, parted here and there by a fine fleece of
clouds; fo as to exhibit the innumerable hoft of hea¬
ven drawn up in a way that makes a moft agreeable
and glorious appearance. There goes a ftory, to our
purpofe, of a celebrated mafter, who in a drawing of
the Uuiverfal Deluge, the better to exprefs the im-
menfity of the waters that covered the earth, left a
corner of his paper without figures. Being allied, if
he did not intend to fill it up : No, faid he ; do not
you fee that my leaving it empty is what precifely
conftitutes the picture ?
The reafon for breaking a compofition into feveral
groupes is, that the eye, palling freely from one object
to another, may the better comprehend the whole.
But the painter is not to ftop here; for thefe groupes
are,
Part. I. PAIN
Difpofition are, befidw, to be fo art Ml y put together, as to form
_ rich chillers, give the whole compofition a Angular air
of grandeur, and afford the fpeflator an opportunity
of difceming the piece at a diftance, and taking the
whole in, as it were, at a Angle glance. Thefe effe&s
are greatly promoted by a due regard to the nature of
colours, fo as not to place together thofe which are
apt to pain by their oppoAtion, or diilraft by their
variety. They fhould be fo judicioufly difpofed as to
temper and qualify each other.
A proper ufe of the chiarofcuro is likevvife of great
fervice on this occalion, The grotipes are eafsly part¬
ed, and the whole pi&ure acquires a grand effedf, by
introducing fome ftrong falls of (hade, and, above all,
one principal beam of light. This method has been
followed with great fuccefs by Rembrant in a famous
pifture of his, reprefenting the Virgin at the foot of
the crofs on mount Calvary; the principal light dart¬
ing upon her through a break of the clouds, while the
reft of the Agures about her Hand more or lefs in the
{hade. Tintoret, too, acquired great reputation, as
well by that brifknefs with which he enlivened his fi¬
gures, as by his mafteriy manner of Ihading them j
and Polidoro de Caravaggio, though he fcarce paint¬
ed any thing but balfo-relievos, was particularly fa¬
mous for introducing with great (kill the effeds of the
cbiarofcuro, a thing Arft attempted by Mantegna in his
Trinmph of Julius Cafar. It is by this means that his
compofitions appear fo ftrikingly divided into different
groupes, and, among their other perfedions, afford fo
much delight thro’the beautiful difpoAtion that reigns
in them.
In like manner, a painter, by the help of perfpec-
tive, efpecially that called teriaf, the oppofition of lo¬
cal Colours, and other oontrivanees which he may ex-
ped to hit upon by ftodying nature, and thofe who
have beft ftudied her before him, will be able not only
to part his groupes, but make them appear at different
diltances, fo as to leave fufficient paffages between them.
But the greateft caution is to be ufed in the purfuit
of the methods here laid down ; efpecially in the ma¬
nagement of the chiarofcuro, that the effeds attribu¬
ted to light and ffiade, and to their various concomi¬
tants, may not run Counter to truth and experience-.
This a capital point. For this purpofe, a painter
would do well to make, in little 'figures, as Tintoret
and Pooffin ufed to do, a model of the fubjed that he
intends to reprefent, and then illuminate it by lamp
or candle light. By this means he may come to know
with certainty, if the chiarofcuro, which he has form¬
ed in his mind, does not clafh with thereafon of things.
By varying the height and diredion of-his light, he
may eafily difcover fuch accidental effeds as are moft
likely to recommend his performance, and fo eftablifli
a proper fyftem for the illuminating it. Nor will he
afterwards find it a difficult matter to modify the qua¬
lity of his fliades, by foftening or ftrengthening them,
according to the fituation of his fcene, and the quality
of the light falling upon it. If it (hould happen to be
a candle or lamp light fcene, he would then have no¬
thing to do but confider his model well, and faithfully
copy it.
In the next-place, to turn a groupe elegantly, the
beft pattern is that of a bunch of grapes adopted by
Titian. As, of the many grains that compofe a bunch
TING. 5813
of grapes, fome are ftruck diredly by the light, andDifpofuton.
thofe oppofite to them are in the /hade, whilft the in-
termediate ones partake of both light and (hade in a
greater or lefs degree ; fo, according to Titian, the
figures of a groupe (hould be fo difpofed, that, by the
union of the chiarofcuro, feveral things may appear
as it were but one thing. And in fad it is only from
his having purfued this method, that we can account
for the very grand effed of his pieces this way, in which
it is impoffible to ftudy him too much.
The manneriils, who do not follow nature in the
track of the mailers juft mentioned, are apt to commit
many faults. The reafon of their figures cafting their
(hades in this or that manner feldom appears in the
pidure, or at lead does not appear Efficiently pro¬
bable. They are, befides, wont to trefpafs all bounds
in fplaffiing their pieces with light, that is, in enliven¬
ing thofe parts which we ufually term the deafs of a
pidure. This method, no doubt, has fometimes a
very fine effeft ; but it is, hovvevet, to be ufed with
no fmall difcretion, as otherwife the whole lofes that
union, that paufe, that majeftic filence, as Caracci
ufed to call it, which affords fo much pleafure. The
eye is not lefs hurt by many lights fcattered here and Hogarth'}
there over a pidure, than the ear is by the confufed'^"'’^ °f
tioife of different perfons fpeaking all together in an af- eauJ~
fembly.
Guido Reni, whohas imparted to his paintings that
gaiety and fplendour in which he lived, feems ena¬
moured with a bright and open light; whereas Michael
Angelo da Caravaggio, who was of a fullen and favage
difpofition, appears fondeft of a gloomy and clouded
Iky : fo that neither of them were qualified to handle
indifferently all fubjeds. The chiraofcuro may like-
wife prove of great fervice to a painter in giving his
compofition a grand effed ; but, neverthelefs, the light
he choofes muft be adapted to the fituation of the fcene
where the adion is laid: nor would he be lefs faulty,
who in a grotto or cavern, where the light entered by
a chink, ffiould make his (hades foft and tender, than
■him who (hould reprefent them ftrong and bold in an
open (Icy-light.
But this is not, by many, the only fault which man-
nerifts are apt to be guiky of in hiftorical pieces, and
particularly in the difpofition of their figures. To fay
nothing of their favourite grotipe of a woman lying on
the ground with one child at her bread, and another
playing about her, and the like, which they generally
place on the fir ft lines of their pieces; nor of thofe half¬
figures in the back ground peeping out from the hol¬
lows contrived for them : they make a common prac¬
tice of mixing naked with clothed figures; old men
with young ; placing one figure with its face towards
you, and another with its back; they contrail violent
motions with languid attitudes, and teem to aim at
oppofition in every thing ; whereas oppofitions never
pleafe, but when they arife naturally from the fubjed,
like antithefes in a difeourfe.
As to foreftiortened figures, too much affedation In
ufrng or-avoiding them is equally blameable. The at¬
titudes had better be compofed than otherwife. It ve¬
ry feldom happens that there is any occafion for ma¬
king them fo impetuous as to be in danger of iofing
their equilibrium ; a thing too much pradifed by fome
painters.
5814 PAIN
Exfireflion ln regard to drapery, equal care fliould be taken to
Pafllons avo‘^ l^at poverty, which makes fome mailers look as
 1_ if, through mere penury, they grudged clothes to their
figures ; and that profuiion which Albani imputed to
Guido, faying, that he was rather a tailor than a
painter. The ornaments of drefs (liould be ufed with
great fobriety ; and it will not be amifs to remember
what was once faid to an ancient painter : “ I pity you
greatly ; unable to make Helen handfome, you have
taken care to make her fine.”
Let the whole, in a word, and all the different parts
of the difpofition, poflefs probability, grace, coftume,
and the particular charafter of what is to be reprefent-
ed. Let nothing look like uniformity ofmanner ; which
does not appear lefs in the compofition than it does in
colouring, drapery, and defign ; and is, as it were,
that kind of accent, by which painters may be as rea¬
dily diltinguifhed as foreigners are, by pronouncing
in the fame manner all the different languages they
happen to be acquainted with.
Sect. XII. Of the Exprejfon of the Pajfions.
15. That language which above all others a painter
fhould carefully endeavour to learn, and from nature
herfelf, is the language of the pafiions. Without it
the fineft works muft appear lifelefs and inanimate. It
is not enough for a painter to be able to delineate the
moil equifite forms, give them the mod graceful atti¬
tudes, and compofe them well together; it is not e-
nough to drefs them.out with propriety, and in the mod
beautiful colours; it is not enough, in fine, by the
powerful magic of light and fhade to make the canva’s
vanifh. No; he mud likewife know how to clothe his
figures with grief, with joy, with fear, with anger ;
he muft, in fome fort, write on their faces what they
think and what they feel; he muft give them life and
fpeech. It is indeed in this branch that painting tru¬
ly foars, and in a manner rifes fuperior to itfelf ; it is
in this branch die makes the fpedtator apprehend much
more than what (he expreffes,
The means employed in her imitations by painting,
are the circumfcription of terms, the chiraofcuro, and
colours; all which appear folely calculated to ftrike the
vifual faculty. Notwithftanding which, fhe contrives
to reprefent hard and foft, rough and fmooth furfaces,
which are obje&s of the touch ; and this by means of
certain tints, and a certain chi^rofcuro, which has a
different look in marble, in the bark of trees, in
downy and delicate fubftances. Nay, fhe contrives to
exprefs found and motion, by means of light and fhade,
and certain particular configurations. In fome land-
fcapes of Diderich, we almod hear the water murmur,
and fee it tremble along the fides of the river, and of
the boats upon it. In the Battle of Burgogne we are
really apt to fancy that the trumpet founds ; 'and we
fee the horfe, who has thrown his rider, fcamper along
the plain. But what is fttll more wonderful, painting,
in virtue of her various colours and certain particular
geftures, expreffes even the fentiments and mod hidden
affe&ions of the foul, and renders her vifible, fo as to
make the eye not only touch and hear, but even kindle
into paflion, and reafon.
Many have written, and amongft the reft the fa¬
mous le Brun, on the various changes, that, according
to the various pafiions, happen in the mufcles of the
TING. Part I.
face, which is, as it were, the dumb tongue of the foul. Expreffion
They obferve, for example, that in fits of anger, the p°f,.the
face reddens, the mufcles of the lips puff out, the eyes . a °ns'
fparkle ; and that, on the contrary, in fits of melan¬
choly, the eyes grow motionlefs and dead, the face
pale, and the lips fink in. It may be of fervice to a
painter to read thefe and fuch other remarks ; but it
will be of infinitely more fervice to ftudy them in na¬
ture itfelf, from which they have been borrowed, and
which exhibits them in that lively manner which nei¬
ther tongue nor pen can exprefs.
But if a painter is to have immediate recourfe to na¬
ture in any thing, it is particularly in treating thofe
very minute and almoft imperceptible differences, by
which, however, things very different from each other
are often expreffed. This is particularly the cafe with
regard to the pafiions of laughing and crying ; as in
thefe, however contrary, the roufcles of the face ope¬
rate nearly in the fame manner. As the famous Pietro
de Cortona was one day finifhing the face of a crying
child in a reprefentation of the Iron Age, with which
he was adorning the floor, called the Hot bath, in the
royal palace of Pitti, Ferdinand II. who happened lo
be looking over him for his amufement, could not for- '* >
bear exprefiing his approbation, by crying out, “Oh
how well that child cries !” To whom the artift,—- , ■
“ Has your majefty a mind to fee how eafy it is to ;
make children laugh ? Behold, I’ll prove it in an iji-
ftantAnd taking up his pencil, by giving the con¬
tour of the mouth a concave turn downwards, inftead
of the convex upwards which it before had, and with
little or no alteration in any other part of the face, he
made the child, who a little before feemed ready to
burft its heart with crying, appear in equal danger ci
burfting its fides with immoderate laughter ; and then,
by reftoring the altered features to their former pofx-
tion, he foon fet the child a-crying again. [Leftiibe*, s
of Philip Baldinucci, in the academy of la Crufca it '*
Lyftrato, &c.J
According to Leonardo da Vinci, the bed mafters
that a painter can have recourfe to in this branch, are
thofe dumb men, who have found out the method of
exprefling their fentiments by the motion of their hands,
eyes, eyebrows, and in fliort every other part of the
body. This advice, no doubt, is very good ; but then
fuch geftures muft be imitated with great fobriety and
moderation; left they fhould appear too ftrong and ex-
aggerated, and the piece fhould fhow nothing put pan¬
tomimes, when fpeaking figures alone are to be exhi¬
bited ; and fo become theatrical and fecond-hand, or,
at heft, look like the copy of a theatrical and fecond-
hand nature.
We are told ftrange things of the ancient, painters
of Greece in regard to expreflion : efpecially of Anili¬
des ; who, in a piSure of his, reprefenting a woman
wounded to death at a fiege, with a child crawling to
her breall, makes her appear afraid, left the child,
when fhe was dead, fhould, for want of milk, fuck her
blood. A Medea murdering her children^ by Timo-
machus, was likewife much cried up, as the ingenious
artift contrived to exprefs, at once, in her coumenance,
both the fury that hurried her on to the commiflion of
fo great a crime, and the tendernefs of a mother that
feemed to withhold her from it. Rubens attejppttd to
exprefs fuch a double effed in the face of jjjdary of Me-
Parti. PAIN
Expreffiou dicis, ftill in pain from her pad labour, and at the fame
' of the (;me ful] 0f jQy at the birth of a Dauphin. And in
Pafl*01is' the countenance of Sanda Polonia, painted by Tie-
polo for St Anthony’s church at Padua, one may
clearly read a mixture of pain from the wound given
her by the executioner, and of pleafure from the pro*
fped of paradife opened to her by it.
Few, to fay the truth, are the examples of (Irong
expreflion afforded by the Venetian, Flemifh, or Lom-
b'rd fchools. Deprived of that great happinefs, the
happinefs of being able to contemplate, at leifure, the
works of the ancients, th^ purefl fources of perfe&ion
in point of defign, exprefiion, and charaffer ; and ha¬
ving nothing but nature condantly before their eyes ;
they made ilrength of colouring, blooming complec-
tions, and the grand effeds of the chiarofcuro, their
principal ftudy : they aimed more at charming the fen-
fes than at captivating the underftanding. The Ve¬
netians, in particular, feem to have placed their whole
glory in fetting off their pieces with all th&t rich va¬
riety of perfonages and drefs, which their capital is
continually receiving by means of its extenfive com¬
merce, and which attrads fo much the eyes of allthofe
who vifit it. It is much to be doubted, if; in all the
pidures of Paolo Veronefe, there is to be found a bold
and judicious expreffion, or one of thofe attitudes
which, as Petrarch exprefles it, fpeak without words;
unlefs, perhaps, it be that remarkable one in his
Marriage Feaji of Cana of Galilee. At one end of
of the table, and diredly oppoiite to the bridegroom,
whofe eyes are fixed upon her, there appears a woman in
red, holding up to him the ilcirt of her garment; as much
as to fay, we may fuppofe, that the wine miraculoufly
oduced was exadly of thecolour with the fluff on her
back. And in fad it is red wine we fee in the cups
and pitchers. But all this while the faces and attitudes
of mod of the company betray not the lead fign of
.wonder at fo extraordinary a miracle. They all, in a
manner, appear intent upon nothing but eating, drink¬
ing, and making merry. Such, in general, is the ftyle
of the Venetian fchool. The Florentine, over which
Michael Angelo prefided, above all things curious of
defign, was moft minutely and fcrupuloufly exadt in
point of anatomy. On this fhe fet her heart, and took
lingular pleafure in difplaying it. Not only elegance
of form, and noblenefs of invention,but I kewife ftrehgth
of exprefiion, triumph in the Roman fchool, nurfed as
it were amongd the works of the Greeks, and in the
bofom of a city which had once been the feminary of
learning and politenefs. Here it was that Domenichino
and Poufiin, both great maders of expreffion, refined
themfelves, as appears more particularly by the St^e-
rome of the one, and the Death of Germanicus, or the
daughter of the Innocents, by the other. Here it
was that arofe Raphael, the fovereign mader of them
all. One would imagine, that pictures, which are ge¬
nerally confidered as the books of the ignorant, and of
the ignorant only, he had undertaken to make the in-
ftrudlors even of the learned. One would imagine, that
* InJHu he intended, in fome meafure, to judify Quintilian *,
I'b-XI- who affirms, that painting has more power over us
caP' 3- than all the arts of rhetoric. There is not, indeed, a
fiagl.e.jwdture of Raphael’s, from the dudy of which
thofe who are curious in point of exprefiion may not
reap great benefit; particularly his Martyrdom of St
Yoi. VIII. i
TING. 5815
Felicitas, his Transfigurations, his Jofcph explaining Expreflion
to Pharaoh his dream, a piece fo highly rated by
Poufiin. YF\* School of Athens, in the Vatican, is, to °nS‘
all intents and purpofes, a fchool of exprtflion. A-
mong the many miracles of art with which this piece
abounds, we (hall Angle out that of the four boys at¬
tending on a mathematician, who, dooping to the
ground, his compafies in his hand, is giving them the
demondration of a theorem. One of the boys, recol-
le&ing within himfelf, keeps back, with all the ap¬
pearance of profound attention to the reafoning of the
mader ; another, by the brifknefs of his attitude, dif-
covers a greater quicknefs of apprehenfion ; while the
third, who has already feized the conclufion, is endea¬
vouring to beat it into the fourth, who, danding mo-
tionlefs, with open arms, a daring countenance, and
an unfpcakable air of dupidity in his looks, will never
perhaps be able to make any thing of the matter. And
it is probably from this verygroupe that Albani, who
dudied Raphael fo clofely, drew the following precept
of his : “ That it behoves a painter to exprefs more
circumdances than one by every attitude; and fo to
employ his figures, that, by barely feeing what they
are a&ually about, one maybe able toguefs, both what
they have been already doing, and are next going to
do.” This is indeed a difficult precept; but it is only
by a due obfervance of it that the eye and the mind
can be made to hang in fufpence on a painted piece of
canvas. It is expreffion that a painter, ambitious to
foar in his profeffion, mud, above all things, labour
to perfeft himfelf in. It is the lad goal of his art, as "Xenoph.
Socrates proves to Parrhafius. It is in expreffion that.Jw.f.m5rrt^'
dumb poetry confids, and what the prince of our poets ' m*
calls a vifible language.
Sect. XI. Of proper Books for a Painter.
From what has been already faid, it may be eafily
gathered, that a painter fhould be neither illiterate,
nor unprovided with books. Many are apt to imagine,
that the Iconologia of Ripa, or fome fuch colleAion,
is alone fufficient for this purpofe ; and that all the ap¬
paratus he dands in need of, may be reduced to a few
cads of the remains of antiquity, or rather to what rem-
brants ufed to call his antiques, being nothing more
than coats of mail, turbants, {herds of duff, and all
manner of old houfehold trumpery and wearing appa¬
rel. Such things, no doubt, are neceffary to a paint¬
er, and, perhaps, enough for one who wants only to
paint half-lengths, oris willing to confine himfelf to a
few low fubjefils. But they are by no means fufficient
for him who would foar higher; for a painter who
would attempt tiie Univerfe, and reprefent it in all its Algarotti on
parts, fuch as it would appear, had not matter proved
refradlory to the intentions of the fovereign Artid.
Such a painter alone is a true, an univerfal, a perfedt
painter. No mortal, indeed, mud ever expedt to
rife to that fublimity ; yet all fhould afpire to it, on
pain of ever continuing at a very mortifying didancc
from it: as the orator, who wilhes to make a figure in
his profeffion, fhould propofe to himfelf no lefs a pat-
tern than that perfedt orator deferibed by Tully ; nor
the courtier, than that perfedl courtier delineated by
Cadiglione. It cannot, therefore, appear furprifing
if we infid on the propriety of reckoning a good col-
,3 z U ledtioa
5816
Books for ale&Ion of books as part of fqch a painter’s implements.
Painter. rj'(ie B;b]e, the Greek and Roman hiftorians, the works
of Homer, that prince of painters, and of Virgil, are
the moft claffical. To thefe let him add the Metamor-
phofes of Ovid, fome of our belt poets, the voy¬
age of Paufanias, Vinci, Vafari, and others upon
painting.
It will alfo be of confiderable advantage to him to
have a well-chofen colle&ion of drawings by the belt
mafters, in order to trace the progrefs and hiftory of
his art, and make himfelf acquainted with the various
ftyles of painting, which have been, and now are, in
the greateft vogue. The prince of the Roman fchool
was not afhamed to hang up in his ftudy the drawings
of Albert Durer; and fpared no pains or expence to
acquire all the drawings he could meet with, that were
taken frombafib relievos; things, which the art of en¬
graving has fince rendered fo common as to be in every
one’s hands. This art of multiplying drawings by
means of the graver is of the fame date, and boafts the
fame advantages, with the art of printing, by means
of Which the works of the mind are multiplied, as
it were, at one ftroke, and difpcrfed over the whole
world.
The fight of fine fubjc&s treated by able mafters,
and the different forms which the fame fubje&s affume
in different hands, cannot fail both of enlightening and
enflaming the mind of the young painter. The fame
maybe faid of the perufal of good poets and hifto-
. * rians, with the particulars and proofs of what they ad¬
vance ; not to mention thofe ideas and flights of inven¬
tion, with which the former are wont to clothe, beauti¬
fy, and exalt every thing they take in hand. Bouch-
ardon, after reading Homer, conceited, to ufe his
own words, that men were three times taller than be¬
fore, and that the world was enlarged in every refpedf.
It is very probable, that the beautiful thought of co¬
vering Agamemnon’s face with the fkirt of his mantle,
at the facrifice of Iphigenia, was fuggefted to Timan-
tes by the tragedy of Euripides. And the fublime con¬
ceit of Raphael, who, in a Creation of his, reprefents
God in the immenfe fpace, with one hand reaching to
the fun and the other to the moon, may be confidered
as the child of the following1 words of the Pfalmift:
“The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament
Jhehueth his handy-work.
This thought of Raphael has been, indeed, cenfured
by Mr Webb. “ A God,” fays this gentleman, “ ex¬
tending one hand to the fun, and another to the moon,
deflroys that idea ofimmenfity, w'hich fhould accompany
the work of creation, by reducing it to 'a world of a
few inches.” But the opinion of Count Algarotti is very
different. “ For my part,” fays that, elegant critic, “I
cannot difcover,in this painting, a world of a few inches,
but a world on a much greater fcale; a world of millions
and millions of miles : and yet this fo immenfe a world,
by means of that aft of the Godhead, in which with
one hand he reaches to the fun, and with the other to
the moon, (brinks, in my imagination, to a mere no¬
thing, in refpeft to the immenfity of God himfelf;
which is all that the powers of painting can pretend
to. This invention is, though in a contrary fenfe, of
the fame kind with that of Timantes, who, to exprefs
the enormous fize of a deeping Polyphemus, placed
round him fome fatires meafuring the mender’s thumb
Part I.
with a thyrfus. Hence Pliny, who relates the faft, Books for a
takes occafion to tell us, that his works always imply Painty-
more than they exprefs ; and that how great foever he-*^1
may be in execution, he is dill greater in invention :
Atque in omnibus ejus operibus intelligitur plus femper
quam pingitur ; et cum ars fumma fit, ingenium tamen
ultra artemejl." Nat. Hilt. lib. xxxv. c. x.
The perufal of good authors cannot but be very
ferviceable to a painter in another refpeft ; as, among
the great number of fubjefts afforded by hiftory and
poetry, he may expeft to meet with many on which
his talents may difplay themfelves to the greateft ad¬
vantage. A painter can never be too nice in the choice
of his arguments ; for on the beauty of them, that of
his piece will greatly depend. How much to be pi¬
tied, therefore, were our firft mafters, in being fo of¬
ten obliged to receive their fubjefts from the hands of
Ample and illiterate perfons ! and what is worfe, to
fpend all the riches of their art upon barren or unwor¬
thy fubjefts! Such are the reprefentations of thofe
faints, who, though they never had the lead inter-
courfe with each other, and perhaps even lived in
different ages, are, notwithftanding, to be introduced,
tete a tete, as it were, in the fame pifture. The me¬
chanic of fhe art, may, indeed, difplay itfelf on thefe
occafions; but by no means the ideal. The difpofi-
tion may be good and praife-worthy, as in the works
of Cortona and Lanfranc ; but we are not to expeft
in them either invention of exprefiion, which require
for their bafis the reprefentation of fome faft capable
of producing fnch effefts. Who does not, on the bare
mention of this abhfe, immediately recolleft many fad
inftances of it ? fucli as the famous St Csecilia of Ra¬
phael, furrounded by St Paul, St Mary Magdalen, St
John, and St Auguftin ; and the pifture of Paolo Ve*
ronefe, in the veftry of the NunS of St Zachary at Ve¬
nice, in which St Frances of Alfizium, Saint Catha¬
rine, and St Jerome richly habited in his cardinal’s
robes, form a ring round the Virgin feated on a throne
with the child Jefus in her arms ; perhaps the moft
beautiful and pifturefque of all the infipidand infigni-
ficant pieces with which Italy abounds. It is very
(hocking to think, that young painters (hould be ob¬
liged to ftudy their art from fuch wretched compofi*
tions.
The fubjefts in which the pencil triumphs moft,
and with which a judicious painter may (lock himfelf
by the perufal of good books, are, no doubt, thofe
which are moft; univerfally known, which afford the
largeft field for a difplay of the paflions, and contain
the greatell variety of incidents, all concurring, in the
fame point of time, to form one principal action. Of
this the ftory of Coriolanus befieging Rome, as related
by Livy, is a (hining example. Nothing can be ima¬
gined more beautiful than the feene of aftion itfelf,
which ought to take in the pretorium in the camp of
the Volfcians, the Tiber behind it, and the feven hills,
among which the towering Capitol is, as it were, to
lord it over the reft. It is impoflible to conceive a
greater variety, than what mu ft appear in that crowd
of foldiers, women, and children, all which are to en¬
ter the compofition; unlefs, perhaps, it be that of the
different paffions with which they are feverally agita¬
ted ; fome wiftiing that Coriolanus may raife the fiege,
cthtrt fearing it, others again fufpefting it. But
PAINTING.
Part I. PAIN
Painter’s the principal groupe forms the pi&urefque part of the
Balance. pjece> Coriolanus, haftily defcending from his tribu-
” nal, and hurried on by love, to embrace his mother,
flops fhort through fhame, on her crying out to him,
Liv. Dec.I. Hold! let me firll know, if it is a fon, or an enemy, lam
Ijb. i. going to embrace? Thus a painter may impart novel¬
ty to the moft hackneyed fubjedt by taking, for his
guides thofe authors who poffefs the happy talent of
adding grace and dignity, by their beautiful and fub-
lime defcriptions, even to the moft common and tri¬
fling tranfadtions.
Sect. XV. Of the Painter’s Balance.
18. Thb Celebrated de Piles, who by his wri¬
tings, has thrown fo much light upon painting, in or¬
der to affift young painters in forming a right judg¬
ment of thofe mafters who hold the firft rank in the pro-
feffion, and to reduce fuch judgment to the greater pre-
cifion, bethought himfelfof a pidlorical balance, by means
of which a painter’s merit may be weighed with the
greateft exadlnefs. This merit he divides into Compoli-
lion, Defign, Colouring, and Expreffion ; and in each
of thefe branches he has affigned every painter that
fhare he thought him entitled to, according as he ap¬
proached more or lefs the higheft degree of excellence
and fummit of perfediion; fo that, by fummiog up
the numbers which, {landing againft each mailer’s
name, exprefs his fhare of merit in each of thefe
branches, we have his total merit or value in the art,
and may hence gather what rank one painter holds
See Mal- in regard to another. Several objedlions, it is true,
marks^ in ^een ^arlec^ to method of calculation, by a
Mem.’de famous mathematician of our days, who, among other
t'Acad des things, infills, that it is the produdt of the above
Sciences, numbers multiplied by each other, and not the fum
0f them, that gives the merit of the artill. But this is
not a place to enter into fuch niceties, nor indeed
would the doing it be of any fervice to the art. The
only thing worth our notice is, whether the original
numbers, Handing for the painter’s merit in the feveral
branches of his art, are fuch as he is really intitled to,
without fuffering ourfelves to be biaffed by any partia¬
lity, as de Piles has been, in favour of the prince of
the Fltmilh fchool; the confequence of which, llrange
as it may appear, is, that in his balance Raphael and
Rubens turn out exadlly of the fame weight.
Raphael is now univerfally allowed to have attained
that degree of perfedlion, beyond which it is fcarce
lawful for mortals to afpire. Painting, in fome mea-
fure, revived among us by the diligence of Cimabue,
towards the decline of the 13th century, received no
fmall improvements from the genius of Giotto, Mafac-
AlgaroUt. c'°» an^ others ; infomuch that, in lefs than 200
years, it began to blaze forth with great luftre in the
works of Ghirlandai, Gian Bellino, Mantegna, Pietro
Perugino, and Leonardo da Vinci, the bell grounded
of them all, a man of great learning, and the firft who
contrived to give relief to piflures. But whatever im¬
provement the art might have received from thefe dif¬
ferent mafters in different parts of Italy, they Hill, to
a man almoft, fervilely followed the fame manner, and
all partook more or lefs of that hardnefs and drynefs,
which, in an age ftill Gothic, painting received from
the hands of its reftorer Cimabue; till Raphael, at
length, iffuing from the Peruginian fchoolj andj ftudy-
TING. 5817
ing the works of the Greeks, without ever lofing fight Painters
of nature, brought the art, in a manner, to the higheft ,nce-
pitch of perfedion. This great man has, if not en¬
tirely, at lead in a great meafure, attained thofe ends
which a painter fhould always propofe to himfelf, 10
deceive the eye, fatisfy the underftanding, and touch
the heart. So excellent are his pieces, that the fpec-
tator, far from praifing his pencil, feems fometimes en¬
tirely to forget that they are the feats of it which he
has before him; folely intent upon, and as it were tranf-
ported to, the feene of adion, in which he almoft fan¬
cies himfelf a party. Well, indeed, has he deferved
the title of divine, by the beauty and comprehenlive-
nefs of his expreffion, the juftnefs and noblenefs of his
compofitions, the chaftity of his defigns, and the ele¬
gance of his forms, which always carry a natural in¬
genuity along with them ; but above all, by that in-
expreflible gracefulnefs, more beautiful than beauty '
itfelf, with which he has contrived to feafon all his
pieces. Carlo Marrati having engraved a piece, called
the School, placed at the top of it the three Graces, with
this verfe under them,
Seneza di noi ogni fatica S vana ;
“ Without our aid, all labour is in vain.”
Without their aid, in fad, the light of a pidure is
no better than darknefs, every attitude is infipid, every
motion auwkward. It is they who impart to every
thing that jhe tie fgai quoi, that charm, which is as
fure to conquer, as impoflible to be defined. Maratti
has placed the Graces on high, and, as it were, de¬
fcending from heaven, in order to ftiew that they real¬
ly are a celeftial gift. Happy the artift on whole
cradle they have fmiled, whofe vows and offerings
they have not difdained! Maratti was not to be in¬
formed, that gracefulnefs, that jewel which adds fuch
value to every thing, tho’ not originally obtainable by
all the gold of diligence and ftudy, may yet be greatly
heightened and polilhed by them.
Though Raphael might boaft, like Apelles * of old, * 7.
whom he refembled info many other refpeds, that in InftftA. xH,
gracefulnefs he had no equal ; yet Parmigiano andc-
Correggio muft be allowed to have come very near him.
One of them has, however, often trefpaffed the juft
bounds of fymmetry; and the other is not always
challe in his defigns : both, befides, were too apt to
be guilty of affedlation. We ought perhaps to forgive AUaroiu.
Corregio every thing, for the fake of that uncommon
greatnefs of manner, that life and foul, which he has
infufed into all his figures; for the fake of that inimi¬
table cafe and delicacy of pencil, which makes his
pieces appear as if finilhed in a day, and feen in a
glafs. Of this we have a fufficient proof in the An¬
cona of St Jerome and the Magdalen on their knees
before the child Jefus, which is in Parma ; the fineft
piflure, perhaps, that ever iffued from mortal hands.
There are fome glimpfes of Corregio’s ftyle in the
works of Barocci, though he ftudied at Rome. He
never drew a figure that he did not borrow from na¬
ture ; and, for fear of lofing the maffes, ufed to drape
his models with very large folds. His pencil was ex¬
ceedingly fweet, and his colouring equally harmo¬
nious. He indeed fpoiled a little the natural tints by
too free an ufe of reds and blues; and has now and
then robbed things of their body, by {hading them too
much, and melting them, as it were, into one ano-
32 U 2 ther.
58iB
Painter’s then In point of defign, he was far more diligent
Balance. t^an fuccefsful. ;n the ai'r of his heads, affefted
the gracefulnefs of the Lombard fchool, rather than
the elegance of the Greeks and his countryman Ra¬
phael.
Julio Romano, full of fpirit, and of learning and
uncommon conceits, feems to come nearer the manner
of Michael Angelo than the elegantly natural one of
Raphael, under whom he ftudied;
The Germans, by fervilely following Michael An¬
gelo, gave into thofe ftrange attitudes and clumfy
forms which appear in the works of their greateft men,
Sprangher and Golzio.
The Florentines copied him with greater judgment
and difcretion. We muft, however, except Andrea
del Sarto, who, though an obferver of truth, is fome-
what clumfy in his figures. But then he is eafy in his
draperies ; fweet in his colours ; and would have car¬
ried the palm among the Tufcans, had it not been ra-
vilhed from him by Fra. Bartolomeo ; to immortalife
whom, his St Mark in the palace of Pitti would alone
be fufficient; for there is not wanting in. that piece
any of the perfections neceflary to conftitute an excel¬
lent matter.
Titian, whom Giorgione firtt imitated in the art,
is an univerfal matter. Upon every thing he took in
band, he has contrived to ttamp its own proper na¬
ture. His pencil flows with juices that are truly vi¬
tal. His figures breathe ; and the blood circulates in
their faces. And though fome perhaps have furpaffed
him in defign ; not but that he is generally correft
enough in the bodies of his women ; and his children,
on account of their form, have been ftudied by the
f Bellori’s greateft matters f; he never had his equal in colouring,
%vel°f , or in portrait and landfcape painting. He moft inde-
Fr“.Fiamin- fetigably ftudied truth, and never loft fight of her.
go. He moft indefatigably laboured to convert, if we may
be allowed the exprellion, the colours of his pallet in¬
to flefh and blood. But what coft him moft was, as
he himfelf confeffes, to cover and hide his fatigue:
and in this he has fucceeded fo well, that his works
feem rather born than made. His fortune equalled
his merit. He was greatly honoured by Charles V.
as the great Raphael had been, a few years before,
by the Popes Julius II. and Leo X.
Jacopo Baffano diftinguiftied himfelf, at the fame
time, by the ftrength of his colouring. Few have
equalled him in the juft difpenfation of light reflefted
from one obje& to another, and in thofe happy con-
trafts by means of which painted objefts become re¬
ally tranfparent. He may boaft his having deceived
an Aunibal Caracci, as Pharrhafio formerly deceived
Zeuxes; and had the glory of Paolo Veronefe’s not
being willing that his fon Carletto ihould learn the
principles of colouring from any other mafter.
Paolo Veronefe was the creator, as it were, of a
new manner. Though carelefs in point of defign, and
in point of coftume extremely licentious, he was noble
of fancy, and moft fruitful of invention. One would
imagine, that thofe who behold his magnificent pic¬
tures longed to be of the adtion reprefented by them ;
and it may be faid of him with great juftice, that even
his faults are pleafing. He has had very great admi¬
rers in every age ; and among them a Guido Reni,
whole praife, no doubt, would have flattered him moft.
Part I.
Tintoret is no way inferior to any of the Venetians IPainter’s
in thofe pieces which he drew by way of difplaying Bala»ce-
his talents, and not improving them. This he has
particularly fhown in his Martyrdom, now in the fchool
of St Mark ; in which there is defign, colouring,.com-
pofition, effefts of light, life, expreflion, and all car¬
ried to the higheft pitch of perfedlion. Scarce had
this pi&ure made its appearance, when all mankind
feemed to fall in love with it. Aretine himfelf, tho’
fo warm a friend to Titian,'that, through mere jea-
loufy he turned Tintoret out of his fchool, could not
forbear crying it up to excefs. He wrote himfelf to jtaccoha di
Tintoret, that this piece had extorted the applaufe Letters Julia
all thofe who faw it. The fccne, adds he, appears ra-
ther true than feigned ; and happy would you be, if, j“cbUettu-
inftead of being fo expeditious, you could prevail on r0;Xom.iii.
yourfelf to be a little more patient. let. 6$.
Next to thefe great artifts, who had no guide but
nature, or the moft perfeA copies of nature, the Greek
ftatues, ftarted up thofe other artifts, whom we are not
to confider as the difciples of nature, fo much as of
thofe mafters who a little before had revived the art of
painting, and reftored it to its ancient honour and dig¬
nity. Such were the Caraccis, who undertook to u-
nite in their manner the beauties of all the moft famous
Italian fchools, and founded a new one, which did not
yield to the Roman in elegance cf forms, to the Flo¬
rentine in correftnefs of defign, nor to the Venetian or
Lombard in beauty of colouring. Thefe fchools, if
we may be allowed the expreflion, are the primitive
metals of painting ; and the Caraccis, by melting them
down together, compofed a Corinthian metal, noble
indeed and beautiful to lookat, but wanting the ftrength,
du&ility, and weight, poffeffed fingly by the different
metals which compofe it. And indeed the greateft
praife that can be beftowed on the works of the Ca¬
raccis, is not owing to any air of originality in them,
or any perfecl imitation of nature, but to the ftriking
likenefs in them to the manner of Titian, Raphael,
Parmigianino and Correggio. As to the reft, the Ca¬
raccis did not negledt to provide their fchool with all
thofe helps which learning could afford; from a con-
viftion that the arts never fucceed through mere good
fortune or boldnefs of fancy, but are rather fo many
habits working according to the di&ates of learning
and right reafon. In their fchool, the pupils were
taught perfpe&ive, anatomy, in a word every thing
neceffary to lead them by the fhorteft and fafeft road.
And it is to this that we are chiefly to attribute the
fchool of Bologna’s having produced a greater number
of able mafters than any other.
At the head of thefe mafters Hand Domenichino and
Guido; one a moft curious obferver of nature, and
moft profound painter; the other the inventor of a
certain noble and beautiful manner peculiar to himfelf,.
which ihines efpecially in that fweetnefsand beauty he
has contrived to give the faces of his women. Both
thefe artifts have been preferred to the Caraccis; and it
muft be owned, that the laft did really excel them.
Francefco Barbieri, called il Guercino, ftudied firft
in this fchool; but he afterwards formed to himfelf a
certain peculiar manner, entirely founded upon nature
and truth. Quite carelefs in the choice of his forms*
he produced a chiarofcuro that gives the greateft relief
to objefts, and renders them palpable. Caravaggio,
PAINTING.
PAINTING.
Part L
Painter’s the Rembrants of Italy, was the real author of this
Balance, manner which, in thefe our days, has been again
" brought to light by Piazetta and Crefpi. He abufed
the faying of that Greek, who being allied, who was
his mailer, pointed to the populace; and fucb, in¬
deed, was the magic of his chiarofcuro, that, as often
as he undertook to copy nature in low and trivial fub-
je&s, he had the power of deceiving even a Domeni-
chino and a Guido. The ftyle of Caravaggio was fol¬
lowed by two famous Spaniards; Valefquez, the foun¬
der of a fchool among his countrymen; and il Ribera,
who fettled in Italy, and from whom afterwards the
whimlical Salvator Rofa, and that moil fertile genius
Lucas Giordano, the Proteus and thunderbolt of paint¬
ing, itudied the firil principles of the art.
Between the mailers of the Bolognian and thofe of
the other fchools of Italy, we are to place Rubens, the
prince of the Flemiih fchool, and a man of the moil
elevated genius, who appeared, at once, as painter
and ambaffador in a country, which, in a few years
after, faw one of its greateft poets fecretary of iiate.
Nature endowed him with great vivacity, and great
cafe is working; and he added learning to thefe na¬
tural gifts. He, too, ftudied our mailers, Titian,
Tintoret, Caravaggio and Paulo ; and borrowed a
little from every one of them, fo fparingly, however,
that his own peculiar manner predominates. He was
in his movements more moderate than Tintoret, more
foft in his chiarofcuro than Caravaggio; but not fo
rich in his compofitions, or light in his touches, as Pa¬
olo; and, in his carnations, always lefs true than Ti¬
tian, and lefs delicate than bis own fcholar Vandycke.
He contrived to give his colours the greateft tranfpa-
rency, and no lefs harmony, notwithftanding the ex¬
traordinary deepnefs of them ; and he had a ftrength
and grandeur of llyle entirely his own. He would
have foared Hill higher, had nature afforded him finer
objects in Flanders, or had he known how to create
them anew, or correft them after the patterns left us
by the Greek mafters.
Poufiin, the prince of French painters, had a par¬
ticular fondnefs for the works of Rubens, at the fame
time that he fought for the art of defign amoag the
ancient marbles, in which, as an ingenious author ex-
preffes it, Ihe fits as Queen to give law to the mo¬
derns. He fpared no pains in the choice and compo-
fition of his fubjefls; and gave them life, learning, and
dignity. He would have equalled Raphael himfelf,
whofe ftyle he imitated ; were gracefulnefs, eafe, and
vivacity, to be acquired by ftudy. For, in fad, it was
by mere dint of labour and fatigue, that he produced
what in a manner coft Raphael nothing; infomuch,
that his figures may be faid to mimic the natural ac¬
tions of that great mafter.
Sect. XVI. Of Imitation.
19. A painter ought attentively to confider, com¬
pare together, and weigh in the balance of reafon and
truth, all thefe different llyles. But he ought likewife
carefully to guard againft too great a fondnefs for any
one of them in particular th-it he may think proper to
adopt; otherwife, to ufe the Dantefque exprtffion of a
firft-rate mafter f, inftead of the child, he would be--|
come the grand-child, of nature. 0
Befides, his imitation mult be of generals and not of
particulars. Whatever a young painter’s natural dif-
pofrtion may be, whether to paint boldly and freely like
Tintoret and Rubens, or to labour his works like Ti¬
tian or da Vinci, let him follow it. This kind of imi¬
tation is very commendable. It is thus that Dante, at
the fame time that he carefully avoided adopting the
particular expreffions of Virgil, endeavoured to feize
his bold and free manner, and at laft caught from him
that elegance of ftyle which has done him fo much
honour.
20. As to the reft, nothing fhould hinder an able ma¬
fter from making ufe now and then of any antique, or
even modern figure, which he may find his account in
employing. Sanzio, in a St Paul at Lijlra, fcrupled
not to avail himfelf of an ancient facrifice in baffo-re-
lievo ; nor did Buonarroti himfelf difdain to ufe, in his
paintings of the Sextine chapel, a figure taken from
that famous cornelian which tradition tells us he wore
on his fingers, and which is now in the poffelfion of the
mod Chriftian King. Men like thefe avail themfelves
of the produdlions of others in fuch a manner as to make
us apply to them, what La Bruyere faid of Defpreaux,
that one would imagine the thoughts of other men had
been of his own creation.
In general, a painter (hould have his eye conftantly
fixed on nature, that inexhauftible and varied fource of
every kind of beauty; and fhould ftudy to imitate her
in her moft fingular effedls. As beauty fcattered over
the whole univerfe, fhines brighter in (ome objefls than
in others, he ftiould never be without his little book
and crayon, in order to make drawings of every beau¬
tiful or uncommon object that may happen to prefent
itfelf; ^nd take flcetches of every fine building, every
fituation, every effedl of light, every flight of clouds,
every flow of drapery, every attitude, every exprtfiion
of the paffionsj that may happen to ftrike him. He
may afterwards employ thefe things as Occafions offer;
and in the mean time will have the advantage of acqui¬
ring a grand tafte. By uniting in a grand compofi-
tion effects no lefs bold and beautiful than true and
natural, he will acquire the fame glory that orators ac¬
quire by the fublime, the glory of furprifing, and in a;
manner exalting us above ourfelves.
PART II. Of the Different Classes of Painting.
Sect. I. General Enumeration.
21. A S all the objefts in nature are fufoeptible of
-L\. imitation by the pencil, the mafters of this
art have applied themfelves to different fubjefts, each
one as his talents, his tafte, or inclination, may have
led him. From whence have arifen the following claffes.
I. Hijlory-paiuting: which reprefents the principal
events in hitlory lacred and profane, real or fabu¬
lous ; and to this dafs belongs allegorical expretfim.
Thefe are the moft fublime produ&ions of the art; and
in which Raphael, Guido, Rubens, Le Brun, &c. have
excelled.
J819
Imitation.
Pa Unci
1 Painting,
II. Rural'
582°
Different II. Rural hiflory; or the reprerentation of a country
Claffes of ][fej 0f villages and hamlets, and their inhabitants.
aiming. ,p^|s js an inferior clafs; and in which Teniers, Breug¬
hel, Watteau, &c. have great reputation, by render¬
ing it at once pleafing and graceful.
III. Portrait-painting; which is an admirable branch
of this art, and has engaged the attention of the great-
eft, matters in all ages, as Apelles, Guido, Van Dyke,
Rembrandt, Regauds, Pefne, Kneller, La Tour, &c.
IV. Grotefque hijlories : as the nodlurnal meetings of
witches; forceries, and incantations; the operations of
mountebanks, &c. A fort of painting in which the
younger Breughel, Teniers, and others, have exercifed
their talents with fuccefs.
\.Battle-pieces; by which Hnchtemberg, Wouwer-
man, &c. have rendered themfelves famous.
VI. Landfcapes ; a charming fpecies of painting, that
has been treated by matters of the greateft genius in
every nation.
VII. Landfcapes diverfified nuith waters, as rivers,
lakes, catarafts, &c.; which require a peculiar talent,
toexprefsthe water fometimes fmooth and tranfparent,
and at others foaming and rufhing furioufly along.
VIII. Sea-pieces ; in which are reprefented the ocean,
harbours, and great rivers ; and the veffels, boats,
barges, &c. with which they are covered ; fometimes
in a calm, fometimes with a frefh breeze, and at others
in a ftorm. In this clafs Backhuyfen, Vandervelde,
Blome, and many others, have acquired great reputa¬
tion.
IX. Night-pieces; which reprefent all forts of objects,
either as illuminated by torches, by the flames of a
conflagration, or by the light of the moon. Schalck,
Vanderneer, Vanderpool, &c. have here excelled.
X. Living Animals ; A more difficult branch of
painting than is commonly imagined; and in which
Rofa, Carre, Vandervelde, and many others, have fuc-
ceeded marvelloufly well.
XI. Birds of all kinds ; a very laborious fpecies, and
which requires extreme patience minutely to exprefs
the infinite variety and delicacy of their plumage.
Culinary pieces ; which reprefent all forts of pro-
• vifions, and animals without life, &c. A fpecies much
inferior to the reft, in which nature never appears to
advantage, and which requires only a fervile imitation
of objedTs that are but little pleafing. The painting of
fifties is naturally referred to this clafs.
XIII. Fruit pieces, every kind, imitated from na¬
ture.
XIV. Flower-piedts ; a charming clad of painting,
where Art in the hands of Huyzum, P. Segerts, Me-
rian, &c. becomes the rival of Nature. Plants and in-
Jells are ufually referred to the painters of flowers, who
with them ornament their works.
XV. Pieces of architefture; a kind of painting in
which the Italians excel all others. Under this clafs
may be comprehended the reprefentations of ruins, fea-
ports, ftreets, and public places; fuch as are feen in the
works of Caneletti, and other able matters.
XVI. Injlruments of mufic, pieces of furniture, and
other inanimate objefts; a trifling fpecies, and in which
able painters only accidentally employ their talents.
XVII. Imitations of bas-reliefs} a very pleafing kind
of painting, and which may be carried by an able hand
to a high degree of excellence.
Part II.
XVIII. Hunting pieces: thefe alfo require a pecu- Of
liar talent, as they unite the painting of men, horfes, Landfcape
dogs, and game, to that of landfcapes. amting'
It will not be expefted that we (hould here give the
rules that the painter is to obferve in handling each
particular fubjedft. What has been faid on hiftorical
painting (Part I. *) may throw fome light on the reft, * In the
and the particular rules muft be learned from the
of the art itfelf. Good matters, academies of reputa-an(j
tion, and a rational practice, are the fources from whence tion.
the young painter muft derive the detail of his art. We
(hall however infert fome rules and obfervafions relative
to Landfcape and Portrait; thefe, with Hiftory-painting
(already pretty fully treated), forming the principal
branches of the art.
Sect. If. Of Landfcape.
22. LANDSCAPE-painting includes every objedl that
the country prefents: And is diftinguiftied into the he¬
roic, and the pajloral or rural} of which indeed all
other ttyles are but mixtures.
The heroic ftyle is a compofuion of objedls, which in j)c p;ies fn
their kinds draw both from art and nature every thing Paiming.
that is great and extraordinary in either. The fitua-
tions are perfe&ly agreeable and furprifing. The only
buildings are temples, pyramids, ancient places of bu¬
rial, altars confecrated to the divinities, pleafure-houfes
of regular architecture ; and if nature appear not there
as we every day cafually fee her, fhe is at leaft repre¬
fented as we think (he ought to be. This ftyle is an
agreeable illufion, and a fort of enchantment, when
handled by a man of fine genius and a good under-
ftanding, as Pouffin was, who has fo happily expreffed
it. But if, in the courfe of this ftyle, the painter has
not talent enough to maintain the fublime, he is often
in danger of falling into the childilh manner.
The rural Jlyle is a reprefentation of countries, ra¬
ther abandoned to the caprice of nature, than cultiva¬
ted : we there fee nature Ample, without ornament, and
without artifice; but with all thofe graces wherewith
Ihe adorns herfelf much more when left to herfelf than
when conftrained by art.
In this ftyle, fituations bear all forts of varieties :
fometimes they are very extenfive and open, to contain
the flocks of the (hepherds ; at others very wild, for
the retreat of folitary perfons, and a cover for wild
beafts.
It rarely happens that a painter has a genius exten¬
five enough to embrace all the parts of painting: there
is commonly fome one part that pre-engages our choice,
and fo fills our mind, that we forget the pains that are
due to the other parts; and we feldom fail to fee, that
thofe whofe inclination leads them to the heroic ftyle,
think they have done all, when they have introduced
into their compofitions fuch noble objefls as will raife
the imagination, without ever giving themfelves the
trouble to ftudy the effe&s of good colouring. Thofe,
on the other hand, who praCtife the paftoral, apply
clofely to colouring, in order to reprefent truth more
lively. Both thefe ftyles have their fe&aries and par-
tifans. Thofe who follow the heroic, fupply by their
imagination what it wants of truth, and they look no
farther.
As a counterbalance to heroic landfcape, it would
be proper to put into the paltoral, befides a great cha-
ra&er
PAINTING.
Part II. PAIN
J.andfcape. rafter of truth, Tome affefting, extraordinary, but pro-
   bable effeft of nature, as was Titian’s cuftom.
There is an infinity of pieces wherein both thefe
ftyles happily meet; and which of the two has the af-
cendant, will appear from what we have been juft ob-
ferving of their refpeftive properties. The chief parts
of landfcape are, their openings or fituations, acci¬
dents, ikies and clouds, off-ikips and mountains, ver¬
dure or turfing, rocks, grounds or lands, terraces, fa¬
brics, waters, fore-grounds, plants, figures and trees;
of all which in their places.
23. Of Openings or Situations. The word ftte, or
fituation, fignifies the “ view, profpeft, or opening of
a country.” It is derived from the Italian word ftto;
and our painters have brought it into ufe, either be-
caufe they were ufed to it in Italy, or becaufe, as we
think, they found it to be very exprefiive.
Situations ought to be well put together; and fo dif-
engaged in their make, that the conjunftion of grounds
may not feem to be obftrufted though we fttould fee
but a part of them.
Situations are various, and reprefented according to
the country the painter is thinking of: as either open
or clofe, mountainous or watery, tilled and inhabited,
or wild and lonely ; or, in fine, variegated by a prudent
mixture of fome of thefe. But if the painter be obli¬
ged to imitate nature in a flat and regular country, he
muft make it agreeable by a good difpofition of the
elaro-obfcuro, an<\ fudh pleafing colouring as may make
one foil unite with another.
It is certain, that extraordinary fituations are very
pleafing, and cheer the imagination by the novelty and
beauty of their makes, even when the local colouring
is but moderately performed: becaufe, at worft, fuch
piftures are only looked on as unfinifhed, and wanting
to be1 completed by fome fkilful hand in colouring;
whereas common fituations and objefts require good
colouring and abfolute finifhing, in order to pleafe. It
was only by thefe properties that Claud Lorrain has
made amends for his infipid choice in moft of his fitua¬
tions. But in whatever manner that part be executed,
one of the beft ways’ to make it valuable, and even to
multiply and vary it without altering its form, is pro¬
perly to imagine fome ingenious accident in it.
Of Accidents. An accident in painting is an
obftruftion of the fun’s light by the interpofition of
clouds, in fuch manner, that fome parts of the earth
fhall be in light and others in ftiade, which, according
to the notion of the clouds, fucceed each other, and
produce fuch wonderful effefts and changes of the claro~
obfcuro, as feem to create fo many new fituations. This
is daily obferved in nature. And as this newnefs of fi¬
tuations is grounded only on the fhapes of the clouds,
and their motions, which are very inconftant and un¬
equal, it follows, that thefe accidents are arbitrary; and
a painter of genius may difpofe them to his own ad¬
vantage when he thinks fit to ufe them: For he is not
abfolutely obliged to do it; and there have been fome
able landfcape-painters who have never praftifed it> ei-
through fear or cuftom, as Claude Lorrain and fome
others.
25. Of the Sky and Clouds. The fky, in painters
terms, is the ethereal part over our heads; but more
particularly the air in which we breathe, and that where
■clouds and ftorms are engendered. Its colour is blue,
TING.
5821
growing clearer as it approached the earth, becaufe of Landfcaje.
of the interpofition of vapours arifmg between the eye
and the horizon; which, being penetrated by the light,
communicates it to objefts in a greater or leffer degree,
as they are more or lefs remote.
But we muft obferve, that this light being either
yellow or reddifh in the evening, at fun-fet, thefe fame
objefts partake not only of the light, but of the co¬
lour : thus the yellow light mixing with the blue, which
is the natural colour of the fky, alters it, and gives it a
tint more or lefs greenifh, as the yellownefs of the light
is more or lefs deep.
This obfeevation is general and infallible: but
there is an infinity of particular ones, which the pain¬
ter muft make upon the natural, with his pencil in
his hand, 'when occafion offers ; for there are very fine
and Angular effefts appearing in the fky, which it is
difficult to make one conceive by phyfical reafons.
Who can tell, for example, why we fee, in the bright
part of fome clouds, a fine red, when the fource of
the light which plays upon them is a moft lively and
diftinguifhing'yellow ? Who can account for the diffe¬
rent reds feen in different clouds, at the very moment
that thefe reds receive the light but in one place?
for thefe colours and furprifing appearances feem to
have no relation to the rainbow, a phacnomenon for
which the philofophers pretend to give folid reafons.
Thefe effefts are all feen in the evening, when the
weather is inclining to change, either before a ftorm,
or after it, when it is not quite gone, but has left
fome remains of it to draw our attention.
The property of clouds is to be thin and airy, both
in fhape and colour: their fhapes, though infinite,
muft be ftudied and chofen after nature, at fuch times
as they appear fine. To make them look thin, we
ought to make their grounds unite thinly with them,
efpecially near their extremities, as if they were tranf-
parent: And if we would have them thick, their re-
fleftions muft be fo managed, as, without deftroying
their thinnefs, they may feem to wind and unite, if
neceffary, with the clouds that are next to them.
Little clouds often difcover a little manner, and feldom
have a good effeft, unlefs when, being near each
other, they feem all together to make but one objeft.
In fhort, the charafter of the fky is to be lumi¬
nous; and, as it is even the fource of light, every
thing that is upon the earth muft yield to it in bright-
nefs: If however there is any thing that comes near
it in light, it muft be waters, and polifhed bodies
which are fufceptible of luminous refieftions.
But, whilft the painter makes the fky luminous, he
muft not reprefent it always finning throughout.
On the contrary, he muft contrive his light fo,
that the greateft part of it may fall only upon one
place: and, to make it more apparent, he muft take
as much care as poffible to put it in oppofition to fome
terreftrial objeft, that may render it more lively by
its dark colour; as a tree, tower, or fome other
building that is a little high.
This principal light might alfo be heightened, by a
certain difpofition of clouds having a fuppofed light,
or a light ingenioufly inclofed between clouds, whofe
fweet obfcurity fpreads itfelf by little and little on all
hands. We have a great many examples of this in
the Flemifh fchool, which beft underftood landfkip;
AS
5S22 PAIN
..Landfcape. as Paul Bril, Brcgel, Saver!: And the Sadelers and
Merian’s prints give a clear idea of it, and wonderfully
awaken the genius of thofe who have the principles of
the clarofcuro.
26. Of Offjkips and Mountains. Offskips have a
near affinity with the Iky ; it is the Iky which deter¬
mines either the force or faintnefs of them. They are
darkeft when the fky is molt loaded, and brighteft
when it is moft clear. They fometimes intermix
their lhapes and lights; and there are times, and
countries, where the clouds pafs between the moun¬
tains, whofe tops rife and appear above them. Moun¬
tains that are high, and covered with fnow, are very
proper to produce extraordinary effefts in the off-
ikip, which are adantageous to the painter, and plea-
fing to the fpe&ator.
The difpofition of offskips is arbitrary ; let them
only agree with the whole together of the pi&ure,
and the nature of the country we would reprefent.
They are ufually blue, becaufe of the interpofition of
air between them and the eye: but they lofe this
colour by degrees, as they come nearer the eye, and
fo take that which is natural to the obje£b.
In diftancing mountains, we muft obferve to join
them infenfibly by the roundings off, which the re¬
flections make probable ; and mult, among other
things, avoid a certain edginefs in their extremities,
which makes them appear in llices, as if cut with
fciffors,-and (tuck upon the cloth.
We mud further obferve, that the air, at the feet
of mountains, being charged with vapours, is more
fufceptible of light than at their tops. In this cafe,
vve fuppofe the main light to be fet reafonably high,
and to enlighten the mountains equally, or that the
clouds deprive them of the light of the fun. But if
we fuppofe the main light to be very low, and to
ftrike the mountains ; then their tops will be ftrongly
enlightened, as well as every thing elfe in the fame
degree of light.
Though the forms of things diminilh in bignefs,
and colours lofe their ftrength, in proportion as they
recede from the firft plan of the picture, to the mod
remote offskip, as we obferve in nature and common
praftice ; yet this does not exclude the ufe of the ac¬
cidents. Thefe contribute greatly to the wonderful
in landfcape, when they are properly introduced, and
when the art id has a jud idea of their good effe&s.
27. Of Verdure, or Turfing. By turling is meant
the greennefs with which the herbs colour the ground:
"This is done feveral ways ; and the diverfity proceeds
not only from the nature of plants, which, for the
moft part, have their particular verdures, but alfo
from the change of feafons, and the colour of the
earth, when the herbs are but thin fown. By this
variety, a painter may choofe or unite, in the fame
trail of land, feveral forts of greens, intermixed and
blended together, which are often of great fervice to
thofe who know how to ufe them ; becaufe this diver¬
fity of greens, as it is often found in nature, gives a
charailer of truth to thofe parts, where it is properly
ufed. There is a wonderful example of this part of
landfcape, in the view of Mechlin, by Rubens.
28. Of Rocks. Though rocks have all forts of
fliapes, and participate of all colours, yet there are, .
in their diverfity, certain chara&ers which cannot be
TING. Part II.
well exprefled without having recourfe to nature. Landfcape.
Some are in banks, and fet off with beds of ftrubs ;  
others in huge blocks, either projefting or falling
back; others confift of large broken parts, contiguous
to each other; and others, in fliort, of an enormous
fize, all in one done, either naturally, ps free-done,
or elfe through the injuries of time, which in the
courfe of many ages has worn away their marks of
feparation. But, whatever their form be, they are
ufually fet out with clefts, breaks, hollows, bulhes,
mofs, and the dains of time; and thefe particulars,
well managed, create a certain idea of truth.
Rocks are of themfelves gloomy, and only proper
for folitudes : but where accompanied with bulhes,
they infpire a frelh air; and, when they have waters,
either proceeding from, or walhing them, they give
an infinite pleafure, and feem to have a foul which
animates them, and makes them fociable.
29. Of Grounds or Lands. A ground or land, in
painters terms, is a certain didind piece of land,
which is neither too woody nor hilly. Grounds con¬
tribute, more than any thing, to the gradation and
didancing of landfeape ; becaufe they follow one ano¬
ther, either in fliape, or in the claro-tibfcuro, or in
their variety of colouring, or by fome infenfible con-
jun&ion of one with another.
Multiplicity of grounds, though it be often con¬
trary to grand manner, does not quite dedroy it;
for, befides the extent of country which it exhibit*,
it is fufceptible of the accidents we have mentioned,
and which, with good management, have afineeffeft.
There is one nicety to be obferved in grounds,
which is, that in order to charaderfze them well,
care mud be taken, that the trees in them have a dif¬
ferent verdure and different colours from thofe grounds;
though this difference, withal, mud not be too ap¬
parent.
30. Of Terraces. A terrace, in painting, is a
piece of ground, either quite naked, or having very
little herbage, like great roads and places often fre-
. quented. They are of ufe chiefly in the foregrounds
of a pidlure, where they ought to be very fpacious
and open, and accompanied, if we think fit, with
fome accidental verdure, and alfo with fome dones,
which, if placed with judgment, give a terrace a
greater air of probability.
31. Of Buildings. Painters mean by buildings any
drudltires they generally reprefent, but chiefly fuch as
are of a regular archite&ure, or at lead are mod con-
fpicuous. Thus building is not fo proper a name for
the houfes of country-people, or the cottages of Ihep-
herds, which are introduced into the rural tade, as
for regularand lhowy edifices, which are always brought
into \.\\z heroic.
Buildings in general are a great ornament in land-
fcapes, even when they are Gothic, or appear partly in¬
habited and partly ruinous : they raife the imagination
by the ufe they are thought to be defigned for; as
appears from ancient towers, which feem to have been
the habitations of fairies, and are now retreats for
Ihepherds and owls.
Pouffin has very elegantly handled the Roman man¬
ner of architedlure in his works, as Bourbon has done
the Gothic ; which, however Gothic, fails not to give
a fublime air to his land/capes. Little Bernard ha;
intro-
Part II. PAIN
Landfcape. intt'bduced Into his facred hlftory what may be called
‘a Babylonian manner; which, extraordinary as it is,
has its grandeur and magnificence. Nor ought fuch
pieces of architefture to be quite rejefited : they raife
the imagination ; and perhaps would fucceed in the
heroic ilyie, if they were placed among half-dillant
objefls, and if we knew how to ufe them properly.
$1. Of Waters. Much of the fpirit of landfcape is
owing to the waters which are introduced in it. They
appear in divers manners ; fometimes impetuous, as
when a ftorm makes-them overflow their banks; at
other times rebounding, as by the fill of a rock ; at
other times, through unufual preffure, gufliing out and
dividing into an infinity of filver ftreams, whofe mo¬
tion and murmuring agreeably deceive both the eye
and ear; at other times calm and purling in a fandy
bed ; at other times fo ftill and (landing, as to become
a faithful looking-glafs, which doubles all the objefts
that are oppofite to it ; and in this (late they have more
life than in the mod violent agitation. Confult Bour¬
don’s works, or at lead his prints, on this fubjedl^: he
is one of thofe who have treated of waters with the
greateft fpirit and beft genius.
Waters are not proper for every fituation : but to
exprefs them well, the artift ought to be perfeft matter
of the exadlnefs of watery reflexions ; becaufe they only
make painted water appear as real: for praftice alone,
without exa&nefs, deftroys the effedl, and abates
the pleafure of the eye. The rule for thefe reflections
is very eafy, and therefore the painter is the lefs par¬
donable for negledting it.
But it mutt be obferved, that though water be as a
looking-glafs, yet it does not faithfully reprefent ob¬
jects but when it is ftill; for if it be in any motion,
either in a natural courfe, or by the driving of the
wind, its furface, becoming uneven, receives on its
furges fuch lights and (hades, as, mixing with the
appearance of the objeCts, confound both their lhapes
and colours.
33. Of the Foreground of a Pifture. As it is the part
of the foreground to ufher the eye into the piece, great
care mutt be taken that the eye meet with good recep¬
tion ; fometimes by the opening of a fine terrace, whofe
defign and wprkmanfhip may be equally curious;
fometimes by a variety of well-diftinguifhed plants,
and thofe fometimes flowered ; and at other times, by
figures in a lively tafte, or other objeCts, either admi-
'rable for their novelty, or introduced as by chance.
In a word, the artift cannot too much ftudy his
foreground objeds, fince they atlraft the eye, imprefs
the firft charaSer of truth, and greatly contribute to
make the artifice of a picture fuccefsful, and to antici¬
pate our efteem for the whole work.
34. Of Plants. Plants are not always neceffary in
foregrounds, becaufe, as we have obferved, there are
feveral ways of making thofe grounds agreeable. But
if we refolve to draw plants there, we ought to paint
them exaCtly after the life ; or at lead, among fuch as
we paint praCtically, there ought to be fome more fi-
nifhed than the reft, and whofe kinds may be diftin-
guifhed by the difference of defign and colouring, to
the end that, by a probable fuppofition, they may give
the others a charader of truth. What has been faid
here of plants, may be applied to the branches and
barks of treees.
Vol. VIII, 1
TING. 5823
35. Of Figures. In compofing landfcape, the artift Landfcape-
may have intended to give it a character agreeable to
the fubjeCt he has chofen, and which his figures ought
to reprefent. He may alfo, and it commonly happens,
have only thought of his figures, after finiflting his
landfcape. The truth is, the figures in moft landfcapes
are made rather to accompany than to fuit them.
It is true, there are landfcapes fo difpofed and fi-
tuated, as to require only paffing figures ; which feve¬
ral good mailers, each in his ftyle, have introduced’,
as Pouffin in the heroic, and Fouquier in the rural,
with all probability and grace. It is true alfo, that
refting figures have been made to appear inwardly ac¬
tive. And thefe two different ways of treating figures
are not to be blamed, becaufe they aft equally, tho*
in a different manner. It is rather inaftion that ought
to be blamed in figures ; for in this condition, which
robs them of all conneftion with the landfcape, they
appear to be palled on. But without obftrufting the
painter’s liberty in this refpeft, undoubtedly the bed
way to make figures valuable is, to make them fo to
agree with the charafter of the landfcape, that it may
feem to have been made purely for the figures. We
would not have them either infipid or indifferent, but
to reprefent fome little fubjeft to awaken the fpefta-
tor’s attention, or elfe to give the pifture a name of
diftinftion among the curious.
Great care muft be taken to proportion the fize of
the figures to the bignefs of the trees, and other ob-
jefts of the landfcape. If they be too large, the pic¬
ture will difeover a little manner; and if too fmall,
.they will have the air of pigmies: which will deftroy
the worth of them, and make the landfcape look enor¬
mous. There is, however, a greater inconvenience in
making figures too l?rge than too fmall ; becaufe the
latter at lead gives an air of greatnefs to all the reft.
But as landfcape figtires are generally fmall, they muft
be touched with fpirit, and fuch lively figures as will
attraft, and yet preferve probability and a general
union. The artift muft, in fine, remember, that as the
figures chiefly give life to a landfcape, they muft be
difperfed as conveniently as p- flible.
36. Of Frees. The beauty of trees is perhaps one
of the greateft ornaments of landfcape ; on account of
the variety of their kinds, and their frefhnefs, but
chiefly their lightnefs, which makes them feem, as be¬
ing expofed to the air, to be always in motion.
Though diverfity be pleafing in all the objefts of
landlkip, it is chiefly in trees that it (hews its greateft
beauty. Landlkip cbnfiders both their kinds and their
forms. Their kinds require the painter’s particular
ftudy and attention, in order to diftinguilh them from
each other; for we muft be able at full fight to difeo¬
ver which are oaks, dims, firs, fycamores, poplars,
willows, pines, and other fuch trees, which, by a fpe-
cific colour, or touching, are diftinguifliable from all
other kinds. This ftudy is too large to be acquired in
all its extent; and, indeed, few painters have attained
fuch a competent exaftnefs in it as their art requires.
But it is evident, that thofe who come neareft to per-
feftion in it, will make their works infinitely pleafing,
and gain a great name.
Befides the variety which is found in each kind of
tree, there is in all trees a general variety. This is ob¬
ferved in the different manners in which their branches
32 X are
5824 _ PAIN
I.andfcape. are difpofed by a fportof nature; which takes delight
in making fome very vigorous and thick, others more
dry and thin ; fome more green, others more red or
yellow. The excellence of pradice lies in the mix¬
ture of thefe varieties : but if the artift can diftinguilh
the forts but indifferently, he ought at leaft to vary
their makes and colours ; becaufe repetition in land-
fcape is as tirefome to the eye, as monotony in dif-
courfe is to the ear.
The variety of their makes is fo great, that the pain¬
ter would be inexcufable not to put it in pra&ice up¬
on occafion, efpecially when he finds it neceffary to
awaken the fpe&ator’s attention ; for, among trees,
we difcoVer the young and the old, the open and clofe,
tapering, and fquat, bending upwards and downwards.
Hooping and Ihooting : in fliort, the variety is rather
to be conceived than exprefled. For inftance, the cha-
rader of young trees is, to have long (lender branches,
few in number, but well fet out; boughs well divided,
and the foliage vigorous and well fhaped : whereas, in
old trees, the branches are fhort, ftocky, thick, and
numerous; the tufts blunt, and the foliage unequal and
ill fiiaped : but a little obfervation and genius will make
us perfedly fenfible of thefe particulars.
In the various makes of trees, there muft alfo be a
diftribution of branches, that has a juft relation to, and
probable connedion with, the boughs or tufts, fo as
mutually to affift each other in giving the tree an ap¬
pearance “of thicknefs and of truth. But, whatever
their natures or manners of branching be, let it be re¬
membered, that the handling muft. be lively and thin,
in order to preferve the fpirit of their characters.
Trees likewife vary in their barks, which are com¬
monly grey; but this grey, which in thick air, and
low and marfhy places, looks blackifh, appears lighter
in a clear air: and it often happens, in dry places, that
the bark gathers a thin mofs, which makes it look
quite yellow ; fo that, to make the bark of a tree ap¬
parent, the painter may fuppofe it to be light upon a
dark ground, and dark on a light one.
The obfervation of the different barks merits a par¬
ticular attention; for it will appear^ that, in hard
woods, age chaps them, and thereby gives them a fort
of embroidery ; and that, in proportion as they grow
old, thefe chaps grow more deep. And other acci¬
dents in barks may arife either from moifture, or dry-
nefs, or green moffes, or white ftains of feveral trees.
The barks of white woods will alfo afford much
matter for praftice, if their diverfity be duly ftudied :
and this confideration leads us to fay fomething of the
ftudy of landfkip.
37. Of the Jiudy of Landfcape. The ftudy of land-
fcape may be confidered either with refpeft to be¬
ginners, or to thofe who have made fome advances
in it.
Beginners will find, in pra&ice, that the chief
trouble of landfcape lies in handling trees ; and it is
not only in praftice, but alfo in fpeculation, that trees
are the moft difficult part of landfcape, as they are its
greateft ornament. But it is only propofed here, to
give beginners an idea of trees in general, and to (hew
them how to exprefs them well. It would be need-
lefs to point out to them the common effefts of trees
and plants, becaufe they are obvious to every one;
TING. Part II.
et there are fome things, which, though not un- Landfcapa.
nown, deferve our refle&ion. We know, for in-
fiance, that all trees require air, fome more, fomelefs,
as the chief caufe of their vegetation and produdtion ;
and for this reafon, all trees (except the cyprefs, and
fome others of the fame kind) feparate in their growth
from one another and from other ftrange bodies as
much as pofiible, and their branches and foliage do
the fame: wherefore, to give them that air and thin-
nefs, which is their principal charafter, the branches,
boughs, and foliage, muff appear to fly from each
other, to proceed from oppofite parts, and be well di¬
vided. And all this without order; as if chance aid¬
ed nature in the fanciful diverfity. But to fay parti¬
cularly how thefe trunks, branches, and foliages,
ought to be diftributed, would be needlefs, and only
a defcription of the works of great mafters: a little
refle&ion on nature will be of more fervice than all
that can be faid on this head. By great mafters, we
mean, fuch as have publifhed prints; for thofe will
give better ideas to young copyifts, than even the paint¬
ings themfelves.
Among the many great mafters of all fchools, Da
Pile prefers Titian’s wooden prints, where the trees
are well-fhaped ; and thofe which Cornelius Cort, and
Agoftino Carracche, have engraved. And he afferts,
that beginners can do no better than contradl, above
all things, an habif of imitating the touches of thefe
great mafters, and of confidering, at the fame time,
the perfpe&ive of the branches and foliages, and ob-
ferving how they appear, either when rifing and feen
from below, or when finking and feen from above,
or when fronting and viewed from a point, or when
they appear in profile; and, in a word, when fet in
the various views in which nature prefents them, with¬
out altering their charadlers.
After having ftudied and copied, with the, pen or
crayon,- firft the prints, and then the defigns of Ti¬
tian and Carracche, the ttudent fhould imitate with
the pencil thofe touches which they have moft diftindl-
ly fpecified, if their paintings can be procured: but
fince they are fcarce, others ihould be got which have
a good character for their touching; as thofe of Fou-
quier, who is a moft excellent model: Paul Bril, Breu-
gel, and Bourdon, are aifo very good; their touch¬
ing is neat, lively, and thin.
After having duly weighed the nature of trees,
their fpread and order, and the difpofition of their
branches, the artift muft get a lively idea of them, in
order to keep up the fpirit of them throughout, either
by making them apparent and diftinft. in the fore¬
grounds, or obfcure and confufed in proportion to their
diftance.
After having thus gained fome knowledge in good
manner, it will next be proper to ftudy after nature,
and to choofe and reftify' it according to the idea
which the aforefaid great mafters had of it. As to
perfeftioh, it can only be expefted from long pradlice
and perfeverance. This, we think, is what concerns
thofe, who, having an inclination for landfcape, would
take the,proper methods for beginning it well.
As for thofe who have made fome advances in this
part of painting, it is proper they fhould colledl the
neceffary materials for their further improvement, and
ftudy
Part II. PAIN
Landfcape. ftudy thofe objefls at leaft, which they fhall have moft
' frequent occafion to reprefent.
Painters ufually comprife, under the word Jludy, any
thing whatever, which they either defign or paint fe-
parately, after the life ; whether figures, heads, feet,
hands, draperies, animals, mountains, trees, plants,
flowers, fruits, or whatever may confirm them in the
juft imitation of nature: the drawing of thefe things
is what they callJludy} whether they be for inftruc-
tion in defign, or only to affure them of the truth,
and to perfect their work. In fatft, this word Jludy
is the more properly ufed by painters, as in the di-
verfity of nature they are daily making new difcove-
ries, and confirming themfelves in what they already
know.
As the landfcape-painter need only ftudy fuch ob¬
jects as are to be met with in the country, we would
recommend to him fome order, that his drawing's may
be always at hand when he wants them. Forinftance,
he ftiould copy after nature, on feparate papers, the
different effedts of trees in general, and the different ef¬
fects of each kind in particular, with their trunks, fo¬
liage, and colours. He fliould alfo take the fame me¬
thod with fome forts of plants ; becaufe their variety is
a great ornament to terraces on fore-grounds. He
ought likcwife to ftudy the effedts of the Iky in the fe-
veral times of the day, and feafons of the year, in the
various difpofitions of clouds, both in ferene, thun¬
dering-, and ftormy weather; and in the off-ikip, the
feverai forts of rocks, waters, and other principal ob-
jedts.
Thefe drawings, which may be made at times, ftiould
be colledted together; and all that relate to one mat¬
ter be put into a book, to which the artift may have
recourfe at any time for what he wants.
Now, if the fine effedts of nature, whether in (hape
or colour, whether for an entire pidfure or a part of
one, be the artift’s ftudy; and if the difficulty lies in
choofing thofe effedts well, he muft for this purpofe be
born with good fenfe, good tafte, and a fine genius;
and this genius muft; be cultivated by the obfervations
which ought to be made on the works of the beft ma¬
tters, how they choofe nature, and how, while they
corredled her, according to their art, they preferved
her charadlcr. With thefe advantages, derived from
nature, and perfedVed by art, the painter cannot fail
to make a good choice ; and, by diftinguiftiing be¬
tween the good and the bad, muft needs find great in-
ftrudlion, even from the moft: common things.
To improve themfelves in this kind of ftudies, pain¬
ters have taken feverai methods.
There are fome artifts who have defigned after na¬
ture, and in the open fields; and have there quite fi-
nifhed thofe parts which they had chofen, but without
adding any colour to them.
Others have drawn, in oil-colours, in a middle-tint,
on ftrong paper ; and found this method convenient,
becaufe, the colours finking, they could put colour on
colour, though different from each other. For this
purpofe they took with them a flat box, which com-
modioufly held their pallet, pencils, oil, and colours.
This method, which iwdeed requires feverai imple¬
ments, is doubtlefs the beft for drawing nature more
particularly, and with greater exadnefs, efpecially if,
after the work be dry and varnifhed, the artift return
TING. 5825
to the place where he drew, and retouch the principal Landfcape,
things after nature. —   
Others have only drawn the out-lines ofobje&s, and
flightly wafhed them in colours near the life, for the
eafeof their memory. Others have attentively obferved
fuch parts as they" had a mind to retain, and content¬
ed themfelves with committing them to their memory,
which upon occafion gave them a faithful account of
them. Others have made drawings in paftil and wafh
together. Others, with more curiofity and patience,
have gone feverai times to the places which were to
their tafte : the firft: time they only made choice of the
parts, and drew them corredly ; and the other times
were fpent in obferving the variety of colouring, and
its alterations through change of light.
Now thefe feverai methods are very good, and each
may be pra&ifed as beft fuits the ftudent and his tem¬
per : but they require the neceffaries of painting, as
colours, pencils, paftils, and leifure. Nature, how¬
ever, at certain times, prefents extraordinary, but
tranfient beauties, and fuch as can be of no fervice to
the artift who has not. as much time as is neceffary
to imitate what he admires. The beft way, per¬
haps, to make advantage of fuch momentary occafions,
is this:
The painter being provided with a quire of paper,
and a black-lead pencil, let him quickly, but flightly,
defign what he fees extraordinary; and, to remember
the colouring, let him mark the principal parts with
chara&ers, which he may. explain at the bottom of the
paper, as far as is neceffary for himfelf to underhand
them : a cloud, for inftance, may be marked A, ano¬
ther cloud B, a light C, a mountain D, a ter¬
race E, and fo on. And having repeated thefe let¬
ters at the bottom of the paper, let him write again ft
each, that it is of fuch or fuch a colour ; or for grea¬
ter brevity, only blue, red, violet, grey, &c. or any
other fliorter abbreviation. After this, he muft; go to
painting as foon as poflible; otherwife moft of what
he has oblerved will, in a little time, flip out of his
memory. This method is the more ufeful, as it not
only prevents our lofing an infinity of fudden and tran-
fitory beauties, but alfo helps, by means of the afore-
faid marks and chara&ers,to perfedl the other methods
we have mentioned.
If it be allied, Which is the propereft time for thefe
ftudies ? the anfwer is, That nature ftiould be ftudied
at all times, becaufe Ihe is to be reprefented at all fea¬
fons ; but autumn yields the moft plentiful harveft for
her fine effedts: the mildnefs of that leafon, the beauty
of the Iky, the richnefs of the earth, and the variety
of objedfts, are powerful inducements with the painter
to make the proper inquiries for improving his genius
and perfecting his art.
But as we cannot fee or obferve every thing, it is
very commendable to make ufe of other mens lludies,
and to look apon them as if they were our own. Ra¬
phael fent fome young men into Greece to defign fuch
things as he thought would be of fervice to him, and
accordingly made ufe of them to as good purpofe as if
he himfelf had defigned them on the fpot: for this,
Raphael is fo far from deferving cenfurc, that he ought,
on the contrary, to be commended ; as an example,
that painters ought to leave no way untried for im¬
proving in their profeffions. The landfcape painter
32 X 2 may,
5826
Landfcape. may, accordingly, malce ufe of the works of all thofe
""who have excelled in any kind, in order to acquire a
good manner ; like the bees, which gather their varie¬
ty of honey from different flowers.
38. General remarks on Landfcapes. As the gene¬
ral rules of painting are the bafis of all the feveral
kinds of it, we muft refer the landfcape painter to
them, or rather fuppofe him to be well acquainted with
them. We fhall here only make fome general remarks
on this kind of painting.
I. Landfcape fuppofes the knowledge and pra&ice
of the principal rules in perfpeftive, in order to main¬
tain probability.
II. The nigher the leaves of trees are to the earth,
the larger they are, and the greener ; as being apteft
to receive, in abundance, the fap which nourifhes
them; and the upper branches begin firft to take the
rednefs or yellownefs which colours them in autumn.
But it isotherwife in plants; for their flocks renew all
the year round, and their leaves fucceed one another,
at a confiderable diftance of time, infomuch that na¬
ture, employed in producing new leaves to adorn the
flock as it rifes, does by degrees defert the under ones;
which, having firfl performed their office, are the firfl
that die: but this effed is more vifible in fome than
in others.
III. The under parts of all leaves are of a brighter
green than the upper, and almoft always incline to the
filverifh ; and thofe which are wind-fhaken are known
from others by that colour : but if we view them from
beneath, when penetrated by the fun’s rays, they dif-
cover fuebja fine and lively green as is far beyond all
eomparifon.
IV. There are five principal things which give fpi-
rit to landfcape, viz. figures, animals, waters, wind-
Ihaken trees, and thinnefs of pencilling ; to which add
fmoke, when there is occafion to introduce it.
V. When one colour predominates throughout a
landfcape, as one green in fpring, or one red in au¬
tumn, the piece will look either As of one colour, or
elfe as unfinifhed. We have feen many of Bourdon’s
landfcapes, which, by handling the corn one way
throughout, have loft much of their beauty, though
the fituations and waters were very pleafant. The in¬
genious painter muft endeavour to corred, and, as
they fay, redeem the harffi unfightly colouring of win¬
ter and fpring by means of figures, waters, and build¬
ings ; for fummer and autumn fubjeds are of them-
felves capable of great variety.
VI. Titian and Carrache are the beft models forin-
fpiring good tafte, and leading the painter into a good
track, with regard to forms and colours. He muft
ufe all his efforts to gain a juft idea of the principles
which thofe great men have left us in their works;
and to have his imagination filled with them, if he
would advance by degrees towards that perfedion
which the artift Ihould always have in view.
VII. The landfcapes of thefe two mafters teach us
a great many things, of which difeourfe can give us
no exad idea,nor any general principle. Which way,
for example, can the meafures of trees in general be
determined, as we determine thofe of the human bo¬
dy ? The tree has no fettled proportions^; mofl of its
beauty lies in the contrail of its branches, an unequal
diftribiition of boughs, and, in fliort, a kind of whim-
Part II.
fical variety, Which nature delights in, ahd of which Landfcape
thelpainter becomes a judge whett be has thoroughly ' ^
relilhed the works of the two maftefs aforefaid. But
we muft fay, in Titian’s praife, that the path he (truck
out is the fureft ; becanfe he has exadly imitated na¬
ture in its variety with an exquifite tafte, and fine co¬
louring : whereas Carrache, though an able artift, has
not, more than others, been free from manner in his
landfcapes.
VIII. One of the greateft perfedions of landfcape,
in the variety it reprefents, is a faithful imitation of
each particular charader: as its greateft fault is, a
licentious pradice, which brings us to do things by
tote.
IX. Among thofe things which are painted prac¬
tically, we ought to intermix fome done after na¬
ture, to induce the fpedator to believe that all arc fo.
X. As there are ftyles of thought, fb there-are al-
fo ftyles of execution. We have handled the two re¬
lating to thought, viz. the heroic and paftoral ; and
find that there are two alfo with regard to execution,
viz. the firm ftyle, and the polilhed ; thefe two con¬
cern the pencil, and the more or lefs ingenious way of
conduding it. The firm ftyle gives life to work, and
excufe for bad choice: and the polilhed finilhes and
brightens every thing; it leaves no employment for the
fpedator’s imagination, which pleafes itfelf in difeo-
vering and finilhing things which it aferibes to the ar¬
tift, though, in fad, they proceed only from itfelf.
The polilhed ftyle degenerates into the foft and
dull, if not fupported by a good opening or fitua-
tion ; but when thofe two charaders meet, the pidure
is fine.
Sect. III. Of Portraiture.
39. If painting be an imitation of nature, it is doubly
fo in a portrait ; which not only reprefents a man in
general, but fuch an one as may be dillinguilhed from
all others. And as the greateft perfedion of a. por¬
trait is extreme likenefs, fo the greateft of its faults is
to refemble a perfon for whom it was not made ; fince
there are not in the world two perfons quite like one
another. But before we proceed to the particulars which
let us into the knowledge of this imitation, it is necef-
fary, for fhortening this part of our fubjed, to attend to
fome general propofitions.
I. Imitation is the effence of painting: and good
choice is to this effence what the virtues are to a man;
they raife the value of it. For this reafon, it is extreme¬
ly the painter’s intereft to choofe none but good beads,
or favourable moments for drawing them, and fuch
pofitions as may fupply the want of a fine natural.
II. There are views of the natural, more or lefs ad¬
vantageous ; all depends upon turning it well, and ta¬
king it in the favourable moment.
III. There is not a Angle perfon in the world
who has not a peculiar charader, both in body and
face.
IV. Simple and genuine nature is more proper for
imitation ; and is a better choice than nature much
formed, and embellifhed too artificially.
V. To adorn nature too much, is doing it a violence;
and the ad ion which attends it can never be free, when
its ornaments are not eafy. In Ihort, in proportion as
we adorn nature, we make it degenerate from itfelf,
and
FAINTING.
Part IT. PAIN
Portraiture, and bring it down to art.
VI. Some means are more advantageous than others,
to come at the fame end.
VII. We muft not only imitate what we do fee in
nature, but alfo what we may poffibly fee that is ad¬
vantageous in art.
VIII. Things are valuable by comparifon; and it
is only by this we are enabled to make a right judg¬
ment of them.
IX. Painters eafily accuftom themfelves to their
own tints, and the manner of their matters: and af¬
ter this habit is rooted in them, they view na¬
ture, not as ihe really is, but as they are ufed to paint
her.
X. It is very difficult to make a pi&ure, the figures
of which are as big as tbe life, to have its effect near,
as at a diftance. A learned picture pleafes the ig¬
norant only when it is at fome diftance ; but judges
will admire its artifice near, and its effedt at a di¬
ftance.
XI. Knowledge makes work pleafant and eafy. The
traveller who knows his road, comes to his journey’s
end with more fpeed and certainty than he who in¬
quires and gropes it out.
XII. It is proper, before we begin a work, to me¬
ditate upon it, and to make a nice coloured fketch of
it, for our own fatisfadion, and an help to the me¬
mory.
We cannot too much refled on thefe propofitions ;
and it is neceflary to be well acquainted with them, that
they may prefent themfelves to our mind, of their own
accord, without our being at the trouble torecalthem
to our memory, when we are at work.
There are four things neceflary to make a portrait
perfed ; air, colouring, attitude, and drefs.
40. Of Air. The air refpeds the lines of the face,
tbe head- attire, and the fize. .
The lines of the face depend upon exadnefs of
draught, and agreement of the parts; which all toge¬
ther muft reprefent the phyfiognomy of the perfon
painted in fuch a manner, that the pidure of his
body may feem to be alfo that of his mind.
It is not exadnefs of defign in portraits that gives
fpirit and true air, fo much as the agreement of the
parts at the very moment when.the difpofition and
temperament of the fitter are to be hit oflf. We fee
feveral portraits which, though corredly defigned, have
a cold, languilhing, and ftupid air; whilft others, lefs
corred in defign, ftrike us however, at firft fight, with
the fitter’s charader.
Few painters have been careful enough to put the
parts well together: Sometimes the mouth is fmiling,
and the eyes are fad ; at other times, the eyes are
cheerful, and the cheeks lank : by which means their
work has a falfe air, and looks unnatural. We ought
therefore to mind, that, when the fitter puts on a fmi¬
ling air, the eyes clofe, the corners of the mouth draw
up towards the noftrils, the cheeks fwdI, and the eye¬
brows widen : but in a melancholy air, thefe parts have
a contrary effed.
The eye-brows, being raifed, give a grave and noble
air; but if arched, an air of aftonilhment.
Of all the parts of the face, that which contributes
moft to likenefs is the nofe ; it is therefore of great
moment to let and draw it well.
TING. _ 5827
Though the hair of the head feems to be part of the Portraiture*
drefs, which is capable of various forms, without al-
tering the air of the face; yet the head-attire which
one has been moft; accuftomed to creates fuch a like¬
nefs, that we fcarce know a familiar acquaintance on
his putting on a periwig fomewhat different from that
which he ufed to wear. It is neceffary therefore, as
far as poffible, to take the air of the head-ornament,
and make it accompany and fet off that of the face, if
there be no reafon to the contrary.
As to the ftature, it contributes fo much to likenefs,
that we very often know people without feeing their
face : It is therefore extremely proper to draw the fize
after the fitter himfelf, and in fuch an attitude as we
think fit; which was Vandyke’s method. Here let us
remark, that, in fitting, the perfon appears to be of
a lefs free make, through the heaving of his (boul¬
ders ; wherefore, to adjuft his fize, it is proper to
make him (land for a fmall time, fwaying in the po-
fture we would give him, and then make our obferva-
tion. But here occurs a difficulty, which we (hall en¬
deavour to examine : “ Whether it is proper, in por¬
traiture, to corredt the defe&s of nature?”
Likenefs being the effence of portraiture, it would
feem that we ought to imitate defedts as. well as beau¬
ties, fince by this means the imitation will be more
complete : It would be even hard to prove the contrary
to one who would undertake the defence of this pofi-
tion. But ladies and gentlemen do not much approve
of thofe painters who entertain fuch fentiments, and
put them in praQice. It is certain that fome complai-
fance in this refpedt is due to them ; and there is little
doubt but their pidlures may be made to referable,
without difpleafing them : for the effedlual likenefs is
a juft agreement of the parts that are painted with
thofe of nature ; fo that we may be at no lofs to know
the air of the face, and the temper of the perfon, whofe
pidlure is before us. All deformities, therefore, when
the air and temper may be difeovered without them,
ought to be either corredled or omitted in womens and
young mens portraits. A nofe fomewhat awry may
be helped, or a (hrivelled neck, or high (boulders, ad¬
apted to good air, without going from one extreme to
another. But this mull be done with great diferetion ^
for, by endeavouring to correct nature too much, wc
infenfibly fall into a method of giving a general air to
all our portraits ; juft as, by confining ourfelves too
much to the defefts and littlenefsof nature, we are in
danger of falling into the low and taftelefs manner.
But in the faces of heroes and men of rank, diftin-
guiftied either by dignities, virtues, or great qualities,
we cannot be too exadl, whether the parts be beauti¬
ful or not: for portraits of fuch perfons are to be
(landing monuments to pofterity ; in which cafe, every
thing in a pidlure is precious that is faithful. But af¬
ter whatever manner the painter acquits himfelf in this
point, let him never forget good air nor grace ; and
that there are, in the natural, advantageous moments
for hitting them off.
41. Of Colouring.—Colouring, in portraiture, is an
effufion of nature, difeovering the true tempers of per¬
fons; and the temper being eflential to likenefs, it ought
to be handled as exadlly as the delign. This part is the
more valuable, as it is rare and difficult to hit. A great
many painters have come to a likenefs by ftrokes and
outlines 5
5828 PAIN
Portraiture, outlines; but certainly they are few who have fhewn in
colours the tempers of perfons.
Two points are neceffary in colouring ; exaftnefs of
tints, and the art of fetting them off. The former is
acquired by pra&ice, in examining and comparing the
colours we fee in life with thofe by which we would
imitate it: and the art of thofe tints confifts in know¬
ing what one colour will produce when fet by another,
and in making good what either diftance or time may
abate of the glow and frelhnefs of the colours.
A painter who does nothing more than what he fees,
will never arrive at a perfeft imitation ; for -though his
work may feem, on the eafel, to be good to him, it
may not appear fo to others, and perhaps even to him-
felf, at a diftance. A tint which, near, appears dif-
joined, and of one colour, may look of another at a
diftance, and be confounded in the mafs it belongs
to. If you would have your work, therefore, to pro¬
duce a good effedt in the place where it. is to hang,
both the colours and lights muft be a little loaded ; but
learnedly, and with diferetion. In this point confult
Titian, Rubens, Vandyke, and Rembrandt’s methods ;
for indeed their art is wonderful.
The tints ufually require three times of obfervation.
The firft is^at the perfon’s firft fitting down, when he
has more fpirit and colour than ordinary ; and this is to
be noted in the firft hour of his fitting. The fecond is
when, being compofed, his look is as ufual; which is
to be obferved in the fecond hour. And the third is
when, through tirefomenefs by fitting in one pofture,
his colour alters to what wearinefs ufually creates. On
which account, it is beft to keep to the fitter’s ufual
tint, a little improved. He may alfo rife, and take
fome turns about the room, to gain frefh fpirits, and
fliake off or prevent tirefomenefs.
In draperies, all forts of colours do not fuit all forts
of perfons. In mens portraits, we need only obferve
great truth, and great force : but in womens there muft
alfo be charms ; whatever beauty they have muft ap¬
pear in a fine light, and their blemilhes muft by fome
means or other be foftened. For this reafon, a white,
lively, and bright tint, ought never to be fet off by a
fine yellow, which would make it look like plafter;
but rather by colours inclining to green, blue, or grey,
or fuch others as, by their oppofition, may make T;he
tint appear more fleftiy than ufual in fair women. Van¬
dyke often made a fillemot-coloured curtain for his
ground ; but that colour is foft and brown. Brown
women, on the other hand, who have yellow enough
in their tints to fupport thecharafter of flefhinefs, may
very well have yellowifh draperies, in order to bring
down the yellow of their tints, and make them look
the frefher; and, near very high-coloured and lively
carnations, linen does wonders.
In grounds, two things are obfervable; the tone and
the colour. The colour is to be confidered in the fame
manner as thofe of draperies, with refped. to the head.
The tone muft be always different from the mafs it
fupports, and of which it is the ground, that the ob-
jedts coming upon it may not feem' tranfparent, but
folid and raifed. The colour of the hair of the head
ufually determines the tone of the ground ; and when
the former is a bright chefnut, we are often embarraf-
fed, unlefs helped by means of a curtain, or fome ac-
-cident of the claro obfeuro, fuppofed to be behind, or
TING* Part II.
unlefs the ground is a Iky. Portraiture^
We muft further obferve, that where a ground is
neither curtain nor landfcape, or fuch like, but is plain
and like a wall, it ought to very much party-coloured,
with almoft imperceptible patches or ftains; for, be-
fides its being fo in nature, the pi&ure will look the
more grand.
42. Of Attitude, or Pcfure. Attitudes ought to fuit
the ages and qualities of perfons and their tempers.
In old men and women, they fhould be grave, maje-
ftic, and fometimes bold: and generally, in women,
they ought to have a noble fimplicity and modeft
cheerfulnefs; for modefty ought to be the chara&er
of women ; a charm infinitely beyond coquetry ! and
indeed coquettes themfelves care not to be painted fuch.
Attitudes are of two kinds; one in motion, the
other at reft. Thofe at reft may fuit every perfon :
but thofe in motion are proper for young people only,
and are hard to be expreffed ; becaufe a great part of
the hair and drapery muft'be moved by the air ; mo¬
tion, in painting, being never better expreffed than
by fuch agitations. The attitudes at reft muft not
appear fo much at reft as to feem to reprefent an in¬
active perfon, and one who fits for no other purpofe
but to be a copy. And though the figure that is re-
prefented be at reft, yet the painter, if he thinks fit,
may give it a flying drapery, provided the feene or
ground be not a chamber or clofe place.
It is above all things neceffary that the figures which
are not employed (hould appear to fatisfy the fpeCta-
tor’s curiofity ; and for this purpofe fhew themfelves
in fuch an aftion as fuits their tempers and conditions,
as if they would inform him what they really were:
and as moft people pretend to fincerity, honefty, and
greatnefs of mind, we muft avoid, in attitudes, all
manner of affe&ation ; every thing there muft appear
eafy and natural, and difeover more or lefs fpirit,
noblenefs, and majefty, in proportion to the perfon’s
character and dignity. In a word, the attitudes are
the language of portraits ; and the Ikiiful painter ought
to give great attention to them.
But the beft attitudes are fuch as induce the fpedta-
tor to think that the fitter took a favourable opportu¬
nity of being feen to advantage, and without affecta¬
tion. There is only one thing to be obferved with
regard to womens portraits, in whatever attitude they
are placed ; which is, that they fway in fuch a man¬
ner as to give their face but little fhade ; and that we
carefully examine whether the lady appear moft beau¬
tiful in a fmiling or in a ferious air, and conduCt our-
felves accordingly. Let us now proceed to the next
article.
43. Of Praftice in Portraiture. According to De
Piles, portraiture requires three different fittings and
operations; to wit, dead-colouring, fecond-colouring,
and retouching or finilhing. Before the painter dead-
colour, he muft attentively confider what afpeft will
beft fuit the fitter, by putting him in different pofi-
tions, if we have not any fettled defign before us: and
when we have determined this, it is of the laft confe-
quence to put the parts well together, by comparing
always one part with another ; for not only the por¬
trait acquires a greater likenefs when well defigned,
but it is troublefome to make alterations at the fecond
fitting, when the ardft muft only think of painting,
Part II. PAIN
Portraiture, that is, of dlfpofing and uniting his colours.
— Experience tells us, that the dead-colouring ought
to be clean, becaufe of the flope and tranfparency of
the colours, efpecially in the (hades: and when the
parts are well put together, and become clammy, they
mud be judicioufly fweetened and melted into each
other; yet without taking away the air of the pic¬
ture, that the painter may have the pleafure of finifh-
ing it, in proportion as he draws. But if fiery geni-
ufes do not like this method of fcumbling, let them
only mark the parts (lightly, and fo far as is neceffary
for giving an air.
In dead-colouring, it is proper to put in rather too
little than too much hair about the forehead ; that, in
finifiu'ng, we may be at liberty to place it where we
pleafe, and to paint it with all poffible foftnefs and de¬
licacy. If, on the contrary, you (ketch upon the fore¬
head a lock which may appear to be of a good tafte,
and becoming the work, you may be puzzled in fi-
nifiiing it, and not find the life exa&ly in the fame
pofition as you would paint it. But this obfervation
is not meant for men of (kill and confummate experi¬
ence, who have nature in their heads, and make her
fubmit to their ideas.
The bufinefs of the fecond fitting is, to put the co¬
lours well in their places, and to paint them in a man¬
ner that is fuitable to the fitter and to the effedl we
propofe : But before they are made clammy, we ought
to examine afrelh whether the parts are rightly placed,
and here and there to give fome touches towards like-
nefs, that, when we are allured of it, the work may
go on with greater fatisfa&ion. If the painter under-
ftands what he is about, and the portrait be jufily de-
figned, he ought as much as poffible to work quick ;
the fitter will be better pleafed, and the work will by
this means have the more fpirit and life. But this rea-
dinefs is only the effed of long ftudy and experience ;
for we may well be allowed a confiderable time to find
out a road that is eafy, and fuch as we mud often tra¬
vel in.
Before we retouch or finifh, it is proper to termi¬
nate the hair, that, on finifhing the carnations, we may
be abler to judge of the effed of the whole head.
If, at the fecond fitting, we cannot do all we in¬
tended, which often happens, the third makes up the
lofs, and gives both fpirit, phyfiognomy, and cha-
rader.
If we would paint a portrait at once, we mud load
the colouring; but neither fweeten, nor drive, nor very
much oil it : and if we dip the pencil in varniffi as the
work advances, this will readily enable us to put co¬
lour on colour, and to mix them without driving.
The ufe and fight of good pidures give greater
light into things than words can exprefs: What hits
one artid’s underdanding and temper may be difa-
greeable to another’s; and almod all painters have
taken different ways, though their principles were of¬
ten the fame.
We are told that a friend of Vandyke’s having ob-
ferved to him how little time he bedowed on his por¬
traits, Vandyke anfwered, “ That at fird he worked
hard, and took great pains, to acquire a reputation,
and alfo to get a fwift hand, againlt the time he ffiould
work for his kitchen.” Vandyke’s cudom is faid to
have been this: He appointed both the day and hour
TING. 5S2g
for the perfon’s fitting, and worked net above an Portraitnrji
hour on any portrait, either in rubbing in orfinifliing;
fo that as foon as his clock informed him that the
hour was out, he rofe up, and made a bow to the
fitter, to fignify, that he had done enough for that
day, and then appointed another hour fome' other
day ; whereupon his fervant came to clean his pencils,
and brought a freffi pallet, whild he was receiving
another fitter, whofe day and hour he had before ap¬
pointed. By this method he worked on feveral pic¬
tures the fame day, with extraordinary expedition.
After haying lightly dead-coloured the face, he put
the fitter into fome attitude which he had before con¬
trived ; and on a grey paper, with white and black
crayons, he defigned, in a quarter of an hour, his
(hape and drapery, which he difpofed in a grand
manner and an exquifite tade. After this, he gave the
drawing to the (kilful people he had about him, to
paint after the fitter’s own cloaths, which, at Van¬
dyke’s requed, were fent to him for that purpofe.
When his difciples had done what they could to thefe
draperies, he lightly went over them again ; and fo,
in a little time, by his great knowledge, difplayed
the art and truth which we at this day admire ill them.
As for hands, he had in his houfe people of both fexes*
whom he paid, and who ferved as models.
This conduft of Vandyke, however, is mentioned
rather to gratify the reader’s curiofity, than to excite
his imitation ; he may choofe as much of it as he
pleafesand as fuits his own genius, and leave the red.
We mud obferve by the way, that there is nothing
fo rare a» fine hands, either in the defign or colouring.
It is therefore convenient to cultivate, if we can, a
friendffiip with fome women who twill take pleafure
in ferving for- a copy: The way to win them is, to
praife their beauty exceedingly. But if an oppor¬
tunity ferves of copying hands after Vandyke, it
mud not be let (lip ; for he drew them with a furprifing
delicacy, and an admirable colouring.
It is of great fervice to copy after the manners
which come neared to nature; as are thofe of Titian:
and Vandyke. We mud, at fuch times, believe them
to be nature itfelf; and, at fome didance, confider
them as fuch, and fay to ourfelves—W/;at colour and
tint Jhall I ufe for fuch a part ? And then, coming
near the picture, we ought to examine, whether wu
are right, or not; and to make a fixed rule of what
we have difeovered, and did not praftife before with¬
out uncertainty.
It is recommended, before we begin colouring, to
catch the very fird moments, which are commonly the
mod agreeable and mod advantageous, and to keep
them in onr memory for ufe when we are finilhing:
for the fitter, growing tired with being long in the
fame place, lofes thofe fpirits, which, at his fird fit¬
ting down, gave beauty to the parts, and conveyed
to the tint more lively blood, and a freffier colour.
In (hort, we mud join to truth a probable and advan¬
tageous poffibility, which, far from abating likenefs,
ferves rather to fet it off. For this end, we ought to
begin with obferving the ground of a tint, as well
what it is in lights as in (hades; for the (hades are
only beautiful as they are proportioned to the light.
We mud obferve if the tint be very lively ; whether
it partake of yellownefs, and where that yellownefs is
placed s
5B30 PAIN
Decorations placed; becaufc ufually, towards the end of the fit-
ting, fatigue diffufes a general yellownefs, which
makes us forget what parts were of this colour, and
what were not, unlefs we had taken due notice of it
before. For this reafon, at the fecond fitting, the
colours muft be every where readily clapped in, and
fuch as appear at the firtt fitting down ; for thefe are
always the fineft.
The fureft vyay to judge of colours is by compari*
fon ; and to know a tint, nothing is better than to
compare it with linen placed next it, or elfe placed
next to the natural objed, if there is occafion. We
fay this only to thofe who have little praftifed nature.
The portrait being now fuppofed to be as much
finilhed as you are able, nothing remains, but, at
fome reafonable diftance, to view both the pid^ure and
fitter together, in order to determine with certainty,
whether there is any thing ftill wanting to perfect the
work.
Sect. IV. Of Theatric Decorations; the Defigns
for Furniturey Embroideryy GarriageSy <bc.
46. Of Theatrical Decorations. This is a particular
art which unites feveral of the general parts of paint¬
ing with the knowledge of architedlure, perfpedtive,
&c. They who apply themfelves to it, would do well
to defign their decorations by day, and to colour them
by candle-light, as they will be much better able to
judge of theeffedt of a painting intended to be viewed
by that light. It is proper alfo to caution the young
painter to avoid, as much as poffible, the uniting the
imitations of nature with nature itfelf; that is, he fhould
not introduce with his decorations living horfes, or o-
ther animals, real fountains or cafcades, trees, or fta-
tues, &c. For fuch combinations are the effedt of
ignorance and a bad tafte ; they are the refource of
painters of little ability ; they difcover a fterility of in¬
vention, and produce great inconvenience in the re-
prefentation. Thofe pieces which they call moving
pi&ures, where the painted landfcape remains im¬
moveable, and the figures move by means of fprings,
form a part of thefe decorations; and there are fome
of them, as thofe of Antwerp and Ghent, that have
a pleafing effeft.
47. The defigns for furniture, carriages, porcelain,
and other branches of manufadure, form alfo a very
important article of painting in general, and of aca¬
demy painting in particular. This is a diftinft branch
of the art; and without doubt not the lead ufeful of its
parts, as it concurs fo effentially to the fuccefs of ma¬
nufactures, and confequently to the profperity of a
P A I
PAIR ; two of a fort, a couple.
PAIRING, the uniting or joining in couples.
The inftindt of pairing is beftowed on every fpecies
of animals to which it is neceffary for rearing their
young ; and on no other fpecies. All wild birds pair;
but with a remarkable difference between fuch as place
their nefts on trees, and fuch as place them on the
ground. The young of the former, being hatched
blind, and without feathers, require the nurfing care
of both parents till they be able to fly. The male
feeds his mate on the neft, and cheers her with a fong.
TING. Part II.
ftate : and it is an art, to which it were much to be Materials,
wifhed that youth of ability and invention would ap- ^
apply themfelves. See the articles Japanning and
Porcelain.
Sect. V. Enumeration of the different Methods of
Painting, or the differ entMeans and Materials that
painters make ufe of to imitate all vifible objects on
a plane fuperficies.
48. Those now in pradice are,
1. Painting in oil; which is preferable to all other
other methods, as it is more fufceptible of all forts of
expreffions, of more perfedt gradations of colours, and
is at the fame time more durable.
2. Mosaic painting ; an invention truly wonderful;
it is compofed of a great number of fmall pieces of
marble of different colours, joined together with ftucco.
The works of this kind are made principally at Rome,
wheie this art has been carried fo far as to referable
the paintings of the greateft mafters; and of thefe are
made monuments for the lateft pofterity.
Paintings in fresco ; which is by drawing, with
colours diluted with water, on a wall newly plaftered,
and with which they fo incorporate, that they perifh
only with the ftucco itfelf. This is principally ufed
on ceilings.
4. Painting in water-colours ; that is, with co¬
lours mixed with water and gum, or pafte, &c.
5. Miniature painting; which differs from the
preceding only as it reprefents obje&s in the leaft dif-
cernible magiiiti|des ; and is confequently vaftly more
delicate, feeing it is performed by the fmalleft ftrokes
pofllble ; whereas the others have the full Icope of the
pencil.
6. Painting in crayons ; for which purpofe colours,
either fimple or compound, are mixed with gum, and
made into a kind of hard pafte like chalk, and with
which they draw on paper or parchment.
7. Painting in enamel ; which is done on copper
or gold, with mineral colours that are dried by fire,
and become very durable. The paintings on the
porcelain of China and Europe, on Delphi ware, &c.
are fo many forts of enamel.
8. Painting in wax, or encaustic painting: This
is a new invention, and in which there are in France
performances highly pleafing. It is done with wax
mixed with varnifh and colours.
9. Painting on glass ; of which there are various
kinds.
See all the articles here enumerated, explained in the
order of the alphabet.
P A I
As foon as the young are hatched, finging yields to a
more neceflary occupation, that of providing food for
a numerous iffue ; a talk that requires both parents.
Eagles and other birds of prey build on trees, or
on other inaccefiible fpots. They not only pair, but
continue in pairs all the year round; and the fame
pair procreates year after year. This at leaft is the
cafe of eagles: the male and female hunt together,
unlefs during incubation, during which time the fe¬
male is fed by the male. A greater number than a
Angle pair are never feen in company.
Gre-
Pairing.
Karnes's
Sketches,
voJ. i.
p. ip8.
P A I [ 5831 ] P A I
Gregarious birds pair, in order probably to prevent
"difcord in a fociety confined to a narrow fpace. This
is the cafe particularly ef pigeons and rooks. The
male and female fit on the eggs alternately, and di¬
vide the care of feeding their young.
Partridges, plovers, pheafants, fea-fowl, groufe, and
other kinds that place their nefts on the ground, have
the in Hindi of pairing; but differ from fuch as build
on trees in the following particular, that after the fe¬
male is impregnated, me completes her tafk without
reeding any help from the male. Retiring from him,
fhe chpofes a fafe fpot for her neft, where fhe can find
plenty of worms and grafs-fecd at hand ; and her
young, as foon as hatched, take foot, and feek food
for themfelves. The only remaining duty incumbent
on the dam is, to lead them to proper places for food,
and to Call them together when danger impends. Some
males, provoked at the defertion of their mates, break
the eggs if they Humble on them. Eider ducks pair
like other birds that place their neHs on the ground ;
and the female finifhes herneH with down plucked from
her own breaH. If the neft be deftroyed for the down,
which is remarkably warm and elaftic, fire makes ano¬
ther neft as before. If fhe is robbed a fecond time,
(he makes a third neft; but the male furnifhes the
down. A lady of fpirit obferved, that the eider duck
may give a leflbn to many a married woman, who is
more difpofed to pluck her hufband than herfelf. The
black game never pair: in fpring, the cock on an emi¬
nence crows, and claps his wings; and all the females
within hearing inftantly refort to him.
Pairing birds, excepting thofe of prey, flock to¬
gether in February, in order to choofe their mates.
They foon difperfe; and are not feen afterward but in
pairs.
Pairing is unknown to quadrupeds that feed on
grafs. To fuch it would be ufelefs; as the female
gives fuck to her young while fhe herfelf is feeding. If
M. Buffon deferves credit, the roe-deer are an excep¬
tion. They pair, though they feed on grafs, and have
but one litter in a year.
Beafts of prey, fuch as lions, tygers, wolves, pair
not. The female is left to fhift for herfelf and for her
young ; which is a laborious talk, and often fo unfuc-
cefsful as to fhorten the life of many of them. Pairing
is efiential to birds of prey, becaufe incubation leaves
the female no fufficient time to hunt for food. Pairing
is not neceflary to beafts of prey, becaufe their young
can bear a long fall. Add another reafon, that they
would multiply fo faft by pairing, as to prove trouble-
fome neighbours to the human race.
Among animals that pair not, males fight defperate-
ly about a female. Such a battle among horned cattle
is finely defcribed by Lucretius. Nor is it unufual for
feven or eight lions to wage bloody war for a fingle fe¬
male.
The fame reafon that makes pairing neceflary for
gregarious birds, obtains with refpeft to gregarious
quadrupeds ; thofe efpecially who Hore up food for
winter, and during that feafon live in common. Dif¬
cord among fuch would be attended with worfe confe-
quence's than even among lions and bulls, who are not
confined to one place. The beavers, with refpedl to
pairing, referable birds that place their nefts on the
ground. As foon as the young are produced, the
Vox.. VIII. 2
males abandoft their Hock of food to their mate#; and Paifky.
live at large ; but return frequently to vifit them while 
they are fuckling their young.
Hedgehogs pair as well as feveral of the monkey-
kind. We are not well acquainted* with the natural
hiftory of thefe animals ; but it would appear that the
young require the nurfing care of both parents.
Sealshave a lingular ceconomy. Polygamy feems to
be a law of nature among them, as a male affociaus
with feveral females. The fea-turtle has no occafiorx
to pair, as the female concludes her talk by laying her
eggs in the fand. The young are hatched by the fun,
and immediately crawl to the lea.
PAISLEY, a town of Renfrewfliire, in Scot¬
land, fituated about fix miles weft of Glafgow, on ibe
river White-Cart, ever which there are two Hone-
bridges of two arches each, and one which confiftsof
three arches. The town is very ancient ; but was of
much lefs cosfequence formerly than it is at prefent.
The old part of it runs from eaH to wed upon the fouth
Hope of a ridge of hills, from which there is a fine pro-
fped of the city of Glafgow and the adjacent coun¬
try ; but to the fouthward, the view terminates in a
ridge of green bills, about two miles diRant. Inclu¬
ding the late buildings and fuburbs, it is fully a mile
long, and nearly as much in breadth. On the eaH
fide of the river Cart, Hand the abbey and new town;
which laR was lately feued off by the Earl of Abcr-
corn, and already conliRs of a number of handfome
buildings. The ftreets are here laid off in a regular
manner, but (rather unfortunately for the conveniency
and elegance of fome ofthehoufes) not in right angles.
Here the Earl of Abercorn has built, at his own cx-
pence, one of the largeH, moH commodious, andmoft
elegant inns in Scotland. In the vicinity of this his
Lordlhip is likewife to build feveral convenient and ne-
ceffary market-places. A little way fouth of the inn
Hands the abbey-church, the only one which Paifley,
before the year 1735, required. This church, when
entire, has been a moH noble building, and confiRed
of feveral diRin& and feparate places of worftiip: what
now remains of this magnificent Gothic firudlure is not
yet unworthy the notice of the curious in antiquities.
The next church, called the Laigh-Cburch, is built in
form of a Greek crofs, very well laid out, and capable of
containing a great number of people. The one called the
High-Church, is a very fine building; and as it Hands
on the top of a hill, its lofty fpire is vifible at a great
diHance. This church is an oblong fquare of 82 feet
by 62 within the walls, built of free-Hone well fmooth-
ed, having ruHic corners and an elegant Hone cornice
at the top. In the conHruftion of the roof (which
is a pavilion covered with flate, having a platform co¬
vered with lead on the top), there is fomething very
curious, and it is admired by every perfon of tafte. The
Middle or New Church is a very neat building, on
much the fame model with the High Church, but
not quite fo large. Befides thefe, there are alfo
two Seceding Meeting-houfes and a Church of Relief.
The town-houfe is a very handfome building of cut
Hone, with a tall fpire and a clock. The flefti-market
has a genteel front of cut Hone, and is one of the
neateH and moR commodious of this kind in Britain.
Butchers-meat, butter, cheefe, fifti, wool, and feve¬
ral other articles, are fold here by what they call the
32 Y iron-
P A I [ 5832 ] P A I
'Pai(Icy. tron-pound, of 22 Englifh ounces and anhalf.
The poor-houfe is a large building, very well laid
out; and (lands oppofite to the quay, in a fine free
air. It is fupported by a fmall tax laid upon the in¬
habitants quarterly.
Clofe by the Abbey-Church is the Earl of Abercorn’s
burial-place, the greateft curiofity in Paifley. It is a
vaulted Gothicchapel, without pulpit, pew, oranyother
ornament, but has the fined echo perhaps in the world.
When the end door (the only one it has) is (hut, the
noife is equal to a loud and not very didant clap of
thunder. If you drike a fingle note of mufic, you
hear the found gradually afcending, with a great num¬
ber of repetitions, till it dies away as if at an immcnfe
didance, and all the while diffufing itfelf through the
circumambient air. If a good voice fings, or a mufi-
cal inftrument is well played upon, the effeft is inex-
prefiibly agreeable. The deepeji, as well as the mod
acute tones, are diftinftly reverberated, and thefe in
regular intervals of time. When a mufical indrument
is founded, it has the effeft of a number of indruments
of a like fize and kind playing in concert. When a
number of different indruments in unifon founds the
fame note, a good ear is able to diftinguifh the variety
of found produced by each. A fingle indrument found¬
ing a particular note, and then indantly its fifth, or
any other concordant note, the two founds can be
heard, as it were, running into and uniting with each
other in a manner peculiarly agreeable. But the ef-
fe& of a variety of indruments playing in concert, is
particularly charming, and mud excite fuch emotions
in the foul as it is impoffible to defcribe. In this
chapel is the monument of Marjory Bruce; (he was
daughter of Robert Bruce, and wife of Walter, great
deward of Scotland, and mother of Robert II. In
this fame chapel were interred jB/i/aieM Muir and Eu-
fhemia Rofs, both conforts to Robert II. In 1160, a
fine monatlery was founded by Walter, great deward of
Scotland ; but of this there are fcarce any vediges now
remaining. The veftiges of the Roman camp and/>/vr-
torium, at the wed end of the town, are at prefent ai¬
med annihilated. It was fuppofed to be vaulted un¬
derneath.
The inhabitants of Paifley, in 1746, were compu¬
ted at no more than 4000 : but from a very accurate
furvey which has jud been made, the number of fa¬
milies in Paifley and fuburbs is found to be 3723 ; and
allowing 4! perfons to each family, the number of in¬
habitants will be 16,753.
Paifley is now the fird manufaAuring town in Scot¬
land, and is greatly celebrated on account of fotne of
its branches. The manufaftory of filk gauze, in this
refpeQ, fird claims our notice. This branch is brought
here to the utmod perfe&ion, and is wrought to an
amazing variety of patterns. It has been jud compu¬
ted, that there have been no lefs than 5000 weavers
employed in Paifley and in the country adjacent, in
this branch, lad year (1781); and the number of wind¬
ers, warpers, clippers, and others neceffary in other
parts of the filk-manufadlure, has been likewife com¬
puted to be no lefs than 5000. Each loom will pro|
duce in average value 701. yearly ; the whole will
then be 350,000 1.
The linen branch is likewife carried on here to a
very confiderable amount, particularly the manufac¬
ture of lawns; and vad quantities of foreign yarn are an- Paifley
nually imported from France, Germany, &c. for this S
branch, befides what is made of our home-manufa&u- Palace-
red yarn. It appears from the damp-mader’s books,
that from id November 1780 to id November 1781,
there were damped at Paifley no lefs than 1,248,843
yards, value 105,930!. 19 s. io£. The making of
white ditching thread was introduced into this town a-
bout 50 or 60 years ago. A gentleman in this place
lately difeovered the method of making what is called
glazed ’white-thread, to as great perfedion as that made
by Mr Leland and Son, London. The value of this
branch is computed at about 60,0001. annually. There
are alfo feveral manufadures of a more local nature.
There are three of hard-foap and tallow-candles, and
one of black-foap. The candles, efpecially the mould¬
ed ones, are reckoned the bed and mod elegant that
have been made in Scotland ; and great quantities is
fent into England, to America, and to the Wed In¬
dies. The annual amount of thefe lad branches are
edimated at nearly 20,000 1. There are alfo two or
three tan-works, and a porter brewery, in town ; and
in the neighbourhood there is d coperas work, a calli-
co printing work, and two works for the cotton fpin*
ning manufadory.
The river on which Paifley dands runs from fouth
to north; and falls into Clyde, after it has joined the
conflux of the rivers Grief and Black-Cart at Inchin-
nan bridge, about three miles below the town. At
fpring-tides, veffels of 40 tons burthen come up to the
quay. The communication by water is of great im¬
portance to the inhabitants : for in this way they are
frequently ferved with fifli of different kinds, and can
fend their goods and manufadures to Port-Glafgow
and Greenock, and to Glafgow likewife; and now,
when the canal is finiflied, they have alfo a communi¬
cation with the frith of Forth.
Paifley was created a burgh of barony in the year
1488; and the affairs of the community are managed by
three bailies, of which the elded is commonly in the com-
mifiionofthe peace, a treafurer, a town-clerk, and 17
counfellors, who are annually eleded upon the fird Mon¬
day after Michaelmas. It gives the title of baron to
the earls of Abercorn ; the fird of whom was a young¬
er fon of the Due de Chatellerault. The Hack-look
of Paijley, frequently mentioned in Scottilh hiftory, was
a chronicle of the public affairs and remarkable events,
kept by the monks who refided in the monadery al¬
ready mentioned. It agreed in every material fad
with the Scot's-chronicon of Fordun ; and is by many
thought to be the fame performance.
PAITA, a fea-port of America, in Peru, and in
the audience of Quito. The town confids of about 200
houfes but one dory high; and the walls are made of
fplit cane and mud, and the roofs only a covering of
leaves. The only defence of Paita is a fort without ei¬
ther ditch or out-work ; but it is furrounded by a brick
wall of little or no drength, on which are mounted
eight pieces of cannon. Commodore Anfon got pof-
fefiion of this fort in 1741; and took and burnt the
town, becaufe the governor refufed to ranforo it. W.
Long. 80. 5. S. Lat. 5. 5.
PALACE, PalAtium, a name generally given to
the dwelling-houfes of kings', princes, and other great
perfonagesj and taking different epithets, according to
the
PAL [ 5S33 ] PAL
Palace the quality of the inhabitants, as imperial palace, royal
li palace, pontifical palace, cardinal palace, ducal palace.
Palate. epifcopal palace, &c.
Palace-See Marshalsea.
PALiEMON, or Melicertes, in fabulous hiftory,
a marine god, was the fon of Athatnas, king of Thebes
and Ino. The latter, fearing the rage of the king her
hufband, took Melicertes in her arms, and leaped with
him into the fea, when they were both changed into
marine deities ; the mother under the name Leucothea,
fuppofed by fome to be the fame with Aurora; and her
fon under that of Pale?/,on, or Portunus, a god who
prefided over fca-ports. Paufanias fays, that Melicer¬
tes was faved on the back of a dolphin, and his dead
body thrown on the ifthmus of Corinth, where Sify-
phus, his uncle, who reigned in that city, inftituted to
his honour the Ifthmian games.
Paljemon Rhemmius), a Latin grammarian,
born at Vicenza, was the fon of {lave. He taught at
Rome with great applaufe under Tiberius and Clau¬
dius, and Juvenal mentions him with praifes. We have
only fome fragments of his works.
PALjEFAPPIOS, (Strabo, Virgil, Pliny), a town
of Cyprus, where Hood a temple of Venus; and an ad¬
joining town called Nea Paphos; where St Paul ftruck
Elymas blind, and converted the proconful Sergius
Paulus.
PALAESTRA, in Grecian antiquity, a public build¬
ing, where the youth exercifed themfelves in wreftling,
running, playing at quoits, &c.
PAL-ESTROPHYLAX, was the dire&or of the
palaeftra, and the exercifes performed there.
PALAMEDIA, in ornithology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order .of grallas. The bill is conical, the fu-
perior mandible being crooked; and the feet have three
divided toes. There are two fpecies, both natives of
Brafil.
PAL ARIA, among the Romans, a kind of exercife
performed at a flake by the foldiers. The flake being
fixed in the ground, and fix feet high above it, the
young undifciplined foldiers advanced againft it, armed
with a hurdle and cudgel, inftead of a fword and (hield,
and went through all the rules of attack and defence,
as if aftually engaged with an adverfary. Sometimes
they flood at a diftance, and attacked with miffive wea¬
pons; at the fame time ufing all the requifite motions
for defending themfelves, and warding off what might
be thrown againft them.
PALATE, in anatomy, the flefh that compofes the
roof, or the upper and inner part, of the mouth.
The palate has much the fame ftru£ture with the
gums; but it has alfo a greatinumber of glands, difco-
vered fo early as the time of Fallopius: thefe are prin¬
cipally fituated in the hinder part near the uvula, where
it is pendulous, in the manner of a curtain, which part
is called the velum, or claujlrum, of the palate. The
glands fituated particularly in this part, fecrete a mu¬
cous fluid, ferving to lubricate the mouth and throat,
and to facilitate deglutition : they have a great num¬
ber of apertures there for the difcharge of this humour
into the mouth.
The great ufes of this membrane are to defend the
bones of the palate from corrupting; and for prevent-
ing, by its clauftrum or velum, the things to be fwal-
kwed from getting up into the noijrils.
PALATINATE, a province or figniory, poiTeiTed Palatinafc
by a palatine. ’*■"
Palatinate of the Rhine, a province of Germany,
divided into two parts by the Rhine, called the Upper
and Lower Palatinate. The formier lies in the circle
of Bavaria, and belongs to the elector thereof; but
the latter, in the circle we are now treating, belongs
to the ele&or Palatine. The latter part is bounded fo
the eaft by the county of Katzenellnbogen, the arch-
bilhopric of Mentz, the bifhopric of Worms, and part
of the territory of the Tuetonic order in Franco¬
nia ; to the weft, by Alface, the duchy of DeuxpontS,
the county of Sponheim, the duchy of Simmern, and
certain diftridts of the deflorate of Mentz ; to the
fouth, by the duchy of Wurtemberg and the bilhopric
of Spire ; and to the north, by a part of archbifhoprio
of Mentz and the county of Katzenellnbogen. It
contains 41 towns, befides feveral boroughs ; and its
greateft extent is about 80 miles. The air is health¬
ful, and the foil fruitful in corn, pafturage, wine, to¬
bacco, and all forts of pulfe and fruks, particularly
walnuts, chefnuts, and almonds. This country alfo
breeds abundance of cattle, and is well watered by the
Neckar, the Nahe, and the Rhine. In the laft of
thefe, near Germerfheim and Selz, is found gold 5 the
exclufive right of fearching for which is farmed out by
theeleftor. The ftate of religion hath varied greatly
here fince the Reformation, Lutberanifm and Calvi-
nifm having been uppermoft by turns, till the eleflo-
tate devolved to the Popifh branches of the family,
when Popery, with all its fuperftition and mummery,
was eftabliflied anew : fo that the Proteftant religion
is now on a very precarious footing in the Palatinate,
though moft of the natives are (till of that perfuafion :
but the two fefts of Proteftants, namely, the Luthe¬
rans and Calvinifts, have greatly contributed to then-
own ruin, by their mufual jealoufy and animofity, be¬
ing no lefs rancorous againft one another than againft
their common adverfaries the Papifts. The Lutherans
reckon themfelves 50,000 ftrong, and are pofftfied of
about 85 churches ; but not one half of their preach¬
ers and fchoolmafters have a competent maintenance.
The number of Calvinifl clergy here is eftimated at
500, and that of the Roman Catholics at 400. Be¬
fides fchools and Jefuits colleges in this country, there
is one univerfity, namely, that of Heidelberg; but
there is very little trade in it except in wine. Authors
are divided about the origin of the name Palatines, or
Pfalzgraves, as the Germans call them ; but it feems
molt likely to be derived from the palatia, or palaces,
which the old FrankHh and German kings and Roman
emperors were poflefled of in different parts of the
country, and over which they appointed fupreme ftew-
ards or judges, who were called Palatines or Pfalz¬
graves. The countries where thefe Palatines kept
their courts were, from them, called Palatinates j
which name came at laft to be appropriated, by way
of eminence, to this country, as being the moft con-
fiderable of them. The ancient eleftoral line failing
in 1685, the deflorate devolved to Philip-William
Duke of Neuburg ; and upon the death of his fecorid
fon Charles-Philip, to the prince of Sulzbacb. . This
eleflorhas the title of arch-treafurer of the empire, as
well as the eleflor of Brunfwic-Luneburgh, and is
the fifth in rank among the fecular deflora. He is
32 Y 2 alfo
PAL [ 5834 ] PAL
Palatine, alfo one of the vicars of the empire alternately with
" the eledtor of Bavaria, and enjoys many other prero¬
gatives. In his own dominions, he difpofes of all va¬
cant benefices ; but allows the ecclefiaftical council,
compofed of two clergymen and two laymen, to pre-
fent two candidates, of which he choofes one. He is
alfo mafter of all the tithes in his dominions; but he
either grants them to the clergy, or falaries in lieu of
them, out of the revenues of the church. His title is
Pfalzgrave of the Rhine ; archtreafurer and ele&or of
the holy Roman empire; duke in Bavaria, Juliers,
Cleve, and Berg; prince of Mors; marquis of Ber¬
gen-op-Zoom ; count of Veldens, Sponheim, the Mark,
and Ravenlberg; and lord of Ravenllein. His quota
to the army of the empire is 30 horfe, and 138 foot,
or 914 florins monthly. To the chamber of Wetzlar
he contributes, each term, 404 rix-dollars, 82 kruit-
zers. There is an order of knighthood in this coun¬
try, viz. that of St Hubert ; the badge of which is a
quadrangular crofs pendant to a red ribbon, with a
liar on the breaft. The whole of the eleftor’s reve¬
nue, arifing from the Palatinate, the duchies of Berg
and Juliers, the feigniory of Ravenftein, and the du¬
chies of Neuburg and Sultzbach, hath been eftimated
at about 300,000 1. per annum. The military efta-
blilhment confifts of feveral regiments of horfe and foot,
befides the horfe and Swifs life-guards. All the dif¬
ferent courts and councils, ufuaj in other countries for
the different departments of government, are alfo to be
found here.
PALATINE, or Count Palatine, a title an¬
ciently given to all perfons who had any office or em¬
ployment in the prince’s palace ; but afterwards con¬
ferred on thofe delegated by princes to hold courts of
juftice in the provinces; and on fuch among the Lords
as had a palace, that is, a court of juftice, in their
own houfes. *
Palatine in England.—Chefter, Durham,
and Lancafter, are called counties palatine. The two
former are fuch by prefcription, or immemorial cu-
llom ; or, at lead as old as the Norman conqueft : the
latter was created by king Edward* III. in favour of
Henry Plantagenet, firft earl and then duke of Ldn-
cafter ; whofe heirefs being married to John of Gaunt
the king’s fon, the franchife was greatly greatly en¬
larged and confirmed in parliament, to honour John
of Gaunt himfelf, whom, on the death of his father-in-
law, the king had alfo created duke of Lancafter.
Counties-palatine are fo called a palatio ; becaufe the
owners thereof, the earl of Chefter, the bifhop of Dur¬
ham, and the duke of Lancafter, had in thofe coun¬
ties Jar# regolia, as fully as the king hath in his palace;
regaJem potejlatem in omnibus^ as Brafton expreffes it.
They might pardon treafons, murders, and felonies ;
they appointed all judges and juftices of the peace ;
all writs and indidments ran in their names, as in
other counties in the king’s; and all offences were faid
to be done againft their peace, and not, as in other
places, contra pacem domini regis. And indeed by the
ancient law, in all peculiar jurifdidions, offences were
faid to be done againft his peace in whofe court they
were tried; in a court-leet, contra pacesn domini; in
the court of a corporation, contra pacem ballivorum
in the fheriff’s court or lourn, contra pacem vice-
eomitis. Thefe palatine privileges (fo (tmilar to the
regal independent jurifdi&ions ufurped by the great Palatine,
barons on the continent during the weak and infant “—'
ftate of the firft feodal kingdoms in Europe), were in
all probability originally granted to the counties of
Chefter and Durham, becaufe they bordered upon
enemies countries, Wales and Scotland; in order that
the owners, being encouraged by fo large an authority,
might be the more watchful in its defence ; and that
the inhabitants, having juftice adminiftered at home,
might not be obliged to go out of the county, and
leave it open to the enemy’s incurfions. And upon
this account alfo there were formerly two other coun¬
ties palatine, Pembrokelhire and Hexhamlhire, the
latter now united with Northumberland: but thefe
were abolifhed by parliament, the former in 27 Hen.
VIII. the latter in 14 Eliz. And in 27 Hen. VIII.
likewife, the powers before mentioned of owners of
counties-palatine were abridged ; the reafon for their
countinuance in a manner ceafing: though ftill all
writs are witneffed in their names, and all forfeitures
for treafon by the common law accrue to them.
Of thefe three, the county of Durham is now the
only one remaining in the hands of a fubjetff. For
the earldom of Chefter, as Camden teftifies, was
united to the crown by Hen. III. and has ever fince
given title to the king’s eldeft fon. And the county
palatine, or duchy, of Lancafter was the property of
Henry of Bolingbroke, the fon of John of Gaunt, at
the time when he wrefted the crown from king
Richard II. and affumed the title of Hen. IV. But
he was too prudent to fuffer this to be united to the
crown ; left, if he loft one, he (hould lofe the other
alfo. For, as Plowden and Sir Edward Coke obferve,
“ he knew he had the duchy of Lancafter by fure
and indefeafible title, but that his title to the crown
was not fo affured; for that after the deceafe of
Richard II. the right of the crown was in the heir of
Lionel duke of Clarence, fecond fon of Edward III.;
John of Gaunt, father to this Henry IV. being but
the fourth fon.” And therefore he procured an aft
of parliament, in the firft year of his reign, ordaining
that the duchy of Lancafter, and all other his heredi¬
tary eftates, with all their royalties and franchifes,
fhoulcPremain to him and his heirs for ever; and fhould
remain, defcend, be adminiftered, and governed, in
like manner as if he never had attained the regal- dig¬
nity : and thus they defcended to his fon and grand-
fon, Henry V. and Henry VI.; many new territories
and privileges being annexed to the duchy by the
former. Henry VI. being attainted in 1 Edward IV.
this duchy was declared in parliament to have become
foreited to the crown, and at the fame time an aft
was made to incorporate the duchy of Lancafter, to
continue the county palatine (which might otherwife
have determined by the attainder), and to make the
fame parcel of the duchy: and, farther, to veft the
whole in king Edward IV. and his heirs, kings of
England, for ever ; but under a feparate guiding and
governance from the other inheritances of the crown.
And in 1 Hen. VII. another aft was made, to refume
fuch part of the duchy lands as had been difmem-
bered from it in the reign of Edward IV. and to veft
the inheritance of the whole in the king and his heirs
for ever, as amply and largely, and in like manner,
form, and condition, feparate from the crown of Eng-
PAL [ 5835 ] PAL
Palatine land and pofleflion of the fame, as the three Henries
„ II. and Edward IV. or any of them, had and held the
JLal.e.a,rlus:- fame.
The ifle of Ely is not a county-palatine, though
fometimes erroneoufly called fo, but only a royal
franchife : the birtiop having, by grant of king Henry
the firft, jura regalia within the ifle of Ely ; whereby
he exercifes a jurifdi&ion over all caufes, as well cri¬
minal as civil.
Palatine Games, in Roman antiquity, games in-
flituted in honour of Auguftus by his wife Livia, after
he had been enrolled among the gods. They were
celebrated in the palace, and were confirmed by the
fucceeding emperors.
PALATINUS mons, or Palatium, the firft moun¬
tain of Rome occupied by Romulus, and where he
fixed his refidence and kept his court, as did Tullus
Hoftilius, Auguftus, and all the fucceeding emperors:
and hence it is that the relidence of princes is galled
palatium. The reafon of the name is varioufly aflign-
ed. To the eaft it has the Mons Ccelius, to the
fouth the Aventine, to the weft the Capitoline, and
to the north the Forum.—Palatinus, the furname of
Apollo from this place; where Auguftus built a
temple to that god, adorned with porticos and a library,
( Horace).
PALATIUM, (anc. geog.) a place in the territory
of Reate, diftant from it 25 ftadia. Dionyfius Hali-
carnafleus reckons it one of the firft towns of the
Aborigines, and from it Varro accounts for the name
of the Mans Palatinus ; namely, that a colony from Pa¬
latium fettled there.
Palatium (Pliny), Pallantium (Paufanias), Palan-
team (Livy) ; Pallanteum (Solinus). This laft is the
true writing ; the great grandfather of Evander, from
whom it took its name,, being called Pallas, not Palas:
A town of Arcadia, which concurred to form Mega¬
lopolis (Paufanias). From it the Palatium, or Mons
Palatinus, takes alfo its name, according to Virgil and
Pliny.
Palatium Dioclejtani; the villa of Dioclefian, near
Salonas, where he died, (Eufebius). Afterwards cal¬
led Spalatum; which rofe to a confiderable city from
the ruins of Salonse; fituate in Dalmatia on the Adri¬
atic. Now Spalatto, or Spaletro.
Palatium Luculli, (Plutarch), or Villa Luculli;
a place between Mifenum and Baias in Campania, of
wonderful ftrufture. Now in ruins, and called Pifci-
S na Mirabile.
PALATO-salping^eus, 7 See Anatomy, Table
PA l a t o - Staphylinus, 5 of the Mufcles.
PALE, a little pointed ftake or piece of wood ufed
in making inclofures, feparations, &c. The pale was
an inftrument of punifhment and execution among the
ancient Romans, and ftill continues fo among the Turks.
Hence empaling, the palling a Iharp pale up the fun¬
dament through the body.
PALE, in heraldry. See Heraldry, p. 4839.
PALEAR1US (Aonius), was a man of the great-
eft probity, and one of the beft writers of the 16th
century. He gained the efteem of the men of wit and
learning of his time by a noble poem on the immorta¬
lity of the foul. He was appointed profeflbr of po¬
lite literature at Sienna; where his tranquillity was di-
llurbed by contefts with an envious colleague, and by
the malicious afperfions of his enemies ; againft which, Palengia
however, his eloquence proved always a fufficient de- (1.
fence. At laft he left Sienna, and accepted the invi-
tation of the magiftrates of Lucca, who gave him fe-
veral marks of their efteem, and fettled a confiderable
ftipend upon him. Some years after, he removed to
Milan ; where he was feized by order of Pope Pius V.
and carried to Rome. He was convidted of having
fpoken in favour of the Lutherans, and againft the in-
quifition ; and therefore was condemned to be burnt.
This fentence was executed in 1566. He wrote feve-
ral pieces in verfe and profe ; of which the one above-
mentioned is the moft efteemed.
PALENCIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Leon, with a rich archbilhop’s fee. It had an univer-
fity, but it was removed to Salamanca. It is feated
in a fertile foil on the river Carion on the frontiers of
Caftile, in W. Long. 3. 7. N. Lat. 42. 10.
PALERMO, an ancient, large, populous, rich,
and handfome city of Sicily in the Val-di-mazara, with
an archbilhop’s fee and a harbour. It was the feat of
the ancient kings, and is four milts in circumference.
It is a place of great trade ; the houfes are handfome
and fuperb ; it is alfo well fortified, and very populous.
The public buildings, fquares, churches, and foun¬
tains, are extremely fine. The fountain in the great
fquare is thought to be the fineft in all Italy The
number of the inhabitants is above 200,000 ; and the
harbour is very large, having a mole 1300 geometrical
paces in length; but the veflels that-ride therein are
not always very fafe. Tiiere is a magnificent caftle
built near the i'ea-fide, wherein the viceroy refides fix
months in the year ; and his prefence draws a great
number of nobility to this place. This city has fuf-
fered greatly by earthquakes, particularly in 1693 ;
and it was greatly damaged by a fire in 1730, when
a magazine of powder was blown up, containing 400
tons. It (lands in a pleafant fruitful country on the
north-eaft coaft of the ifland, and at the bottom of the
gulph of the fame name. E. Lon. 33. 40. N. Lat.
38. id.
PALES, in Pagan worfliip, the goddefs of the
ftiepherds; to whom they offered milk and honey, in
order that (lie might deliver them and their flocks from
wold beads and infe&ious difeafes. This goddefs isre-
prefented as an old woman.
PALESTINE, a pait of Afiatic Turky, fituated
between 36 and 38 degrees of E. Long, and between
31 and 34of N. Lat. It is bounded by Mount Liba-
nus, which divides it from Syria, on the north ; by
Mount Hermon, which feparates it from Arabia De-
ferta, on the eaft ; by the mountains of Seir and the
defarts of Arabia Petrasa, on the fouth; and by the
Mediterranean Sea on the weft.
This once fertile and happy fpot was firft called the
land of Canahn, or Cbanaan, from Noah’s grandfon.
In feripture, however, it is frequently diftinguifhed by
other names 5 fuch as the land of promife, the land of
God, the land of lfrael, &c. It received the name of
Palefine from the Palejlines, or Philiftines, who pof-
feffed a great part of it ; and it had the name of Juz
dsea, or fud^a-Palefina, from Judah, the moft con¬
fiderable of the twelve fons of Jacob. The Chriftians
have denominated it iht Holy Land; partly on account
of the many Angular bkflings it received-from the di-
■Palertine.
PAL [ 5836 I PAL
vine providence, and partly on account of its metropo¬
lis being made the centre of God’s worfhip and his pe¬
culiar habitation ; but much more for its being the
place of our Saviour’s birth, the fcene of hispreaching,
and manifold miracles ; efpecially the place in which
he accomplilhed the great work of our redemption.
As to the name of Judea, it did not begin to receive
that till after the return of the Jews from the Babylo-
nifh captivity, though it had been ftyled long before
the kingdom of Judah, in oppofitionr to that of Ifrad,
which revolted from it under Jeroboam, in the reign of
Rehoboam the fon of Solomon. But after the return,
the tribe of Judah, the only one that made any figure,
fettling at Jerufalem, and in the countries adjacent,
quickly gave its name to the whole territory. By pro¬
fane authors it was called by many different names ;
fach as Syria, Paleftina Syria, Ctelefyria, Iduma, I-
dumasa, and Phoenicia or Phoenice ; but thefe are fup-
pofed only to have been given out of contempt to the
Jewifli nation, whom they looked upon as unworthy of
any other name than what diftinguifhed the mofi ob-
feure parts of the neighbouring provinces.
That part of the country which was properly called
the Land of Promife, was inclofed on the weft by the
Mediterranean ; on the eaft by the lake Afphaltites,
the Jordan, and the fea of Tiberias or of Galilee, and
the Samachonite lake ; to the north it had the moun¬
tains of Libanus, or rather of Antilibanus, or the pro¬
vince of Phoenicia ; and to the fouth, that of Edom or
Idumea, from which it was likewife parted by another
ridge of high mountains. The boundaries of the other
part, which belonged to the two tribes and an half
beyond the river Jordan, are not fo eafily defined, as
well as thofe of the conquefts made by the more pro-
fperous kings of the Jews. AH that can be faid with
any probability is, that the river Arnon was the firft
northern boundary on that fide; and with refpedt to
thofe on this fide the Jordan, there is a confiderable
difagreement between the Hebrew and Samaritan ver-
fions of the Pentateuch.
The extent of this country is likewife varioufly fet¬
tled by geographers ; fome giving it no more than 170
or 180 miles from north to fouth, and 140 in breadth
where broadeft, though not much above half that
breadth where narrowed. But from the lateft and
moft accurate maps, it appears to extend near 200
miles in length, and about 80 in breadth about the
middle, and about 10 or 15 more or lefs, where it
widens or fhrinks. It reaches from 31. 30. 1033.30.
N. Lat. and from 34. 50. to 37. 15. E. Long, the
longed day being about 14 hours 15 minutes.
Thefe hmits are fo fmall, confidering that the coun¬
try is likewife interfe&ed by high ridges or mountains,
woods, deferts, &c. that many learned men have been
induced to queftion what we read of its fertility and
populoufuefs in former times. It mull be owned, in¬
deed, that when we compare its ancient and flourilhing
ltatea when it was cultivated with the utmoft diligence
by perfons well /killed in every branch of agriculture,
with what it hath been fince the total extirpation of the
Jews out of it, and more efpecially fince it fell into
the hands of the Turks, the contrail is amazingly
great: but when we confider the many evident caufes
which have contributed to effect this change, and even
yet conlider the nature ofthe country itfelf, we find not
the leaft reafon to doubt the truth of what the facred Paleftme.
hiftorians have related. Mofes deferibes the richnefs
of it in the ftrongeft terms, even before the Ifraelites
got poflelTion of it. It even exceeded the land of E-
gypt, fo much celebrated by ancient hillorians ; efpe-
ciaily in the vaft numbers of cattle which it produced ;
in the quantity and excellence of its wine, oil, and
fruits. With refpedl to the oil and fruits, it is plain,
that the olives and oil of Canaan exceeded in goodnefs
thofe of Egypt, fince the tribes fent them thither from
thence ; and as for vines, Herodotus tells us, that the
Egyptians had none at all, but fupplied the want of
them by a liquor brewed from barley. The prefents
which Jacob fent to his fon Jofeph, of honey, fpices,
myrrh, almonds, and other fruits of Paldline, fhew
that they mull have been much better in the land of
Judea than in Egypt. The wines of Gaza, Afcalon,
and Sarepta, were famous among the moft remote na¬
tions ; though it is allowed, that the wine which was
made at and in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem,
in great quantities, was equal at lead, if not fuperior,
to any of the reft : and that of Libanus, mentioned
by the prophet Hofea, was no lefs celebrated for its
excellent flavour.
Several circum(lances contributed to this wonderful
fecundity: fuch as, the excellent temperature of the
air, which was never fubjeft to excefiive heats or colds;
the regularity of its feafons, efpecially the former and
latter rain ; and the natural fatnefs and fertility of its
foil, which required neither dunging nor manuring, and
could be ploughed with a Angle yoke of oxen and a
fmall kind of plough ; for the foil was, and is flill, fo
(hallow, that to have gone deep into it, would rather
endanger, than improve, the crop. With refpedl to
the excellency of its corn, we are told, that the bread
of Jerufalem was preferred above all other ; and the
tribe of Afher produced the bed of both, and in grea¬
ter quantity than any other tribe : and fuch plen¬
ty was there of it, that, befides what fufficed the
inhabitants, who made it their chief fuftenance, So¬
lomon, we read, could afford to fend 20,000 cors,
or meafures, of it, and as many of oil, yearly, to
Hiram king of Tyre ; befides what they exported in¬
to other countries. And we find, even fo late as king
Herod furnamed Agrippa, the countries of Tyre and
Sidon received moft of their fuftenance from his te-
trarchy.
As to their fruits, the grapes were delicious, finely
flavoured, and very large. The palm tree and its
dates were in no lefs requell ; and the plain of Jericho,
among other places, was famed for the great plenty
and excellence of that fruit; infomuch, that the me¬
tropolis of that territory was emphatically ftyled the
city of palm-trees. But what both this plain, and
other parts of Paleftine, were moft celebrated for,
was, the balfam (hrub, whofe balm was efteemed
fo precious a drug among the Greeks, Romans,
Egyptians, and other nations, and is ftill to this
day under the name of balm of Gilead. They
had likewife the greateft variety of other fruit-trees
in the highell perfe&ion; and which might be, in
fome fenfe, ftyled perpetual, becaufe they were not
only covered with a conftant verdure, but becaufe the
new buds always appeared on the fame boughs before
the old fruit was ripe; and of thofe buds, which were
PAL [ 5837 ] PAL
Paleftine. in too great quantities to be allowed to come to ma-
* turity, they gathered enough to make very delightful
pickles and fweatmeats, efpecially of their citrons,
oranges, and apples of paradife, which laft commonly
hung by hundreds in a clufter, and as big as hens eggs,
and of an excellent taftc and flavour. Their vines yielded
grapes twice, and fometimes three times, a-year, great
quantities of which were dried up, and preferved for
life, as well as their figs, plums, and other fruits.
They had plenty of honey ; the very trees diftilled it;
and the rocks yielded it in great quantities: but whe¬
ther that of the latter kind were there depofited by the
induftrious bees, or produced fome other way, is much
difputed by travellers and naturalifts. They likewife
cultivated fugar-canes in great abundance; and the
cotton, hemp, and flax, were moftly of their own
growth and manufacture, except fome of a finer fort,
that were brought to them from Egypt, and worn by
thofe of the higher rank. Their vicinity to Libanus
made the cedars, cypreffes, and other ftately fragrant
trees, very common in moll parts of the land, but
more efpecially in Jerufalem. Cattle, both large and
fmall, they fed in vaft quantities; and the hilly coun¬
tries not only afforded them variety and plenty of pa-
fture, but alfo of water, which defcended thence into
the valleys and lowlands, and fertilized them to the
degree we have feen ; befides feveral other rivers and
brooks, fome of the molt remarkable of which we
lhall fpeak of in their proper places. But the moft fer¬
tile pafture-grounds were thofe on each fide the river
Jordan ; befrdes thofe of Sharon, or Sarona, the plains
of Lydda, Jamnia, and fome others thenjuftly famed
for their fecundity. Asforfilh, the rivers above-men¬
tioned, the lake of Tiberias, and the Mediterranean
Sea, afforded, as they do to this day, great plenty
and variety. Vaft quantities were brought to Jerufa¬
lem, on which the inhabitants moftly fubfifted; and
hence one of the gates of that metropolis was, ac¬
cording to St Jerome, called the fijh-gate. The lake
Afphaltites yielded fait in abundance, wherewith to
feafon and preferve their fifh, which Galen affirms to
have been preferable to any other for wholefomenefs,
digeftion, and extenuation. In fliort, the Scripture is
fo pregnant with proofs of the extraordinary richnefs
and fecundity of this once happy land, and the vaft
number of people that lived in it, almoft wholly upon
its produdl, to fay nothing of the vaft exports of its
corn, wine, oil, raifins, and other fruits, &c. that a
man muft have taken a ftrange warp to infidelity, that
can call it in queftion, merely on account of the melan¬
choly and quite oppofite figure it now makes under
its prefent tyrannical government.
But it ought to be confidered, that it was then in¬
habited by an induftrious people, who knew how to
improve every inch of their land, and had made even
the moft defart and barren places to yield fome kind
of produ&ions, by proper care and manure: fo that
the very rocks, which now appear quite bare and na¬
ked, were made to produce corn, pulfe, or pafture;
being, by the induftry of the old inhabitants, covered
with mould, which, through the lazinefs of the fuc-
eecding proprietors, has been fince wafhed off with
rains and florins. We may add, that the kings them-
felves were not above encouraging all kind of agricul¬
ture, both by precept and ejample} and, above all,
that they had the divine bleffing promifed to their ho- Palefling.
neft endeavours and induftry; whereas it is now, and
hath been long fince, inhabited by a poor, lazy, indo¬
lent people, groaning under an intolerable fervitude
and all manner of difcouragements ; by which their
averfion to labour and agriculture, farther than what
barely ferves to fupply their prefent wants, is become,
in a manner, natural and invincible. We may farther
obferve, after the judicious Mr Maundrell, that there
is no forming an idea of its ancient flourifhing flate,
when under the influence of heaven, from what it is
now under a vifible curfe. And, if we had not fe¬
veral concurring teftimonies from profane authors,
who have extolled the fecundity of Paleftine, that fingle
one of Julian the apoflate, a fworn enemy to Jews and
Chriftians, as well as to all the facred writings, would
be more than fufficient to prove it; who frequently
makes mention, in his epiftles, of the perpetuity, as
well as excellence and great abundance, of its fruits
and product. The vifible effefts of God’s anger,
which this country has felt, not only underTitus Vefpa-
fian (when myriads of inhabitants were either flain, or
perifhed by the moft fevere famine, peftilence, anti
other calamities ; and the reft fold for flaves, into' all
lands; and new colonies fent to re-people it; who
found it in fuch a defolate ftate, as quite difcouraged
them from reftoring it to itspriftine fruitfulnefs) ; but
much more fince that emperor’s time, in the inunda¬
tions of the northern barbarians, of the Saracens, and
of the more cruel and deftrudlive Chriftiaas during
the holy war; and in the oppreffion it now feels
under the Turkifh yoke ; may be eafily owned to
be more than fufficient to have wrought the difmal
change we are fpeaking of, and to have reduced the far
greater part into a mere defart.
Neverthelefs, if we may credit thofe who have view¬
ed it in this doleful condition, they will tell us, there
are ftill fuch vifible figns of its natural richnefs and
fertility, as plainly (hew, that the bare want of cul¬
ture is the main, if not the only caufe of its prefent po¬
verty and barrennefs. We (hall hint, as a further proof
of this, what a learned traveller hath lately written of it
from his own obfervations.
“ The Holy Land,” fays Dr Shaw, “ were it
as well peopled and cultivated as in former times,
would Hill be more fruitful than the very bed part
of the coaft of Syria and Phoenice; for the foil is
generally much richer, and, all things confidered,
yields a more preferable crop. Thus the cotton that
is gathered in the plains of Ramah, Efdraelon, and
Zabulun, is in greater efteem than what is cultivated
near Sidon and Tripoli. Neither is it poffible for
pulfe, wheat, or any fort of grain, to be more excel¬
lent than what is fold at Jerufalem. The barrennefs, or
fcarcity rather, which fome authors may, either igno¬
rantly or malicioufly, complain of, doth not proceed
from the incapacity or natural unfruitfulnefs of the
country, but from the want of inhabitants, and the
great averfion there is to labour and induftry in thofe
few who poffcfs it. There are, befides, fuch perpe¬
tual difeords and depredations among the petty princes
who (hare this fine country, that, allowing it was bet¬
ter peopled, yet there would be fmall encouragement
to fow, wfien it was uncertain who (hould gather in
the harveft. Qthenvife, the land if a good land,- and
PAL [ 5838 ] PAL
Faleftrlna
Palingenius
fiill capable of affording its neighbours the like fupplies
of corn and oil which it is known to have done in the
time of Solomon.”
PALESTRINA, a town of Italy, in the Cam-
pagna di Roma, with a' bifhop’s fee. It is the capital
of a princpality of the fame name, and the bifhop is
one of the fix cardinals. It was anciently famous for
the temple of Fortune, being then called Pranejie, and
feated on the top of a mountain, the ruins of which
may yet be feen. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat.41.5u
Palestrina, is one of the largeft and moll popu¬
lous of the iflands called the Lagunes, near Venice,
and where the mod confiderable of the noblemen have
houfes of pleafure. It is 15,000 paces in length, and
400 in breadth; the principal harbour has alfo the
fame name. '
PALFIN (John), an eminent" furgeon, anatomill,
and reader in furgery at Ghent, the place of his birth;
acquired great reputation by his learning and works.
The principal Of thefe are, r. A treatife on Ofteolo-
gy, in i2mo, Paris 1731. 2. Anatomy of the hu"-
man body, in 2 vols 8vo, Paris 1734- He died at
Ghent at a great age, in 1730.
PALFREY, is one of the better fort of horfesufed
by noblemen or others for date ; and fometimes of
old taken for a horfe fit for a woman to ride. Cam-
deh fays, that William Fauconberge held the manor of
Cukeny, in the county of Nottingham, in fergeantry,
by the fervice of fhoeing the king’s palfrey when the
king fliould comfc to Mansfield.
PALICATE, a fea-port town of India, on this
fide of the Ganges. It is feated on the coaft of Co¬
romandel, in the kingdom of Carnate, 70 miles north
of Fort St George. Here the dutch have a fadlory,
and fort called the Fort of Guelderland. E. Long. 80. r.
•N. Lat. 1 3. 34.
PALINURI promontorium, (Virgil, Velleius,)
with a cognominal port, was fituated at the fouth ex¬
tremity of the Sinus Paeftanus, on the coaft of L11-
cania ; fo called from Palinurus, iEneas’s fteerfman,
who there periihed. (Mela, Dionyfius Halicarnaf-
faeus.)
PALINDROMUS, a verfe or fentence which runs
the fame when read either backwarks or forwards.
Such is the verfe;
Roma tibifulito modbus ibit amor.
Some people of lerfure have refined upon the Palindro^
rnus, and compofed verfes, each word of which is the
fame backwards as forwards; for inftance, that of
Camden :
Odo lend mttltnn, madidam mnfpam tenet Anna.
Aiwa tenet mafpam madidam, mulum tenet Odo. '
PAL INGENES I A, among divines, the fame with
regeneration. Among chemifts, it denotes the produ¬
cing of a body from its principles.
PALINGENIUS (Marcellus), well known by
a poem divided into 12 books, and intitled Zodiacus
Vi tec, which he was feveral years of compofing, and
dedicated to Hercules II. of Efte, duke of Ferrara.
Some fay he was phyfician to the prince: others rank
him among the learned Lutherans to whom the duchefs
of Ferrara gave a reception in her court and honour¬
ed with her proteflion. His ZsiZ/tfc contains good
things, and is a philofophical fatire againft immorality
and falfe prejudices. Though this poem has borne a
multitude of imprefiions, the author's life'is but little
known. He died fome time between the years 1537
and 1543.^ _ .
PALINODY, a difeourfe contrary to a.preceding
one : hence the phrafe of palinodiam canere was taken
for a recantation.
PALISADES, in fortification, (lakes made of
ftrong fplit wood, 'about nine feet long, fix or feven
inphe-s fquare, three feet deep in the ground, in rows
about two and an half or three inches afunder, placed
in the covert way, at three feet from, and parallel to,
the parapet or fide of the glacies,: to fecure it from
furprife. They are alfo ufed to fortify the avenues of
open forts* gorges, half-moons, the bottoms of ditches,
and in general all polls liable to furprife.. They are
ufually fixed perpendicularly, though fome make an
angle inclining towards the ground next the ene¬
my, that the ropes call over them to tear them up
may flip off.
Turning Palisades; an invention of Mr Coe-
horn, in order to preferve the palifades of the covert
way from the befiegers (hot. They are fo ordered,
that as many of them as (land in the length of a rod,
or about ten feet, turn up and down like traps, fo as
not to be in fight of the enemy till they juft bring on
their attack; and yet are always ready to do the pro¬
per fervice of palifades.
PALISSE, in heraldry, a bearing like a range of
palifades before a fortification, reprefented on a feffe,
rifing up a confiderable' height, and pointed a-top,
with the field appearing.between them.
PALIURUS, in botany. See Rhamnus.
PALL, in heraldry, a figure like a Greek t, about
the breadth of a pallet; it is by fome heralds called
a croft-pall, on account of its being looked upon as an
archiepifcopal bearing.
PALLA, in Roman antiquity, a mantle which wo¬
men wore over the gown called ftala. It was borne on
the left (houlder; whence paffing to the other fide, un¬
der the right arm, the two ends were bound un¬
der the left arm, leaving the breaft and arm quite
bare.
PALLADIO (Andrea), a celebrated Italian ar-
chiteft of the 16th century, was a native of Vicenza in
Lombardy, and the difciple of Triffin. He made ex-
adl drawings of the principal works of antiquity .to be
met with at Rome, adding commentaries to them,
which went through feveral imprefiions. But this,
though a very ufeful work, was greatly exceeded by
the Treatife of Archite&ure in four books, which he
publiftied in 1570. Inigo Jones wrote fome excel¬
lent remarks on it ; which were included in an edi¬
tion of Palladio, publifhed by Leoni, in 2 vols fo¬
lio, 1742.
PALLADIUM, in antiquity, a ftatueof the god-
defs Pallas, fuppofed to have dropped down from
heaven, preferved in Troy, whereon the fate of that
city is faid to have depended. It isfaid that there was
anciently a ftatue of Pallas preferved at Rome, in the
temple of Vella, which fome pretended to be the true
palladium of Troy, brought into Italy by JEneas: it
was kept among the facred things of the temple, and
only known to the priefts and veftals. It wasefteem-
ed the deftiny of Rome ; and there were feveral others
made perfedly like it to fecure. it from being ftolen,
Pajinody
|l
Palladium.
PAL [ 5S39 ] PAL
Pallet as was that at Troy, which the oracle of Apollo de-
1 dared fhould never be taken fo long as the palladium
was found within its walls : this occafioned Diomede
and Ulyfies, in the time of the Trojan war, to under¬
take the ftealing of it.
PALLET, among painters, a little oval table, or
piece of wood, or ivory, very thin and fmooth ; on
and round which, the painters place the feveral colours
they have occafion for, to be ready for the pencil.
The middle ferves to mix the colours on, andtomakU
the tints required in the work. It has no handle, but,
inftead thereof, a hole at one end to put the thumb
through to hold it.
Pallet, among potters, crucible-makers, &c. a
wooden inftrument, almoft the only one they ufe, for
forming, heating, and rounding their works. They
have feveral kinds: the larged are oval, with a handle;
others are round, or hollowed triangularly; others,
in fine, are in manner of large knives, ferving to cut
off whatever is fuperfiuous on the moulds of their
work.
Pallet, in gilding, an indrument made of a fquir-
rel’s tail, to take up the gold leaves from the pillow,
and to apply and extend them on the matter to be
gilt. See GilOing.
Pallet, in heraldry, is nothing but a fmall pale,
Confiding of one half of it in breadth, and there¬
fore there are fometimes feveral of them upon one
fhield.
Pallet, is alfo a part belonging to the balance of
a watch or movement. See the article Watch.
PALLIATION, or a Palliative Cure, in me¬
dicine, is when, in defperate and incurable difeafes,
after prediiting the fatal event, the phyfician pre-
fcribes fome remedies for mitigating the pain or fome
other urgent fymptoms, as in ulcerated cancers, or can¬
cerous fidulas, and the like.
PALLIUM, a word often mentioned in our old
hidorians. Durandus tells us, that it is a garment
made of white wool, after the following manner, viz.
The nuns 6f St Agnes, every year, on the fead-day
of their faint, offer two white lambs on the altar of
their church, during the time they fing Agnus Dei, in
a folemn mafs; which lambs are afterwards taken by
two of the canons of the Lateran church, and by them
iveii to the Pope’s fubdeacons, who fend them to pa-
ure till fneafirig time, and then they are fhorn, ami
the pall is made of their wool mixed with other white
wool. The pall being thus made, is carried to the La¬
teran church, and there placed on the high altar, by
the deacons of that church, on the bodies of St Peter
and St Paul; and after an ufual watching, it is carried
away in the night, and delivered to the fubdeacons,
who lay it up fafe. And becaufe it was taken from
the body of St Peter, it fignifies the plenitude of ec-
clefiadical power : and therefore it was the prerogative
of popes, who pretend to be the immediate fucceffors of
that faint, to inveft other prelates with it; which at
firft was done nowhere but at Rome, tlio’ afterwards
at other places.
PALM-sunday, in the Chriftian church, the fun-
day next before Eafter ; being fo called in memory of
our Saviour’s triumphal entry into Jerufalem, when
the multitude that attended him ftrewed branches on
his way.
Vol. VIII.
Palm-7Vw, in botany. See Phoenijc.
Palma, or Pallia Nova, a very flrong town of
Italy, in the territory of Venice, dnd in Friuli. It
is a very important place, for the deferice of (he Ve¬
netians againft the Aufirians and Turks; and waS built
in 1593, for that very purpofe. They hive cut a
canal near this place, which is very advantageous. It
is feated on the the fea-fide, 10 miles fouih-eaft of
Udino, and 55 north-eafl of Venice. E. Long. 13.
25. N. Lat. 46. 2.
Palma, an ifland in the Atlantic Ocean, and one
of the Canaries, 36 miles north-weft of Gomera, and
about 75 in circumference. It abounds in wine and
fugar; and has a handfome town of the fame name,
which carries on a trade in wine to the Weft Iridic's
and other parts. Their beft vines grow in a foil ealltd
the Brenia, where they make 12,000 butts of wine
every year, which is well known by the name ofpaitfi-
nvine. There is plenty of cattle, and all forts of fruits.
In 1625 a volcano broke out in this illand, with a
moft violent earthquake; the flame was feen for fix
weeks together, and a great quantity of allies Were
thrown as far as Teneriff. It was Cohquered by thd
Spainardsin 1460.
PALMARIS muscle, in anatomy. See there,
"table of the viufcles.
PALMATED, fomitbing refembling the fhape of
the hand : thus we fay, palmated leaves, roots, ftonee,
&c.
PALMIPEDES, among dfnitholegifls, the fatrie
with web-footed birds. See OrHitHOlogy.
PALMISTRY, a kind of divination, or rather a
deceitful art praflifed by gypfies, who pretend to fore¬
tell events by looking upon the lines and marks of the
hand.
PALMYRA, or TadMor, a noble city of ancient
Syria, now in ruins, the origiri 6f whole flame is un¬
certain. Neither i^ it Well known by Whoftv this city
was built; for though, froth the identity bf the names,
it is thought by many to HaVe been the Tadinsr in the
•wildernefs built by Sblofribn, tfeirf point is much con¬
troverted by many learned men. Nor have we any
authentic hiftory of it till after the captivity of the
Roman emperor. Valerian, by the Perfians. At that
time it was become an opulent city, to which its fitil-
ation in the vicinity of the Roman and Parthian em¬
pires greatly contributed; as the caravans, in going to
or returning from the Eaft, frequented the place, rind
thus rendered it a Cqnfiderable feat bf mercharidife. It
enjoyed an independency till the tirne of Trajan; who,
having made himfelf mafter of almoft all the Parthian
empire, reduced Palmyra likewife, and it was after¬
wards accounted part of the Roman dominions. But
when the defeat and captivity of Valerian had fo
much weakened the empire, that the Peffians feemed
to be in a fair way of becoming matters of all the ea-
ftern provinces, the Palmyreniaris began to entertain
thoughts of recovering their liberty. Odenathus, prince
of Palmyra, fent a very refpedlful letter to Sapor on
his return, accompanied with confiderable prefents;
but by that haughty conqueror his letter and em-
baffy were treated with the moft provoking contempt.
The prefents were thrown into the" Euphrates: and to
his letter Sapor replied, That hisinfolence in prefuming
to write to his lord was inexcufe'able; but if he could
32 Z atone
Filin
"■[I ■
Palmyra.
PAL [ 5840 ] P A L
Palmyra, atone for it in any way, it would be by' prefentiiig
~ himfelf before the throne bound hand and foot, in to¬
ken of a confcioufnefs of his crime, and the puniihment
he deferved. With this injurious treatment Odenathus
was fo provoked, that he fwore either to bring down
the pride of the haughty conqueror, or die in the at¬
tempt. Accordingly, having aflembled what forces he
could, he fell upon the Perfians, deltroyed a number
of them, took a great part of their baggage, and fome
of the king’s concubines. Of the war of Odenathus
with the Perfians, however, we know very little: only
that though the latter were often vanquilhed, and the
independency of Palmyra eftablifhed for the prefent ;
yet Valerian was never releafed from his captivity, tho’
Odenathus earneftly wifhed to have the honour of ref-
cuing him from his enemies.
Ode’nathus enjoyed his fovereignty but a very fhort
time ; being murdered by his nephew, who was foon
after put to death by Zenobia the -wife of Odenathus.
This lady is faid to have been poflefled of very extra¬
ordinary endowments both of body and mind, being,
according to Mr Gibbon, almoft the only Afiatic woman
who is recorded to have overcome the obftacles arifing
from the confined fituation of the fair fex in that part
of the world. Immediately on taking vengeance for
the murder of her hufband, fhe alfumed the govern¬
ment, and foon ftrengthened herfelf fo much, that file
refalved to fubmit neither to the Roman nor Perfian
power. The neighbouring ftates of Arabia, Arme¬
nia, and Perfia, dreaded her enmity, and folicited her
alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which ex¬
tended from the Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia,
his widow added the inheritance of her anceftors, the
populous and fertile kingdom of Egypt. The empe¬
ror Claudius acknowledged her merit, and was con¬
tent, that, while he purfued the Gothic war, (he fliould
afiert the dignity of the empire in the eaft. The con-
dudf, however, of Zenobia, was attended with fome
ambiguity; nor is it unlikely that (he had conceived
the defign of ere&ing an independent and hoftile mo¬
narchy. She blended with the popular manners of Ro¬
man princes the fiately pomp of the courts of Afia,
and exa&ed from her fubjefts the fame adoration that
was paid to the fucceffors of Cyrus. She bellowed on
her three fons a Latin education, and often Ihewed them
to the troops adorned with the imperial purple. For
herfelf Ihe referved the diadem, with the fplendid but
doubtful title of Queen of the Eaf.
When Aurelian palled over into Afia, againft an
adverfary whofe fex alone could render her an objedl
of contempt, his prefence reftored obedience to the
province of Bithynia, already fiiaken by the arms and
intrigues of Zenobia. Advancing at the head of his
legions, he accepted the fubmiffion of Ancyra; and
was admitted into Tyana, after an qbftinate liege, by
the help of a perfidious citizen. The generous, tho’
fierce temper of Aurelian, abandoned the traitor to the
rage of the foldiers: a fuperftitious reverence induced
him to treat with lenity the countrymen of Apollonius
the philofopher. Antioch was deferted on his approach;
till the emperor, by his falutary edidts, recalled the fu¬
gitives, and granted a general pardon to all who, from
recefiity rather than choice, had been engaged in the
fervice of the Pahnyrenian queen. The unexpedled
mildnefs of fuch a condud reconciled the minds of the
Syrians, and, as far as the gates of Emefa, the wilhes Palmyra.
of the people feconded the the terror.of his arms.    '
Zenobia would have ill deferved her reputation, had
file indolently permitted the emperor of the Weft to
approach within 100 miles of her capital. The fate
of the Eaft was decided in two great battles; fo fimi-
lar in almoft every circumftance, that we can fcarcely
diftinguilh them from each other, except by obferving
that the firft was fought near Antioch, and the fecond
near Emefa. In both, the queen of Palmyra anima¬
ted the armies by her prefence, and devolved the exe¬
cution of her orders on ZaLdas, who had already fig-
nalized his military talents by the conqueft of Egypt.
The numerous forces of Zenobia,.confifted for the moft
part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in
complete fteel. The Moorifh and Illyrian horfe of
Aurelian were unable to fuftain the ponderous charge
of their antagonifts. They fled in real or affefted dif-
order, engaged the Palmyrenians in a laborious pur-
fuit, harafled them by a defultory combat, and at
length difeomfited this impenetrable but unweildy
body of cavalry. The light infantry, in the mean
time, when they had exhaufted their quivers, remain¬
ing without proteflion againft a clofer onfet, expofed
their naked fides to the fwords of the legions. Aure¬
lian had chofen thefe veteran troops, who were ufua-lly
ftationed on the Upper Danube, and whofe valour had
been feverely tried in the Allemannic war. After the
defeat of Emefa, Zenobia Bound it impofiible to col left
a third army. As far as the frontier of Egypt, the
nations fubjedl to her empire had joined the ftandard
of the conqueror; who detached Probus, the bra veil of
his generals, to poffefs himfelf of the Egyptian pro¬
vinces. Palmyra was the laft refourcc of the widow of
Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capi¬
tal ; made every preparation for a vigorous refiftance ;
and declared with the intrepidity of a heroine, that the
laft moment of her reign and of her life fhould be the
fame.
In his march over the Tandy defart, between Emefa
and Palmyra, the emperor Aurelian was perpetually,
harafled by the Arabs; nor could he always defend his
army, and efpecially his baggage, from thofe flying
troops of aftive and daring robbers, who watched the
moment of furprife, and diredled the flow purfuit of the
legions. The liege of Palmyra was an objed far more
difficult and important; and the emperor, who with in-
ceflant vigour preffed the attacks in perfon, was him¬
felf wounded with a dart. “ The Roman people,
(fays Aurelian, in an original letter), fpeak with con¬
tempt of the war which I am waging againft a woman.
They are ignorant both of the chara&er and of the
power of Zenobia. It is impoffible to enumerate her
warlike preparations, of ftones, of arrows, and of every
fpecies of miffile weapons. Every part of the walls is
provided with two or three baliflae, and artificial fires
are thrown from her military engines. The fear of
punifliment has armed her with a defperate courage.
Yet I trull Hill in the proteding deities of Rome, who
have hitherto been favourable to all my undertakings.”"
Doubtful, however, of the protedion of the gods, and
of the event of the fiege, Aurelian judged it more pru¬
dent to offer terms of an advantageous capitulation :
to the queen, a fplendid retreat; to the citizens, their
ancient privileges. His propofals were obftinately re-.
P A L [ 5841 1 PAN
Palmyrn. jefted, and the refufal was accompanied with Infult.
, The fiimnefs of Zenobia was fupported by the hope,
that in a very fhort time famine would compel the Ro¬
man army to repafa the defart; and by the reafonable
expectation that the kings of the Eaft, and particular¬
ly the Perfian monarch, would arm in the defence of.
their mo'fl; natural ally. But fortune, and the perfe-
verance of Aurelian, overcame every obltacle. The
death of Sapor, which happened about this time, di-
ftra&ed the councils of Perfia; and the inconfiderahle
fuccours that attempted to relieve Palmyra, were eafily
intercepted either by the arms or the liberality of the
emperor. From every part of Syria a regular fuccef-
lion of convoys fafely arrived in the camp, which was
increafed by the return of Probus with his vi&orious
troops from the conqoeft of Egypt. It was then that
Zenobia refolved to fly. She mounted the fleeted of
her dromedaries; and had already reached the banks of
the Euphrates, about 60 miles from Palmyra, when
fhe was overtaken by the purfnit of Aurelian’s light-
horfe, feized, and brought back a captive to the feet
of the emperor. Her capital foon after furrendered,
and was treated with unexpe&ed lenity. The arms,
horfes, and camels, with an immenfe treafure of gold,
filver, filk, and precious flones, were all delivered to
the conqueror; who, leaving only a garrifon of 600
archers, returned to Emefa, and.employed fome time
in the didribution of rewards and punifhments at the
end of fo memorable a war, which redored to the obe¬
dience of Rome thofe provinces that had renounced
their allegiance fince the captivity of Valerian.
When the Syrian queen was brought into the pre¬
fence of Aurelian, he dernly afked her, How fhe had
prefumed to rife in arms againd the emperors of Rome?
The anfwer of Zenobia was a prudent mixture of re-
fpe& and firmnefs: “ Becaufe I difdained to confider
as Roman emperots, an Aureolus or a Galienus. You
alone I acknowledge as my conqueror and my fove-
reign.” But as female fortitude is commonly artifi¬
cial, fo it is feldom deady or confident. The courage
of Zenobia deferted her in the hour of trial; fhe trem¬
bled at the angry clamours of the foldiers, who called
aloud for her immediate execution ; forgot the gene¬
rous defpair of Cleopatra, which fhe had proposed as
her model; and ignominioufly purchafed life by the fa-
crifice of her fame and her friends. It was to their
counfels which governed the weaknefs of her fex, that
fhe imputed the guilt of her obdinate refidance; it was
on their heads that fne direfted the vengeance of the
cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, who was in¬
cluded among the numerous and perhaps innocent vic¬
tims of her fear, will furvive that of the queen who be¬
trayed, or the tyrant who condemned him. Genius and
learning were incapable of moving a fierce unlettered
foldier, but they had ferved to elevate and harmonife
the foul of Longinus. Without uttering a complaint,
he calmly followed the executioner, pitying his un¬
happy midrefs, and bedowing comfort on his afflicted
friends.
Returning from the conqued of the Ead, Aurelian
had already crofied the dreights which divide Europe
from Afia; when he was provoked by the intelligence
that the Palmyrenians had maffacred the governor and
garrifon which he had left among them, and again
erefied the ftandard of revolt. Without a moment’s Palpable
deliberation, he once more turned his face towards TJ!
Syria. Antioch was alarmed by his rapid approach, an'
and the helplefs city of Palmyra felt the irrefidible
weight of his refentment. We have a letter of Aure¬
lian himfelf, in which he acknowleges, that old men,
women, children, and peafants, had been involved in
that dreadful execution, which fhould have been con¬
fined to armed rebellion : and although his principal
concern feems directed to the re-eftabliihment of a
temple of the Sun, he difcovers fome pity for the rem¬
nant of the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the
permiffion of rebuilding and inhabiting their city.
But it is eafier to deftroy than to reftorc. The feat
of commerce, of arts, and of Zenobia, gradually funk
into an obfcure town, a trifling fortrefs, and at length
a miferable village. Th« ruins of its temples, palaces,
and porticos of Grecian archite&ure, lie fcattered over
an extent of feveral miles. Thefe magnificent remains
were accidentally difcovered by fome Englifti travellers
from Aleppo about a century ago; and moft fplendid
views have fince been given of them by MefTrs Wood
and Dawkins, to whofe work the curious reader is re¬
ferred.
PALPABLE, fomething perceivable by the fen-
fes, particularly that of feeling.
PALPITATION of the Heart. See Medicine,
n° 206. 395.
PALSY. Ibid. n° 190. 377—380. & p.4870.
PALUDAMENTUM, in Roman antiquity, a ha¬
bit that differed but tittle from the chlamys, except that
his laft belonged chiefly to the lower clafs of people.
PALUS meotis, the ancient name of a gulph
between Europe and Afia, to the north of the Black
Sea, now called the fea ofZabach, ox Hfoph.
PALY, or Pale, in heraldry, is when the fliield is
divided into four or more equal parts, by perpendicular
lines falling from the top to the bottom.
Paly Bende, is when the efcutcheon is divided by
perpendicular lines, which is paly; and alfo by diago¬
nals, which is called bendy.
PAMPELUNA, the capital of the kingdom of Na¬
varre in Spain, with a very ftrong citadel and rich
bifhopric. It is handfome and populous, and carries
on a great trade, feated in a very fertile plain, in E.
Long. 1. 25. N. Nat. 42.42.
Pampeluna, a town of New Granada in South
America, famous for its gold mines and numerous
flocks of fheep. W. Long. 68. 30. N. Lat. 6. 30.
PAMPHYLIA, the ancient name of a country of
Natolia in Afia, now called Carimania and Cay-bayt
between Lycia and Cilicia, on the fouth coaft, to the
north of the Mediterranean fea.
PAN, in Pagan worlhip, the fon of Mercury and
Penelope (the wife of Ulyfles), who was ravifhed by
that god in the form of a white goat, while fhe was
keeping her father’s flocks. He was educated on Mount
Menelaus, in Arcadia, by Since, and the other nymphs,
whom he attrafted by his mufic. He afterwards diftin-
guifhed himfelf in the war with the giants, when he en¬
tangled Typhon in his nets. He attended Bacchus in his
•Indian expedition ; and when the Gauls were about to
pillage the temple of Delphos, he ftruck them with
fuch.a fudden conflernation by night, that they fled,
32 Z 2 though
PAN [ 5842 ] PAN
Pan. though none purfued them. He had a contett with
” ' Cupid ; but was conquered by the little god, whopu-
nilhed him, by infpiring him with a paffion for the
nymph Syrinx, who treated him with difdain : but he
clofely purfuing her, overtook her by the river Ladon,
when, invoking the Naiads, flie was changed into a
tuft of reeds, which the difappointed lover grafped in
his arms; but obferving, that as they trembled with
the wind, they formed a murmuring found, he made
of them the pipe for which he became fo famous. He
charmed Luna in the (hape of a beautiful ram, and had
feveral other amours.
Pan is reprefented with a fmiling ruddy face, a thick
beard, with the horns, legs, feet, and tail of a goat;
holding a (hepherd’s crook In one hand, and his pipe
of unequal reeds in the other.
The abbe Banier remarks, that if ever the Greeks
corrupted ancient hiftory, it was in fabricating the
fable of Pan. According to them, fays Herodotus,
Hercules Dionyfius, or Bacchus, and Pan, were the
lad of all the gods : however, in the opinion of the
Egyptians, Pan was one of the eight great divinities
that formed the firft clafs in their theology, which were
the moft powerful and the moft ancient of all.
Diodorus makes him one of the attendants upon
Ofiris, in his Indian expedition. “ Ofiris,” fays this
author, took with him Pan, aperfon much refpe&ed
throughout his dominions: for he had not only his fta-
tue afterwards placed in all the temples, but a city was
built in the Thebaid ; which, in honour of Pan, was
called Chemmisy or Chammo, a word that lignifies in
the Egyptian language the city of Pan.”
The fame author, however, teljs us, that he was the
leader of a troop of fauns and fatyrs, or wild and ruftic
men, much addifted to finging, dancing, and feats of
a&ivity, who were prefemed to Ofiris in Ethiopia,
and with whom that prince was fo much pleafed, that
he retained them in his fervice.
Pan was regarded by the Egyptians, after his apo-
theofis, as the god who prefided over the whole uni-
verfe, as cmne, implies. He reprefented nature
and feftivity ; and was god of the woods and fields,
■wholly taken up with the pleafures of a country life ;
dancing conftantly with the fauns and fatyrs ; and runf
ning after the nymphs, to whom he was fuch a terror,
that it is fuppofed the word panic is derived from Pa~
fiici terrores, with which thofe who were faid to have
feen him were feized. Apuleius, however, gives an
agreeable defcription of him. “ By chance the god
Pan happened to be feated on a little eminence near a
river; and, always conftant in his love to the nymph
Syrinx, transformed into a reed, he taught her to
produce all kinds of agreeable founds, while his goats
were {kipping round him, and feeding on the banks.”
Luciau defcribes him as the companion, minifter,
and counfellor of Bacchus. He was a kind of Scrub,
a drudge fit for all work, having been occafionally
employed in the capacity of fliepherd, mufician, dan¬
cer, huntfraan, and foldier. In fhort,. he ferved not
only as maejlro di capello, in dire&ing the Bacchanals,
but was fo expert in playing upon flutes, and was fuch
an excellent piper cn the fiftula, that Bacchus was ne¬
ver happy without him.
He was particularly honoured in Arcadia, where
the ihepherd$ cfcred him milk sad hooey in wooden
bowls: when fuccefsful in hunting, they gave him a Panacea
part of the fpoils ; but if they caught nothing, they II
{hewed their refentment by whipping his image. j Panama.
The Romans adopted him amongft their deities un- "
der the names of Lupercus and Lycceus.
PANACEA, among phyficians, denotes an uni-
verfal medicine, or a remedy for all difeafes ; a thing
impoffible to be obtained.
PANADA, a diet confifting of bread boiled in
water to the confiftence of pulp, and fweetened with
a little fugar.
PANAMA, the capital city of the province of Da¬
rien in South America, where the treafures of gold
and filver, and the other rich merchandifes of Peru,
are lodged in magazines till they are fent to Europe.
W. Long. 82.0. N. Lat. 9. o.
This town, which had been the gate through which
an entrance was gained into Peru, had rifen to great
profperity, when, in 1670, it was pillaged and burnt
by pirates. It was rebuilt on a more advantageous
fpot, at the diftance of four or five miles from the firfi.
Its harbour, called Peri(o, is very fecure. It is form¬
ed by an archipelago, confifting of 48 fmall iflands,
and is capable of containing the largelt fleets.
This place, a little while after it was founded, be¬
came the capital of the kingdom of Terra Firma.
Some hope? were at firft entertained from the three
provinces of Panama, Darien, and Veragua, which
compofed it; but this prpfperity vaniflied inftanta-
neoufly. The favages of Darien recovered their inder
pendence $ and the mines of'the two other provinces
were found to be neither fufficiently abundant, nor of
an alloy good enough to make it worth while to work
them. Five or fix fmall boroughs, in which are feen
fome Europeans quite naked, and a very fmall num¬
ber of Indians, who have come to refide there, form
the whole of this ftate, which the Spaniards are not
afliamed of honouring with the great name of king¬
dom. It is in general barren and unwholefome, and
contributes nothing to trade but pearls.
The pearl fiftiery is carried on in the iflands of the
gulph. The greateft part of the inhabitants employ
fuch of their negroes in it as are good fwimmers.
Thefe flaves plunge and replunge in the fea in fearch
of pearls, till this exercife has exhaufted their ftrength
or their fpirits.
Every negro is obliged to deliver a certain number
of oyfters. Thofe in which there are no pearls, or in
which the pearl is not entirely formed, are not reckon¬
ed. What he is able to find beyond the ftipulated
obligation, is confidered as his indifputable property :
he may fell it to whom he pleafes ; but commonly he
cedes it to his mafter at a moderate price.
Sea monfters, which abound more about the iflands
where peans are found than on the neighbouringcoafts,
render this fifhing dangerous. Some of thefe devour
the divers in an inftant. The manta fifli, which de¬
rives its name from its figure, furrounds them, rolls
them under its body, and fuffocates them. In order
to defend themfelves againft fuch enemies, every diver
is armed with a poinard: the moment he perceives any
of thefe voracious fifli, he attacks them with precau¬
tion, wounds them, and drives them away. Notwith-
ftanding this, there are always fome filhermen deftroy-
ed, and a great number crippled.
The
PAN [ 5843 ] PAN
Pan»n The pefirla of Panama are commonly of a very fine
H water- Some of them are even remarkable for their
Jj^fl_fizeand figure: thefe were formerly fold in Europe.
Since art has imitated them, and the paflion for
diamonds has entirely fuperfeded or prodigioufly di-
miniflied the ufe of them, they have found a new mart
more advantageous than the firft. They are carried
to Peru, where they are in great eftimation.
This branch of trade has, however, infinitely lefs
contributed to give reputation to Panama, than the
advantage which it hath long enjoyed of being the
mart of all the produ&ions of the country of the
Incas, that are deftined for the old world. Thefe
riches, which are brought hither by 3 fmall fleet, were
carried, fome on mules, others by the river Chagre,
to Porto Bello, that is fituated on the northern coaft.
of the ifthmus which feparates the two feas.
PANARI, one of the Lipari iflands lying in the
Tufcan Sea. It is only five miles in circumference,
and the foil is barren. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat.
39. o.
PANARO, a river of Italy, which rifes in the
Appennines, crofles the valley of Frignano ; and run¬
ning on the confines of the Modtnefe and Bolognefe,
waters Fenal, and falls into the Pa at Bondeno, ten
miles above Ferrara.
PANATHEN./EA, in Grecian antiquity an an¬
cient Athenian feftival, in honour of Minerva the
proteftrefs of Athens, and called Athcnxa. There
were two fettivals under this denomination, the greater
and the It Her. The greater panathenaea were exhi¬
bited every five years ; the lefs every three, or, ac¬
cording to fome writers, annually. Though the cele¬
bration of neither, at firft, employed more than one
day ; yet in after-times they were protrafted for the
fpace of many days, and folemnized with greater pre¬
parations and magnificence than at their firft inftitu-
tion.
Prizes were eftablifhed there for three different kinds
of combat : the firft confifted of foot and horfe races ;
the fecond, of athletic excercifes ; and the third, of
poetical and mufical contefts. Thefe laft are faid to
have been inftituted by Pericles. Singers of the firft
clafs, accompanied by performers on the flute and
cithara, exercifed their talents here, upon fubje& per-
fcribed by the diredlors of thefc exhibitions. And
while the Athenian ftate was free and independent,
the noble and generous actions of Harmodius and
Ariftogiton, who had oppofed the power of the Pifi-
ftratidas, and of Ariftobulus, who had delivered the
Athenians from the oppreflion of the thirty tyrants
impofed upon them by the Lacedsemonians, were cele¬
brated in thefe fongs.
PANAX, Ginseng, a genus of the dioecia or¬
der, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants.
There are two fpecies, the quinquefolium and trifolium.
Both thefe are natives of North America. The
former is generally believed to be the fame with the
Tartarian ginfeng ; the figures and defcriptions of that
plant which have been fent to Europe by the mif-
fionaries, agreeing perfe&ly with the American Plant.
This hath a jointed, fleftiy, and taper root, as large
as a man’s finger, frequently divided into two fmaller
fibres downwards. The ftalks rifes near a foot and
■an half high, and is naked at the top, where it gene¬
rally divides into three fmaller foot-ftalks, each fu- Panart,
ftaining a leaf compofed of five fpear-ftiaped lobes, panuV-
fawed on their edges: they are of a pale green, and
a little hairy. The flowers grow on a flender foot-
ftalk, juft at the divifion of the foot-ftalks which
fuftain the leaves, and are formed into a fmall umbel at
the top; they are of an herbaceous yellow colour,
compofed of fmall yellow petals, which are recurved.
Thefe appear the beginning of June; and are fucceeded
by compreffed, heart-lhaped berries, which are firft
green, but afterwards turn red; inclofing two hard,
compreffed, heart-fhaped feeds, which ripen in the
beginning of Auguft. The fecond fort grows naturally
in the fame countries: but Mr Miller never faw more
than one plant, which was fent to him from Maryland,
and did not live beyond the firft year ; being planted
in a dry foil, in a very dry feafon. The llalk was
Angle, and did not rife more than five inches in
height, dividing into three foot-ftalks, each fuftaining
a trifoliate leaf, whofe lobes were longer, narrower,
and deeper indented on their edges, than the former.
The flower-ftalk rofe from the divifions of the foot-
ftalk of the leaves ; but before the flowers opened, the
plant decayed.
Properties. The root of this plant is ufed in me¬
dicine. It is two or three inches long, taper, about
the thicknefs of the little finger, often forked at the
bottom, which gives it a diftant refemblance of a
man, whence it is called ginfeng; it is elegantly
ftriated with circular wrinkles; it is of a browniih
yellow colour on the outfide, and whitifli or of a pale
yellow within ; on the top are commonly one or more
little knots, which are the remains of the ftalks of
the preceding years, and from the number of which
the age of the root is judged of. Thofe roots which
are brought from China are foroewhat paler than thofe
from America, but in no atherrefpedt is any difference
found.
The Chinefe efteera the ginfeng root as a general
reftorative and corroborant: to the tafte it is mucila¬
ginous, and fweet like liquorice; yet accompanied
with a degree of bitternel's and a flight aromatic
warmth, with little or no fmell: the fweet matter of
thefe roots is preferved in the watery as well as in the
fpirituous extraft, and fo is their aroma; the fpiri-
tuous extradf is a pleafant warm bitterifh fweet.
A dram of the ginfeng root may be fliced and
boiled in a quarter of a pint of water to about two
ounces ; then a little fugar being added, it may be
drank as foon as it is cool enough: the dofe muft be
repeated morning and evening ; but the fecond dofe
may be prepared from the fame portion of root which
was ufed at firft, for it may always be twice boiled.
The plant has been introduced into the Britifh gardens,
and will thrive in thofe places where it hath a light
foil and fhady fituation, and will produce flowers
and feeds ; but the latter, though in appearance ripe
and perfeft, will not produce any new plants, as Mr
Miller fays he has repeatedly made the experiment,
and waited for them three years without difturbing
the ground.
PANAY, an ifland of AGa, and one of the Phi¬
lippines, lying between thofe of Paragoa and Negro.
It is 250 miles in circumference, and is the moft po¬
pulous and fertile of them all. It is watered by a
great
PAN [ 5844 ] -PAN
Fanacarpus great number of rivers and brooks, and produces a
II great quantity of rice.
Pandora- PANACARPUS, in Roman antiquity, a kind of
iliew which the Roman emperors frequently exhibited
to the people. In this fpe&acle, the Circus being all
fet over with large trees, reprefenled a foreft, into
which the beads being let from the dens underground,
the people, at a fign given by the emperor, purfued,
(hot, and killed all they could lay hold of, which they
afterwards carried away, to regale upon at home.
The beads ufually given on thefe occafions were boars,
deers oxen, and (heep.
PANCIROLLUS (Guy), a famous lawyer of
Rhegium, was a perfon of an excellent geniuSj which
he cultivated with the greateft care in the principal
univerfities of Italy ; and was afterwards ordinary
profeflbr of law at Padua. Philibert Emanuel, duke
of Savoy, invited him to his univerfity in 1571,
where he compofed his ingenious treatife De rebus in-
, ventis et deperditis. But the air of Turin not agree¬
ing with him, he there loft an eye ; and, for fear of
lofing the other, returned to Padua, where he died
in 1591.
PANCREAS, in anatomy. See there, n® 356.
PANDATARIA, (Suetonius, Pliny, Strabo);
Pandateria, (Mela, Tacitus): An ifland in the Tuf-
can fea ; a place of banilhment for the more illuftrious
exiles. Hither Julia, the daughter of Auguftus, was
bariifhed for her incontinence. To this ifland Tibe¬
rius banilhed Agrippina, his daughter-in-law, (Sue¬
tonius). It was the place of confinement of Oftavia,
the daughter of Cladius, married to Nero ; a fight
that affedted every eye, (Tacitus). Now Santa Ma¬
ria, fituate between Pontia and Ifchia, (Holftenius).
PANDECTS, pandect.®, in jtirifprudence, the
digeft, ort collection, made by Juftinian’s order, of 534
decifions or judgments of the ancient lawyers, on fo
many queftions occurring in the civil law ; to which
that emperor gave the force and authority of law, by
the epiftle prefixed to them.—The word is Greek,
na.vtix.Tui, compounded of “ all/’ and tiyo^ai, Ca-
pio, “ I takey. d. a compilation, or a book con¬
taining all things,—Though others, as Bartoli, will
have it formed from and as if thefe books
contained the whole dodtrine of the law.
The pandedts confift of 50 books,, and make the firft
part of the body of the civil law.
They were denoted by two but the copifts ta¬
king thofe ^forthe cuftom arofe of quoting them
by/
The Florentine pandefts, are thofe printed from a fa¬
mous ancient manufcript at Florence.
Papias extends the denomination of pandefts, to the
Old and New Teftament.
There are alfo Pandecta Afeirr/W, “ Pandedlsof
Medicine;” a kind of didlionary of things relating to
medicine, compiled by Mat. Sylvaticus of Mantua,
who lived about the year 1297. Leunclavius has pub-
liflied Pandefts of Turky; and bifliop Beveridge, Pan-
defta canonum.
PANDICULATION, a ftretching ; or that vio¬
lent and tenfive motion of the fplids, which ufually ac¬
companies the adt of yawning.
PANDORA, in fabulous hiftory, a woman formed
,by Prometheus, to whom each of the gods gave fome
perfedtion. Venus beftowed upon her beauty ; Pallas, Fandoms
wifdom ; Juno, riches ; Apollo, mufic ; and Mercury, pJjel
eloquence: bat Jupiter being difpieafed at Prompthens
for having ftolen fire from heaven to animate the mafs
he had formed, gave Pandora a box, which flie was
ordered not to open ; and then feut her to the earth
with this box, id which were inclofed age, difeafes,
peftilence, war, famine, envy, difeord, and all the
evils and vices that could afflidt mankind. This fatal
box was opened by Epimetheus, Prometheus’s brother,
when inftantly all the difeafes and mifehiefs with which
it was filled fpread over the earth, and Hope alone re¬
mained at the bottom.
PANDOURS, are Hungarian infantry: they wear
a loofe garment fixed tight to their bodies by a girdle,
with great fleeves, and large breeches hanging down to
their ancles. They ufe fire-arms, and are excellent
markfmen : they atfo ufe a kind of fabre near four feet
long, which they ufe with great dexterity.
PANDOSIA, (Livy, Juftin, Strabo), an inland
town of the Brutti, and a place of ftrength, on the ri¬
ver Acheron, where Alexander of Epirus, deceived
by the oracle of Dodona, met his fate and periflred.
Now Mendicino, (Holftenius). Another of Epirus,
(Strabo) ; fituate on the river Acheron, (Livy);
which Alexander of Epirus was advifed to avoid as fa¬
tal, but which he met with in Italy. This laft is faid
to have been the refidence of the Oenotrian kings,
(Strabo.)
PANEAS, (Pliny, Jofephus) ; the apparent fpring
from which the Jordan rifes, on the extremity of the welt
fide of the Trachonitis, (Pliny).
Paneas, (Coins, Pliny, Jofephus), the name of a
diftridt adjoining to the fpring Paneas, with a cogno-
minal town, either enlarged and adorned, or original¬
ly built, by Philip fon of Herod, and called Cafarea,
by Jofephus; and in St Matthew, Ceefarea of Philip;
with a temple eredted to Auguftus his benefador, who
conferred the Trachonitis upon him, (coin). It was
afterwards called Neronias, in honour of Nero, (Jofe¬
phus).
PANEGYRIC, an oration in praife of fome extra¬
ordinary thing, perfon, or virtue.
The name is Greek, *-av»yu?if; formed of “ all,”
and “ I affemble;” becaufe anciently held in
public and folemn alfemblies of the Greeks, either at
their games, their feafts, fairs, or religious meetings.
PANEGYRICUM, in church-hiftory, an ecclefia-
ftical book, ufed by the Greek church, containing the
panegyrical orations of various authors, on the folem-
nities of Jefus Chrift and the faints.
Among the principal authors of this work are Atha-
nafms, Cyrill, Bafil, Chryfoftom, &c.
PANEL, (Panella, Panellum), according to Sir Edw.
Coke, denotes a little part ; but the. learned Spelman
fays, that it fignifies fchedula velpagina, a “ fchedule
or roll;” as a panel of parchment, or a counterpane of
an indenture : but it is ufed more particularly for a
fchedule or roll, containing the names of fuch jurors as
the Sheriff returns to pafs upon any trial. And the
impanelling a jury is the entering their names in a pa¬
nel, or little fchedule of parchment.
Panel, in Scots law, fignifies the prifoner at the
bar, or perfon who takes his trial before the court of
judiciary for fome crime.
PAN-
PAN [ 5845 ] PAN
Pangonia , PANGONIA, in natural liiftoiy, the name of a ge-
il mis of cryftals, confining of fuch as are corapofed of
Pantheon.
  many angles.
PANIC, denotes an ill-grounded terror or fright.
See Pan.
PANICLE, in botany, denotes a foft woolly,beard,
on which the feeds of fome plants, as millet,, reeds.,'and
hay. : r
PANNELS of a Saddle, are two culhions or bol-
fters, tilled with cows, deer, or horfe’s hair, and placed
under the faddle, on each fide, to prevent the bows and
bands from galling the horfe.
PANNICULUS carnosus, in comparative ana¬
tomy, a robuft flefhy tunic, fituated hi beads between
the fkin and the fat; by means of which they'can move
their fkin in whole or in part. It is, altogether want¬
ing in mankind.
PANNONIA, (Pliny, Strabo, Dio), an extenfive
country of Europe, having the Danube on the north,
.Dalmatia on the fouth, Noricujp on the weft, and
Moefia on the eaft. It is divided in fopirior and infe¬
rior, (Ptolemy, Dio). The common .hPundary be¬
tween both were the river Arabo and mount Celius,
having the fuperior tp the weft, and the inferior on the
taft fide. This divifton is thought to be no older than
the times of the Antonines; f annwicus the epithet,
(Martial).
PANORMUS, (Polybj-us, Paufanias), a town of
Achaia, in Peloponnefus, near the promontory Rhium.
—Another, (Ptolemy, fjjnyr) a town on the north
fide of Crete.-^-A third, (Ptolerpy), in Macedonia, on
the Egean fea, near mopnjt Athos.—A fourth, of Sa¬
mos, (Livy.)-—A fifth, of Sicily;: an ancient city, built
by the Phoenicians, (Thucydides); a principal town of
the Carthaginians, (Polybius); fituate between Lily-
bseus and Pelorus, (Mela): a Roman colony. Now
Palermo, capital of the iflijtnd, on the north fide. E.
Long. 13. N. Lat. 38. 30.— A fi.xth Panormus of the
Thracia Cherfonefus, placed by Pl*hy on we^
of the peninfula, and mentioned by no other writer.
Panormos, (Ptolemy), a port of Attica; its name
denoting it to be capacious.-—Another, of Epirus,
(Strabo, Ptolemy); a large harbour in the heart of the
Montes Cerauni, below the citadel Chimsera.—A third,
of Ionia, (Strabo); near Ephcfus, with the temple of
the Ephetian Diana.
PANORPA, the Scorpion-fly,,in zoology, a ge¬
nus of infe&s belonging to the order of neuroptera.
The roftrum is horny and cylindrical ; there are two
pappi, and three ftemonata ; the feelers are longer
than the thorax ; and the tail of the male is furnilhed
with a forceps. There are four fpecies, diftinguifhed
by the colour and fhape of their wings. They fkip,
and are found in meadows.
PANTALAR1A, an ifland in the Mediterranean
Sea, between Sicily and the main land of Africa, about
17 miles in circumference. It is near the coaft of Tu¬
nis, apd abounds, in-CQttQn, fruits, and wine; but the
inhabitants are obliged to bring all their corn to Sicily,
as it belongs to the king of the two Sicilies. E. Long,
12. 25. N. Lat. 36. 55,
PANTALOON, a fort of garment confifting of
breeches and (lockings all of one piece; (aid to have
been firft introduced by the Venetians.
PAN'THEON, a beautiful edifice, at Rome, anci¬
ently a temple, dedicated to all the gods; but now Pantheon,
.converted into a church, and dedicated to the Virgin-*" ; "
and all the martyrs.
This edifice is generally thought to have been built
by Agrippa fon-in-law to Auguftus, becaufe it has the
following infcription on the frieze of the portico :
M. AGRIPPA L. F. COS. TERTIUM FECIT.
Several antiquarians and artifts, however, have fup-
pofed that the pantheon exifted in the times of the
commonwealth; and that it was only embellifhed by
Agrippa, who added the portico. Be this as it will,
however, the pantheon when perfe&ed by Agrippa
was an exceedingly magnificent building; the form of
whole body is round or cylindrical, and its roof or
dome is fpherica): it is 144 feet diameter within; and
the height of it, from the pavement to the grand aper¬
ture on its top, through which it receives the light, is
juft as much. It is of the Corinthian order. The inner
circumference is divided into feven grand niches,
wrought in the thicknefs of the wall: fix of which are
flat at the top; but the feventh, oppofite to the entrance,
is arched. Before each niche are two columns of an¬
tique yellow marble fluted, and of one entire block,
making in all 14, the fineft in Rome. The whole wall
of the temple, as high as the grand cornice inclufive, is
cafed with divers forts of precious marble in compart¬
ments. The frieze is entirely of porphyry. Above the
grand cornice arifes an attic, in which were wrought, at
equal dift.ances, 14 oblong fquare niches: between each
niche were four marble pilafters, and between the pila-
lafters marble tables of various kinds. This attic had a
complete entablature; but thecoroice proje&ed lefs than
that of thegrandorderbelow. Immediately from the cor¬
nice fprings the fpherical roof, divided by bands, which
crofs each other like the meridians and parallels of an ar¬
tificial terreftrial globe. The fpaces between the bands
decreafe in fize as they approach the top of the roof;
to which, however, they do not reach, there being a
confiderable plain fpace between them and the great
opening. That fo bold a roof might be as light as pof-
fible, the architeft formed the fubftance of the fpaces
between the bands, of nothing but lime and pumice
(tones. The walls below were decorated with lead and
brafs, and works of carved filver over them ; and the
roof was covered on the outfide with plates of gilded
bronze. There was an afeent from the fpringtng of
the roof to the very fummit by a flight of feven flairs.
And if certain authors may be credited, thefe flairs
were ornamented with pedeftrian ftatues, ranged as an
amphitheatre. This notion was founded on a pafiage
of Pliny, who fays, “ That Diogenes the fculptor de¬
corated the pantheon of Agrippa with elegant ftatues;,-
yet that it was difficult to judge of their merit, upon
account of their elevated fit nation.” The portico is
compofed of 16 columns of granite, four feet in dia¬
meter, eight of which (land in frontj with an equal tn-
tcrcolumniation all along, contrary to the rule of Vi¬
truvius,, who is for having the fpace anfwering to the
door of a temple, wider than the reft. On thefe co¬
lumns is a pediment, wbofe tympanum, or flat, was or¬
namented with bas-reliefs in brafs ; the crofs beams
which formed the ceiling of the portico were covered
with the fame metal, and fo were the doors. The afeent
up to the portico was by eight or nine fteps.
Such was the pantheon; the richnefs of vvhich^ndu-
cedl
PAN [ 5846 ] PAN
Pantheon, ced Pliny to rank it among the wonders of the world*
_ eruption of Vefuvius, in the reign of Tiberius,
damaged the pantheon very confiderably; it was re¬
paired by Domitian, which occafioned fome writers to
mention that prince as the founder of the building. The
emperor Adrian alfo did fomething to it. But it ap¬
pears, that the pantheon is more indebted to Septimius
Severus, than to any one fince its ere&ion. The mod,
perhaps, that any of his predeceflbrs had done, was the
adding fome ornament to it: Septimius beftowed eflen-
tial reparations upon it. The following infcription ap¬
pears upon the architrave:
IMP. CAES. SEPTIMIUS. SEVERVS.
PIVS PERTINAX.
ARABICVS. PARTftlCVS. PONTIF.
MAX. TRIE. POT.
XI. COS. lit. P. P. ET. IMP. CAES.
MARCVS.
AVRELtVS. ANTOKINVS. PIVS.
FEXIX. AVG. TRIE.
POT. V. COS. PROCGS. PANtHEVM.
VETVSTATE. ■
OBRVPTVM. CVM. OMNf. CVtTV.
RESTIt VERVNT.
It is really a manner of aftonifhment, that a ft rue-
ture, which, granting it to have been buflt by Agrip-
pa, was not more than 200 years old, (hould have fallen
into decay through age. This firtgle eonfideration
feems fufficient to confirm the opinion of thofe Who be¬
lieve it to have flood in the time of the comifionwealth.
The temple fubfifted in all its grandeur, till the in-
enrfion of Alaric in the time of Honorius. Zozytfius
relates, that the Romans having engaged to fumifh
this barbarian prince with 300G pounds weight of gold,
and 5000 pounds weight of filver, upon condition that
he fliould depart from their walls; and it proving im-
pofiible to raife thofe futns either out of the public
treafury or private purfes* they were obliged to (trip
the temples of their ftatues and ornaments of gold and
filver. It is probable that the pantheon fupplied a good
part, as that of Jupiter Capitolinus was the only one in
Rome that could vie with it for riches.
Alaric carried off nothing from the Romans befides
their precious metals. Thirty-nine years after this,
Genferic king of the Vandals took away part of their
marbles; and whether from a greedinefs of plunder, or
from a relifli of the produdfions of art, loaded one of
his (hips with ftatues. It cannot be queftioned, but
that on this occafion the pantheon was forced to part
with more of its ornaments, and that the ineftimable
works of Diogenes became the prey of this Barbarian.
Before thefe unwelcome vifits of the Goths and Van¬
dals, the Chriftian emperors had iffued- edifts for demo-
lifhing the pagan temples. But the Romans, what¬
ever were their motives, fpared the pantheon, which is
known to have fufFered no damage from the zeal of the
pontiffs, or the indignation of the faints, before the firft
liege of Rome by Alaric. It remained fo rich till a-
bout the year 655, as to excite the avarice of Conftan-
tine II. who came from Conftantinople to pillage the
antheon, and executed his purpofe fo far as to ftrip it
oth of its infide and outfide brazen coverings, which
he- tranfported to Syraeufe, where they foon after fell
into the hands of the Saracens.
About 50 years before this, pope Boniface IV. had
obtained the pantheon of the emperor Phoeas, to make Pantheon,
a church of it. The artifts of thofe days were totally — 1
ignorant of the excellence of the Greek and Roman ar-
chitefture, and fpoiled every thing they kid their hands
upon. To this period, certain alterations are to be re¬
ferred, of which we (hall fpeak by and by.
After the devaftations of the barbarians, Rome was
contracted within a narrow compafs: the feven hill*
were abandoned; and the Campus Martins, being an
even plain, and near the Tyber, became the ground-
plat of the whole city. The pantheon, happening to
Hand at the entrance of the Campus Martius, was pre-
fetitly furrounded with houfes, which fpoiled the fine
profpeft of it; and it was yet more deplorably difgra-
ced by fome of them which flood clofe td its Vvalls.
Pedlars fhades were built even within its portico, and
the intercolumniations were bricked up, to the irrepa¬
rable damage of the matchle'fs pillars, of Which fome
loft part of their capitals, fome of their bafes, and &•
thers were ehiffded out fix or (even inches deep, and a*
many feet high, to let in polls. Which excavations
are to this daiy half filled up with brick and mortar ; a
fad monument of the liceniioufnefs of the vulgar, and
of the ftupid avariee of thofe Who fold them the privi¬
lege to ruin the ftoblefl piece df art in the world!
This diforder edfitirfued till the pontificate of Eu¬
gene IV. whofe zeal for the decency of a confecrated
place, prevailed upon him to have all the houfes clear¬
ed away that incumbered the pantheon, and fo the mi-
ferable bcirtacks in tile portico were knocked dovt’n.
From the time Ccirtftantius eartied off the brafs pla¬
ting df the' externaf fdof,- that fiart was expofed to the
injuries df the weather, or sit beft was but flightty
tiled in, till Benedict ll. coveted it with lead, which
Nicholas V. renewed in a better flyle.
It does not appear that frOrn thistfmetoUrbiinVIir.
any pope did any thihg remifkalbid to the pantheon.
Raphael Urban, who had no equal as a painter, and
who as an- architect had ho fuperior, left a cohfiderabJe
fum by his will for the f-epbratidri of the pahfheon,
where his tomb is placed. Pcrino de la Vagua, Jateo-
1M0 Udino, Anhibkfo Ca-rtachi, Flamingo Vacca, and
the celebrated Archangel© Corelli, did the fame. All
the ornaments within, that have any claim fo be called
good, are of the latter times ; the paintings merit
efteem; and the ftatues, though not rriafter-pieces, do
honour to fculpture, which alone is a proof that they
are pofterfor to the fyth century.
But, with all the refpCft due to a pontiff, who was
btherwife a proteftor, arid even a praClifer of the arts,
it were much td be wifhed that urban VIII. had tic t
known that the parttheb-rt exift'ed. The rnferiptidns cut
at the fide of the door inform us, that hd repaired it;
yet, at the fame time that he built up with one hand,
he pulled down with the other. He cauftd two bell-
fries of a wretched tafte to be ereCted on the ancient
front work, and he divefted the portico of all the re¬
mains of its ancient grandeur, viz. the brazen Cover¬
ture of the crofs beams, which amounted to filch a
prodigious quantity, that riot only the vaft baldaqnirt,
or canopy, of the confeflional in St Peter’s, was call out
of it, but Jikewife a great number of cannon for the
caftle of St Angelo. This pope, who was of tile fa¬
mily of Barbarini, preferred alfo as much of this me¬
tal to his nephew, as was fufficient for the decoration
PAN
Pantheon of his new palace; on which occafion this remarkable
H . pafquinade was ftuck up,
•Pantomime %>uod non fecerunt Barhari facre Barbarini.
IF ever gingle added farce to wit, it was certainly in
this inftance.
It is furprifing, that whilft all thefe operations were
carrying on in the portico, he never once thought of
repairing the damages which time had wrought in it!
Of the 16 pillars which fupported this magniticent pile,
there were no more than 13 left; the three next the
temple of Minerva had difappeared; with thefe the~en-
tablature and an angle of the front had tumbled down.
There were not wanting in Rome fragments enough
of antique columns that might have been put together
and fet up, to have prevented the downfall of a pile
which deferved to (land as long as the world endured.
Alexander VII. did what Urban VIII. had neglec¬
ted 'to do. At the fame time that Bernini was con-
11 ru&ing the colonnade of St Peter, this pontiff order¬
ed fearch to be made for pillars to match thofe of the
portico of the pantheon; and fome were found not far
from the French church of St Lewis, of the very fame
model. They were granite of the ifle of Ilva, and
thofe of the portico were Egyptian granite; the colour,
however, was the fame, fo that the effeft was equal.
The pope’s zeal did not flop here ; he caufed all the
old houfes before the portico to be pulled down, and
the foil and rubbifh to be cleared away, which covered
the fleps, and even the bafes of fome of the pillars.
He began covering the roof with marble, and r?Jfed a
lantern over the aperture, to keep out rain; but death
took him off before his projeft was completed. Cle¬
ment IX. his fucceffor, inclofed the portico within iron
rails. Several later popes have added to its decora¬
tions, which were all in the tafte of the times they were
done in, and the body of the edifice and its architec¬
ture gained nothing from them. The main objeft of
their holineffes liberality was the embellifhment of the
grand altar. One gave purple curtains, another be¬
llowed filver tabernacles; others again vafes, and fuperb
drefles, fuited to the folemn ceremonies of religion.
All thefe might be called rich; but they had in no fenfe
a tendency to retrieve the ancient majefty or original
fplendour of the temple. The true gufto of the orna¬
ments was a little imitated at the revival of the arts.
Good ftatues took place of the fkeletons and fquat fi¬
gures that ridiculoufly difgraced the altars for the fpace
of eight centuries. The paintings of Perugino, Coz-
za, and Greffi, covered the dull mofaics with which
the Greeks of Conftantinople had loaded the walls of
moft of the churches in Rome. The porphyry and
the green and yellow antique, found among the old
ruins, were employed to much advantage.
PANTHER, in zoology. See Leo.
PANTOMIME, naviopipof, among the ancients,
a perfon who could imitate all kind of aftions and
charafters by figns and geftures, without fpeaking.
The pantomimes made a part in the theatrical en¬
tertainments of the ancients; their chief employment
was to exprefs, in geftures and aftion, whatever the
chorus fung, changing their countenance and behavi¬
our as the fubjeft of the fong varied. They were very
ancient in Greece, being derived from the heroic
times, according to fome ; but however this may be,
they were certainly known in Plato’s time. In Rome
Vol. VIII. 1
PAP
it was fo late as the time of Auguftus before they Panuca
made their appearance. As to their drefs, it was i
various, being always fuited as near as pofiible to that apa^.'-
of the perfon they were to imitate. The crocota was
much ufed among the Roman pantomimes, in which
and other female drefles they perfonated wbmen.
PANUCO, a town and province of North America,
in New Spain, lying to the north of Mexico, with a
biftrop’s fee. There are veins of gold, and falt-works,
which are the principal revenue of the inhabitants.
It is feated near the mouth of a river of the fame name,
at a fmall diftance from the Gulph of Mexico. W.
Long. 100 5. N. Lat. 24. o.
PAPA, a fmall but ftrong town of Lower Hun¬
gary, in the county of Vefprin. It was taken from
the Turks in 1683, after raifing the fiege of Vienna,
and is fubjeft to the houfeof Auftria. It is feated on
a mountain, near the river Marchaez, in E. Long.
18. 10. N. Lat. 47. 20.
PAPAVER, the Poppy; a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The fomniferum, or fomniferous com¬
mon garden-poppy, rifes with an upright fmooth ftalk,
dividing or branching a yard or more high; garniftied
with large, deeply jagged, amplexicaule, fmooth leaves;
and terminated by large, fpreading, dark-purple, and
other coloured flowers, in the varieties, having fmooth
cups and capfules, flowering in June and July. There
are a great many varieties, fome of them extremely
beautiful. The white officinal poppy is one of the
varieties of this fort. It grows often to the height of
five or fix feet, having large flowers both Angles and
doubles, fucceeded by capfules or heads as large as
oranges, each containing about 8000 feeds. 2. The
rhoeas, or wild globular-headed poppy, rifes with an
upright, hairy, multiflorous ftalk branching a foot
and an half high ; garniftied with long, pinnatified,
deeply cut, hairy leaves; the ftalk terminated by many
red and other coloured flowers in the varieties, fuc¬
ceeded by globular fmooth capfules. The flowers
appear in June. 3. The Cambricum, or Welfti poppy,
has a perennial root, pinnated cut leaves, fmooth, up¬
right, multiflorous ftalks a foot and an half high;
garniftied with fmall pinnated leaves, and terminated
by many large yellow flowers, fucceeded by fmooth
capfules. The flowers appear in June. 4. The ori-
entalis, or oriental poppy, hath a large, thick, perennial
root; long, pinnated, fawed leaves; upright, rough,
uniflorous ftalks, terminated by one deep red flower,
fucceeded by oval, fmooth, capfules. The flowers
appearing in May.
Propagation. All the kinds are hardy, and will
profper any where. The two firft fpecies being an¬
nual, are to be propagated only by feeds; but the two
laft by parting the roots as well as the feeds.
Ufes. The fomniferous quality of the white poppy
is well known. This quality refides in the milky ■"
juice of the capfule containing the feeds, nor is it eva¬
porated by drying the juice ; hence the dried capfules
are preferved in the ftiops for making the fyrup. The
infpiflated juice itfelf is a kind of opium; and for au
account of its virtues fee the article Opium. The
feeds alfo make a very agreeable emullion, but have
no foporific virtue.
PAP AW, or Papa-tree. See Carica.—This tree
33 A ia
I 5847 1
PAP [ 5848 ] P* A P
P*Pe>'* is male and female upon different roots: the flowers
“of the former are white, and of the latter yellowifh.
The tender buds of thefe laft are preferved into fweet-
meats ; and the long mango-popo, which is faid to be
little inferior to an Eaft India mango, into pickles.
When nearly ripe, the fruits are likewife boiled and
eaten with any kind of flefh-meat, care being taken
previoufly to cleanfe them of the milky corrofive juice
contained in them, which is of fo penetrating a nature,
fays Hughes, that .if the unripe fruit, when unpeeled,
is boiled with the tougheft old fait meat, it will foon
make it foft and tender; and, if hogs are for any
confiderable time fed with the raw fruit, it wears off
all the mucous flimy matter which covers the infide of
the guts; and would in time, if not prevented by a
change of food, entirely lacerate them. This juice,
according to Linnaeus, is fometimes made ufe of to
cure ring-worms and fuch cutaneous eruptions. It
muft be expelled by the medium of falt-water before
the fruit is fit for ufe. It is remarkable, that the (talk
of this plant is herbaceous and hollow; which laft at¬
tribute has paffed into a proverb in Barbadoes and
other Weft India iflands, where it is common to
charafterife 3 diffembler, by faying, that he is as hol¬
low as a popo.
PAPER, flieets of a thin matter, made of fome
vegetable fubftance.
The materials on which mankind have, in different
ages, contrived to write their-fentiments, have been
extremely various; in the early ages they made ufe of
ftones, and tables of wood, wax, ivory, &c. See
Book.
Paper, with regard to the manner of making it,
and the materials employed therein, is reducible to
feveral kinds; as Egyptian paper, made of the rufh
papyrus; bark-paper, made of the inner rind of feve¬
ral trees ; cotton-paper ; incombuftible paper ; and
European paper, made of linen rags.
Egyptian paper was principally ufed among the
ancients ; being made of the papyrus, or biblus, a
fpecies of ruih which grew on the bank of the Nile.
In making it into paper, they began with lopping off
the two extremes of the plant, the head and the root;
the remaining part, which was the ftem, they cut
lengthwife into two nearly equal parts, and from each
of thefe they ftripped the fcaly pellicles of which it
confifted. The innermoft of thefe pellicles were looked
on as the beft, and that neareft the rind as the worft :
they were therefore kept apart, and made to con-
ftitute two different forts of paper. As the pellicles
were taken off, they extended them on a table,
laying them over each other tranfverfely, fo as that
the fibres made right angles: in this ftate they were
glued together by the muddy waters of the Nile; or,
when thofe were not to be had, with pafte made of the
•fineft wheat-flour, mixed with hot water and a fprink-
ling of vinegar. The pellicles were next preffed to
get out the water, then dried, and laftly flatted and
fmoothed by beating them with a mallet: this was
the Egyptian paper, which was fometimes farther
polilhed by rubbing it with a, glafs-ball, or the like.
Bark-paper was only the inner whitilh rind, in-
clofed between the bark and the wood of feveral trees,
as the maple, plane, beech, and elm ; but efpecially the
tilia, or linden-tree, wiiisb, was that moftly ufed for
this purpofe. On this ftripped off, flatted, and dried,
the ancients wrote books, feveral of which are faid to~
be ftill extant.
Chinefe paper is ofvan'ous kinds. Some is made of
the rinds or barks of trees, efpecially the mulberry-tree
and elm, but chiefly of the bamboo and cotton-tree.
In faft, almoft each province has its feveral paper.
The preparations of paper made of the barks of trees,
may be inftaficed in that of the bamboo, which is a
tree of the cane or reed kind. The fecond fkin of the
bark, which is foft and white, is ordinarily made ufe
of for paper; this is beat in fair water to1 a pulp,
which they take up in large moulds, fo that fome (beets
are above twelve feet in length ; they are completed,
by dipping them (beet by (heet in alum-water ; which
ferves inftead of the fize among us, and not only
hinders the paper from imbibing the ink, hut makes
it look as if varniflied over. This paper is white, foft,
and clofe, without the lead roughnefs; though it
cracks more eafily than European paper, is very
fubje& to be eaten by the worms, and its thinnefs
makes it liable to be foon worn out.
Cotton-paper is a fort of paper which has been in
ufe upwards of 600 years. In the French king’s libra¬
ry are manuferipts on this paper, which appear to be
of the 10th century; and from the 12th century,
cotton manuferipts are more frequent than parchment
ones. Cotton-paper is ftill made in the Eaft Indies,
by beating cotton-rags to a pulp.
Linen or European paper appears to have been firft
introduced among us towards the beginning of the
14th century ; but by whom this valuable commodity
was invented, is not known. The method of making
paper of linen or hempen rags, is as follows: The
linen-rags being carried to the mill, are firft forted,
then waflied very clean in puncheons, whofe fides are
grated with ftrong wires, and the bottoms bored full
of holes. After this they are fermented, by laying them
in heaps clofe covered with facking, till they fweat
and rot, which is colnmonly done in four or five days.
When duly fermented, they are twifted into handfuls,
cut fmail, and thrown into oval mortars, made of well-
feafoned oak, about half a yard deep, with an iron-
plate at bottom, an inch thick, eight inches broad,
and thirty long ; in the middle is a waffiing-block,
grooved, with five holes in it, and a piece of hair-
fieve faftened on the infide; this keeps the hammers
from touching it, and. prevents anything going out
except foul water. Thefe mortars are continually fup-
plied with water, by little troughs from a ciffern, fed
by buckets fixed to the feveral floats of a great wheel,
which raifes the wooden hammers for pounding the
rags in the mortars. When the rags are beaten to a
certain degree, called the jf/fl fluff, the pulp is re¬
moved into boxes, made like corn-chandlers bins, with
the bottom-board aflant, and a little feparation on the
front for the water to drain away. The pulp of the
rags being in, they take away as many of the front-
boards as are needful, and prefs the mafs hard down
with their hands; the next day they put on another
board, and add more pulp, till the box is full; and
here it remains mellowing a week, more or lefs, ac¬
cording to the weather. After this, the fluff is again
put into clean mortars, and is beaten afrefti, and re¬
moved into boxes, as before; in which hate it is called
Paper.
PAP [ 5849 ] PAP
‘Paper, the fecond Jluff. The mafs is beat a third time, till
feme of it being mixed with fair water, and brewed
to and fro, appears like flour and water, without any
lumps In it: it is then fit for the pit-mortar, where it
is perfectly diflblved, and is then carried to the vat*
to be formed into fheetsof paper. But lately, iuftead
of pounding the rags to a pulp with large hammers,
as above, they make ufe of an engine, which per¬
forms the work in much lefs time. This engine con-
fifts of a round folid piece of wood, into which are
fattened feveral long pieces of fteel, ground very fliarp.
This is placed in a large trough with the rags, and a
fufficient quantity of water. At the bottom of the
trough is a plate with fteel bars, ground (harp like the
former ; and the engine being carried round with pro¬
digious velocity, reduces the rags to a pulp in a very
fhort time. It muft be obferved, that the motion of
the engine caufcs the water in the trough to circulate,
and by that means conftantly returns the ftuff to the
engine. The trough is conftantly fed with clean
water at one end, while the dirty water from the rags
is carried off at the other, through a hole, defended
with wire gratings, in order to hinder the pulp from
going out^with the dirty water.
When the ftuff is fufficiently prepared as above, it
is carried to the vat, a»d mixed with a proper quantity
of water, which they call priming the vat. The vat is
rightly primed, when the liquor has fuch a proportion
of the pulp, as that the mould, on being dipped into
it, will juft take up enough to make a (beet of paper
of the thicknefs required. The mould is a kind of fieve
exaftly of the fize of the paper to be made, and about
an inch deep, the bottom being formed of fine brafs
wire, guarded underneath with (ticks, to prevent it bag¬
ging down, and to keep it horizontal; and further, to
ftrengthen the bottom, there are large wires placed in
parallel lines, at equal diftances, which form thofe lines
vifible in all white paper when held up to the light:
the mark of the paper is alfo made in this bottom, by
interweaving a large wire in any particular form. This
mould the maker dips into the liquor, and gives it a
fhake as he takes it out, to clear the water from the
pulp. He then Aides it along a groove to the coucher,
who turns out the (heet upon a felt laid on a plank, and
lays another felt on it; and returns the mould to the
maker, who by this time has prepared a fecond fheet
in another mould: and thus they proceed, laying alter¬
nately a (heet and a felt, till they have made fix quires
of paper, which is called a poji; and this they do
with fuch fwiftnefs, that, in many forts of paper, two
men make 20 pofts and more in a day. A poft of pa¬
per being made, either the maker or coucher whiftles;
on which four or five men advance, one of whom
draws it under the prefs, and the reft prefs it with
great force, till all the water is fqueezed from it ; af¬
ter which it is feparated (heet by (heet from the felts,
and laid regularly one (heet upon another ; and having
undergone a fecond prefling, it is hung up to dry.
When fufliciently dried, it is taken oft' the lines, rub-
"bed fmooth with the hands, and laid by till fized;
which is the next operation. For this they choofe a
fine temperate day ; and having boiled a proper quan¬
tity of clean parchment, or vellum-ftravings, in water,
till it comes to a fize, they prepare a fine cloth, on
which they drew a due proportion of white vitriol and
roch alum finely powdered, and drain the fize through Papw,
it into a large tub; in which they dip as much paper “““
at once as they can conveniently hold, and with a
quick motion give every fheet its (hare of the fize, which
muft be as hot as the hand can well bear it. After
this, the paper is preffed, hung up (heet by fheet to
dry ; and being taken down is forted, and what is on¬
ly fit for outfide-quires laid by themfelves: it is then
told into quires, which are folded and preffed. The bro¬
ken (lieets are commonly put together, and two of the
worft quires are placed on the outfide of every ream or
bundle : and being tied up in wrappers, made of the
fettling of the vat, it is fit for fale.
Paper is of various kinds, and ufed for various
purpofes : with regard to colour, it is principally di-
ftinguifhed into white, blue, and brown; and with re¬
gard to its dimenfions, into atlas, elephant, imperial,
fuper-royal, royal, medium, demy, crown, fools-cape,
and pot-paper.
Mr Guettard of the Royal Academy of Sciences in
France has given an account of a number of experi¬
ments on materials for making paper ; with’ a view, if
poflxble, to procure this ufeful fubftance from fuch
others as are always to.be had in greater plenty than
rags can be got; of which therfc is fometimes a con-
fiderablc fcarcity. Mr Reaumur has obferved, that
vrafps have a method of preparing bits of rotten wood
whereby they build their nefts, in fuch a manner, that
it looks like ftrong paper or pafteboard. Seba, in the
firft volume of his Natural Hiftory, propofes the alga
marina. “ This country (fays he) does not feem to
want trees fit for making paper, if people would give
themfelves the neceffary trouble and expence. Alga
marina, for example, which is compofed of long,
ftrong, vifeous filaments, might it not be proper for
this purpofe, as well &s the matts of Mufcovy, if they
were prepared as the Japanefe make their paper? The
curious may at leaft try the experiment.” P. du Halde,
in the firft volume of his Hiftory of China, pretends,
that the Chinefe make paper of the fecond bark of
bamboo, of the bark of different trees, particularly
the mulberry, of ftraw, rue, and hemp. Other nu-
thors mention its having been made of mallows, and
feveral different kinds of herbs. All Mr Guettard’s
trials, however, proved unfuceefsful, and flax, cotton,
hemp, and filk, feem to Ire the only materials of which
- it is poffible to make this valuable commodity. The
reafon of thefe failures was, that the abovementioned
fubftances only feem capable of being reduced to
fibres indefinitely fine, and which at the fame time
preferve a confiderable degree of toughnefs ; all others
being very coarfe in the fibre itfelf, and foon reducible
to their ultimate finenefs ; and what is worfe, the
fibres are brittle, fo that the paper when made has no
cohefion. Our author, however, has found, that pa¬
per may be made from flax, hemp, and filk, without
the trouble of manufa&uring them into cloth; and
therefore he recommends the dreffings of the two for¬
mer, which are fometimes in fuch abundance as to be
thrown away; but if we confider the great trouble
which mull be neceffary to bring thofe materials to a
proper colour, and the great diminution of them
which muft neceffarily enfue during the tedious opera¬
tion, it is not probable that any advantage could be
gained in this way.
- - A - P/ r-
33 A 2
Paper.
PAP [ 5850 ] PAP
Preparation of Pap er for durable writing. For this
purpofe Dr Lewis recommends the impregnation of it
with aftringent materials. “ It is obfervable (fays he)
that writings firft begin to fade or change their colour
on the back of the paper, where the larger flrokes
have funk in, or are vifible through it ; as if part of
the irony matter of the vitriol was in a more fubtile or
diflblved (late than the reft, and funk further, on ac¬
count of its not being fully difengaged from the acid,
or fufficiently combined with the aftringent matter of
the galls. Hence, it fhould feem probable, that if the
paper was impregnated with aftringent matter, the co¬
lour of the ink would be more durable. To fee how far
this notion was well founded, I dipt-fome paper in an
infufion of galls; and, when dry, repeated the dipping'
a fecond and third time. On the paper thus prepared,
and fome that was unprepared, I wrote with different
inks; feveral of which, that the effects might be more
fenfible, had an over-proportion of vitriol. The wri¬
tings being expofed to the weather till the beft of the
inks on the unprepared paper had faded and changed
their colour, thofe on the prepared paper were all
found to retain their blacknefs. It is therefore re¬
commended to the confideration of the paper-makers,
whether a particular kind of paper might not be pre¬
pared for thofe ufes where the long duration of the
writing is of principal importance, by impregnating it
with galls or other aftringents, in fome of the opera¬
tions it paffes through before it receives the glazing ;
as for inftance, by ufing an aftringent infufion, inftead
of common water, in the laft operation, when the
matter is reduced into a pulp for being formed into
fheets. The brownifh hue which the paper receives
from the galling, would not perhaps be any great ob-
flacle to its ufe; and, if the propofal fhould be
thought worthy of being carried into execution, fur¬
ther inquiries may poffibly difcover the means of ob¬
viating the imperfeftion, and communicating aftringen-
cy without colour.
Staining or Colouring of Paper. The colours pro¬
per for paper are not different from thofe ufed for other
fubftances, and are enumerated under the article Co-
xovvi-Making. They are applied with foft brufhes,
after being tempered to a due degree with fize or gum
water. If the paper on which they are to be laid is
foft, fo that the colours are apt to go through, it
muft alfo be fized before they are laid on, or a pro-
portionably larger quantity muft be ufed along with
the colours themfelves. If a confiderable extent of
the paper is to be done over with one colour, it muft
receive feveral coatings, as thin as poffible, letting
each coat dry before another is put on, otherwife the
colour will be unequal.
Ti? Paper. Take yellow oker, grind it with
rain-water, and lay a ground with it upon the paper
all over ; when dry, take the white of eggs, beat it
clear with white fugar-candy, and ftrike it all over:
then lay on the leaf-gold; and, when dry, polilh it
with a tooth. Some take faffron, boil it in water,
and diffolve a little gum with it; then they ftrike it
over the paper, }ay on the gold; and, when dry, they
polifti it.
To fiver Paper, after the Chinefe mannerl without
filver. Take two fcruples of clear glue made of neats
leather, one fcruple of white allum, and half a pint
of clear water ; fimmer the whole over a flow fire, till
the water is confumed, or the fleam ceafes: Then, ~
your fheets of paper being laid on a fmooth table, you
dip a pretty large pencil into that glue, and daub it
over as even • as you can, repeating this two or three
times : then fift the p.owder of talc through a fine
fieve, made of horfe-hair or gaufe, over it; and then
hang it up to dry; and, when dry, rub off the fuperflu*
ous talc, which ferves again for the fame purpofe. The
talc you prepare in the following manner: Take fine
white tranfparent Mufcovy talc ; boil it in clear water
for four hours ; then take it off the fire, and let it
Hand fo for two days : then take it out, wafh it well,
and put it into a linen-rag, and beat it to pieces with
a mallet: to 10 pounds of talc add 3 pounds of white
allum, and grind them together in a little hand-mill;
fift it through a gauze-fieve ; and being thus reduced
to a powder, put it into water, and juft boil it up:
then let it fink to the bottom, pour off the water from
it, place the powder in the fun to dry, and it will be¬
come a hard confiftence. This beat in a mortar to an
impalpable powder, and keep it, for the ufe above-
mentioned, free from dull.
¥Kvve.-Hangbigs} furniture now greatly ufed, and
generally approved, as it is at once airy and cheap.
The paper manufactured for hangings is of feveral
kinds, fome being made in reprefentation of ftucco
work, for the covering cielings or the fides of halls,
ftair-cafes, paffages, &c. and others jn imitation of
velvet, damalk, brocades, chints, or other fuch filks
and fluffs as are employed for hanging rooms. The
principal difference in the manufadture lies, however,
in the grounds: fome of which are laid in varnifh, and
others in the common vehicles for water-colours; and
in the raifing a kind of coloured emboffment by chopt
cloth, which is called flock-paper.
Unwrought Paper proper for Hangings*—The kind
of paper employed for making the paper-hangings is
a fort of coarfe cartoon manufactured for this purpofe;
and there being a particular duty on paper-hangings,
it is required, under confiderable penalties, to be damp¬
ed before it be painted or otherwife decorated for
this purpofe. There is no occafion, however, to be
more particular in explaining the qualities of this kind
of unwrought paper; becaufe it is to be had of all
the great dealers in paper, manufadtured in a proper
manner
White and coloured Grounds for 'Paver-Hangings. 
The common grounds laid in water are made by mix¬
ing whiting with the common glovers fize, and laying
it on the paper with a proper brufh in the mod even
manner. This is all that, is required, where the
ground is to be left white; and the paper being then
hung on a proper frame, till it be dry, is fit to be
painted. When coloured grounds are required, the
fame method muft be purfued, and the ground of
whiting firft laid; except in pale colours, fuch as ftraw-
colours or pink, where a fecond coating may fome-
times be fpared, by mixing fome ftrong colour with
the whiting.
Manner of■ painting the PAVER-Hangings.—There
are three methods by which paper-hangings are paint¬
ed ;*the firft by printing on the colours ; the fecond
by ufing the fenc'd; and the third by laying them on^
with a pencil) as in other kinds of painting.
Paper.
When.
Paper,
PAP [ 38
When the colours are laid on by printing, the im-
preffion is made by wooden prints; which are cut in
fuch manner, that the figure to be expreffed is made
to project from the furface by cutting away all the
other part; and this, being charged with the colours
tempered with their proper vehicle, by letting it gent¬
ly down on a block on which the colour is previoufly
fpread, conveys it from thence to the ground of the
paper, on which it is made to fall more forcibly by
means of its weight, and the effort of the arm of the
perfon who ufes the print. It is eafy to conclude, that
there muft be as many feparate prints as there are
colours to be printed. But where there are more than
one, great care muft be taken, after the firft, to let
the print fall cxadfly in the fame part of the paper
as that which went before ; otherwife the figure of the
defign would be brought into irregularity and confuflon.
In common paper of low price, it is ufual, therefore,
to print only the outlines, and lay on the reft of the
colours by ftencilling ; which both faves the expence
of cutting more prints, and can be praftifed by com¬
mon workmen, not requiring the great care and dex¬
terity neceffary to the ufing feveral prints.
< The manner of pencilling the colours is this. The
figure, which all the parts of any particular colour make
in the defign to be painted, is to be cut out, in a piece
of thin leather or oil-cloth, which pieces of leather or
oil-cloth, are called Pencils; and being laid flat on the
flieets of paper to be printed, fpread on a table or floor,
are to be rubbed over with the colour, properly tem¬
pered, by means of a large brufh. The colour palling
over the whole is confequently fpread on thofe parts of
the paper where the cloth or leather is cut away, and
give the fame effeft as if laid on by a print. This is
neverthelefs only pradlicable in parts where there are
only detached maffes or fpots of colours: for where
there are fmall continued lines, or parts that run one
into another, it is difficult to preferve the connexion
or continuity of the parts of the cloth, or to keep the
fmaller corners clofe down to the paper; and therefore,
in fuch cafes, prints are preferable. Stencilling is in¬
deed a cheaper method of ridding coarfe work than
printing: but, without fuch extraordinary attention and
trouble as render it equally difficult with printing, it
is far lefs beautiful and exaft in the effedf. For the
outline of the fpots of colour want that fharpnefs and
regularity that are given by prints, befides the fre¬
quent extralineations, or deviations from the juft figure^
which happens by the original mifplacing of the ften-
eils, or the fhifting the place of them during the ope¬
ration.
Pencilling is only ufed in the cafe of nicer work,
fuch as the better imitations of the India paper. It is
performed in the fame manner as other paintings in
water or varnifh. It is fometimes ufed only to fill the
outlines already formed by printing, where the price
of the colour, or the exa&nefs of the manner in which
it is required to be laid on, render the ftencilling or
printing it lefs proper ; at other times, it is ufed for
forming or delineating fome parts of the defign, where
a fpirit of freedom and variety, not to be had in print¬
ed outlines, are defired to be had in the work.
Management of the Flock Paper.—The paper de-
figned for receiving the flock is firft prepared with a var-
aiih-ground with fome proper colour, or by that of the.
>1 ] PAP
paper itfelf. It is frequently pra&ifed to print fome Paper.
Mofaic, or other fmall running figure in colours, on
the ground, before the flock be laid on ; and it may
be done with any pigment of the colour defired, tem¬
pered with varnifli, and laid on by a print cut corre-
fpondently to that end.
The method of laying on the flock is this. A wooden
print being cut, as is above deferibed, for laying on
the colour in fuch manner, that the part of the defign
which is intended for the flock may projeft beyond
the reft of the furface, the varnilh is put on a block
covered with leather or oil-cloth, and the print is to
be ufed alfo in the fame manner, to lay the varnifh on
all the parts where the flock is to be fixed. The fheet,
thus prepared by the varnifhed impreffion, is then to
be removed to another block or table; and to be ftrew-
ed over with flock ; which is afterwards to be gently
comprefled by a board, or fome other flat body, to
make the varnifh take the better hold of it: and then
the fheet is to be hung on a frame till the varnifh be
perfeftly dry; at which time the fuperfluous part of
flock is to be brufhed off by a foft camel’s-hair brufh;
and the proper flock will be found to adhere in a very
ftrong manner.
The method of preparing the flock is, by cutting-
woollen-rags, or pieces of cloth with the hand, by
means of a large bill or chopping knife; or by means
of a machine worked by a horfe-mill.
There is a kind of counterfeit flock-paper, which,
when well managed, has very much the fame effedl to
the eye as the real, though done with lefs expence.
The manner of making this fort is* by laying a ground
of varnifh on the paper; and having afterwards print¬
ed the defign of the flock in varnilh, in the fame man¬
ner as for the true ; inftead of the flock, fome pig¬
ment, or dry colour, of the fame hue with the flock
required by the defign, but fomewhat of a darker fhade,
being well powdered, is ftrewred on the printed varnifh;
and produces nearly the fame appearance.
PAPER-^ey, is a term frequently made ufe of for
bank-bills, which pafs currently in trade inftead of
gold and filver.
Concerning this fpecies of currency, the national
mility of which has been controverted by fome, w'e
have the following obfervations in Dr Smith’s Treatifa
on the Wealth of Nations: “ The fubftitution of paper
in the room 'of gold and filver money replaces a very
expenfive inftrument of commerce w’ith one much lefs
coftly, and fometimes equally convenient. Circulation
comes to be carried on by a new wheel, which it colts
kfs both to ere& and maintain than the old one.
“ When the people of any particular country have
fuch confidence in the fortune, probity, and prudence
of a particular banker, as to believe that he is always
ready to pay upon demand fuch of his promiflory notes
as are likely at any time to be prefented to him, thofe
notes come to have the fame currency as gold and fil¬
ver money, from the confidence that fuch money can
at any time be had for them,
“ A particular banker lends among his cuftomers
his own promiflbry notes, to the amount, we fhallfup-
pofe, of 100,000 1. As thofe notes ferve all tiie pur-
pofes of money, his debtors pay him the fame intereft-
as if he had lent them fo much money. This intereft
is the fourceofhis gain. Though fome of thofe notes
are-
Paper.
P
PAP [ 5852 1 PAT?
are continually coming back upon him for payment,
part of them continue to circulate for months and years
together. Though he has generally in circulation,
therefore, notes to the amount of 100,000 1. 20,cool,
in gold and filver may frequently be a fufficient pro-
vifion for anfwering occafional demands. By this ope¬
ration, therefore, 20,000 1. in gold and filver perform
all the fun&ions which 100,0001. could othervvife have
performed. Eighty thoufand pounds of gold and fil¬
ver can therefore, in this manner, be fpared from the
circulation of the country; and if different operations
of the fame kind fhould, at the fame time, be carried
on by many different banks and bankers, the whole
circulation may be thus condufted with a fifth part
only of the gold and filver.
“ Let us fuppofe, for example, that the whole cir¬
culating money of fome particular country amounted,
at a particular time, to 1,000,000 fterling, that fum
being then fufficient for circulating the whole annual
produce of their land and labour. Let us fuppofe too,
that, fome time thereafter, different banks and bankers
iffued promiffory notes, payable to the bearer, to the
extent of t,000,000, referving in their different coffers
200,0001. for anfwering occafional demands. There
would remain, therefore, in circulation 8oo,oool. in
gold and filver, and 1,000,000 of bank-notes, or
1,800,OOO1. of paper and money together. But the
annual produce of the land and labour of the country
had before required only 1,000,000 to circulate and
diftribute it to its proper confuraers, and that annual
produce cannot be immediately augmented by thofe
operations of banking. One million, therefore, will
be fufficient to circulate it after them. The goods to
be bought and fold being precifely the fame as before,
the fame quantity of money will be fufficient for buy¬
ing and felling them. The channel of circulation, if
1 may be allowed fuch an expreffion, will remain pre¬
cifely the fame as before. One million we have fup-
pofed fufficient to fill that channel. Whatever, there¬
fore, is poured into it beyond this fum, cannot run in
it, but mufl overflow. One million eight hundred
thoufand pounds are poured into it. Eight hundred
thoufand pounds, therefore, muft overflow, that fum
being over and above what can be employed in the cir¬
culation of the country. But though this fum cannot
be employed at home, it is too valuable to be allowed
to lie idle. It will therefore be fent abroad, in order
to feek that profitable employment which it cannot
find at home. But the paper cannot go abroad; be-
caufe, at a diftance from the banks which iflue it, and
from the country in which payment of it can be ex¬
acted by law, it will not be received in Common pay¬
ments. Gold and filver, therefore, to the amount of
8oo,oool. will be fent abrqad, and the channel of home
circulation will remain filled with t,000,000 of paper,
inftead of 1,000,000 of thofe metals which filled it be¬
fore.
“ But though fo great a quantity of gold and fil¬
ver is thus fent abroad, we muft not imagine that it is
fent abroad for nothing, or that its proprietors make a
prefent of it to foreign nations. They will exchange
it for foreign goods of fome kind or another, in order
to fupply the confumption either of fbme other foreign
country or of their own.
- “ If they employ it in purchafing goods in one fo¬
reign country in order to fupply the confumption of Paper.
another, or in what is called the carrying trade, what- 
ever profit they make will be an addition to the neat
revenue of their own country. It is like a new fund,
created for carrying on a new trade; domeftic bufinefs
being nowtranfa&ed by paper, and the gold and filver
being converted into a fund for this new trade.
“ If they employ it in purchafing foreign goods for
home-confumption, they may either firft purchafe fuch
goods as are likely to be confumed by idle people who
produce nothing, fuch as foreign wines, foreign filks,
&c.; or, fecondly, they may purchafe an additional
ftock of materials, tools, and provifions, in order to
employ an additional number of induftrious people,
who re-produce, with a profit, the value of their an¬
nual confumption.
, “ So far as it is employed in the firft way, it pro¬
motes prodigality, increafes expence and confumption,
without increafing produftion, or eftablifhing any per¬
manent fund for fupporting that expence, and is in
every refpeft hurtful to the fociety.
“ So far as it is employed in the fecond way, it
promotes induftry ; and though it increafes the con-
fumptiqn of the focicty, it provides a permanent fund
for fupporting that confumption, the people who con-
fume, re-prodircing, with a profit, the whole value of
their annual confumption. The grofs revenue of the
fociety, the annual produce of their land and labour,
is increafed by the whole value which the labour of
thofe workmen adds to the materials upon which they
are employed; and their neat revenue by what re¬
mains of this value, after deducing what is neceflary
for fupporting the tools and inftruments of their trade.
<e That the greater part of the gold and filver
which, being forced abroad by thofe operations of
banking, is employed in purchafing foreign goods for
home-confumption, is and muft be employed for pur¬
chafing thofe of this fecond kind, feems not only pro¬
bable, but almoft unavoidable. Though fome parti¬
cular men may fometimes increafe their expence very
confiderably, though their revenue does not increafe at
all, we may be affured that no clafs or order of men
ever does fo; becaufe, though the principles of com¬
mon prudence do not always govern the conduft of
every individual, they always influence that of the ma¬
jority of every clafs or order. But the revenue of idle
people, confidered as a clafs or order, cannot in the
fmalleft degree be increafed by thofe operations of
banking. Their expence in general, therefore, cannot
be much increafed by them, tho’ that of a few indivi¬
duals among them may, and in reality fometimes is.
The deosBtnd of idle people, therefore, for foreign
goods, being the fame, or very nearly the fame, as be¬
fore, a very fmall part of the money, which being for¬
ced abroad by thofe operations of banking, is employ¬
ed in purchafing foreign goods for home-confumption,
is likely to be employed in purchafing thofe for their
ufe. The greater part of it will naturally be deftined
for the employment of induftry, and not for the main¬
tenance of idlenefs.
“ When wc compute the quantity of induftry which
the circulating capital of any fociety can employ, we
muft always have regard to thofe parts of it only which
confift in prosifions, materials, and finifhed work: the
other, which confifts in money, and which ferves only
to
pap r 5853 ] pap
Paper, to circulate thofe three, mull always be deduced. In
—order to put induftry into motion, three things are re-
quifite ; materials to work upon, tools to work with,
and the wages or recompence for the fake of which the
work is done. Money is neither a material to work
upon, nor a tool to work with; and though the wages
of the workman are commonly paid to him in mo¬
ney, his real revenue, like that of all other men, con-
fifts, not in the money, but in the money’s worth ;
not in the metal pieces, but in Jwhat can be got for
them.
“ The quantity of induftry which any capital can
employ, muft evidently be equal to the number of
workmen whom it can fupply with materials, tools,
and a maintenance fuitable to the nature of the work.
Money may be requifite for purchafing the materials
and tools of the work, as well as the maintenance of
the workmen. But the quantity of induftry which the
whole capital can employ, is certainly not equal both
to the money which purchafes, and to the materials,
tools, and maintenance, which are purchafed with it;
but only to one or other of thofe two values, and to
the latter more properly than to the former.
“ When paper is fubftituted in the room of gold and
filver money, the quantity of the materials, tools, and
maintenance, which the whole circulating capital can
fupply, may be increafed by the whole value of gold
and lilver which ufed to be employed in purchaiing
them. The whole value of the great wheel of circula¬
tion and diftribution is added to the goods which are
circulated and diftributed by means of it. The opera¬
tion, in fome meafure, refembles that of the undertaker
of fome great work, who, in confequence of fome im¬
provement in mechanics, takes down his old machi¬
nery, and adds the difference between its price and
that of the new to his circulating capital, to the fund
from which he furnilhes materials and wages to his
workmen.
“ What the proportion is which the circulating mo¬
ney of airy country bears to the whole value of the an-
. nual produce circulated by means <5f it, it is perhaps
impofiible to determine. It has been computed by
different authors at a fifth, at a tenth, at a twentieth,
and at a thirtieth part of that value. But how fmall
foever the proportion which the circulating money may
bear to the whole value of the annual produce, as but
a part, and frequently but a fmall part, of that pro¬
duce, is ever deftined for the maintenance of induftry,
it muft always bear a very confiderable proportion to
that part. When, therefore, by the fubftitution of
paper, the gold and filver neceffary for circulation is
reduced to perhaps a fifth part of the former quantity,
if the value of only the greater part of the other four-
fifths be added to the funds which are deftined for the
maituenance’of induftry, it muft make a very confider¬
able addition to the quantity of that induftry, and
confequently to the value of the annual produce of land
and labour.
“ An operation of this kind has, within thefe 25 or
30 years, been performed in Scotland, by the ere&ion
of new banking companies in almoft every confiderabk
town, and even in fome country villages. The effe&s
of it have been precifely thofe above defcribed. The
bufinefs of the country is almoft entirely carried on by
means of the paper of thofe differeut banking compa*
nies, with which pnrchafes and payments of all kinds Paper,
are commonly made. Silver very feldom appears, ex- PaPlcr~
cept in the change of a twenty (hillings bank-note, and
gold ftill feldomer. But though the conduft of all
thofe different companies has not been unexception¬
able, and has accordingly required an aft of parlia¬
ment to regulate it; the country, notwithftanding, has
evidently derived great benefit from their trade. I
have heard it afferted, that the trade of the city of
Glafgow doubled in about 15 years after the firft erec¬
tion of the banks there ; and that the trade of Scot¬
land has more than quadrupled fince the firft ereftion
of the two public banks at Edinburgh; of which the
one, called Tbs Bank of Scotland, was eftablifhed by
aft of parliament in 1695, the other, called The Royal
Bank, by royal charter in 1727. Whether the trade,
either of Scotland in general, or of the city of Glafgow in
particular, has really increafed in fo grea't a proportion
during fo fhort a period, I do not pretend to know.
If either of them has increafed in this proportion, it
ftems to be an effeft too great to be accounted for by
the foie operation of this caufe. That the trade and in¬
duftry of Scotland, however, have increafed very confi-
derably during this period, and that the banks have
contributed a good deal to this increafe, cannot be
doubted.
“ The value of the filver money which circulated in
Scotland before the Union, in 1707, and which imme¬
diately after it was brought into the bank of Scotland
in order to be re-coined, amounted 10411,117I. xos. pd.
fterling. No account has been got of the gold coin;
but it appears from the ancient accounts of the mint of
Scotland, that the value of the gold annually coined
fomewhat exceeded that of the filver. There were a
good many people too upon this occafion, who, from
a diffidence of repayment, did not bring their filver in¬
to the bank of Scotland; and there was, befides, fomc
Englifh coin which was not called in. The whole
value of the gold and filver, therefore, which circulated
in Scotland before the Union, cannot be eftimated at
lefs than 1,000,000 fterling. It feems to have con-
ftituted almoft the whole circulation of that country;
for though the circulation of the bank of Scotland,
which had then no rival, was confiderable, it feems to
have made but a very fmall part of the whole. In the
prefent times, the whole circulation of Scotland cannot
be eftimated at lefs than 2,000,000, of which that part
which confifts in gold and filver moft probably does
not amount to 500,000. But though the circulating
gold and filver of Scotland have fuffered fo great a di¬
minution during this period, its real riches and profpe-
rity do not appear to have fuffered any. Its agricul¬
ture, manufaftures, and trade, on the contrary, the an¬
nual produce of its land and labour, have evidently
been augmented.”
Paper-an office in the palace of Whitehall,
in which all the public writings, matters of ftate and
council, proclamations, letters, intelligences, negocia-
tions abroad, and generally all difpatches that paf»
through the offices of the fecretariA of ftate, are lodged,
by way of library.
PAPIER-mache. This is a fubftance made of
cuttings of white or brown papier, boiled in water,
and beaten in a mortar, till they are reduced into a
kind of pafte, and then boiled with a folution of gum
Arabic
Paphla-
gonia
Papilio.
PAP [ 5854 ] PAP
arab!c or of fize, to give tenacity to the pafte, which
is afterwards formed into different toys, &c. by pref-
fing it into oiled moulds. When dry, it is done over
-with a mixture of fize and lamp-black, and afterwards
varnifhed. The black varnifh for thefe toys, accord¬
ing to Dr Lewis, is prepared as follows: Some colo¬
phony, or turpentine boiled down till it becomes black
.and friable, is melted in a glazed earthen veffel, and
thrice as much amber in fine powder fprinkled in by
degrees, with the addition of a little fpirit or oil of
turpentine now and then : when the amber is melted,
fprinkle in the fame quantity of farcocolla, continu¬
ing to ftir them, and to add more fpirit of turpentine,
till the whole becomes fluid; then (train out the clear
through a coarfe hair-bag, preffing it gently between
hot boards. This varnifh, mixed with ivory-black in
fine powder, is applied, in a hot room, on the dried
paper-pafte ; which is then fet in a gently heated
oven, next day in a hotter oven, and the third day in
a very hot one, and let Hand each time till the oven
grows cold. The parte thus varnifhed is hard, du¬
rable, glofly, and bears liquors hot or cold.
PAPHLAGONIA (anc. geog.) a country of the
Hither Afia, beginning at Parthenius, a river of
Btthynia, on the weft, and extending in length to the
Halys eaflward, with the Euxine to the north, and
Galatia to the fouth. Pliny enlarges the limits on the
weft fide to the river Billis, on this fide the Parthenius.
It is called Pylxmenia by fome, (Pliny). Paphla-
f'ones, the people, mentioned by Homer, and there-
ore of no fmall antiquity. A fuperftitious and filly
people, (Lucian) ; a brave people, (Homer) ; taking
their name from Phaleg, (Bochart).
PAPHOS (anc. geog.) two adjoining iflands on
the weft fide of the ifland of Cyprus; the one called
PaU Paphos, (Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny); the otheriVe#
Paphos; and when mentioned without an adjunct,
this latter is always underftood. Both dedicated to
Venus, and left undiftinguifhed by the poets, (Virgil,
Horace). Hence Venus is furnamed Paphia; Paphii
the people, (Coins, Stephanus). It was reftored by
Auguftus, after a (hock of an earthquake, and called
Augujla, (Dio).
PAPIAS, bifhop of Hieropolis, a city of Phrygia,
was the difciple of St John the Evangelift, and the
companion of Polycarp, as St Jerome obferves, and
not of John the Ancient, as fome other authors have
maintained. He compofed a work in five books,
intitled Expofitions of the Difcourfes of our Lord, of
which there are only fome fragments now remaining.
He it was who introduced the opinion of the Mille-
narians.
PAPILIO, the Butterfly ; in zoology, a genus
of infers belonging to the order of lepidoptera. It
has four wings, imbricated with a kind of downy
feales; the tongue is convoluted in a fpiral form ;
and the body is hairy. There are 273 fpecies, prin¬
cipally diftinguifhed by the colour of their wings.
The world is well acquainted with the beauties of
this part of the ani,c!-creation; but Mr Reaumur has
given accounts of fome very Angular fpecies, which de-
ferve a peculiar regard.
One fpecies of thefe he has called the bundle of dry
leaves. This, when it is in a ftate of reft, has wholly the
appearance of a little duller of the decayed leaves of
fome herb. The pofition and colour of its wings
greatly favour this refemblance, and they have very
large ribs; wholly like thofe of the leaves of plants,
and are indented in the fame manner at their edges as
the leaves of many plants are. This feems to point out
the care of nature for the animal, and frequently
may preferve it from birds, &c.
The fkull butterfly is another lingular fpecies, fo
called from its head refembling, in fome degree, a
death’s head, or human flcull. This very remarkable
appearance is terrible to many people; but it has ano¬
ther yet greater Angularity attending it, which is,
that, when frighted, it has a mournful and harfti voice.
This appeared the more furprifing to Mr Reaumur, as
no other known butterfly had any the leaft voice at all;
and he was not ready of belief that it was a real voice,
but fufpe&ed the noife, like that of the cicadas, to be
owing to the attrition of fome part of the body; and,
in fine, he, by great pains, difeovered that this noife
was not truly vocal, but was made by a hard and bride
rubbing of the trunk againft two other hard bodies
between which it is placed.
Another butterfly there is, fo fmall that it might
be miftaken for a fmall fly. This is certainly the
extreme in degree of fize of all the known butterflies,
and cannot but have been proportionably fmall in the
ftate of a caterpillar and chtyfalis : this creature fpends
its whole life in all the three ftages of caterpillar, chry-
falis, and butterfly, on the leaf of the celandine. It
lives on the under fide of the leaf; and though in the
caterpillar ftate it feeds on it, yet it does no damage.
It does not eat the fubltance of the leaf, but draws
from it only a fine juice, which is foon repaired again,
without occafioning any change in the appearance of
the leaf. This fpecies is very (hort-lived; and paffes
through its three ftates in fo (hort a time, that there
are frequently ten generations of it in one year;
whereas, in all the other butterflies, two generations
in the year are all that are to be had. Thefe two
generations are fufficient to make a prodigious increafe :
in a large garden, if there are twenty caterpillars in
fpring, thefe may be overlooked, and there may be
eafily concluded to be none there, even on a narrow
fearch ; but if thefe twenty caterpillars afterwards be¬
come twenty butterflies, ten of which are male and
ten female, and each female lay the fame number of
eggs that the common filk-worm does, that is, four
hundred ; if all the caterpillars hatched of thefc be¬
come butterflies, and thefe lay eggs in the fame pro¬
portion, which remain the winter, and come to be
hatched in the fucceeding fpring; then from thefe
twenty, in only one year, you will have eight hundred
thoufand ; and if we add to this the increafe of thefe
in a fucceeding year, the account muft appear terrible,
and fuch as no arc could guard againft. The great
ruler of the world has put fo many hindrances in the
way of this over-abundant produftion, that it is very
rare fuch years of deftru&ion happen. Some fuch
have happened, however; and much mifehief has been
dreaded from them, not only from their eating all the
herbage, but from themfelves being eaten with herbs
in fallads and otherwife : but experiments have proven
this an erroneous opinion, and they are found to be
innocent, and eatable as fnails or oyfters.
PAPILIONACEOUS, among botanifts, an ap¬
pellation
Papilio,
Papiliona-
.• ....... • ... ..
i’lg. 1. O TI3 Tard a .
Fig . 3
t\sr. 4 .
riate ccxxxnr.
Bitdof rABABia®.
Fig- % .
PAP [ 5855 ] PAR
■papinian peljatlon given to the flowers of plants belonging prin-
1 cipally to the diabelohla clafs, from their refembling
Papyrus. ^ w;npS 0f a butterfly.
PAPINIAN, a celebrated Roman lawyer of the
third century, under the emperor Severus; who had
fo high an opinion of his worth, that he recommended
his fons Caracalla and Geta to his care. Caracalla
having firft murdered his brother, ordered Papinian to
compofe a difcourfe to excufe this murder to the fenate
and people; which when he refufed to undertake,
the brutal emperor ordered him to be beheaded ; and
his body was dragged through the ftreets of Rome.
Papinian wrote feveral treatifes in the line of his pro-
fefiion.
PAPISTS, are thofe who profefs the Popifh reli¬
gion in this kingdom ; concerning whom there have
been many ftatutes fince the Reformation. See Non¬
conformists.
PAPPUS, in botany, a foft downy fubftance that
grows on the feeds of certain plants, as thiftles, hawk-
weed, &c. ferving to fcatter and buoy them up in the
PAPPUS, an eminent philofopher of Alexandria,
faid by Suidas to have flouriflted under the emperor
Theodofius the Great, who reigned from A. D. 379
to 395. His writings fhew him to have been a con-
fummate mathematician : Many of them are loft ; the
reft continued long in manufcript, detached parts ha¬
ving only been occafionally publiftied in the laft cen¬
tury, until Carolus Manoleflius publi/hed his remains
entire at Bologna in 1660, in folio.
PAPYRUS, called alfo Cyperus Niliacut, the plant
from which the Egyptians were in ufe to make their
paper. It is a large plant that grows wild in the
midft of the ftagnating water left in hollow places af¬
ter the inundation of the Nile. We are told by Theo-
phraftus and Pliny, that the natives ufed the root of it
for firing, as well as for other purpofes of wood : that
they built little boats of the plant itfelf; and formed the
inner bark into fails, garments, coverlids, and cordage;
that they chewed it both raw and fodden, and fwallow-
ed the juice as a dainty: but, of all its ufes, the moft
celebrated was that of its ferving to write upon, like
the paper of thefe days, which derives its name from
this plant of Egypt. The intermediate part of the
ftalk was cut and feparated into different laminae, which
were fet apart, and dried in the fun for the manufac¬
ture. Thefe laminae were joined together horizontally
and tranfverfely, in fheets or leaves, upon a fmooth
board ; then moiftened with water, which diffolved a
kind of vifcous glue in the pores of the plant, ferving
to cement and render the whole uniform. The fheet
being thus formed, was -put into a prefs, and after¬
wards dried for ufe. Such was the procefs of making
paper in Egypt: but as the fheets were coarfe, brown,
unequal, and imperfeft, the Romans invented methods
to bring the fabric to perfedtion. They contrived a
glue or gum, by means of which they could occafion¬
ally enlarge the fize and volume. They bleached it to
a furprifing degree of whitenefs: they beat it with
hammers, To as to render it more thin and lefs porous:
they fmoothed and polifhed it with ivory ; and by a
fort of calendar gave it a fhining glofs like that of the
Chinefe paper. According to the different degrees of
delicacy, whitenefs, and fize, it acquired different ap-
Vol. VIII. 2
pellations, either from the names of particular manu- Par
fadhires", from the great perfonages who ufed it, or II
from the particular ufes to which it was put; fuch as Pa’3dl^e‘
the Fannian, the Leviathan, the Claudian, the Impe¬
rial, the Hieratic, and the Atnphitheatric.
PAR, in commerce, fignifies any two things equal
in value. See Exchange.
PARABLE, a fable or allegorical inftrudlion,
Tounded on fomething real or apparent in nature or
hiftory, from which a moral is drawn by comparing it
with fomething in which the people are more imme¬
diately concerned ; fuch are the parables of Dives and
Lazarus, of the Prodigal Son, of the Ten Virgins,
&c.
PARABOLA. See Conic Sections.
PARABOLE. See Oratory, n° 84.
PARACELSUS, (Aurelius Philip Theophraflus
Bombaftus de Hohenheim), a famous phyfician, born
at Einfidlen, a town in the canton of Schweitz in Swif-
ferland. He was educated with great care by his fa¬
ther, who was the natural fon of a prince, and in a
little time made a great progrefs in the fludy of phy-
fic. He afterwards travelled into France, Spain, Italy,
and Germany, in order to become acquainted with the
moft celebrated phyficians. At his return to Swiffer-
land, he flopped at Bazil, where he read ledfures on
phyfic in the German tongue. He was one of the firft
who made ufe of chemical remedies with fuccefs, by
which he acquired a very great reputation. Paracelfus
gloried in deftroying the method eftablifhed by Galen,
which he believed to be very uncertain ; and by this
means drew upon himfelf the hatred of the other phy-
ficrans. It is faid, that he boafted of being able by
his remedies to preferve the life of man for feveral
ages: but he himfelf experienced the vanity of his
promifes, by his dying at Saltzburg, in 1504, at 37
years of age, according to fome, and at 48, according
to others. The beft edition of his wmrks is that of
Geneva in 1658, in 3 vols folio.
PARACENTESIS, an operation in furgery, com¬
monly called Tapping. See Surgery.
PARACLET, the Comforter, a name given to
the Holy Ghoft.
PARADE, in a military fenfe, the place where
troops aflemble or draw together to mount guard, or
for any other purpofe.
Parade, in fencing,, implies the a&ion of parrying
or turning off any thruft.
PARADISE, a term principally ufed for the gar¬
den of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed
immediately upon their creation.
As to this terreftrial paradife, there have been many
inquiries about its fituation. It has been placed in the
third heaven, in the orb of the moon, in the moon it¬
felf, in the middle region of the air, above the earth,
under the earth, in the place poffefied by the Cafpian
fea, and under the ar&ic pole. The learned Huetius
places it upon the river that is produced by the con-
junftion of the Tigris and Euphrates, now called the
river of the Arabs, between this conjunction and the
divifion made by the fame river before it falls into the
Perfian fea. Other geographers have placed it in Ar¬
menia, between the fources of the Tigris, the Eu¬
phrates, the Araxis, and the Phafis, which they fnp-
pofe to be the four rivers defcribed by Mcfef. But
33 B con-
PAR [ 5S56 ] PAR
Paradifea. concerning the exafl; place we muft necefTdrily be very
’ uncertain, if indeed it can be thought at all to exift at
prefent, confidering the many changes which have ta¬
ken place on the furface of the earth fince the creation.
The celeftial paradife is that place of pure and refi¬
ned delight in which the fouls of the blefied enjoy
everlafting happinefs.
Bird of Paradise. See the following article. -
See Plate PAR AD I ST A, in ornithology, a genus of birds
CCXXXIilbelonging to the order of picas. The beak is covered
with a belt or collar of downy feathers at the bafe;
and the feathers on the Tides are very long. The Por-
tuguefe firft found thefe birds on the ifland of Gilolo,
the Papua iflands, and New Gninea ; and they were
known by the name of birds of the fun. The inhabi¬
tants of Tern ate call them manuco dcnsiata, the “ bird
of God whence the name manuco diata, ufed by
fome naturalills, is derived. According to fome fa-
Forrefi’s bulous accounts, this bird has no legs, lives conflantly
Voyage to on wing, and in the air ; and, in confirmation of thefe
Neiu Gui- accounts, the legs of all the dead birds offered to fale
r>ea' were cut off. But the inhabitants of Aroo, who refort
yearly to Banda, undeceived the Dutch, and freed them
from thofe prejudices. Another reafon for cutting off
the legs is, that the birds are more eafily preferved
, without them; befides that the Moors wanted the
birds without legs, in order to put them on in their
mock-fights as ornaments to their helmets. The in¬
habitants of Aroo, however, have brought the birds
with legs for 70 or 80 years; and Pijafetta, fhipmate
of Ferdinand Magellan, proved, about the year 1525,
an eye-witnefs that thefe creatures were net without
kgs. However, the peculiar length and ftructure of
their fcapular feathers hinders them from fettling, in
high winds, on trees; and when they are thrown on
the ground by thefe winds, they cannot rife again. If
taken by the natives, they are immediately killed, as
their food is not known ; and they defend themfelves
with great courage with their formidable bills. There
are reckoned fix fpecies of thefe birds.
1. The largeft bird of Paradife is commonly two
foot four inches in length ; the head is fmall; the bill
hard and long, of a pale colour. The head and back-
part of the neck is lemon-coloured, a little black about
the eyes ; about the neck, the bird is of the brighteft
gloffy emerald green, foft like velvet 5 as is alfo the
breafi, which is black : the wings are large, and chef-
nut-coloured; the back-part of the body is covered
with long, ftraight, narrow feathers, of a pale brown
colour, fimilar to the plumes of the oftrich. Thefe
feathers are fpread when the bird is on the wing ; for
which reafon he can keep very long in the air. On
both fides of the belly are two tufts of ft iff and ihorter
feathers, of a golden yellow, and (hining. From the
rump proceed t.ro long ftiff ftiafts, which are feather¬
ed on their extremities.
Thefe birds are not found in Key, an ifland fifty
Dutch miles eaft of Banda ; but they are found at
the Aroo iflands, lying 15 Dutch miles farther eaft
than Key, during the wefterly or dry monfoon ; and
they return to New Guinea as foon as the eafter-
ly or wet monfoon fets in. They come always in a
flock of 30 or 40, and are led by a bird which
the inhabitants of Aroo call the king. This leader is
black, with red fpots; and conftantly fties higher than
the reft of the flock, which never forfake him, but ParadUia.
fettle as foon as he fettles: a circumftance that fre- "
quently proves their ruin when the king lights on the
ground, whence they are not able to rife on account
of the Angular ftruAure and difpefition of their plu¬
mage. They are likewife unable to fly with the wind,
which would ruin their loofe plumage ; but take their
flight conftantly againft it, cautious not to venture out
in hard blowing weather, as a ftrong wind frequently
obliges them to come to the ground. During their
flight they cry like ftarlings. Their note, however,
approaches more to the croaking of ravens; which is
heard very plainly, when they are in diftrtfs from a
frefh gale blowing on the back of their plumage. In
Aroo, thefe birds fettle on the bigheft trees, efpe-
cially on the ficus benjamina of the hortus naalaba-
ricus, commonly called the 'waringa tree. The natives
catch them with bird-lime or in noofes, or fhoot them,
with blunt arrows ; but though fome are ftill alive
when they fall into their hands, the catchers kill them
immediately, and fometimes cut the legs off; then
they draw out the entrails, dry and fumigate the bo¬
dies with fulphur or fmoke only, and fell them at
Banda for half a rixdollar each ; but at Aroo they may
be bought for a fpike-nail or a piece of old iron.
Flocks of thefe birds are often feen flying from one
ifland to the other againft the wind. In cafe they
find the wind become too powerful, they fly ftraight
up into the air, till they come to a place where it is
kfs agitated, and then continue their flight. During
the eaftern monfoon their tails are moulted, fo that
they have them only during four months of the weflcm
monfoon.
2. The froaller bird of Paradife is about 20 inches long.
His beak is lead-coloured, and paler at; the point. The
eyes are fmall, and inclofed in black about the neck. The
head and back of the neck are of a dirty yellow ; the
back of a greyifh yellow; the bread and belly of a dufky
colour; the wings fmall, and ehefnut-coloured. The
long plumage is about a foot in length,and paler than
in the large fpecies; as in general the colours of this
bird are kfs bright than the former. The two long
feathers of the tail are conftamly thrown away by the
natives.—This is in all refpe&s like the greater fort;
and they likewife follow a king or leader, who is,
however, blacker, with a purplish caft, and finer in
colour than the reft. The neck and bill are larger in
the male than in the female. They rooft on the topij
of the higheft trees, and do not migrate like the other
kind. Some fay, that the birds of this fpecies, find¬
ing themfelves weak through age, foar ftraight to¬
wards the fun till they are tired, and fall dead to the
ground. The natives draw the entrajls, fear the birds
with a hot iron, and put them in a tube of bamboo
for prefervation.
3. and 4. The large black bird of Paradife ig
brought without wings or kgs for fale ; fo that no ac¬
curate defeription of it hath yet been given. Its fi¬
gure, when fluffed, is narrow and round, but ftretch-
ed in length to the extent of four fpans. The plu¬
mage on the neck, head, and belly, is black and vel¬
vet-like, with a hue of purple and gold, which ap¬
pears very ftrong. The bill is blackifh, and one inch
in length. On both fides are two bunches of fea¬
thers, which have the appearance of wings, although
PAR [ 5857 1 PAR
Paradifea. they be very different, the wings being cut off by the na-
 tives. This plumage is foft, broad, fimilar to pea¬
cocks feathers, with a glorious glofs and greenilh hue,
and all bent upwards ; which Valentine thinks is occa-
fioned by the birds being kept in hollow bamboo reeds.
The feathers of the tail are of unequal length ; thofe
next to the belly are narrow, like hair; the two up-
permoft are much longer, and pointed ; thofe imme¬
diately trader them are a fpan and a half longer than
the upper ones; they are ftiff, on both fides fringed
with a plumage like hair, black above, but gloffy be¬
low. Birds of this kind are brought only from one
particular place of New Guinea. BeGdes the large
black bird of Paradife, there is ftill another fort, whofe
plumage is equal in length, but thinner in body, black
above, and without any remarkable glofs, not having
thofe fhiniug peacock-feathers which are found on the
greater fpecies. This wants likewife the three long-
pointed feathers of the tail belonging to the larger
black fpecies.
5. The white bird of Paradife is the moll rare, and
has two varieties; one quite white, and the other black
and white. The former is very rare. Thefecondbas
the fore-part black, and the back-part white ; with
12 crooked wiry (hafts, which are almoft naked, tho’,
in fome places, covered with hairs.
6. In the year 1689, a new fpecies of the black
bird of Paradife was feen in Amboyna. This was
only one foot in length, with a fine purple hue, a
fmall head, and a ftraight bill. On its back, near the
wings, are feathers of a blue and purple colour, as on
the other birds of paradife ; but under the wings, and
over all the belly, they are yellow-coloured, as in the
common fort: on the back of the neck they are
moufe-coloured mixed with green. It is remarkable
in this fpecies, that there are before the wings two
roundifh tufts of feathers, which are green-edged, and
may be moved at pleafure by the bird, like wings.
Inftead of a tail, he has 12 or 13 black, naked, wire¬
like (hafts, hanging promifeuoufiy like feathers. His
legs are ftrong, and have (harp claws. The head is
remarkably fmall; and the eyes are alfo fmall, and fur-
rounded with black.
7. The laft fpecies is the king’s bird. This crea¬
ture is about feven inches long, and fbmewhat larger
than a titmoufe. Its head and eyes are fmall; the bill
ftraight; the eyes included in circles of black plu¬
mage ; the crown of the head is flame-coloured; the
back of the neck blood-coloured ; the neck and bread
of a chefnut colour, with a ring of the brighteft eme¬
rald-green. Its wings are in proportion ftrong; and
the quill-feathers dark, with red (hining plumes, fpots,
and ftripes. The tail is ftraight, (hort, and brown.
Two long naked black (hafts projeft from the rump,
at lead a hand-breadth beyond the tail; having at
their extremities femilunar twilled plumage, of the
mod glaring green colour above, and dullcy below.
The belly is white and green fprinkled ; and on each
fide is a tuft of long plumage, feathered with a broad
margin, being on one fide green, and on the other
dufky. The back is blood-red and brown,--(hining
like filk. The legs are in fize like thofe of a lark,
three fore-toes, and one back-toe. This bird affo-
ciates not with any of the other birds tjf paradife ;
but (tits folitary from built to bu(h, wherever he fees
red berries, without ever getting on tall trees. Paradox
PARADOX, in philofophy, a propofition feem-
ingly abfurd, as being contrary to fome received opi- ar32U3y‘
nions, but yet true in faft.
No fcience abounds more with paradoxes than geo¬
metry: thus, that a right line (hould continually ap¬
proach to the hyperbola, and yet never reach it, is a
true paradox ; and in the fame manner a fpiral may
continually approach to a point, and yet not reach it
in any number of revolutions, however great'.'
PARAGOGE, in grammar, a figure whereby a
letter or fyllable is added to the end of a word; as
med, for me; dicier, for did, &c.
PARAGRAPH, in general, denotes a fe6tion or
divifion of a chapter; and in references is marked
thus,
PARAGUAY, or La Plata, a province of Spa-
nifh America, bounded on the north by the river of
the Amazons ; on the eaft, by Brafil; on the fouth,
by Patagonia ; and on the weft, by Chili. This coun¬
try was firft difeovered by Sebaftian Cabot, who, in
1526, paffed from Rio de la Plata to the river Parana
in fmall barks, and thence entered the river called Pa¬
raguay. It was not, however, thoroughly reduced till
the Jefuits obtained poffeffion of it. A few of thefe
went to Paraguay, foon after the city of Affumption
was founded, and converted about 50 Indian families,
who foon induced many others to follow their example,
on accoutit of the peace and tranquillity they enjoyed
under the fathers. They had long refilled the Spa¬
niards and Portuguefe ; but the Jefuits, by learning
their language, conforming to their manners, &c. foon
acquired great authority among them ; till at laft, by
fteadily purfuing the fame artful meafures, they arri¬
ved at the higheft degree of power and influence, be¬
ing in a manner the abfolute fovereigns of a great part
of this extenfive country; for above 350,000 families
are faid to have been fubjeft to them, living in obedi¬
ence and awe bordering on adoration, yet procured
without the lead violence or conftraint. There were
above 60,000 parifties on the banks of the rivers Pa¬
raguay and Parana, not exceeding the diflance of 3a
miles from each other: in each of thefe there was a
Jefuit, fupreme in all caufes, civil, military, and ec-
clefiaftic, who might be regarded as a petty prince,
governing not only with the fway of a fovereign, but
with the influence and reputation of an oracle. He
nominated the chiefs in all the different departments :
the cacique held of him ; the general received hiscom-
miflion and inftrudlions from him ; and all his deci-
fions were without appeal. The fame reverend father
who prefided over the civil ceconomy, affifted by two
others, performed alfo the duties of a parilh-prieft ;
catechiting the Indians, faying mafs, exhorting, mar¬
rying, impofing penance, vifiting the fick, &c.
The above was the account given of the behaviour
of the Jefuits by their own writers. Others, however,
treated their charadlers with more feverity; accufing
them of pride, haughtinefs, and abufing their autho¬
rity to the greateft degree; infomuch that they would
have caufed the magistrates to be whipped in their pre¬
fence, and obliged perfons of the highefl diftindion
within their jurifdidion to kifs the hem of their gar¬
ment, as the greateft honour at which they could pof-
fibly arrive. To'this might be added, the utter abo-
33 B 2 lido*
PAR [ 5858 1 PAR
PavaVipo- Ution of all ideas of property; which Indeed was ren-
m<ina dered ufelefs by the general magazines and ftore-houfes
Parallaftic. ^hich they eftabliihed, and from which, together with
— the herds of cattle kept for the public ufe, they fup-
plied the want of individuals as occafion required ; yet
ilill it was obje&ed to the chara&er of the fraternity,
that they poffefled large property themfelves, and
claimed the abfolute difpofal of the meaneft effe&s in
Paraguay. All manufadlures belonged to them ;
every natural commodity was brought to them ; and
the treafnres annually remitted to the fuperior of the
order were thought to be a proof that zeal for religion
was not the only motive by which they were influenced.
Befides the parochial or provincial governments,
there was a kind of fupreme council, compofed of an
annual meeting of all the fathers, who concerted the
meafures necefiary for promoting the common concerns
of the million, framed new laws, correfled or abolilh-
ed old ones, and, in a word, adapted eveay thing to
circumltances. It is faid to have been one of the
great objffts of the annual councils to take fuch mea¬
fures as ihould effe&ually deprive ftrangers of all in¬
telligence concerning the ftate of the million. Hence
- the natives were reftrained from learning the Spanilh
tongue, and were taught, that it was dangerous for
their falvation to hold any converfation with a fubjeft
of Spain or Portugal. But the circumftance that ren-
rendered their defigns molt, fufpicious, was the efta-
blilhment of a military force. Every parilh had its
corps of horfe and foot, who were duly exercifed
every Sunday ; and it was faid, that the whole amount¬
ed to a body of 70,000 or 80,000 troops, well difci-
plined.—Such was the Hate of this country fome time
ago; but as to its fituation fince the abolition of the
fed! of Jefuits, we can fay nothing, as very little au¬
thentic intelligence is permitted to pafs from that coun¬
try to this.
The climate of Paraguay is very little different from
that of Spain ; and the diltindtions between the fea-
fons are much the fame. In winter indeed, violent
tempefts of wind and rain are very frequent, accom¬
panied with fuch dreadful claps of thunder and light¬
ning as fill the inhabitants, though ufed to them, with
terror and confternation. In fummer, the excefiive
heats are mitigated by gentle breezes, which conftant-
ly begin at eight or nine in the morning.
The, foil is very fertile, producing maiz, manioc,
and potatoes, befides many fruits and fimples unknown
in Europe. Vines, however, do not thrive, except in
fome particular places. Wheat has alfo been tried;
but it is only ufed for cakes, and other things of that
kind. There are great numbers of poifonous ferpents,
and others of an enormous fize, many of which live
on filh. Almoft every foreft of the country abounds
with bees, which make their hives in hollow trees.
The country products alfo cotton, hemp, and flax ;
and there are fuch numbers of wild cattle, that they
are killed only for their hides. The natives differ not
much from thofe defcribed under the article America.
PARALIPOMENA, in matters of literature, de¬
notes a fupplement of things omitted in a preceding
work.
PARALEPSIS. See Oratory, n° 87.
PARALLACTIC, in general, fomething relating
to the parallax of heavenly bodies. See Parallax.
PARALLAX, in aftronomy. See there, n° 182,
&c.
PARALLEL, in geometry, an appellation given to
lines,, furfaces, and bodies every where equidiftant from
each other. See Geometry.
Parallel Sphere, that fituation of the fphere where¬
in the equator coincides with the horizon, and the
poles with the zenith and nadir.
Parallel Sailing.' See Navigation, fedf. iii.
Parallels of Latitude, in aftronomy, are lelfer
circles of the fphere parallel to the ecliptic, imagined
to pafs through every degree and minute of the co¬
lures.
Parallels of Altitude, or Ahnucantars, are circles
parallel to the horizon, imagined to pafs through every
degree and minute of the meridian between the hori¬
zon and zenith, having their poles in the zenith.
Parallels of Declination, in aftronomy, are the
fame with parallels of latitude in geography.
PARALLELLOPIPED, in geometry, a regular
folid comprehended under fix parallellograms, the op-
pofite ones whereof are fimilar, parallel, and equal to
each other.
PARALLELLOPIPEDIA, in natural hiftory, a
genus of fpars, externally of a determinate and regular
figure, always found loofe, detached, and feparate from
all other bodies, and in form of an oblique parallello •
piped, with fix parallellogram fides and eight folid
angles; eafily fiflile either in an horizontal or perpendi¬
cular direftion ; being compofed of numbers of thin
plates, and thofe very elegantly and regularly arranged
bodies, each of the fame form with the whole mafs, ex¬
cept that they are thinner in proportion to their hori¬
zontal planes, and naturally fall into thefe and no other
figures, on being broken with a flight blow.
PARALOGISM, in logic, a falfe reafoning, or a
fault committed in demonftration, when a confequence
is drawn from principles that are falfe ; or, though true,
are not proved; or when a propofition is pafled over
that ftiould have been proved by the way.
PARALYSIS, the Palsy. See Medicine, n0$f6.
PARAMECIA, in natural hiftory, a name given
to fuch animalcules as have no vifibie limbs or tails,
and are of an irregnlarly oblong figure.
PARAMOUNT, (compounded of two French
words, par, i. e. per, and monter afcendere), fignifies
in our law the “ higheft lord of the fee, of lands, te¬
nements, and hereditaments.” As there may be a lord
mefne where lands are held of an inferior lord, who
holds them of a fuperior under certain fervices; fo this
fuperior lord is lord paramount. AHb the king is the
chief lord, or lord para?nount of all the lands in the
kingdom. Co. Lit. 1.
PARANYMPH, among the ancients, the perfon
who waited on the bridegroom, and dire&ed the nup¬
tial folemnities; called alfo pronubus and aufpex, be-
caufe the ceremonies began by taking aufpicia. As
the paranymph officiated only on the part of the bride¬
groom, a woman called pronuba officiated on the part
of the bride.
PARAPET, in fortification, an elevation of earth
defigned for covering the foldiers from the enemy’s
cannon or fmall-ftiot. See Fortification.
PARAPHERNALIA, or Parapherna, in the
civil law, thofe goods which a wife brings htr huftiand
befides
Parallax
Parapher-
PAR [ 5859 ] PAR
Paraphi- befides her dower, and which are ftill to remain at her
n’cj|f‘s difpofal excluflve of her hufband, unlefs there are fome
Parbuncle Prov‘fi°n niade to the contrary in the marriage-con*
 ltra&. Some of our Englifh civilians define the para*
phernalia to be fuch goods as a wife challengeth over
and above her dower or jointure, after her hufband’s
death; as furniture for her chamber, wearing apparel,
and jewels, which are not to be put into the inventory
of her hufband’s goods; and a French civilian calls pa¬
raphernalia the moveables, linen, and other female ne-
ceffaries, which are adjudged to a wife in prejudice of
the creditors, when Hie renounces the fucceflion of her
hufband.
PARAPHIMOSIS, a diforderof the penis, where¬
in the prepuce is fhrunk, and withdrawn behind the
glans, fo as not to be capable of being brought to co¬
ver the fame; which generally happens in venereal dif-
orders. See Surgery.
PARAPHRASE, an explanation of fome text in
clearer and more ample terms, whereby is fupplied
what the author might have faid or thought on the
fubjeft. Such are elleemed Erafmus’s paraphrafe on
the New Teftament, the Chaldee Paraphrafe on the^
-m' Pentateuch, &c.
PARAPHRENITIS, an inflammation of the dia¬
phragm. See Medicine, it0 290.
PARAPHROSYNE, a word ufed by medical wri¬
ters to denote a delirium, or an alienation of mind in
fevers, or from whatever other caufe.
PARAPLEGIA, a fpecies of palfy. See Medi¬
cine, n° 379.
PARASANG, an ancient Perfian meafure, diffe¬
rent at different times, and in different places; being
ufually 30, fometimes 40, and fometimes 50 ftadia, or
furlongs.—The word, according to Littleton, has its
rife from farafcb angarius* q. d. the fpace a poll-man
rides from one (lation, angaria, to another.
PARASELENE, in natural philofophy, a mock
moon ; a meteor or phenomenon encompaffing or ad¬
jacent to the moon, in form of a luminous ring; where¬
in are obferved fometimes pne, and fometimes two or
more images of the moon.
^ PARASITE, among the Greeks, was originally a
.very reputable title ; the parafites being a kind of
priefls, at lead minifters, of the gods, in the fame man¬
ner as the epnlones were at Rome. They took care
of the facred corn, or the corn ckltined for the fervice
of the temples and the gods, As. facrifices, fehfts, &c.
They had even the intendance over facrifices; and took
care that they were duly performed. At Athens there
was a kind of college of 12 parafites; each people of
Attica furnifhing one, who was always chofen out of
the beft families. Polybius adds, that a parafite was
alfo an honourable title among the ancient Gauls, and
was given to their poets. But of late it has been made
a term of reproach, and ufed for a flatterer or mean
dependent.
PARASITES, or Parasitical Plants, in bo¬
tany, fuch plants as are produced out of the trunk or
branches of other plants, from whence they receive
their nourilhment, and will not grow on the ground.
Such are the mifletoe, &c.
PARASTATjE, in anatomy. See Prostate.
PARBUNGLE, in a fiiip, the name of a rope al-
moft like a pair of flings: it is feized both ends toge- Parca’,
ther, and then put almoll double about any heavy thing Parchment,
that is to be hoifted in or out of the fhip; having the ’
hook of the runner hitched into it, to hoift it up by.
PARCfE, in heathen mythology, goddeffes who
were fuppofed to prefide over the accidents and events,
and to determine the date or period of human life.
The Parcae were three, Clotho, Lachefis, and Atro-
pos; becaufe, forfooth, all things have their beginning,
progrefs, and end. Hence the poets tell us, the Parcce
fpun the thread of mens lives; that Clotho held the
diltaff, and drew the thread ; Lachefis twirled the
fpindle, and fpun it; and Atropos cut it. Clotho co-
lum retinct, Lachefis net, Atropos occat.
The ancients reprefent the Parcas divers ways: Lu¬
cian, in the fliape of three poor old women, having
large locks of wool, mixed with daffodils on their
heads; one of which holds a diftaff, the ottar a wheel,
and the third a pair of fciffars, wherewith to cut the
thread of life.—Others reprefent them otherwdfe: Clo¬
tho appearing in a long robe of divers colours, wear¬
ing a crown upon her head adorned with feven ftars,
and holding a diftaff in her hand; Lachefis in a robe
befet with ftars, with feveral fpindles in her hand; and
Atropos, clad in black, cutting the thread with a pair
of large fciffars.
The ancients imagined that the Parcte ufed white
wool for a long and happy life, and black for a fluirt
and unfortunate one.
PARCHMENT, the fkins of ffieep or goats pre¬
pared after fuch a manner as to render it proper for
writing upon, covering books, &c.
The word comes from the Latin pergamena, the an¬
cient name of this manufa&ure; which is faid to have
been taken from the city Pergamos, to Eumenes, king
whereof, its invention is ufually afcribed; tho’, in reality,
that prince appears rather to have been the improver,
than the inventor of parchment. For the Perfians of
old, according to Diodorus, wrote all their records on
fkins; and the ancient lonians, as we are told by He¬
rodotus, made ufe of fheep-fkins and goat-fki.ns in wri¬
ting, many ages before Eumenes’s time. Nor need we
doubt that fuch fkins were prepared and dreffed for
that pnrpofe, after a manner not unlike that of our
parchment; tho’probably not fo artificially.—The ma-
nufadlure of parchment is begun by the fkinner, and
finiftied by the parchment-maker.
The fkin having been dripped of its wool, and pla¬
ced in the lime-pit, in the manner defcribed under the
article Shammy, the fkinner ftretches it on a kind of
frame, and pares off the flelh with an iron inftrument;
this done, it'is moiftened with a r?g; and powdered
chalk being fpread over it, the fkinner takes a large
pumice-ftone, flat at bottom, and rubs over the fkin,
and thus fcowers off the flefh ; he then goes over it
again with the iron inftrument, moiftens it as before,
and rubs it again with the pumice-ftone without any
chalk underneath : this fmooths and foftens the flefh-
fide very cwfiderably. He then drains it again, by
palling over ifthe iron inftrument as before. The flcfh-
fide being thus drained, by fcraping off the moifture,
he in the fame manner paffes the iron over the wool or
hair-fide: then ftretches it tight on a frame, and fcrapes
the fkfh-lide again: this finifhes its draining;, and the
more
PAR [ 5860 ] PAR
Pat-dies more It is drained, the whiter it becomes. The fkinner
13 now throws on mare chalk, fweeping it over with a
- 3rd011‘ pjppp. of lamb-fliin that has the wool on; and this
fmooths it ftill farther. It is now left to dry, and
when dried, taken off the frame by cutting it all round.
The fkin thus far prepared by the fleinner, is taken out
of his hands by the parchment-maker, who firft, while
it is dry, pares it on a fummer, (which is a calf ikin
ftretched in a frame), with a fharper inftrument than
that ufed by the fkinner; and working with the arm
from the top to the bottom of the fkin, takes away a-
bout one half of its thicknefs. The fkin thus equally
pared on the flefh-fide, is again rendered fmooth, by
being rubbed with the pumice-ftone, on a bench co¬
vered with a fack (luffed with flocks; which leaves the
parchment in a condition fit for writing upon. The
parings thus taken off the leather, are ufed in making
glue, fize, &c. See the article Glue, &c.
What is called Vsllufn, is only parchment made of
the fkins of abortives, or at lead fucking calves. This
has a much finer grain, and is whiter and fmoother
than parchment; but is prepared in the fame manner,
except its not being paffed through the lime-pit.
PARDIES (Ignatius Gaflon), an ingenious and
learned French Jefuit, bom at Paris in 1636. He
taught polite literature for feveral years; during which
time he compofed feveral fmall pieces, both in profe
find verfe, with peculiar delicacy of thought and ftyle.
At length he devoted himfelf entirely to mathematics
and natural philofophy, and read all authors, ancient
as well as modern, in thofe branches of knowledge. He
died in 1673, of an infe&ious diforder contrafled by
confeffing and preaching to thefprifoners in the Bicetre
during the Ealler holidays. Father Pardies publifhed
feveral works; of which his Elements of Geometry are
well known in this country, where a tranflation of them
has gone thro’ feveral editions. In 1672 he had a dis¬
pute with Sir Ifaac Newton refpedling his Theory of
Light and Colours ; which may be feen in the Philo-
fophical Tranfa&ions for that year.
PARDALTS, in natural hiftory. See Leo.
PARDON, in criminal law, is the remitting or for-
giving an offence committed againft the king.
Crimes and Laws (^Y3 an writer), cannot be framed on
Punijhments principles of compaflion to guilt; yet juflice, by the
conftitution of England, is bound to be adminiftered
in mercy: this is promifed by the king in his corona¬
tion oath; and it is that a6l of his government which
is the moil perfonal and moft entirely his own. The
king condemns no man; that rugged talk he leaves to
his courts of juftice: the great operation of his feeptre
is mercy. His power of pardoning was faid by our
Saxon anceftors to be derived a lege Jux dignitatis:
and it is declared in parliament, by itat. 27 Hen.VTII.
c. 24. that no other peri'on hath power to pardon or
remit any treafon or felonies whatfoever; but that the
king hath the whole and foie power thereof, united
and knit to the imperial crown of this realhi.
This is indeed one of the great advantages of mo¬
narchy in general above any other form of govern¬
ment, that there is a magiilrate who has it in his
power to extend mercy wherever he thinks it is defer-
ved; holding a court of equity in his own bread, to
foften the rigour of the general law, in fuch criminal
cafes as merit an exemption from punilhment. Pardons
(according to fume theoriils) Ihould be excluded in a Pardon*
perfedl legiflation, where punifhments are mild.bpt cer-
tain; for that the clemency of the prince feems a tacit
difapprobation of the laws. But the exclufion of par¬
dons mull neceffarily introduce a very dangerous power
in the judge or jury; that of conftruing the criminal
law by the fpirit inftead of the letter: or elfe it muft
be holden, what no man will ferioufly avow, that the
fituation and circumftances of the offender (though
they alter not the effence of the crime) ought to make
no diftimffion in the punilhment. In democracies,
however, this power of pardon can never fubfift ; for
there nothing higher is acknowledged than the magi-
ftrate who adminifters the laws : and it would be im¬
politic for the power of judging and of pardoning to
centre in one and the fame perfon. This (as the pre-
fident Montefquieu obferves) would oblige him very
often to contradid himfelf, to make and to unmake his
decifions: it would tend to confound all ideas of right
among the mafs of people ; as they would find it dif¬
ficult to tell, whether a prifoner were difeharged by
his innocence, or obtained a pardon through favour.
In Holland therefore, if there be no ftadtbolder, there
is no power of pardoning lodged in any other member
of the Hate. But in monarchies the king acts in afu-
perior fphere; and though he regulates the whole go¬
vernment as the firll mover, yet* he does not appear in
any of the difagreeable or invidious parts of it. When¬
ever the nation fee him perfonally engaged, it is only
in works of legiflature, magnificence, or compaflion.
To him therefore the people look up as the fountain
of nothing but bounty and grace; and thefe repeated
ads of goodnefs, coming immediately from his own
hand, endear the fovereign to his fubjeds, and contri¬
bute more than any thing to root in their hearts that
filial affedion and perfonal loyalty which are the fure
eftablilhment of a prince.
The king may pardon all offences merely againft the
crown or the public; excepting, 1. That, to preferve
the liberty of the fubjed, the committing any man to
prifon out of the realm, is by the habeas corpus ad,
31 Car. II. c. 2. made a praemunire, unpardonable
even by the king. Nor, 2. can the king pardon, where
private jultice is principally concerned in the profecu-
tion of offenders: Non potejl rexgratiam facere cum in¬
juria et darnno aliorum. Therefore, in appeals of all
kinds, (which are the fuit, not of the king, but of the
party injured), the profecutor may releafe ; but the
king cannot pardon. Neither can he pardon a com¬
mon nuifance, while it remains unredreffed, or fo as to
prevent an abatement of it; though afterwards he may
remit the fine: becauie though 'the profecution is veil¬
ed in the king to avoid the multiplicity of fuits, yet
(during its continuance) this offence favours more of
the nature of a private injury to each individual in the
neighbourhood, than of a public 'nrong. Neither, laft-
ly, can the king pardon an offence againft a popular
or penal ftatute, after information brought; for there¬
by the informer hath acquired a private property in his
part of the penalty.
There is alfo a reftridion of a peculiar nature, that
affeds the prerogative of pardoning, in cafe of parlia¬
mentary impeachments, viz. that the king’s pardon
cannot be pleaded to any fuch impeachment, fo as to
impede the inquiry, and flop the profecution of great
and
PAR [ 5861 ] PAR
Pareoones and notorious offenders. Therefore when, in the reign
W of Charles the feeond, the earl of Danby was im-
chyma Poached by the houfe of commons of high treafon and
• other mifdemefnors, &nd pleaded the king’s pardon in
bar of the fame, the commons alleged, “ That there
was no precedent that ever any pardon was granted
to any ptrfon impeached by the commons of high
treafon, or other high crimes, depending the impeach¬
ment and thereupon refolved, “ That the pardon
fo pleaded was illegal and void, and ought not to be
allowed in bar of the impeachment of the commons of
England:” for which refolution they affigned this
reafon to the hpufe pf lords, “ That the fetting up a
pardon to be a bar of an impeachment defeats the
whole ufe and effe& of impeachments : for fhould this
point be admitted, or (land doubted, it would totally
difeonrage the exhibiting any for the future ; where¬
by the chief inftitution for the prefervation of the
government would be deftroyed.” Soon after the Re¬
volution, the commons renewed the fame claim, and
voted, “ That a pardon is not pleadable in bar of an
impeachment.” And at length, it was enafted by
the a& of fettlement, 12 & 13 W. III. c. 2. “ That
no pardon under the great feal of England fhall be
pleadable to an impeachment by the commons in par¬
liament.” But, after the impeachment has been fo-
lemnly heard and determined, it is not underftood
that the king’s royal grace is farther reftrained or
abridged : for, after the impeachment and attainder
of the fix rebel lords in 1715, three of them were
from time to time reprieved by the crown; and at
length received the benefit of the king’s moil gracious
pardon.
The effeA of fuch pardon by the king, is to make
the offender a new man; to acquit him of all corporal
penalties and forfeitures annexed to that offence for
which he obtains his pardon ; and not fo much to
reftore his former, as to give him a new credit and
capacity. But nothing can reftore or purify the
blood when once corrupted, if the pardon be not
allowed till after attainder, but the high and tranf-
cendent power of parliament. Yet if a perfon attainted
receives the king’s pardon, and afterwards hath a fon,
that fon may be heir to his father; becaufe the father
being made a new man, might tranfmit new inheri¬
table blood ; though, had he been born before the
pardon, he could never have inherited at all.
PAREGGRIES, in pharmacy, medicines that af-
fuage pain, otherwife called Anodynes.
PAREIRA frava, in the materia medica, a kind
of oblong and large root brought from the Brafils.—
It is certainly a diuretic of no mean chara&er, and has
done great i'ervice in nephritic cafes. In pleurifies
and quinfies, it has been attended with more fuccefs
than almoft any medicine we know of fingly.
PARELCON, in grammar, a figure by which a
word or fyllable is added to the end of another.
PAREMBOLE, in rhetoric, a figure wherein
fomething relating to the fubjeA is inferted in the
middle of a period. All the differences between the
parembole an4 parenthefis, according to Voffius, is,
that the former relates to the fubjeft in hand, whereas
the latter is foreign to it.
PARENCHYMA, in anatomy, a term introduced
by Erafiftratus, fignifying all that fubftance which is
contained in the interftices betwixt the blood-veffels Paren-
of the vifeera, which he imagined to be extravafated c*)yn,a»
and concreted blood. Parcm'
Parenchyma of Plants. Grew applies the term
parenchyma to the pith or pulp, or that inner part of
a fruit or plant through which the juice is fuppofed to
be diftributed. See'Plants.
PARENT, a term of relation applicable to thofe
from whom we immediately derive our being. See
Moral Philosophy, n° 122, 132,—135.
To this article belongs an inquiry into, 1. The le«
gal duties of parents to their legitimate children.
2. Their power over them.
I. The duties of parents to legitimate children
confift in three particulars; their maintenancet their
protection, and their education.
1. The duty of parents to provide for the mainte- Blackf
nance oi their children, is a principle of natural law’; Comment.
an obligation, fays Puffendorff, laid on them not only
by nature herfelf, but by their own proper afl, in
bringing them into the world; for they would be in
the higheft manner injurious to their iffue, if they on¬
ly gave their children life, that they might afterwards
fee them perifti. By begetting them, therefore, they
have entered into a voluntary obligation, to endeavour,
as far as in them lies, that the life which they have
bellowed Ihall be fupported and preferved. And thus
the children will have a perfedl right of receiving main¬
tenance from their parents. And the prefident Mon-
tefquieu has a very juft obfervation upon this head,
that the eftablifhment of marriage, in all civilized Hates,
is built on this natural obligation of the father to pro¬
vide for his children ; for that afeertains and makes
known the perfon who is bound to fulfil this obliga¬
tion ; whereas, in promifeuous and illicit conjur.ftions,
the father is unknown ; and the moth.er finds a thou-
fand obftacles in her way; Ihame, remorfe, the con-
ftraint of her fex, and the rigour of laws, that ftifle
her inclinations to perform this duty ; and befides, Ihe
generally wants ability.
The municipal laws of all well-regulated Hates have
taken care to enforce this duty : though providence
has done it more effe&ually than any laws, by implant¬
ing in the brealt of every parent that natural or
infuperabie degree of affe&ion, which not even the de¬
formity of perfon or mind, not even the wickednefs,
ingratitude, and rebellion of children, can totally fup-
prefs or extinguilh.
The civil law obliges the parent to provide main¬
tenance for his child ; and if he refufes, judex de ca
re cognofcet. Nay, it carries this matter fo far, that it
w'ill not fuffer a parent at his death totally to difinhe-
rit his child, without exprefsly giving his reafon for fo
doing; and there are 14 fuch reafons reckoned up,
which may juftify fuch difinherifon. If the parent al¬
leged no reafon, ora bad, or a falfe one, the child
might fet the will afide, tanquam tef amentum inoffi-
ciofum, a teftament contrary to the natural duty of the
parent. And it is remarkable under what colour the
children were to move for relief in fuch a cafe ; by fug-
gefting, that the parent had loft the ufe of his reafon
when he made the inofficious teftameht. And this, as
Puffendorff obferves, was not to bring into difpute the
teftator’s power of difinheritinghis own offspring; but
to exaipine the motives upon which he did it; and if
PAR [ 5862 ] PAR
Parent,j they were found defe&ive in reafon, then to fet them
afide. But perhaps this is going rather too far: every
man has, or ought to have, by the laws of fociety, a
power over his own property : and, as Grotius very
well diftinguilhes, natural right obliges to give a ne-
cefftiry maintenance to children ; but what is more than
that they have no right to, than as it is given by the
favour of their parents, or the pofitive conftitutions of
the municipal law.
Let us next fee what proyifion our own laws have
made for this natural duty. It is a principle of law,
that there is an obligation on every man to provide for
thofe defcended from his loins; and the manner in
which this obligation (hall be performed, is thus point¬
ed out. The father and mother, grandfather and
grandmother of poor impotent perfons (hall maintain
them at their own charges, if of fufficient ability, ac¬
cording as the quarter-feffions (hall direft ; and, if a
parent runs away, and leaves his children, the church¬
wardens and overfeers of the pari(h (hall feize his rents,
goods, and chattels, and difppfe of them toward their
relief. By the interpretations which the courts of law
have made upon thefe ftatutes, if a mother or grand¬
mother marries again, and was before fuch fecond mar¬
riage of fufficient ability to keep the child, the huf-
band (hall be charged to maintain it; for this be¬
ing a debt of her’s, when (ingle, (hall, like others, ex¬
tend to charge the huffiand. But, at her death, the re¬
lation being diflolved, the hulband is under no farther
obligation.
No perfon is bound to provide a maintenance for
his iffue, unlefs where the children are impotent and
unable to work, either through infancy, difeafe, or ac¬
cident ; and then is only obliged to find them with ne-
cefiaries, the penalty on refufal being no more than 20 s.
a-month. For the policy of our laws, which are ever
watchful to promote induftry, did not mean to compel a
father to maintain his idle and lazy children in eafe and
indolence } but thought it unjuft to oblige the parent,
againft his will, to provide them with fuperfluities, and
other indulgences of fortune ; imagining they might
truftto the impulfe of nature, if the children were de-
ferving of fuch favours. Yet, as nothing is fo apt to
ftifle the calls of nature as religious bigotry, it is enac¬
ted, that if any Popiffi parent (hall refufe to allow his
Proteftant child a fitting maintenance, with a view to
compel him to change his religion, the lord chancellor
fhai! by order of court conftrain him to do what isjuft
and reafonable. But this did not extend to perfons of
another religion, of no lefs bilternefs and bigotry
than the Popiffi : and therefore, in the very next year,
we find an inftance of a Jew of immenfe riches, whofe
only daughter having embraced Chriftianity, he turn¬
ed her out of doors ; and on her application for relief,
it was held (he was entitled to none. But this gave
occafion to another ftatute, which ordains, that if
Jewiffi parents refufe to allow their Proteftant children
a fitting maintenance, fuitable to the fortune of the,
parent, the lord chancellor, on complaint, may make
fuch order therein as he (hall fee proper.
Our law has made no provifion to prevent the difin-
heriting of children by will ; leaving every man’s pro¬
perty in his own difpofal, upon a principle of liberty in
this as well as every other aft ion ; though perhaps
it had not been amifs if the parent had been bound
to leave them at the lead a neceflary fubfiftence. In- Parent,
deed, among perfons of any rank or fortune, a compe- “
tence is generally provided for younger children, and
the bulk of the eftate fettled upon the eldelt by the
marriage-articles. Heirs alfo, and children, are fa¬
vourites of our courts of juftice, and cannot be difin-
herited by any dubious or ambiguous words; there
being required the utmoft certainty of the teftator’s
intentions to' take away the right of an heir.
2. From the duty of maintenance we may eafily
pafs to that of protelUon ; which is alfo a natural du¬
ty, but rather permitted than enjoined by any muni¬
cipal laws; nature, in this refpeft, working fo ftrong-
ly as-to need rather a check than a fpur. A parent
may, by our laws, maintain and uphold his children
in their law-fuits, without being guilty of the legal
crime of maintaining quarrels. A parent may alfoju-
ftify an affault and battery in defence of the perfons of
his children ; nay, where a man’s fon was beaten by
another boy, and the father went near a mile to find
him, and there revenged his fon’s quarrel by beating
the other boy, of which beating he afterwards unfor¬
tunately died ; it was not held to be murder, but man-
flaughter merely. Such indulgence does the law (hew
to the frailty of human nature, and the workings of
parental affeftion.
3. The laft duty of parents to their children is that
of giving them an education fuitable to their ftation in
life : a duty pointed out by reafon, and of far the
greateft importance of any. For, as Puffendorff very
well obferves, it is not eafy to imagine or allow, ‘that
a parent has conferred any confiderable benefit upon
his child by bringing him into the world, if he af-
wards entirely neglefts his culture and education, and
fuffers him to grow up like a mere beaft, to lead a life
ufelefs to others, and ffiameful to himfelf. Yet the
municipal laws of moll countries feem to be defeftive
in this point, by not conftraining the parent to beftow
a proper education upon his children. Perhaps they
thought it puniffiment enough to leave the parent, who
neglefts the inftruftion of his family, to labour under
thofe griefs and inconveniencies which his family, fo
uninftrufted, will be fure to bring upon him. Our
laws, though their defefts in this particular cannot be
denied, have in one inftance made a wife provifion for
breeding up the rifing generation ; fince the poor and
laborious part of the community, when pad the age of
nurture, are taken out of the hands of their parents,
by the ftatutes for apprenticing poor children; and are
'placed out by the public in fuch a manner as may
render their abilities, in their feveral ftations, of the
greateft advantage to the commonwealth. The rich
indeed are left at their own option, whether they will
breed up their children to be ornaments or difgraces to
their family. Yet in one cafe, that of religion, they '
are under peculiar reftriftions: for it is provided, that
if any perfbn fends any child under his government be¬
yond the feas, either to prevent its good education in
England^ or in order to enter into, or refide in, any
Popiffi college, or to be inftrufted, perfuaded, or
(Lengthened in the Popiffi religion ; in fuch cafe, be-
fides the difabilities incurred by the child fo fent, the
parent or perfon finding (hall forfeit 100/. which (hall
go to the foie ufe and benefit of him that (hall difcover
the offence. And if any parent, or other, (hall fend
or
PAR [ 5863 ] PAR
Parent, or convey any perfon beyond fea, to enter Into, or be
^refidentin, or trained up in, any priory, abbey, nun¬
nery, Popiih univerfity, college, or fchool, or houfe
of Jefuits or priefts, or in any private Popifh family,
in order to be inftrudted, perfuaded, or confirmed, in
the Popifh religion ; or fhall contribute any thing to¬
wards their maintenance when abroad by any pretext
whatever, the perfon both fending and fent (hall be
difabled to fue in law or equity, or to be executor or ad-
miniftrator to any perfon, or to enjoy any legacy or
deed of gift, or to bear any office in the realm, and
fhall forfeit all his goods and chattels, and likewife all
his real eftate for life.
II. The power ol parents over their children is de¬
rived from the former confideration, their duty: this
authority being given them, partly to enable the pa¬
rent more effectually to perform his duty, and partly
as a recompence for his care and trouble in the faith¬
ful difeharge of it. And upon this fcore the munici¬
pal laws of fome nations have given a much larger au¬
thority to the parents than others. The ancient Ro¬
man laws gave the father a power of life and death
over his children ; upon this principle, that he who
gave had alfo the power of taking away. But the ri¬
gour of thefe laws was foftened by fubfequent conftitu-
tions ; fo that we find a father banifhed by the empe¬
ror Hadrian for killing his fon, though he had com¬
mitted a very heinous crime, upon this maxim, that
patria poteJ}as in pietate debet, non in atrocitate, con-
ftjiere. But ftill they maintained to the laft a very
large and abfolute authority : for a fon could not ac¬
quire any property of his own during the life of his fa¬
ther; but all his acquifitions belonged to the father, or
at lead the profits of them, for his life.
The power of a parent by our Englifh law is much
more moderate ; but Hill fufficient to keep the child in
order and obedience. He may lawfully correft his
child, being under age, in a reafonable manner; for
this is for the benefit of his education. The confentor
concurrence of the parent to the marriage of his child
under age, was alfo direfled by our ancient law to be
obtained: but now it is abfolutely neceffary; for with¬
out it the contraft is void. And this alfo is another
means which the law has put into the parent’s hands,
in order the better to difeharge his duty ; firft, ofpro-
te&ing his children from the fiiares of artful and de-
figning perfons ; and next, of fettling them properly
• in life, by preventing the ill confequences of too early
and precipitate marriages. A father has no other
power over his fon’s eftate, than as his truftee or guar¬
dian ; for though he may receive the profits during
the child’s minority, yet he mud account for them
when he comes of age. He may indeed have the be¬
nefit of his children’s labour while they live with him,
and are maintained by him ; but this is no more than
he is entitled to from his apprentices or fervants. The
legal power of a father, (for a mother, as fuch, is en¬
titled to no power, but only to reverence and refpefl),
the power of a father, we fay, over the perfons of his
children ceafes at the age of 21 ; for they are then en-
franchifed by arriving at years of diferetion, or that
point which the law has eftablifhed (as fome mud ne-
ceflarily be eftablifhed) when the empire of the father,
or other guardian, gives place to the empire of reafon.
Yet, till that age arrives, this empire of the father
yet. VIII. 1
continues even after his death ; for he may by his will Parentali*
appoint a guardian to his children. He may alfo de- II.
legate part of his parental authority, during his life, Parhel*on'
to the tutor or fchoolmafter of his child ; who is then
in loco parentis, and has fuch a portion of the power of
the parent committed to his charge, viz. that of re-
draint and corre&ion, as may be necefiary to an-
fwer the purpofes for which he is employed. See
Children.
PARENTALIA, in antiquity, funeral obfequies,
or the lad duties paid by children to their d.eceafed pa¬
rents.
PARENTHESIS, in grammar, certain intercalary
words inferted in a difconrfe, which interrupt the fenfe
or thread, but feem necelfary for the better under-
danding of the fubjeft.
PARENZO, a fmallbut drong town of Italy, and
in Iftria, with a bifhop’s fee and a good harbour; feat-
ed on the gulph of Venice, in E. Long. 13. 46. N.
Lat. 39. 28. It fubmitted to the Venetians in 1267.
PARESIS, in medicine, a palfy of the bladder,
wherein the urine is either fupprened or difeharged
involuntarily.
PARETONIUM, in natural hidory, the name of
an earth found on the {bores of Egypt, Cyrene, and
the ifiand of Crete, ufed by the ancients in painting.
PARGET, in natural hiftory, a name given to fe-
veral kinds of gypfum, or plader-done.
PARGETING, in building, is ufed for the pla-
dering of walls, and fometimes for plader itfelf.
PARHELION, or Parhelium, in natural philo-
fophy, a mock-fun or meteor, in form of a very bright
light, appearing on one fide of the fun.
Appearances of this kind have been made mention
of both by .the ancients and moderns. Aridotle ob-
ferves, that in general they are feen only when the fun
is near the horizon, though he takes notice of two
that were feen in Bofpborus from morning to evening;
and Pliny has related the times when fuch phenomena
were obferved at Rome. Gaflendi fays, that, in ^635
and 1636, he often faw one mock-fun. Two were ob¬
ferved by M. de la Hire in 1689 ; and the fame num¬
ber by Calfini in 1693, Grey in 1700, and Dr
Halley in 1702: but the mod celebrated appearances
of this kind were feen at Rome by Scheiner, by Muf-
chenbroeck at Utrecht, ^nd by Hevelius at Sedan. By
the two former, four mock-funs were obferved, and by
the latter feven.
Parhelia are apparently of the fame fize with the
fun, though not always of the fame brightnefs, nor
even of the fame fliape; and when a number appear
at once, there is fome difference in both thefe refpefts
among them. Externally, they are t'H^yd with co¬
lours like the raipbow ; and many have a long fiery
tail oppofite to the fun, but paler towards the extremity.
Parhelia are generally accompanied with corona’s, fome
of which are tinged with rainbow-colours, but others
are white. They differ in number and fiz.e ; but all
agree in breadth, which is that of the apparent dia¬
meter of the fun.
A very large white circle, parallel to the horizon,
generally paffes through all the parhelia ; and, if it
were entire, it would go through the centre of the
fun. Sometimes there are arcs of leffer circles con¬
centric to this, touching thofe coloured circles which
33 C furround
V
PAR [ 5864 ] PAR
Parhelion, furround the fan. They are alfo tinged with colours,
—  —“and contain other parhelia. There are alfo faid to
have been other circles obliquely fituated with refpeft
to all thofe we have mentioned ; but of this we have
met with no authentic account. The order of the co¬
lours in thefe circles is the fame as in the rainbow ;
but on the infide, with refpeft to the fun, they are
red, as is alfo obferved in many other corona’s.
Parhelia have been vifible for 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours
together ; and in North America they are faid to
continue fome days, and to be vifible from fun-rife to
fun-fet.
When the parhelia difappear, it fometimes rains, or
there falls fnow in the form of oblong fpiculae, as Ma-
raldi, Weidler, Krafft, and others, have obferved ; and
becaufe the air in North America abounds with fuch fro¬
zen fpiculse, which are even vifible to the eye, accor¬
ding to Ellis and Middleton, fuch particles have been
thought to be the caufe of all corona’s and parhelia.
Mr Wales fays, that, at Churchill in Hudfon’s
Bay, the rifing of the fun is always preceded by two
long ftreams of red light, one on each fide of him,
and about 20° diftant from him. Thefe rife as the
fun rifes; and as they grow longer begin to bend to¬
wards each other, till they meet direftly over the fun,
juft as he rifes, forming there a kind of parhelion or
mock-fun. Thefe two ftreams of light, he fays, feem
to have their fource in two other parhelia, which rife
with the true fun ; and in the winter-feafon, when the
fun never rifes above the haze or fog, which he fays is
conftantly found near the horizon, all thefe accompany
him the whole day, and fet with him in the fame man¬
ner as they rife. Once or twice he faw a fourth par¬
helion direftly under the true fun ; but this, he fays,
is not common. Thefe fads being conftant, are very
valuable, and may throw great light on the theory of
thefe remarkable phenomena.
Sometimes parhelia appear in a different manner ;
as when three funs have been feen in the fame vertical
circle, well defined, and touching one another. The
true fun was in the middle, and the loweft touched
the horizon ; and they fet one after the other. This
appearance was feen by M. Maleziew in 1722. Other
appearances fimilar to this are recited by M. Mufchen-
broeck.
Sometimes the fun has rifen or fet with a luminous
tail projecting from him, of the fame breadth with
his diameter, and perpendicular to the horizon. Such
an appearance was fecn by Caffmi in 1672 and 1692,
by de la Hire in 1702, and by Mr Ellis in Hudfon’s
Bay.
As M. FeuilCe was walking on the banks of the ri¬
ver La Plata, he faw the fun rifing over the river with
a luminous tail projecting downwards, which conti¬
nued till he was fix degrees high.
Parafelense, or mock-moons, have alfo been feen,
accompanied with tails and coloured circles, like thofe
which accompany the parhelia. An account of feve-
ral, and a particular defcription of a fine appearance
of this kind, may be feen in Mufchenbroeck.
The Roman phenomenon, obferved by Scheiner, is
famous on account of its having been the firft appear-
See Plate ance Of the kind that engaged the attention of philo-
•XXXXIIJfophers. It is reprefented in fig. 4.; in which A is
the place of the obferver, B his zenith, C the true
fun, AB a plane palling through the obferver’s eye, Parhelion
the true fun, and the zenith. About the fun C, there [1
appeared two concentric rings, not complete, but di- Parian<
verfified with colours. The leffer of them, DEE, was
fuller, and more perfeCl; and though it was open from
D to F, yet thofe ends were perpetually endeavouring
to unite; and fometimes they did fo. The outer of
thefe rings was much fainter, fo as fcarcely to be dif-
cernible. It had, however, a variety of colours ; but
was very inconftant. The third circle, KLMN, was
very large, and all over white, palling through the
middle of the fun, and every where parallel to the ho¬
rizon. At firft this circle was entire ; but towards the
end of the appearance it was weak and ragged, fo as
hardly to be perceived from M towards N.
In the interfe&ion of this circle, and the outward
iris GKI, there broke out two parhelia or mock-funs,
N and K, not quite perfed ; K being rather weak,
but N {hone brighter and ftronger. The brightnefs
of the middle of them was fomething like that of the
fun ; but towards the edges they were tinged with co¬
lours like thofe of the rainbow ; and they were uneven
and ragged. The parhelion N was a little wavering,
and fent out a fpiked tail, NP, of a colour fomewhat
fiery, the length of which was continually changing.
The parhelia at L and M in the horizontal ring
were not fo bright as the former; but were rounder,
and white, like the circle in which they were placed.
The parhelion N difappeared before K ; and while M
grew fainter, K grew brighter, and vanilhed the laft
of all.
It is to be obferved farther, that the order of the
colours in the circles DEF, GKN, was the fame as in
the common halos, namely, red next the fun ; and the
diameter of the inner circle was alfo about 45 degrees;
which is the ufual fize of a halo.
Various hypothefes have been framed by philofo-
phers to account for this phenomenon. None of them
are fatisfaftory ; but the reader who choofes to know
them may confult Dr Prieftley’s Hijiory of Vifon,
Light, and Colours, vol. ii. p. 619.
PARIA, or New Andalusia, a country of Terra
Firma in South America; bounded on the north by the
north fea ; on the eaft, by Surinam ; on the weft, by
New Granada and the Caraccas ; and on the fouth,
by Guiana. It produces colouring drugs, gums, me¬
dicinal roots, Brazil-wood, fugar, tobacco, and fome
valuable timber; the inland parts being woody and
mountainous,‘but interfperfed with fine valleys that
yield corn and pafturage. Comana is the capital
town.
PARIAN marble, in the natural hiftory of the
ancients, the white marble ufed then, and to this day,
for carving ftatues, &c. and called by us at this time
fatuary marble.
Too many of the later writers have confounded all
the white marbles under the name of the Parian; and
among the workmen, this and all the other white
marbles have the common name of alabajlers; fo that
it is in general forgotten among them, that there is
fuch a thing as alabafter different from marble ; which,
however, is truly the cafe. Almoft all the world alfo
have confounded the Carrara marble with this, though
they are really very different ; the Carrara kind being
of a fmer ftru&ure and clearer white than the Parian ;
but
PAR [ 5865 ] PAR
Parietalia but lefs bright and fplendid, harder t<J cut, and not
SI. capable of fo glittering a polifli.
Pans' The true Parian marble has ufually fomewhat of a
faint bluiih tinge among the white, and often has blue
veins in different parts of it. It is fuppofed by fome
to have had its name from the ifland Paros, one'of the
Cyclades in the iEgean Sea, where it was firfl found ;
but others will have it to have been fo called from
Agoracritus Parius, a famous ftatuary, who ennobled
it by cutting a ftatue of a Venus in it.
PARIETALIA ossa, in anatomy. See there
n° 12.
PARIETARIA, Pellitory of the wall ; a
genus of the order of monoecia belonging to the poly-
gamia clafs of plants. There are fix fpeeies, of which
one named the officinalis, is ufed in medicine. This
has a creeping root. The ftalk grows eredfj is rough
to the touch, and adhefive. The leaves are alternate,
elliptical, lanceolate, veined, and a little rough. The
flowers grow out of the ala of the leaves, in feffile,
branched, verticillate clufters, of a greenith colour
tinged with red. The antherse have a great degree
of fenfibility ; for, if irritated with the point of a pin,
they fly from the calix with elaftie force, and throw
out their powder.—The plant has a cooling and
diuretic quality. Three ounces of the juice taken in¬
ternally, or a fomentation externally applied, have been
found ferviceable in the ftrangury.—The plant laid
upon heaps of corn infefted with weevils, is faid to
drive away thofe deftruftive infe&s.
PARIS (Matthew), one of our bell hiftorians from
William the Conqueror, to the latter end of the reign
of Henry III. But of his life few particulars have
been tranfmitted to us. Leland, his original biogra¬
pher, without determining whether he was born in
France or England, informs us, that he was a monk
of St Alban’s, and that he was fent by pope Innocent
to reform the monks of the convent at Holm in
Norway. Bilhop Bale, the next in point of time,
adds to the above relation, that, on account of his
extraordinary gifts of body and mind, he was much
efteemed, particularly by king Henry III. who com¬
manded him to write the hiftory of his reign. Fuller
makes him a native of Cambridgelhire, becaufe there
was an ancient family of his name in that coun¬
ty.' He alfo mentions his being fent by the pope
to vifit the monks in the diocefe of Norwich. Biihop
Tanner, biihop Nicolfon, Monfieur du Pin, and the
Nouveau Dittionnaire Hiftorique, add not a Angle fail
to thofe above related. Matthew Paris died in the
monaftery of St Alban’s in the year 1259. He was
doubtlefs a man of extraordinary knowledge for the
13th century; of an excellent moral character, and,
as an hiftorian, of drift integrity. His dyle is un-
poliihed; but that defeft is fufficiently atoned for by
the honed freedom with which he relates the truth,
regardlefs of the dignity or fanftity of the perfons
concerned. His works are, 1. Hijloria ab Adamo ad
Conquejium Anglia, lib. i. manufcript. col. C. C. Can-
tab. c. ix. Mod of this book is tranfcribed, by
Matthew of Wedminder, into the fird part of his
Florilegium. 2. Hijloria major, feu rerum Anglica-
narum hijloria a Gul. Conquejloris adventu ad annum
43 Henrici III. &c. feveral times printed. The fird
part of this hidory, viz. to the year 1235, '3 tran' ParJs-
icribed almod verbatim from the Chronicle of Roger ^
Wendover; and the Appendix, from the year 1260,
is the work of William Riihanger, who was alfo a
monk of St Alban’s. 3. Vita duorum Offarum, Mer¬
cia regum, S. Albani fundatorum. 4. Gefa 22 ab¬
ba turn S. Albani. 5. Additamenta chronicorum ad
hijl. majorem ; printed. 6. Hijloria minor, five epitome
majoris hifloria; manufcript. Befides many other
things in manufcript.
Paris, the fon of Priam king of Troy, memorable
in hidory for carrying off Helena the wife of Mene-
laus king of Sparta in his abfence, which occafioned the
famous liege of Troy. Slain there about 1188 B.C.
Paris, the capital of the kingdom of France; is
fituate on the river Seine, in the ifle of France, being
one of the larged and fined cities in Europe. It de¬
rived its modern name from the ancient Parifii; and is
fuppofed by fome to have had the Latin name of Lu-
tetia, from Lutum, “ mud,” the place where it now
dands having been anciently very marfhy and muddy.
Ever fince the reign of Hugh Capet, that is, for near
800 years, this city hath been the ufual refidence of
the kings of France: it is of a circular form, and, in¬
cluding the fuburbs, about five French leagues, or i$
Englilh miles, in circumference. The number of its in¬
habitants is computed at about 500,000; that of its
dreets 912; and that of its houfes upwards of 20,000,
exclufive of the public dru&ures of all forts. Its
greated defedt, according to fome, is the want of good
drinking-water; but others tell us, that very fine wa¬
ter is brought by an aquedudl from the village
of Arcueil, not far from Paris, but own the water of
the Seine, and the city, is not good. The dreets are
of a proper breadth, well built, paved, and lighted.
There is a great number of tribunals and offices here;
mod of which are kept in the Palais, fituated on an
ifland, to which it gives name. The number of churches,
convents, hofpitals, market-places, fountains, gates,
and bridges, in this city is very great; befides the uni-
verfity, feveral academies, public libraries, royal pa¬
laces and cadles, and above 100 hotels, fome of them
very dately. But to be more particular, that part call¬
ed la Cite, lies in the centre, and con fids of three iflands
formed by the Seine, viz. L’lfle de Palais, L’lfle de
Notre Dame, and L’lfle Louviers. It is the princi¬
pal of the three parts into which the city is divided,
and contains the following remarkable Aru&ures:
1. Several bridges; of which fome are of wood and
others of done, and have mod of them a row of houfea
on each fide. The chief of thefc are the Pont-neuf and
Pont-royal: the fird confids of 12 arches, which, pro¬
perly fpeaking, make two bridges, the one leading
from the fuburbs of St Germain to the city, and the
other from thence to that part called la Ville: there is
a carriage-way in the middle, 30 feet broad, and foot-
walks on each fide, raifed two feet high; and in the
centre dands a brafs datue of king Henry IV. on horfe-
back. On this bridge is alfo the building called La
Samaritaine, from a group of figures upon it repre-
fenting our Saviour and the Samaritan woman, dand-
ing near Jacob’s well. Here is a pump to raife the
water, which through feveral pipes fupplies the quar¬
ter of the Louvre, and fome other parts of the town.
33 c 2 The
PAR [ 5866 ] PAR
The Pont-royal, which leads to the Thuilleries, was
built by order of Lewis XIV. in the room of a wooden
bridge that was carried away by the current in 1684.
2. The cathedral of Notre Dame, or our Lady, being
dedicated to the Holy Virgin, which is a large (lately
Gothic ftru&ure, faid to have been founded by king
Childeric, and built in the form of a crofs. Here, be-
fides other great perfonages, are interred the cardinals
ds Retz and Noailles. From the two fquare towers
belonging to it, is a noble profpe& of the city and
neighbouring country. Here is a vaft quantity of gold
and filver plate, rich tapeftry, and fine paintings; and
the number of the canons is no lefs than 50. Near
it (lands the palace of the archbiftiop, in which is the
advocates library: therevenue ofthearchbilhopamounts
to about 180,000 livres; and his taxation to the court
of Rome is 4283 guilders. 3. The priory and parilh-
church of St Bartholomew; the laft of which is the
mod beautiful in all this part of the city, and (lands
near the Palais. 4. The Palais, which gives name to
an ifland, and in which the parliament, with a great
many other courts, are held. It was anciently the re-
fidence of the kings; but was given to the officers of
juftice by Philip the Fair, who alfo fettled the parlia¬
ment here in 1302. The parliament, confiding of fe-
veral chambers, each of which has its department, is
opened the day after Martinmas with a folemn mafs,
celebrated by a bi(hop, and continues fitting till the
8th of September, when a vacation-chamber is appoint¬
ed during the interval, for criminal caufea, and others
which require difpatch. The jurifdiStion of this court
is of great extent. There is a beautiful chapel belong¬
ing to the Palais; in which is alfo the prifon, or jail,
for the jurifdiftion of the parliament, called in French
La Conciergerie. 5. The Hotel Dicu, the mod an¬
cient and larged hofpital in Paris, in which 8000 fick
and infirm poor are taken care of, and attended by the
nuns of the order of St Augudine. 6. The hofpital
of St Catharine, where poor women and maidens are
entertained three days, and attended by the abovemen-
tioned nuns. 7. The Grande Chatelet, where fome of
the inferior courts of judice hold their feffions. 8. Fort
PEveque, in which is the mint and a prifon. It dands
in or near the dreetLa Ferroniere, in which Henry IV.
was dabbed by Ravilliac. 9. St Germain PAuxerrois,
which is called the royal palace church; becaufe the
palaces of the Louvre and Thuilleries dand in its pa-
rifh. 10. The Louvre, an ancient royal palace, of
which a part was rebuilt by Lewis XIV. Had it been
completed on the fame plan, it would have been a mod
magnificent ftrufture. On one of its gates is the fol-
JqYr’tng infeription, Dum totum impleat orbim: the mean¬
ing of which is, “ May it lad till the owner of it hath
extended his fway over the whole world;” which im¬
plies what the French kings have condantly aimed at.
Another infeription (hews, at the fame time, the va¬
nity of the nation, and their abjeft flattery of their
grande monarque. It may be rendered in EnglKh
thus :
Louvre is a palace for great Lewis fit:
God him alone exceeds, as heaven does it.
This palace is joined to the Thuilleries by a gallery,
in which are 180 models of fortrefies, fome fituated in
France, and fome in other countries, executed with
the utmod accuracy. , Here is a valuable colleftion
of paintings, the king’s priming-houfe, the mint where Paris,
the king’s medals are Aruck, together with a prodi-^
gious quantity of rich tapedry hangings, and a col-
leftion of ancient arms, among which are thofe worn
by Francis I. at the famous battle of Pavia.. Here
alfo the French academy, the academy of inferiptions
and belles letters, the royal academy of fciences, the
academy of painting and fculpture, and the royal aca¬
demy of architedure, have their meetings. The fird
of thefe was founded for the improvement of the French
language ; and as for the others, their names explain
the defign of their inditution. 11. Le Palais Royal,
which was built by cardinal Richlieu, in the year
1636, and belongs to the duke ofOrleans. It is faid
to contain pi&ures to the value of four millions of
livres, which were purchafed by the regent of that
title, and of which a part belonged to Chridina queen
of Sweden. 12. The palace des Tuilierics, fo called
from a tile or brick-kiln which dood there formerly.
This palace, as we obferved above, communicates with
the Louvre by a gallery. Behind it are exceeding
pleafant gardens, adorned with fine walks, planted with
ever-greens, and other trees, and with beautiful par¬
terres, where are to be feen, all the year round, every
flower according to its feafon. There are alfo three
fine fountains, the garden, and a canal. Behind the
Tuilleries, on the bank of the river, are pleafant walks,
compofed of four rows of lofty elms, to which vad
crowds of people refort in the fine weather, as well as
to the gardens. In the palace is a fpacious and mag¬
nificent theatre, and hard by it are the Elyfian fields,
where a furprifing number of coaches are to be ften in
fair weather: not far off is the church of St Roche,
where the celebrated poet Corneille is interred. 13. La
place de Louis le Grand, a very beautiful fquare, in
the centre of which is an equedrian (latue of that
king, which is judly accounted a mader-piece. 14. The
Place, or Square des Vi&oires, which is round, and
contains a datue of Lewis XIV. of gilt brafs, ere&ed
to him by the duke de la Fuillade, with this inferipr
tion, Viro immortali, 15. The Royal Library in the
Rue Vivien, which contains 94,000 printed books,
30,000 manuferipts, and a prodigious colledlion of
copperplates and medals. Near by, in the church¬
yard of St Jofephjlies the famous comic poet Moliere.
16. The parifli-church of St Eudace, which dands
in the quarter of the fame name, and contains the
tomb of the great minider Colbert. 17. The gate of
St Dennis, which was erefted as a triumphal arch in
honour of Lewis XIV. 18. The gate of St Martin,
ere&ed alfo in form of a triumphal arch, in honour of
the fame king. Not far from hence, in the church¬
yard of St Nicholas des Champs, Peter Gaffendi, and
other learned men, are buried. 19. La Greve, an
open place, where all public rejoicings are celebrated,
and roalefaftors executed. 20. The Hotel de Ville,
which is a large building of Gothic architedture, tho**
adorned with columns of the Corinthian order. 21. The
arfenal in the quarter of St Paul, confiding of many
fpacious buildings, among which are a foundery, and
a houfe for making ialtpetre. Here is a mufquetooa
of two barrels, which it is faid will pierce a thick
board at the didance of fix miles; and, for difeern-
ing an qbjedt at that didance, has a teLefcope fixed,ta
the barrel. 22. The Badilc, a kind of fortrefs lik©
PAR [ 5867 ] PAR'
Paris, the Tower of London, which is ufed as a prifon for
 Hate-criminals, and for fuch as are taken up by letters
de cachet, i. e. by warrants ligned by the king, and
fealed. 23. Le Temple, a commandery of the knights
of Malta, which gives name to a quarter, wherein, be¬
ing a privileged place, artificers, that are not freemen,
may carry on their bufinefs without moleftation. The
temple is the refidence of the grand prior of the French
nation. 24. That formerly called La Maifon profeffe
des Jefuites, in the quarter of St Anthony, in the
church of which the hearts of Lewis XIII. and XIV.
are preferved, each in a calker, of gold, fupported by
two angels of maffy filver, and as big as the life, ho¬
vering with expanded wings. In the fame quarter is
a fine looking-glafs manufa&ure, where above 500
perfone are employed in polilhing plates call at St
Gobin; with a convent of Francifcans, the monks of
which are called Pique-puces, or Prick-fleas.
In that part of the city called the Univerjity, the
principal places are,
1. The univerfity which gives name to it, and which
was firft founded, as it is faid, by Charles the Great:
all the arts and fciences are taught here, particularly
law, phyfic, and divinity. There are above forty col¬
leges ; of which the chief are thofe of Sorbonne, of
Navarre, of the faculty of phyfic, and of the four na¬
tions; but lefilures are read only in eleven of them.
The head of the univerfity is the reftor, who is cho-
fen every three months, but fometimes is continued
feveral years. All the profeiTors have fettled falaries ;
the whole annual income of the univerfity amounting,
it is faid, to about 50,000 livres. 2. The Gobelins,
a houfe or palace, where a great number of ingenious
artifts, in various manufactures and handicrafts, are
employed by the government. The mod curious ta¬
ped ry of all forts is made here. 3. The General Ho-
fpital, a mod noble foundation for the poor of the fe¬
male fex, near 7000 objedts being taken care of and
provided for. The lick are carefully tended ; and thofe
that are in health are obliged to work; different wards
being allotted for foundlings, for girls who few or knit,
proftitutes, idiots, and poor women: of the lad, fome
are kept gratis, and others pay a fmall matter. In
the callle of Bicetre, belonging to this hofpital, and
confiding of many large buildings, are near 4000 per-
fons of the other.fex, among which are perfons difor-
dered in their fenfes, and fuch as are afflicted with the
venereal difeafe. To this hofpital are alfo fent chil¬
dren who abufe their parents, and lead diffolute lives.
The fund for the maintenance of it, and the hofpital
de la PiCtie, where poor children are brought up, to¬
gether with the Hotel Dieu, amounts to above two
millions of livres per annum. 4. The King’s Phyfic
Garden, in which are an infinite variety of plants and
trees, a certain fum being allotted by the king for
keeping the garden in order, and improving it, and
for leCtures on botany, anatomy, chemidry, and the
materia medica. A curious collection of natural cu-
riofities is kept here. 5. The abbey of St ViCtor, in
which is a public library, containing fome very an¬
cient and fcarce books, feveral curious manufcripts,
and a prodigious collection of maps and copperplates.
6. The College of Phyficians, to which belong five
profeffors. 7. The Little Chatelet, an old fortrefs,
now ufed for. a prifo*. 8. The Rue St Jacques, chief¬
ly inhabited by bookfellers. 9. The Royal College, Paris,
and that of Lewis the Great : to the former belong Panft.
twelve profeffors. 10. The Abbey of St Genevieve,
in which is the marble monument of king Clovis, the
fhrine of St Genevieve, a large library, with a cabi¬
net of antiquities and natural curiolities. 11. The
Royal Obfervatory, a molt dately edifice, built on
the highed part of the eity. Several adronomers are
maintained here by the king. 12. The Royal Aca¬
demy of furgery, indituted in 1731. 13. The Con¬
vent of Francifcans, in the quarter of St Andrew, the
riched in France. In the fame quarter are fome re¬
mains of the palace of Julian the Apodate, in which
Childebert, and fome other kings of the Franks, af¬
terwards refided. 14. The Play-houfe. 15. The
Convent of Carthufians, in the quarter of Luxemburgh,
containing fine paintings. 16. The Palace of Lux¬
emburgh, or Orleans, a magnificent druClure, con¬
taining alfo fome fine paintings by Rubens, and em-
bellilhed with a noble garden. In the Hotel des Am-
baffadeurs, ambaffadors extraordinary are entertained
for three days, and thofe of remote countries all the
time they day at Paris. 17. The Abbey of St Ger¬
main des Prez, which contains a very valuable libra¬
ry, the manufcripts alone making 8,000 voliMTics :
here alfo is a cabinet of antiquities. i£. The Hotel
royal des Invalides, ere&ed by Lewis XIV. in which
lame and fuperannuated officers and foldiers are main¬
tained. The buildings take up no lefs than 17 acres.
The number of common foldiers here amount to about
3000, and of officers to about 500. The chapel is
very magnificent. Hard by is a military academy,
in which 500 young gentlemen are inftrudfed in the
art of war.
Paris, herb Paris, or truelove} a genus of the
trigynia order, belonging to the odandria clafs of
plants. There are but one fpecies, growing naturally
in woods and fhady places both in Scotland and Eng¬
land. It hath a Angle naked dem, greenifh bloffoms*
and bluilh black berries.—The leaves and berries are
faid to partake of the properties of opium ; and the
juice of the berries is ufeful in inflammations of the
eyes, Linnaeus fays, that the root will vomit as well
as ipecacuanha, but mud be taken in double the quan¬
tity. Goats and (heep eat the the plant; cows, horfes,
and fwine, refufe it.
PARISH, the precind of a parochial church, or a
circuit of ground inhabited by people who belong to
one church, and are under the particular charge of its
minider.
The word comes from the Latinparpchia, the Greek
■aotgomix, “habitation;” compounded of “ near,”’
and “ houfe.”—Accordingly Du Cange obferves,
that the name ■nagoix.tu was anciently given to the
whole territory of a bifhop, and derives it from neigh¬
bourhood; becaufe the primitive Chridians, not daring
to affemble openly in cities, were forced to meet fecretly
in neighbour-houfes.
In the ancient church there was one large edifice in
each city for the people to meet in ; and this they
called parochia, parijh. But the fignification of
the word was afterwards enlarged, and by a paridi
was meant a diocefe, or the extent of the jurifdidion
of a bifhop, confiding of feveral churches ; unlefs we-
will fuppofe, as fome do, that thofe bifhops were;
P A R
Parifu only pallors of Angle churches. See Diocese and
I Bishop.
>ar ' Du Pin obferves, that country parilhes had not
their origin before the 4th century; but thofe of
cities are more ancient. The city of Alexandria is
faid to have been the firft that was divided into pa-
rilhes.
PARISH, (anc. geog.), a people of Gallia Celtica,
inhabiting the country about the Sequana and Ma-
trona. Now a great part of the ifle of France.—
Parifii, (Ptolemy), a people of Britain, having the
Brigantes to the north and weft, the German fea to
the eaft, and the Coritani to the fouth, from whom
they were feparated by the Humber. Now Holdernejfe,
a peninftila of the Eaft Riding of Yorkfhire.
PARISIORUM civitas. See Lutetia.
PARIUM, (anc. geog.), a noble city of Myfia
Minor, with a port on the Propontis; called Adraftia.
by Homer, according to Pliny; but Strabo diltin-
guilhes them: according to others, the Paeflos of
Homer. Pariani, the people, (Strabo). The birth¬
place of Neoptolemus furnamed Glojfbgraphus, (Stra¬
bo). Here flood a Cupid equal, in exquiftte workman-
flu'p, to the Cnidian Venus.
PARK, (French parque, i. e. locus inclufus), is a
large quantity of ground inclofed and privileged for
wild beads of chafe, by the king’s grant or prefcrip-
tion. See Chase and Forest.
Manwood defines a chafe to be “ a privileged place
for beads of venary, and other wild beafts of the fo-
reft and chafe, tam Sylvejlres, quam Capipejlresand
differs from a chafe or warren, in that it muft be inclo¬
fed: for if it lies open, it is good caufe of feizure into
the king’s hands, as a thing forfeited: as a free chafe
is, if it be inclofed: befides, the owner cannot have an
a&ion againft fuch as hunt in his park, if it lies open.
No man can eredt a park without licence under the
broad feal; for the common law does not encourage
matter of pleafure, which brings no profit to the com¬
monwealth. But there may be a park in reputation,
ere&ed without any lawful warrant; and the owner
may bring his aftion againft perfons killing his deer.
To a park three things are required. 1. A grant
thereof. 2. Inclofures by pale, wall, or hedge.
3. Beafts of a park; fuch as the buck, doe, &c. And
where all the deer are deftroyed, it ftiall no more be
accounted a park; for a park con fills of vert, venifon,
and inclofure; and if it is determined in any of them,
it is a total difparking.
Parks as well as chafes are fubjeft to the common
law, and are npt to be governed by the foreft laws.
Park, as connedled with gardening. See Garden¬
ing.
A park and a garden are more nearly allied than a
* See Farmhrm and a garden *, and can therefore be accommo-
snd Gar- dated to each other without any difparagement to ei-
cening. tjjeri farm j0fes fomc 0f jts charafteriftic proper¬
ties by the connexion, and the advantage is on the
part of the garden ; but a park thus bordered retains
all its own excellencies; they are only enriched, not
counteradted, by the intermixture. The moft perfect
compofition of a place that can be imagined, confifts
of a garden opening into a park, with a ftiort walk
through the latter to a farm, and ways along its glades
to ridings in the country: but to the farm and the ri-
P A R
dings the park is no more than a paflage; and its woods Park,
and its buildings are but circumftances in their views;■=_
its feenes can be communicated only to the garden.
The affinity of the two fubjedts is fo clofe, that it
would be difficult to draw the exaft line of feparation
between them. Gardens have lately encroached very
much both in extent and in ftyle on the chara&er of a
park ; but ftill there are feenes in the one which are
out of the reach of the other. The fmall fequeftrated
fpots which are agreeable in a garden would be trivial
in a park; and the fpacious lawns which are among the.
nobleft features of the latter, would in the former fa¬
tigue by their want of variety; even fuch as, being of
a moderate extent, may be admitted into either, will
feem bare and naked, if not broken in the one ; and
lofe much of their greatnefs, if broken, in the other.
The proportion of a part to the whole is a meafure of
its dimenfions: it often determines the proper fize for
an objedt, as well as the fpace fit to be allotted to a
feene ; and regulates the ftyle which ought to be af-
figned to either.
But whatever diftindlions the extent may occafion
between a park and a garden, a ftate of highly culti¬
vated nature is confiftent with each of their charadters;
and may in both be of the fame kind, though in dif¬
ferent degrees.
The excellencies both of a park and of a garden are
happily blended at Hagley (a), where the feenes are
equally elegant and noble. It is fituated in the midll
of a fertile and lovely country, between the Clent and
the Witchberry hills; neither of which are within the
pale, but both belong to the place. The latter rife in
three beautiful fwells. One of them is covered with
wood; another is an open {beep-walk, with an obelilk
on the fummit; on the third, the portico of the temple
of Thefeus, exadtly on the model of that at Athens,
and little lefs in the dimenfions, Hands boldly out upon
the brow, backed by the dark ground of a fir planta¬
tion, and has a moft majeftic appearance above the
fteeps which fall before and befide it. The houfe is
feen to the greateft advantage from thefe eminences,
and every point of them commands fome beautiful pro-
fpedt. The bufy town of Stourbridge is juft below them;
the ruins of Dudley caftle rife in theofflkip; the coun¬
try is full of induftry and inhabitants; and a fmall por¬
tion of the moor, where the minerals, manufactured in
the neighbourhood, are dug, breaking in upon the ho¬
rizon, accounts for the richnefs, without derogating
from the beauty, of the landfcape. From the Clent hills
the views are ftill greater; they extend on one fide to
the black mountains in Wales, a long ridge which ap¬
pears, at 60 miles diftance, in the interval between the
unweildy heap of the Malvern hills, and the folitary
peak of the Wrekin, each 30 miles off, and as many
afunder. The fmoak of Worcefter, the churches in
Birmingham, and the houfes in Stourbridge, are di-
ftin&ly vifible. The country is a mixture of hill and
dale, and ftrongly inclofed; except in one part, where
a heath, varied by rifing grounds, pieces of water, and
feveral obje&s, forms an agreeable contrail to the cul¬
tivation which furrounds it. From the other extre¬
mity of the Clent hills, the profpedl is lefs extenfive;
but the ground is more rude and broken : it is often
overfpread with large and beautiful woods ; and the
view is dignified with numerous feats. The hills alfo
being
(a) Near Stourbridge, in Worcefterfhire, the feat of Lord Lyttelton.
t 5868 ]
PAR [ 5869 1 PAR
Park, being very irregular, large advanced promontories fre-
 quently interrupt the fight, and vary the fcene: in
other parts, deep valleys (helving down towards the
country below, exhibit the objects there in different
lights. In one of thefe hollows is built a neat cottage,
under a deep defcent, flickered befides by plantations,
and prefenting ideas of retirement in the midft of fo
much open expofure; from the heights above it, is feen
all that view which before was commanded from the
Witchberry hills, but which is feen here over Hagley
park; a noble fore-ground, beautiful in itfelf, and com¬
pleting the landfcape.
The houfe, though low in the park, is yet above the
adjacent country, which it overlooks to a very diftant
horizon. It is furrounded by a lawn of fine uneven
ground, and diverfified with large clumps, little groupes,
and Angle trees. It is open in frost, but covered on one
fide by the Witchberry hills; on the other fide, and
behind, by the eminences in the park, which are high
and deep, and all overfpread with a lofty hanging
wood. The lawn prefling to the foot, or creeping up
the (lopes of thefe hills, and fometimes winding along
glades into the depth of the wood, traces a beautiful
outline to a fylvan fcene, already rich to luxuriance in
maffinefs of foliage and ftatelincfs of growth.
But though the wood appears to be entire, it in rea¬
lity opens frequently into lawns, which occupy much
of the fpace within it. In the number, the variety, and
the beauty of thefe lawns, in the (hades of the feparations
between them, in their beauties alfo, and their varieties,
the glory of Hagley confifts. No two of the openings
are alike in dimenfions, in fhape, or in charadler. One
is of no more than five or fix acres; another of not lefs
than fifty; and others are of all the intermediate fixes.
Some ftretch out into lengthened glades ; fome widen
every way: they are again diftinguiflied by buildings,
by profpe&s, and often by the ftyle only of the plan¬
tations around them. The boundary of one is deferi-
bed by a few carelefs lines; that of another is compo-
led of many parts, very different and very irregular:
and the ground is never flat; but falls fometimes in deep
defeents, fometimes in gentle declivities waves along
eafy fwells, or is thrown into broken inequalities, with
tndlefs variety.
An oftagon feat, facred to the memory of Thomfon,
snd erected on his favourite fpot; (lands on the brow
of a deep; a mead winds along the valley beneath, till
it is led on either hand behind fome trees. Oppofite to
the feat, a noble wood crowns the top, and feathers
down to the bottom of a large, oval, fwelling hill.
As it defeends on one fide, the didant country becomes
the offtkip. Over the fall, on’the other fide, the Clent
hills appears. A dufley antique tower fiands jud below
them, at the extremity of the wood ; and in the midd
of it is feen a Doric portico, called Pope's Build¬
ing, with part of the lawn before it. The fcene is very
Ample: the principal features are great; they prevail
over all the red, and are intimately connected with each
other.
The next opening is fmall, circling about a rotunda
on a knole, to the foot of which the ground rifes every
way. The trees which furround it,are large; but their
foliage is not very thick ; and their dems appearing
beneath, their ramifications between the boughs are,
in fo confined a fpot, very diftinguiflied and agreeable
circumdances. It is retired; has no profpe&; novifible Park-
outlet but one, and that is (hort and narrow, to a
bridge with a portico upon it, which terminates a
piece of water.
The grove behind the rotunda feparates this from
a large, airy, fored glade, thinly (kirted with wood,
carelefs of drefs, and much overgrown with fern. The.
wildnefs is an acceptable relief in the midd of fo much
elegance and improvement as reign in the neighbour¬
ing lawns; and the place is in itfelf pleafant; in no
part confined; and from a Gothic feat at the end is a
perfpe&ive view of that wood and tower which were
feen before in front, together with the Witchberry hills,
and a wide range of country.
The tower, which in profpeft is always connefled
with wood, (lands however on a piece of down, which
dretches along the broad ridge of a hill, and fpreads
on each hand for fome way down the Tides. Thick
groves catch the falls. The defcent on the right is foon
lod under the trees; but that on the left being deeper
and (hotter, it may be followed to the bottom. A wood
hangs on the declivity, which is continued in the val¬
ley beneath. The tower overlooks the whole: it feems
the remains of a cadle, partly entire, partly in ruins,
and partly overgrown with buflies. A finer fituatioiv
cannot be imagined: It is placed in an expofed unfre¬
quented fpot; commands an extenfive profpedt; and is
every where an intereding objed.
At the end of the valley below it, in an obfeure cor¬
ner, and diut out from all view, is a hermitage, com-
pofed of roots and of mofs: high banks, and a thick
covert darkened with horfe-chefnuts, confine the fe-
quedered fpot: a little rill trickles through it, and two
fmall pieces of water occupy the bottom. They are
feen on one fide through groupes of trees; the other is
open, but covered with fern. This valley is the extre¬
mity of the park ; and the Clent hills rife in all their
irregularity immediately above it.
The other defcent from the cadle is a long declivi¬
ty, covered like the red with noble woods, in which
fine lawns are again embofomed, differing dill from
the former, and from each other. In one, the groundr
is very rough, the boundary is much broken, and
marked only by the trunks of the trees which (hoot up
high before the branches begin. The next is more,
fimple ; and the ground falls from an even brow into
one large hollow, which (lopes towards the glen, where
it finks into the covert. This has a communication
thro’ a (hort glade, and between two groves, with ano¬
ther called the Tinian lanun, from the refemblance
which it is faid to bear to thofe of that celebrated
ifland : it is encompaffed with the datelied trees, all
frefli and vigorous, and fo full of leaf, that not a dem,
not a branch, appears, but large maffes of foliage on¬
ly deferibe an undulating outline : the effed, however,
is not produced by the boughs feathering down to the
bottom ; they in appearance (hoot out horizontally, a
few feet above the ground, to a furprifing didance, and
form underneath an edging of (hade, into which the
retreat is immediate at every hour of the day. The ver¬
dure of the turf is as luxuriant there as in the open
fpace: the ground gently waves in both over eafy
fwells and little dips, jud varying, not breaking, the
furface. No drong lines are drawn ; no driking ob-
je&s are admitted; but aU k of an even temper, all
mild,.
PAR [ 5870 ] PAR
„ mild, placid, and ferene; In the gayefl feafon of the
day not more than cheerful, in the ftilleft watch of
night not gloomy. The fcene is indeed peculiarly adap¬
ted to the tranquillity of the latter, when the moon
feems to repofe her light on the thick foliage of the
grove, and fteadily marks the (hade of every bough.
It is delightful then to faunter here, and fee the grafs,
and the goflamer which entwines it, gliftening with
dew ; to liften and hear nothing ftir, except perhaps a
withered leaf dropping gently through a tree ; and,
fheltered from the chill, to catch the frefhnefs of the
evening air: a folitary urn, chofen by Mr Pope for
the fpot, and now infcribed to his memory, when
fhewn by a gleam of moon-light through the trees,
fixes that thoughtfulnefs and compofure to which
the mind is infenfibly led by the reft of this elegant
fcene.
The Doric Portico, which alfo bears his name, tho’
not within fight, is near: it is placed on the declivity
of a hill; and Thomfon’s feat, with its groves and
appendages, are agreeable circumftances in the profpedl
before it. In the valley beneath is fixed a bench,
which commands a variety of (hort views; one is up
the afcent to the portico, and others thro’ openings in
the wood to the bridge and the rotunda.
The next lawn is large : the ground is fteep and ir¬
regular, but inclines to one dire&ion, and falls from
every fide into the general declivity: the outline isdi-
verfified by many groupes of trees pn the flopes ; and
frequent glimpfes of the country are feen in perfpec-
tive through openings between them. In the brow is
a feat, in the proudeft fituation of all Hagley ; it com¬
mands a view down the bold fweep of the lawn, and
over a valley filled with the nobleft trees, up to the
heights beyond. One of thofe heights is covered with
a hanging wood ; which opens only to fhew Thom¬
fon’s feat, and the groves and the fteeps about it: the
others are the Witchberry hills, which fefm to prefs
forwatd into the landfeape ; and the mafiy heads of
the trees in the vale, uniting into a continued furface,
form a broad bafe to the temple of Thefeus, hide the
fwell on which it is built, and crowd up to the very
foundation. Farther back ftands theobelifk; before it
is the fheep-walk ; behind it the Witchberry wood.
The temple is backed by the firs ; and both thefe plan¬
tations are conne&ed with that vaft fylvan fcene, which
overfpreads the other hill, and all the intermediate
valley. Such extent of wood; fuch variety in the dif-
pofition of it; objefts fo illuftrious in themfelves, and
ennobled by their fituations, each contrafted to each,
every one didinS, and all happily united : the parts
fo beautiful of a whole fo great, feen from a charm¬
ing lawn, and furrounded by a delightful country,
compofe all together a fcene of real magnificence and
grandeur.
The feveral lawns are feparated by the fineft trees ;
which fometimes grow in airy groves, chequered with
gleams of light, and open to every breeze; but more
frequently, whofe great branches meeting or eroding
each other, call a deep impenetrable fha'de. Large
boughs feathering down often intercept the fight; or
a vacant fpace is filled with coppice-wood, nut, haw¬
thorn, and hornbeam, whofe tufted heads mixing w ith
the foliage, and whofe little ftems cluftering about the
trunks of the trees, thicken and darken the planta¬
tion. Here and there the divifion is of fuch coppice- Park.
wood only, which then being left conftrained and op-  
preffed, fprings up ftronger, fpreads further, and joins
in a low vaulted covering: in other places the fhade is
high, over-arched by the tailed alb, or fpreads under
the branches of the mod venerable oaks. They rife in
every (hape, they are difpofed in every form in which
trees can grow. The ground beneath them is fome¬
times almoft level; fometimes a gentle fwell; but ge¬
nerally very irregular and broken. In feveral places,
large hollows wind down the fides of the hills, worn
in the ftormy months by water-courfes, but worn
many ages ago. Very old oaks in the midft of the
channels prove their antiquity : fome of them are per-
fe&ly dry moft part of the year ; and fome are water¬
ed by little rills all the fummer: they are deep and
broad ; the fides are commonly fteep ; often abrupt
and hollow; and the trees on the bank fometimes ex¬
tend their roots, all covered with mofs, over the chan¬
nels of the water. Low down in one of thefe glens,
under a thick fliade of horfe-chefnuts, is a plain bench,
in the midft of feveral little currents and water-falls,
running among large loofe ftones, and the ftumps of
dead trees, with which the ground is broken. On the
brink of another glen, which is diftinguilhed by a
numerous rookery, is a feat in a ftiil wilder fituation,
near a deeper hollow, and in a darker gloom: the falls
are nearly perpendicular; the roots of fome of the
trees are almoft bare, from the earth having crumbled
away ; large boughs of others, finking with their
own weight, f*em ready to break from the trunks they
belong to; and the fineft a(h, ftill growing, lie all
aflant the water-courfe below, which, tho’ the ^ftream
runs in winter only, yet conftantly retains the black
tinge of damp, and cafts a chill all around.
Gravel-walks are condufted acroft the glens, thro*
the woods, the groves,|or the thickets, and along the
fides of the lawns, concealed generally from the fight,
but always ready for the communication, and leading
to the principal feenes. The frequency of thefe walks,
the number and the ftyle of the buildings, and the high
prefervation in which all the place is kept, give to the
whole park the air of a garden. There is, however,
one fpot more peculiarly adapted to that purpofe, and
mere artificially difpoled than the reft; it is a narrow
vale, divided into three parts: one of them is quite
filled with water, which leaves no room for a path,
but thick trees on either fide come down quite to the
brink ; and between them the fight is conduced to
the bridge with a portico upon it, which clofes the
view : another part of this vale is a deep gloom, over¬
hung with large afti and oaks, and darkened below
by a number of yews : thefe are fcattered over very
uneven ground, and open underneath ; but they are
encompaffcd by a thick covert, under which a ftream
falls, from a Itony channel, down a rock ; other rills
drop into the current, which afterwards pours over a
fecond cafcade into the third divifion of the vale,
where it forms a piece of water, and is loft under the
bridge. The view from this bridge is a perfect opera
fcene, through all the divifions of the vale, up to the
rotunda. Both thefe buildings, and the other decora¬
tions of the fpot, are of the ipecies generally confined
to a garden. The hermitage alfo, which has been de-
feribed, and its appendages, are in a ftjde which does
not
PAR
Park, not fce!oT?g to a park ; but through all the reft of the
F‘‘^ker^ place, the two charafters are intimately blended. The
whole is one fubjett ; and it was a bold idea to con¬
ceive that one to be capable of fo much variety ; it re¬
quired the mod vigorous efforts of a fertile fancy to
carry that idea into execution. See Gardening.
Park of Artillery. See Artillery.
Park of Provifrons, in military affairs, the place
where the futlers pitch their tents in the rear, and fell
their provifions to the foldiers. Likewife that place
where the bread-waggons are drawn up, and where
the troops receive their ammunition-bread, being the
ft ore of the army.
PARKER (Matthew), the fecond Protedant arch-
bidiop of Canterbury, was born at Norwich in the
year 1504, the 19th of Henry VII. His father, who
was a man in trade, died when our author was about
12 years old ; but his mother took fpecial care of his
education, and at the age of 17 fent him to Corpo*-
Chrifti college in Cambridge, where, in 1523, he took
his bachelor’s degree. In 1527 he was ordained, crea¬
ted mader of arts, and chofen fellow of the college.
Having obtained a licence to preach, he frequently-
held forth at St Paul’s crofs in London, and in other
parts of the kingdom, jin 1533 or 1534, he was
made chaplain to queen Anne Boleyn, who- obtained
for him the deanry of Stoke-Clare in Suffolk, where
he founded a grammar-fchool. After the death of the
queen, king Henry made him his own chaplain, and
in 1541, prebendary of Ely. In 1544, he was, by
the king’s command, elefted mader of Corpus-Chridi
college, and the following year, vice-chancellor of
the univerfity. In 1547, he lod the deanry of Stoke,
by the diffolution of that college. In the fame year
he married the daughter of Robert Harleftone, a Nor¬
folk gentleman.
In the year 1552, he was nominated, by Ed¬
ward VI. to the deanry of Lincoln, which, with his
other preferments, enabled him to live in great af¬
fluence : but the Papift Mary was hardly feated on
the throne, before he was deprived of every thing he
held in the church, and obliged to live in obfcurity,
frequently changing his place of abode to avoid the
fate of the other reformers.
Queen Elizabeth afcended the throne in 1558; and
in the following year Dr Parker, from indigence and
obfcurity, was at once raifed to the fee of Canterbury,
an honour which he neither folicited nor defired. In
this high ftation he afted with fpirit and propriety.
He repaired and beautified his palace at Lambeth at a
vaft expence; founded feveral fcholarlhips in Bennet
or Corpus-Chrifti college in Cambridge, and gave
large prefents of plate to that and to other colleges in
this univerfity. He gave 100 volumes to the public
library. He likewife founded a free-fchool at Roch¬
dale in Lancalhire. He took care to have the fees
fiHed with pious and learned men ; and, confidering
the great want of hibles in many places, he, with the
afiiftance of other learned men, improved the Engliih
tranflatiOn, had it printed on a large paper, and dif-
perfed through the kingdom.
This worthy prelate died in the year 1575', aged
72, and was buried in his own chapel at Lambeth.
He was pious w’lhout affedation or aufterity, cheer¬
ful and contented in the midft of advcrfity, moderate
Vol. VIIL 1
PAR
in the height of power, and beneficent beyond ex- P*'lcy,
ample. He wrote feveral books; and alfo publifliedParll:irncf|t.
four of our beft hiftorians, Matthew of Wejhninjler;
Matthew Paris ; AjfePs fife of king Alfred \ and
Tho. Waijingham.
PARLEY", a conference with an enemy. Hence,
to beat or found a parley, is to give a fignal for
holding fuch a conference by beat of drum, or found
of trumpet.
PARLIAMENT, the grand affembly of the three
ftates of this kingdom, fummoned together by the
king’s authority, to confider of matters relating to
the public welfare, and particularly to enad and repeal
laws.
The original or firft inftitution of parliaments is one
of thofe matters which lie fo far hidden in the dark
ages of antiquity, that the tracing of it out is a thing
equally difficult and uncertain. The word parliament
itfelf (or colloquium, as fome of our hiftorians tranflate
it) is, comparatively, of modern date ; derived from the
French, and fignifying the place where they met and
conferred together. It was firft applied to general af-
femblies of the ftates under Louis VII. in France,
about the middle of the 12th century. But it is cer¬
tain, that, long before the introdudion of the Nor¬
man language into England, all matters of importance
were debated and fettled in the great councils of the
realm. A pradice which feems to have been univer-
fal among the northern nations, particularly the Ger¬
mans ; and carried by them into all the countries of
Europe, which they over-ran at the diffolution of the
Roman empire. Relics of which conftitution, under
various modifications and changes, are ftiil to be met
with in the diets of Poland, Germany, and Sweden,
and the affembly of the eftates in France ; for what is
there now called the parliament is only the fupreme
court of juftice, confifting of the peers, certain digni¬
fied ecclefiaftics, and judges; which neither is in prac¬
tice, nor is fuppofed to be in theory, a general coun¬
cil of the realm.
With us in England, this general council hath been
held immemorially, under the feveral names of michel-
Jynoth, or “ great council,” michel-gernote, or “ great
meeting,” and more frequently wittena~gemote, or
“ the meeting of wife men.” It was alfo ftyled in
Latin, commune concilium reg?ii, magnum concilium re-
gir, curia magna, convent us magnatum vel procerum,
affageneralis, and fometimes cornmuniias regni Anglise.
We have inftances of its meeting to order the affairs
of the kingdom, to make new laws, and to amend the
old, or, as Fleta expreffes it, novis injuriis emerfs no¬
va confituere remedia, fo early as the reign of Ina
king of the weft Saxons. Offa king of the Mercians,
and Ethelbert king of Kent, in the feveral realms of
the heptarchy. And, after their union, the Mirrour
informs us, that king Alfred ordained for a perpetual
ufage, that theft councils fheuld meet twice in the
year, or oftener, if need be, to treat of the govern¬
ment of God’s people ; how they fhonld keep them-
felves from fin, fhould live in quiet, and fhould receive
right. Our fucceeding Saxon and Danifli monarehs
held frequent councils of this fort, as appears from
their refpeflive codes of laws ; the titles whereof ufual-
ly fpeak them to be enafted, either by the king with
the advice of his wittena-gemote, or wife men, as,
33 D Hac
C 5871 ]
PAR [ 5872 ] PAR
Parliament. JJ^c fant inJHtut a, quae. Edgar us rex cotifilio fapientum
fuorunt infiituit; or to be enabled by thofe fages with
the advice of the king, as, Hxc funt judicia, qua fa~
pientes conftlio regis Ethelfiani inftituerunt; or laftly, to
be enafted by them both together, as, Ha funt injiit'u-
tionei, quas rex Edmundus et epifcopi fui cumfapientibus
fuis injiituerunt.
There is alfo no doubt but thefe great councils were
occafionally held under the firft princes of the Norman
line. Glanvil, who wrote in the reign of Henry II.
fpeaking of the particular amount of an amercement
in the fheriff’s court, fays, it had never yet been af-
certained by the general affize, or aflembly, but was
left to the cuftom of particular counties. Here the
general affize is fpoken of as a meeting well known,
and its ftatutes or decifions are put in a manifelt con-
tradiftinftion to cuftom, or the common law. And in
Edward Ill’s time an aft of parliament, made in the
reign of William the Conqueror, was pleaded in the
cafe of the abbey of St Edmund’s-bury, and judicially
allowed by the court.
Hence it indifputably appears, that parliaments, or
general councils, are coeval with the kingdom itfelf.
How thofe parliaments were conftituted and compo-
fed, is another queftion, which has been matter of
great difpute among our learned .antiquarians; and
particularly, whether the commons were fummoned at
all; or, if fummoned, at what period they began to
form a diflinft aflembly. But without entering into
controverfies of this fort, it may be fufficient to ob-
ferve, that it is generally agreed, that in the main the
conftitution of parliament, as it now ftands, was mark¬
ed out fo long ago as the 17th year of king John,
A. D. 1215, in the great charter granted by that
prince; wherein he promifes to fummon all arch-
bilhops, biftiops, abbots, earls, and greater barons,
perfonally; and all other tenants in chief under the
crown, by the ftieriff and bailiffs; to meet at a certain
place, with 40 days notice, to affefs aids and fcutages
when neceffary. And this conftitution has fubfifted
in fad at leaft from the year 1266, 49 Hen. III.
there being ftill extant writs of that date, to fummon
knights, citizens, and burgeffes, to parliament. We
proceed therefore to inquire wherein cpnfifts this con-
flitution of parliament, as it now ftands, and has flood
for the fpace of at leaft 500 years. And in the pro-
fecution of this inquiry, we ftiall confider, firft, The
manner and time of its affembling: Secondly, Its con-
ftituent parts: Thirdly, The laws andjcuftoms relating
to parliament: Fourthly, The methods of proceeding,
and of making ftatutes, in both houfes: And, laftly.
The manner of the parliament’s adjournment, proroga¬
tion, and diffolution.
I. Hs to the manner and ti?ne of ajfemhling. The
parliament is regularly to be fummoned by the king’s
writ or letter, iffued out of chancery by advice of the
privy-council, Jft leaft 40 days before it begins to fit.
It is a branch of the royal prerogative, that no par¬
liament cah be convened by its, own authority, or by
the authority of any, except the king alone. And this
prerogative is founded upon very good reafon. For,
fuppofing it had a right to meet fpontaneoufly, with¬
out being called together, it is impofiible to conceive
that all the members, and each of the houfes, would
agree unaniinoufly upqn the proper time and place of
meeting: and if half of the members met, and half Parliament,
abfented themfelves, who fhall determine which is real-
ly the legiflative body, the part affembled, or that
which flays away? It is therefore neceffary, that the
parliament fhould be called together at a determinate
time and place; and, highly becoming its dignity and
independence, that it fhould be called together by
none but one of its own conftituent parts: and, of the
three conftitnent parts, this office can only appertain
to the king; as he is a fingle perfou, whofe will may
be uniform and fteady; the firft perfon in the nation,
being fuperior to both houfes indignity ; and the on¬
ly branch of the legiflature that has a f.parate exift-
ence, and is capable of performing any adt at a time
when no parliament is in being. Nor is it an excep¬
tion to this rule, that, by fome modern ftatutes, on the
demife of a king or queen, if there be then no parlia¬
ment in being, the laft parliament revives, and is to fit
again for fix months, unlefs diffolved by the fucceffor:
for this revived parliament mull have been originally
fummoned by the crown.
It is true, that the convention-parliament which re-
ftored king Charles II. met above a month before his
return; the lords by their own authority, and the com¬
mons in purfuance of writs iffued in the name of the
keepers of the liberty of England by authority of par¬
liament; and that the faid parliament fat till the 29th
of December, full feven months after the Reftpration ;
and enafted many laws, feveral of which are ftill in
force. But this was for the neceffity of the thing,
which fuperfedes all law; for if they had not fo met,
it was morally impoffible that the kingdom ftiould havp
been fettled in peace. And the firft thing done after
the king’s return was, to pafs an aft declaring this to
be a good parliament, notwithftanding the defeft of
the king’s writs. So that as the royal prerogative was
chiefly wounded by their fo meeting, and as the king
himfelf, who alone had a right to objeft, confented to
wave the objeftion, this cannot be drawn into an ex¬
ample in prejudice of the rights of the crown. Be-
fides, we (hould alfo remember, that it was at that time
a great doubt among the lawyers, whether even this
healing aft made, it a good parliament, and held by
very many in the negative ; though it feems ,to have
been too nice a fcruple. And yet, out of abundant
caution, it was thought neceffary to confirm its afts in
the next parliament, by ftatute 13 Car. II. c. 7. &'
c- H-. . -
It is likewife true, at the time of the Revolution,
A. D. 1688, the lords and commons by their own
authority, and upon the fummons of the. prince, of
Orange, (afterwards king William), met in a conven¬
tion, and therein difpofed of the crown and kingdom.
But it muft be remembered, that this affembling was
upon a like principle of neceffity as at the Reftoration;
that is, upon a full conviftion that king James the
fecond had abdicated the government, and that the
throne was thereby vacant: which fuppofition of the
individual members was confirmed by their concurrent
refolution, when they aftually came together. And,
in fuch a cafe as the palpable vacancy of a throne,
it follows ex neceffitate ret, that the form of the royal
writs mull be laid afide, otherwife no.parliament can
ever meet again. For let us put another poffible
cafe, and fuppofe, for the Jake of argument, that the
whole
PAR
Parliament, whole royal line ftiould at any time fail, and become
 extinft, which would indifputably vacate the throne:
in this fituation it feems reafonable to prefume, that
the body of the nation, confiding of lords and com¬
mons, would have a right to meet and fettle the go¬
vernment ; otherwife there mud be no government at
all. And ilpon this and no other principle did the
convention in 1688 affemble. The vacancy of the
throne was precedent to their meeting without any
royal fummons, not a confequence of it. They did
not affemble without writ, and then make the throne
vacant; but, the throne being previoufly vacant by
the king’s abdication, they afiembled without writ,
as they mud do if they aflembled at all. Had the
throne been full, their meeting would not have been
regular ; but, as it was really empty, fuch mealing
became abfolutely neceffary. And accordingly it is
declared by datute 1 W. & M. d. 1. c. 1. that this
convention was really the two houfes of parliament,
notwithdanding the want of writs or other defers of
form. So that, notwithdanding thefe two capital ex¬
ceptions, which were judifiable only on a principle of
neceffity', (and each of which, by the way, induced a
revolution in the government), the rule laid down is
in general certain, that the king only can convoke a
parliament.
And this, by the ancient datutes of the realm, he is
bound to do every year, or oftener, if need be. Not
that he is, or ever was, obliged by thefe datutes to
call a new parliament every year ; but only to permit
a parliament to fit annually for the redrefs of grie¬
vances, and difpatch of bufinefs, if need be. Thefe
lad words are fo loofe and vague, that fuch of our
monarchs as were inclined to govern without parlia¬
ments, negle&ed the convoking them, fometimes for
a very confiderable period, under pretence that there
was no need of them. But, to remedy this, by the
datute 16 Car. II. c. 1. it is enadled, that the fitting
and holding of parliaments fhall not be intermitted
above three years at the mod. And by the datote
1. W. & M. d. 2. c. 2. it is declared to be one of the
rights of the people, that for redrefs of all grievances,
and for the amending, drengthening, and preferving
the laws, parliaments ought to be held frequently.
And this indefinite frequency is again reduced to a
certainty by datute 6 W. & M. c. 2. which enafts, as
the datute of Charles the fecond had done before, that
a new parliament fhall be called within three years
after the determination of the former.
II. The conJUtuent farts of a parliament are, the
king’s majedy, fitting there in his royal political
capacity, and the three edates of the realm ; the lords
fpiritual, the lords temporal, (who fit together whh
the king in one houfe), and the commons, who
fit by themfelves in another. And the king and thefe
three edates together form the great corporation or
body politic of the kingdom, of which the king is
faid to be caput, principium, et finis. For upon their
coming together the king meets them, either in perfon
or by reprefentation ; without which there can be no
beginning of a parliament; and he alfo has alone the
power of diffolving them.
It is highly neceffary for preferving the balance of
the conditution, that the executive power fhould be a
branch, thoug not the whole, of the legiflature. The
PAR
total union of them, we have feen, would be produc-Parliament,
live of tyranny; the total disjunftion of them, for the'-
prefent, would in the end produce the fame effefts,
by caufing that union againd which it feems to pro¬
vide. The legiflature would foon become tyrannical,
by making continual encroachments, and gradually
afluming to itftlf the rights of the executive power.
Thus the long parliament of Charles the firfi, while it
aftcd in a conftitutional manner, with the royal con¬
currence, redreffed many heavy grievances and edablilh-
ed many falutary laws. But when the two houfes
affumed the power of legiflation, in exclufion of the
royal authority,they foon afteraffumed likewifethe reins
of adminidration ; and, in confequence of thefe united
powers, overturned both church and date, and eda-
blidied a worfe oppreflion than any they pretended to
remedy. To hinder therefore any fuch encroachments,
the king is himfelf a part of the parliament; and as
this is the reafon of his being fo, very properly there¬
fore the fhare of legiflation which the conditution
has placed in the crown, confids in the power of re-
je&ing, rather than refolving; this being fufficient to
anfwer the end propofed. For we may apply to the
royal negative, in this indance, what Cicero obferves
of the negative of the Roman tribunes, that the crown
has not any power of doing wrong, but merely of
preventing wrong from being done. The crown can¬
not begin of itfelf any alterations in the prefent eda-
blifhed law ; but it may approve or difapprove of the
alterations fuggeded and confented to by the two
houfes. The legiflature therefore cannot abridge the
executive power of any rights which it now has by
law, without its own confent; fince the law mud per¬
petually dand as it now does, unlefs all the powers
will agree to alter it. And herein indeed confids the
true excellence of the Britifh government, that all the
parts of it form a mutual check upon each other. In
the legiflature, the people are a check Upon the no¬
bility, and the nobility a check upon the people, by
the mutual privilege of rejedling what the other has
refolved ; while the king is a check upon both, which
preferves the executive power from encroachments.
And this very executive power is again checked and
kept within due bounds by the two houfes, through
the privilege they have of inquiring into, impeaching,
and punifhing the condu£t (not indeed of the king,
which would dedroy his conditutional independence ;
but, which is more beneficial to the public) of his evil
and pernicious counfellors. Thus every branch of
our civil polity fupports and is fupported, regulates
and is regulated, by the red : for the two houfes na¬
turally drawing in .two diredlions of oppofite intered,
and the prerogative in another dill different from them
both, they mutually keep each other from exceeding
their proper limits; while the whole is prevented from
feparation, and artificially conne&ed together by the
mixed nature of the crowm, which is a part of the le-
giflative, and the foie executive magiilrate. Like
three didindt powers in mechanics, they jointly impel
the machine of government in a diredtion different
from what cither, adling by itfelf, would have done;
but at the fame time in a direftion partaking of each,
and formed out of all; a diredlion which conditutes
the true line of the liberty and happinefs of the com¬
munity.
33 D 2 Having
t 5873 1
PAR [ 5874 ] PAR
Parliament. Having already confidered thefe condiment parts of
the fovereign power, or parliament, each in a feparaie
view, under the articles King, Lords, and Commons,
to which the reader is referred, we proceed,
III. To examine the laws and cuftoms relating to
parliament, united together and conftdered as one aggre¬
gate body. The power and jurifdiclion. of parliament,
fays Sir Edward Coke, isfo tranfcendent and abfolute,
that it cannot be confined, either for caufes or perfons,
within any bounds. And of this high court he adds,
it may be truly faid, Si antiquitatem fpettes, eji vetu-
flifjima ; fi dignitatem, eji honor at iflima ; Ji jurifdiSim-
nem, eft. capacijfttna. It hath fovereign and uncon-
trolable authority in making, confirming, enlarging,
reftraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and ex¬
pounding of laws, concerning matters of all poffible
denominations, ecclefiaftical or temporal, civil, mi¬
litary, maritime, or criminal: this being the place
where that abfolute defpotic power, which mull in all
governments refide fomewhere, is entrufted by thecon-
ilitution of thefe kingdoms. All mifehiefs and grie¬
vances, operations and remedies, that tranfcend the
ordinary courfe of the laws, are within, the reach of
this extraordinary tribunal. It can regulate or new-
model the fucceffion to the crown; as was done in the
reign of H,enry VIII. and William III. It can alter
the eftablilhed religion of the land ; as was done in a
variety of inltances, in the reigns of king Henry VIII.
and his three children. It can change and create
afrefh even the conftitution of the kingdom and of
parliaments themfelves; as was done: by the aft of
union, and the feveral ftatutes for triennial and fepten-
nial ele&ions. It can, in (hart, do every thing that
is not naturally impoffible ; and therefore fome have
not fcrupled to call its power, by a figure rather too
bold, the omnipotence of parliament. True it is,, that
what the parliament doth, no authority upon earth can
undo. So that it is a matter moft efiential to the
liberties of this kingdom, that fuch members be dele¬
gated to this important trull as are moft eminent for
their probity, their fortitude, and their knowledge ;
for it was a known apothegm of the great lord trea-
furer Burleigh, “ That England could never be ruined
but by a parliamentand, as Sir Matthew Hale ob-
ferves, this being the higheft and greatell court, over
which none other can have jurifdidlion in the king¬
dom, if by any means a mifgovernment Ihould any
way fall upon it, the fubjeCls of this kingdom are
left without all manner of remedy- To the fame pur-
pofe the prefident Montefquieu, though we truft too
haftily, prefages, that as Rome, Sparta, and Car¬
thage, have loft their liberty and perilhed ; fo the con-
llitution of England will in time lofe its liberty, will
perilh: it will pcrilh whenever the legiflativc power
(hall become more corrupt than the executive.
It mull be owned that Mr Locke, and other theo¬
retical writers, have held, that “ there remains ftill in¬
herent in the people a fupreme power to remove or al¬
ter the legiflative, when they find the legiflative adl
contrary to the truft repofed in them ; for when fuch
truft is abufed, it is thereby forfeited, and devolves
to thofe who gave it." But however juft this conclu*
fion may be in theory, we cannot adopt it, nor argue
from it, under any difpenfation of government at pre-
£ent aftually exifting. For this devolution of power,
to the people at large, includes in it a diflblu.:Lcm of Parliamsnt.
the whole form of government eftablilhed by that pea- ’
pie ; reduces all the members to their original (late of
equality ; and by annihilating the fovereign power, re¬
peals all politive laws whatfuever before enabled. No
human laws will therefore fuppofe a cafe, which at
once mull deftroy all law, and compel men to build a-
frefh upon a new foundation j nor will they make pro-
vifion for fo defperate an event, as mull render all le¬
gal provrfions iueffcdlual. So long therefore as the
Englilh conftitution lafts, We may venture to affirm,
that the power of parliament is abfolute and without
control.
In order to prevent the mifehiefs that might arife,
by placing this extenfive authority in bands that are
either incapable or elfe improper to manage it, it is
provided by the cuftam and law of parliament, that
no one fhall fit or vote in either houfe, unlefa he be
21 years of age. This is alfo exprefsly declared by
llatute 7 & 8 W. III. c. 25 : with regard to the houfe
of commons, doubts have arifen, from fome contra-
didory adjudications, whether or no a minor was in¬
capacitated from fitting in that houfe. It is alfo en¬
abled by ftatute 7 Jac. I. c. 6. that no member be
permitted to enter the houfe of commons till he hath
taken the oath of allegiance before the lord fteward or
his depnty: and by 30 Car. II. ft. 2. and 1 Geo. I.
c. 13. that no member (hall vote or fit in either houfe
till he hath, in the prefence of the houfe, taken the
oaths of allegiance, fupremacy, and abjuration, and
fubferibed and repeated the declaration againA tran-
fubftantiation, and invocation of faints, and the facri-
fice of the mafs. Aliens, unlefs naturalized, werelike-
wife by the law of parliament incapable to ferve there¬
in : and nowit is ena&ed, by ftatute 12 & t3 W. III.
c. 2. that no alien, even though he be naturalized,
(hall be capable of being a member of either houfe of
parliament. And there are not only thefe Handing
incapacities ; but if any perfon is made a peer by the
king, or ele&ed to ferve in the houfe of commons by
the people, yet may the refpedive honfes, upon com¬
plaint of any crime in fuch perfon, and proof thereof,
adjudge him difabled and incapable to fit as a mem¬
ber: and this by the law and cuftom of parliament.
For as every court ofjuftice hath laws and euftoras
for its diretSlion, fome the civil and canon, fome the
common law, others their own peculiar laws and cu-
ftoms; fa the high court of parliament hath alfo its
own peculiar law, called the lex et confuetudo parlia-
menti; a law which Sir Edward Coke obferves is ab
omnibuj quxrenda, a multis ignorata, a panels cognita.
It will not therefore be exptded that we (hould enter
into the examination of this law with any degree of
minutenefs ; fince, as the fame learned author allures
us, it is much better to be learned out of the rolls of
parliament and other records, and by precedents and
continual experience, than can he expreffed by any
one man- It will be fufficient to obferve, that the
whole of the law and cuflom of parliament has its ori¬
ginal from this one maxim, “ That whatever matter
arifes concerning either houle of parliament, ought to
be examined, difenffed, and adjudged in that houfe to '
which it relates, and not elfewhere." Hence, for in-
ftance, the lords will not fuffer the commons to inter¬
fere: in fettling the eledion of a peer of Scotland ; the
commons
PAR [ 5875 ] PAR
Parliament, commons will not allow the lords to judge of the elec-
‘ tion of a hurgefs; nor will either houfe permit the
fubordinate courts of law to examine the merits of ei¬
ther cafe. But the maxims upon which they proceed,
together with the method of proceeding, red entirely
in the bread of the parliament itfelf; and are not de¬
fined and afcertained by any particular dated laws.
The privileges of parliament are likewife very large
and indefinite ; and therefore, when, in 31ft Hen. VI.
the houfe of lords propounded a queftion to the judges
concerning them, the chief judice, Sir John Fortef-
cue, in the name of Iris brethren, declared, “ That
they ought not to make anfwer to that quedion; for
it hath not been ufed aforetime, that the judices Ihotild
in any wife determine the privileges of the high court
of parliament; for it is fo high and mighty in its na¬
ture, that it may make law; and that which is law,
it may make no law : and the determination and know¬
ledge of that privilege belongs to the lords of parlia¬
ment, and not to the judices.” Privilege of parlia¬
ment was principally edablifhed, in order to proteft
its members not only from being moleded by their fel-
low-fubjedts, but alfo more efpecially from being op-
prefied by the power of the crown. If therefore all
the privileges of parliament were once to be fet down
and afcertained, and no privilege to be allowed but
what was fo defined and determined, it were eafy for
the executive power to devife fome new cafe, not with¬
in the line of privilege, and under pretence thereof to
harrafs any refraflory member, and violate the free¬
dom of parliament. The dignity and independence
of the two houfes are therefore in great meafure pre-
ferved by keeping their privileges indefinite. Some*
however, of the more notorious privileges of the mem¬
bers of either houfe, are privilege of fpeech, of perfon,
of their domedics, and of their lands and goods. As
to the fird, privilege of fpeech, it is declared by the
ftatute x W. Sc M. ft. 2. c. 2. as one of tb? liberties
of the people, “ That the freedom of fpeech, and de¬
bates, and proceedings in parliament, ought not to be
impeached or quedioned in any court or place out of
parliament.” And this freedom of fpeech is particu¬
larly demanded of the king in perfon, by the fpeaker
of the houfe of commons, at the opening of every new
parliament. So likewife are the other privileges, of
perfon, fervants, lands, and goods ; which are im¬
munities as ancient as Edward the Confefibr s in
whofe laws we find this precept, fynodos venier.tibus,
five fummoniti fnt, five per fe quid agendum habuerint
fit fumma pax; and fo too in the old Gothic conflitu-
tions, Extenditur hac pax et fecuritas ad quatuordecim
dies, convocato regni fenatu. This included formerly
not only privilege from illegal violence, but alfo from
legal arreds and feizures by procefs front the courts of
law. And ftill to afiault by violence a member of ei¬
ther houfe, or his menial fervants, is a high contempt
of parliament, and there punidied with the utmod fe-
verity. It has likewife peculiar penalties annexed to
it in the courts of law by the datutes 5 Hen. IV. c. 6.
and 11 Hen. VI. c. ri. Neither can any member of
either houfe be arreded and taken into cudody with¬
out a breach of the privilege of parliament.
But all other privileges which derogate from the
common law are now at an end, fave only as to the
freedom of the member’s perfon ; which in a peer (by
the privilege of peerage) is for ever facred and invio-Parl'3mcnt*
lable ; and in a commoner (by the privilege of pariia-
meat) for forty days after every prorogatiou, and forty
days before the next appointed meeting ; which is now
in effect as long as the parliament fubfids, it feldom
being prorogued for more than eighty days at a time.
As to all other privileges which obltrmfr the ordinary
courfe of judice, they were redrained by the datutes
12 W. III. c. 3. 2 & 3 Ann. c. 18. and 11 Geo. I t.
c. 24. and are now totally abolilhed by datute 10 G.
III. c. 50. ; which enads, that any fuit may at any
time be brought agaioft any peer or member of par¬
liament, their fervants, or any other perfon entitled to
privilege of parliament ; which (hall not be impeached
or delayed by pretence of any fuch privilege, except
that the perfon of a member of the houfe of commons
fhall not thereby be fubjedted to any arred or impri-
fonment. Likewife, for the benefit of commerce, it
is provided by datute 4 Geo. III. c. 33. that any tra¬
der, having privilege of parliament, may be ferved with
legal procefs for any jud debt, (to the amount of 100I.)}
and unlefs he makes fatisfadion within two months, it
(hall be deemed an ad of bankruptcy ; and that com-
miffions of bankrupt may be iflued againd fuch privi¬
leged traders in like manner as againd any other.
The only way by which courts of juftice could an¬
ciently take cognizance of privilege of parliament was
by writ of privilege, in the nature of a fuperfedeas, to
deliver the party out of cudody when arreded in a ci¬
vil fuit. For when a letter was written by the fpeaker
to the judges, to day proceedings againd a privileged
perfon, they rejeded it as contrary to their oath of of¬
fice. But fince the datute 12 Will. III. c. 3. which
enads, that no privileged perfon (hall be fubjed to ar¬
red or imprifonment, it hath been held, that fuch arreft
i; irregular ah initio, and that the party may be dif-
charged upon motion. It is to be obferved, that there
is no precedent of any fuch writ of privilege, but only
in civil fuits; and that the datute of 1 Jac. I. c. 13. and
that of king William, (which remedy fome inconvtni-
encies arifing from privilege of parliament), fpeak only
of civil adions. And therefore the claim of privilege
hath been ufually guarded with an exception as to the
cafe of indidable crimes; or, as it hath been frequent¬
ly expreffed, of treafon, felony, and breach (or furety)
of the peace. Whereby it feems to have been under-
ftood, that no privilege was allowable to the members,
their families, or fervants, in any crime whatfoever; for
all crimes are treated by the law as being contra pacem
domini reg'is. And indances have not been wanting,
wherein privileged perfons have been convidcd of mif-
demefnors, and committed, or profecuted to outlawry,,
even in the middle of a ftfiion; which proceeding has
afterwards received the fandion and approbation o£
parliament. To which may be added, that a few years
ago, the cafe of writing and publifhing feditious libels
was refolved by both houfes not to be entitled to pri¬
vilege; and that the reafons upon which that cafe pro¬
ceeded, extended equally to every indidable offence.
So that the chief, if not the only, privilege of parlia¬
ment, in fuch cafes, feems to be the right of receiving"
immediate information of the imprifonment or deten¬
tion of any member, with the reafon for which he is.
detained : a pradicethat is daily ufed upon the flight-
eft military aecufations, preparatory to a trial by a.
cx>urfc
PAR [ 5876 ] PAR
Patl'ament. court-martial; and which is recognized by the feveral
temporary ftatutes for fufpending the habeas corpus aft:
whereby it is provided, that no member of either houfe
fhall be detained, till the matter of which he (lands fuf-
pefted be firft communicated to the houfe of which
he is a member, and the confent of the fa id houfe ob¬
tained for his commitment or detaining. But yet the
ufage has uniformly been, ever fince the Revolution,
that the communication has been fubfequent to the ar-
reft.
Thefe are the general heads of the laws and cuftoms
relating to parliament, confidered as one aggregate
body. The laws and cuftoms relating to each branch
in particular being explained under the articles already
referred to, viz. King,Lords,andCoMMONS,we(hould
proceed, IV. To the method of making laws; which is
much the fame in both houfes. But for this, too, we have
to refer the reader to the article Bill; and (hall only
obferve in this place, that, for difpatch ofbufinefs, each
houfe of parliament has its fpeaker. The fpeaker of
the houfe of lords, whole office it is to prefide there,
and manage the formality of bufmefs, is the lord chan¬
cellor, or keeper of the king’s great feal, or any other
appointed by the king’s commiffion: and if hone be fo
appointed, the houfe of lords (it is faid) may eleft.
The fpeaker of the houfe of commons is chofen by the
houfe; but mu ft be approved by the king. And here¬
in the ufage of the two houfes differs, that the fpeaker
of the houfe of commons cannot give his opinion or
argue any queftion in the houfe ; but the fpeaker of
the houfe of lords, if a lord of parliament, may. In
each houfe the aft of the majority binds the whole;
and this majority is declared by votes openly and pub¬
licly given ; not, as at Venice, and many other fenato-
rial affemblies, privately, or by ballot. This latter me¬
thod may be ferviceable, to prevent intrigues and un-
eonftitutional combinations; but is impofllble to be
praftifed with us, at lead in the houfe of commons,
where every member’s'conduft is fubjeft to the future
cenfure of his conftituents, and therefore flrould be o-
penly fubmitted to their infpeftion.
V. There remains only, in the laft place, to add a
word or two concerning the manner in which parlia¬
ments may be adjourned, prorogued, or dijfolved.
An adjournment is no more than a continuance of
the feffion from one day to another; as the word itfelf
Cgnifies: and this is done by the authority of each
houfe feparately every day; and fometimes for a fort¬
night or a month together, as at Chriftmas or Eafter,
or upon other particular occafions. But the adjourn¬
ment of one houfe is no adjournment of the other. It
hath alfo been ufual, when his Majefty hath fignified
his pleafure that both or either of the houfes ffiould
adjourn themfelves to a certain day, to obey the king’s
pleafure fo Qgnified, and to adjourn accordingly. O-
therwife, befides the indecorum of a refufal, a proro¬
gation would affuredly follow; which would often be
very inconvenient to both public and private bufinefs.
For prorogation puts an end to the fedion ; and then
fuch bills as are only begun and not perfefted, muff; be
refumed de novo, (if at all), in a fubfequent fefiion ;
whereas, after an adjournment, all things continue in
the fame Rate as at the time of the adjournment made,
and may be proceeded on without any freffi commence¬
ment. '
A prorogatiosth the continuance of the parliament Parliament.
from one feffion to another ; as an adjournment is a  
continuation of the feffion from day to day. This is
done by the royal authority, expreffed either by the lord
chancellor in his Majefty’s prefence, or by commiffion
from the crown, or frequently by proclamation. Both
houfes are neceffarily prorogued at the fame time; it
not being a prorogation of the houfe of lords or com¬
mons, but of the parliament. The feffion is never un-
derftood to be at an end until a prorogation; though,
unlefs fome aft be paffed, or fome judgment given in
parliament, it is in truth no feffion at all. And former¬
ly the ufage was, for the king to give the royal aflent
to all fuch bills as he approved at the end of every fef¬
fion, and then to prorogue the parliament, though
fometimes only for a day or two; after which all buli-
nefs then depending in the houfes was to be begun a-
gain. Which cuftom obtained fo ftrongly, that it once
became a queftion, Whether giving the royal aflent to
a Angle bill did not of courfe put an end to the feffion ?
And though it was then refolved in the negative, yet
the notion was £0 deeply rooted, that the ftatute
1 Car. I. c. 7. was pafled to declare, that the king’s
aflVnt to that and fome other afts ftrould not put an
end to the feffion ; and even fo late as the reign of
Charles II. we And a provifo frequently tacked to a bill,
that his Majefty’s aflent thereto (hould not determine
the feffion of parliament. But it now feems to be al¬
lowed, that a prorogation muft be exprefsly made, in
order to determine the feffion. And if at the time of
an aftual rebellion, or imminent danger of invaflon,
the parliament (hall be feparated by adjournment or
prorogation, the king is empowered to call them toge¬
ther by proclamation, with 14 days notice of the time
appointed for their reaffembling.
A dijfolution is the civil death of the parliament; and
this may be effefted three ways: 1. By the king’s will,
exprefled ■•ither in perfon or by reprefentation. For
as the king has the foie right of convening the parlia¬
ment, fo alfo it is a branch of the royal prerogative,
that he may (whenever he pleafes) prorogue the par¬
liament for a time, or put a Anal period to its exift-
ence. If nothing had a right to prorogue or diflblve
a parliament but itfelf, it might happen to become per¬
petual. And this would be extremely dangerous, if
at any time it (hould attempt to encroach upon the ex¬
ecutive power; as was fatally experienced by the un¬
fortunate king Charles I.; who, having unadvifedly
paffed an aft to continue the parliament then in being
till fuch time as it (hould pleafeto diflblve itfelf, at laft;
fell a facrifice to that inordinate power which he him-
felf had confented to give them. It is therefore ex¬
tremely neceflary that the crown (hould be empowered
to regulate the duration of thefe aflemblies, under the
limitations which the Englifti conftitution has prefcri-
bed: fo that, on the one hand, they may frequently
and regularly come together for the difpatch of bufi¬
nefs and redrefs of grievances; and may not, on the
other, even with the confent of the crown, be continued
to an inconvenient or unconftitutional length.
2. A parliament may be difiblved by the demife of
the crown. This diflblution formerly happened im¬
mediately upon the death of the reigning fovereign:
for he being confidered in law as the head of the par¬
liament, (caput, principium, et finis), that failing, the
whole
PAR [ 5877 ] PAR
Parliament, whole body was held to be extin&. But the calling a
new parliament immediately on the inauguration of the
fuccefibr being found inconvenient, and dangers being
apprehended from haring no parliament in being in
cafe of a difputed fucceffion, it was ena&ed by the fta-
tutes 7 & 8 W. III. c. 15. and 6 Ann. c. 7. that the
parliament in being ihall continue for fix months after
the death of any king or queen, unlefs fooner prorogued
or diifolved by the fucceffor: that if the parliament be,
at the time of the king’s death, feparated by adjourn¬
ment or prorogation, it (hall notwithftanding affemble
immediately: and that if no parliament is then in be¬
ing, the members of the laft parliament (hall affemble,
and be again a parliament.
3. Laftly, a parliament may be diflblved or expire
by length of time. For if either the legiflative body
were perpetual, or might laft for the life of the prince
who convened them as formerly, and were fo to be
fupplied, by cccafionally filling the vacancies with new
reprefentatives; in thefe cafes, if it were once corrup¬
ted, the evil would be paft all remedy; but when dif¬
ferent bodies fucceed each other, if the people fee caufe
to difapprove of the prefent, they may rectify its faults
in the next. A legiflative aflembly alfo, which is fure
to be feparated again, (whereby its members will them-
felves become private men, and fubjeft to the full ex¬
tent of the laws which they have enabled for others),
will think themfelves bound, in intereft as well as duty,
to make only fuch laws as are good. The utmoft ex¬
tent of time that the fame parliament was allowed to
fit, by the ftatute 6 W. & M. c. 3. was three years ;
after the expiration of which, reckoning from the re¬
turn of the firft fummons, the parliament was to have
no longer continuance. But by the ftatute x Geo. I.
ft. 2. c. 38. (in order, profefledly, to prevent the great
and continued expences of frequent eledfions, and the
violent heats and animofides confequent thereupon, and
for the peace and fecurity of the government then juft
recovering from the late rebellion), this term was pro¬
longed to /even years ; and, what alone is an inftance
of the vaft authority of parliament, the very fame houfe
that was chofen for three years, enatfted its own con¬
tinuance for ftven. So that, as our conftitution now
ftands, the parliament muft expire, or die a natural
death, at the end of every feventh year, if not fooner
diflblved by the royal prerogative.
We fhall conclude this anicle with an account of
fome general forms not taken notice of under any of
the above heads.
In the houfe of lords, the princes of the blood fit
by themfelves on the fides of the throne ; at the wall,
on the king’s right hand, the two, archbilhops fit by
themfelves on a form. Below them, the biftiops of
London, Durham, and Winchefter, and all the other
bifhops, fit according to the priority of their confecra-
tion. On the king’s left hand the lord-treafurer, lord
prefident, and lord privy-feal, fit upon forms above all
dukes, except the royal blood ; then the dukes, mar-
quiffes, and earls, according to their creation. A-
crofs the room are wool-facks, continued from an an¬
cient cuftom ; and the chancellor, or keeper, being of
courfe the fpeaker of the houfe of lords, fits on the
firft wool-fack before the throne, with the great feal
or mace lying by him ; below thefe are forms for the
vifcounts and barons. On the other wool Lacks
are feated the judges, matters in chancery, and king’s Parliament,
council, who are only to give their advice in points of * '
law: but they all ftand up till the king gives them
leave to fit.
The commons fit promifcuoufly ; only the fpeaker
has a chair at the upper end of the houfe, and the
clerk and his afiiftant fit at a table near him.
When a member of the houfe of commons fpeaks,
he ftands up uncovered, and diredls his fpeech to the
fpeaker only. If what he fays be anfwered by ano¬
ther, he is not allowed to reply the fame day, unlefs
perfonal reflexions have been caft upon him: but
when the commons, in order to have a greater freedom
of debate, have refoived themfelves into a committee
of the whole haufe, every member may fpeak to a que-
ftion as often as he thinks neceflary. In the houfe of
lords they vote, beginning at the puifne, or lowed:
baron, and fo up orderly to the higdieft, every one an-
fwering, Content or Not content. In the houfe of com¬
mons they vote by yeas and nays ; and if it be dubfous
which are the greater number, the houfe divides. If
the queftion be about bringing any thing into the houfe,
the yeas go out; but if it be about any thing the houfe
already has, the nays go out. In all divilions the fpeak¬
er appoints four tellers, two of each opinion. In a
committee of the whole houfe, they divide by changing
fides, the taking the right and the nays the left of
the chair; and then there are but two tellers. If a
bill pafs one houfe, and the other demur to it, a con¬
ference is demanded in the paintfed chamber, where
certain members are deputed from each houfe ; and
here the lords fit covered, and the commons ftand bare,
and debate the cafe. If they difagree, the affair is
null; but if they agree, this, with the other bills that
have paffed both houfes, is brought down to the king in
the houfe of lords, who comes thither clothed in his roy¬
al robes; before him the clerk of the parliament reads
the title of each bill, and as he reads, the clerk of the
crown pronounces the royal affentor diffent. If it be a
public bill, the royal affent is given in thefe words,
Leroy le vaut, “ The king will have it fo;” if private,
Soi fait conime il eft defre, “ Let the requeft be com¬
plied with: if the king refufes the bill, the anfwer is,
Le roy s’avifera, “ The king will think of it;” and if
it be a money-bill, the anfwer is, Le roy rgmercie fes
loyaux fujets, accepte leur benevolence, icf auffi le veut 1
“ The king thanks his loyal fubjeXs, accepts their
benevolence, and therefore grants his confent.”
High Court of Parliament, is the fupreme court
in the kingdom, not only for the making, but alfo for
the execution, of laws ; by the trial of great and enor¬
mous offenders, whether lords or commoners, in the
method- of parliamentary impeachment. As for aXs
of parliament to attaint particular perfons of treafon or
felony, or to infliX pains and penalties, beyond or
contrary to the common law, to ferve a fpecial pur-
pofe, we fpeak not of them ; being to all intents and
purpofes new laws, made pro re nata, and by no
means an execution of fuch as are already in being.
But an impeachment before the lords by the commons
of Great Britain, in parliament, is a profecution of
the already known and eftabliftied law, and has been
frequently put in prdXice ; being a prefirntment to the
moft high and fupreme court of criminal jurifdiXion
by the moft folemn grand inqueft of the whole king¬
dom.
PAR [ 58
parliament, dom. A commohet cannot, however, be Impeached
~ before the lords for any capital offence, but only for
high mifdemefnors ; a peer may be impeached for any
crime. And they ufually (in cafe of an impeachment
of a peer for treafon) addrefs the crown to appoint a
lord high fteward, for the greater dignity and re¬
gularity of their proceedings; which high fteward
was formerly eleded by the peers themfelves, though
he was generally commiffioned by the king; but it
hath of late years been ftrenuoufly maintained, that
the appointment of an high fteward in fuch cafes is
not indifpenfably neceffary, but that the houfe may
proceed without one. The articles of impeachment
are a kind of bills of indi&ment, found by the houfe
of commons, and afterwards tried by the lords; who
are in cafes of mifdemefnors confidered not only as
their own peers, but as the peers of the whole nation.
This is a cuftom derived to us from the conftitntion of
the ancient Germans; who in their great councils fome-
times tried capital accufations relating to the public :
Licet apud concilium accufare quoque, et difcrimen capitis
intendere. And it has a peculiar propriety in the
Englifh conftitution ; which has much improved upon
the ancient model imported hither from the continent.
For though in general the union of the legiflative and
judicial powers ought to be moft carefully avoided,
yet it may happen that a fubjed, intrufted with the
adminiftration of public affairs, may infringe the rights
of the people, and be guilty of fuch crimes as the
ordinary magiftrate cither dares not or cannot punifh.
Of thefe the reprefentatives of the people, or houfe of
commons, cannot properly judge ; becaufe their con-
ftituents are the parties injured, and can therefore
only impeach. But before what court {hall this im¬
peachment be tried ? Not before the ordinary tri¬
bunals, which would naturally be fwayed by the au¬
thority of fo powerful an accufer. Reafon therefore
will fuggeft, that this branch of the legiflature, which
reprefents the people, muft bring its charge before the
other branch, wdiich confifts of the nobility, who have
neither the fame interells, nor the fame paffions,~as
popular aflemblies. This is a vaft fuperiority which
the conftitution of this ifland enjoys over thofe of the
Grecian or Roman republics; where the people were
at the fame time both judges and accufers. It is pro¬
per that the nobility {hould judge, to infure juftice to
the accufed ; as it is proper that the people fhould
accufe, to infure juftice to the commonwealth. And
therefore, among other extraordinary circumflances
attending the authority of this court, there is one of
a very lingular nature, which was infilled on by the
houfe of commons in the cafe of the earl of Danby in
the reign of Charles H. and is now enaded by
ftatute 12 & 13 W. III. c. 2. that no pardon under
the great feal {hall be pleadable to an impeachment by
the commons of Great Britain in parliament.
Parliaments of France, are fovereign courts efta-
blilhed by the king, finally to determine all difputes
between particular perfons, and to pronounce on ap¬
peals from fentences given by inferior judges. There
are ten of thefe parliaments in France, of which that
of Paris is the chief, its privileges and jurifdidion be¬
ing of the greateft extent. It confifts of fix chambers,
v z. the grand chamber, where caufes of audiences are
pleaded ; and five chambers of inqueft, where proctfies
78 ] PAR
are adjudged in writing. This parliament enjoys theP*iliament.
privileges of verifying and regiftering the king’s arrets 1 .
or edids, without which thofe edids are of little or armeSia^
no value.
Parliament of Sweden, confifts of four eftates,
with the king at their head : Thefe eftates are, x. The
nobility and reprefentatives of the gentry ; with whom
the colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, and captains
of every regiment, fit and vote. 2. The clergy j one
of which body is eleded from every rural deanry of
ten parifhes; who, with the bifhops and fuperintendents,
amount to about two hundred. 3. The burghers,
eleded by the magiftrates and council of every cor¬
poration as their reprefentatives, of whom their are
four for Stockholm, and two for every other town,
amounting in the whole to about an hundred and fifty.
4. The peafants, chofen by tbe peafants out of every
diftrid ; who choofe one of their own rank, and not
a gentleman, to reprefent them: thefe amount to about
two hundred and fifty.
All thefe generally meet at Stockholm : and after
the ftate-affairs have been reprefented to them from
the throne, they feparate, and fit in four feveral cham¬
bers or houfes, in each of which affairs are carried on
by majority of votes; and every chamber has a nega¬
tive in tbe paffing any law.
PARMA, an ancient, rich, populous, and hand-
fome town of Italy", capital of the duchy of the fame
name, with a citadel, a biftiop’s fee, and an univer-
fity. it has a magnificent cathedral, and the largeft
opera-houfe in Europe, which has feats for 8000
people; but as it required a vaft number of candles,
which occafioned great expence, they have contrived
another which h4s room for 2000 fpedators. The
dome and the chureh of St John are painted by the
famous Corregio, who was a native of this place.
Don Carlos, king of the two Sicilies, carried away
the library to Naples, which contained 18,000 volumes,
and a very valuable cabinet of euriofities, as alfo the
rich colleftion of medals. The citadel, which is very
near the city, is built in the fame tafte as that at
Antwerp. In 1734 there was a bloody battle fought
here; and in 1741, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle,
the duchies of Parma, Placvntia, and Gnaftalla, were
given to Don Philip, brother to Don Carlos above-
mentioned. It is 30 miles fouth-eaft of Cremona,
and 30 fouth-eaft of Milan. E. Long. 10. 51. N.
Lat. 44. 50.
Parma, the duchy of a province of Italy, bounded
on the north by the Po ; on the north-eaft, by the
Mantuan; on the eaft, by the duchy of Modena; on
the fouth, by Tufcany ; and on the weft, by the duchy
of Placentia. The air is very wholefome, on which
account the inhabitants live to a great age. The foil
is very fertile in corn, wine, oil, and hemp ; the
paftures feed a great number of cattle, and the cheefe
was in very high efteetn. Here are confiderable mines
of copper and filver, and plenty of truffles, which many
are very fond of.
PARMEGIANO, a celebrated painter, whofetrue
name was Francefco Mazzuoli ; but he received the
former from the city of Parma, where he was born,
in 1504. He was brought up under his two uncles,
and was an eminent painter when but fixteen years of
age. He was famous all over Italy at nineteen ; and
at
Parnaffiis
H
1‘aronoma-
fia.
PAR [ 5879 ] PAR
at twenty-three performed fuch wonders, that when
the general of the emperor Charles V. took Rome
by ftorm, fome of the common foldiers having, in
• facking the town, broke into his apartments, found
him intent upon his work, and were inftantly fo ftruck
with the beauty of his pieces, that inftead of involving
him in the plunder and deftru&ion in which they were
then employed, theyTefolved to proteft him from all
manner of violence; which they aftually performed.
His works are dittinguifhed by the beauty of the co¬
louring, the invention, and drawing. His figures are
fpirited and graceful, particularly with refp.eift to the
choice of attitude, and in their drefies. He alfo ex¬
celled in mufic, in wh' h he much delighted. His
principal works are. at Parma, where he lived for fe-
veral years in great reputation ; till unhappily he in¬
volved himfelf in ruin, by fpending a confiderable part
of his time and fortune in fearch of the philofopher’s
Hone; and died poor in-1540.
There are extant many valuable prints made by this
mailer, hot only in chiaro ofeuro, but alfo in etching
with aqua-fortis, of which he is faid to be the inven¬
tor, or at leaftthe firft who pradlifed the art of etching
in Italy.
PARNASSIA, grafs of Parnaflus 5 a genus of
the tetragynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies, having a
fialk about a foot high, angular, and often a little
twifted, bearing a fingle white flower at top. The
flowers are very beautifully ftreaked with yellow; fo
that though it is a common plant, growing natu¬
rally in moift paftures, it is frequently admitted into
gardens.
PARNASSUS, (Strabo, Pindar, Virgil), a moun¬
tain of Phocis, near Delphi, and the mounts Cithfe-
ron and Helicon, with two tops, (Ovid, Lucan); the
one called Cirrha, facred to Apoilo; and the other,
Ni/a, facred to Bacchus, (Juvenal). It was covered
with bay trees, (Virgil) ; and originally called Lar-
najfus, from Deucalion’s larnax or ark, thither con¬
veyed by the flood, (Stephanusr-Scboliaft on Apollo¬
nius); after the flood, Parnaffus; from Har Nahas,
changing the h into p, the hill of divination or au¬
gury, Peucerus; the oracle of Delphi Handing at its
foot.
PARNELL (Dr Thomas), a very ingenious di¬
vine and poet in the early part of this century. He
was archdeacon of Clogher, and the intimate friend of
Mr Pope; who publifhed his works, with an elegant
copy of recommendatory verfes prefixed. He died in
1718, aged 39.
PARODY, a popular maxim, adage, or proverb.
Parody, is alfo a poetical pleafantry, confiding in
applying the verfes written on one fubjedt, by way of
ridicule, to another ; or in turning a ferious work into
a burlefque, by affe&ing to obferve as near as poffible
the fame rhimes, words, and cadences.
PAROLE, in a military fenfe, the promife made
by a prifoner of war, when he has leave to go any
where, of returning at a time appointed, if not ex¬
changed.
Parole, means alfo a word given out every day in
orders by the commanding officer, both in camp and
garrifon, in order to know friends from enemies.
PARONOMASIA, in rhetoric, a pun ; or a fi-
Vol. VIII. 1
gure whereby words nearly alike in found, but of-very
different meanings, are affeftedly or defignedly ufed.
See Oratory, n° 76.
PAROS, (anc. geog.), an ifland of the jEgean
fea, one of the Cyclades, with a flrong cognominal
town, 38 miles didant from Delos, (Pliny, Nepos).
Anciently called Paftye and Minoa, (Pliny) ; alfo
Demetrias, Zacynthus, Hyria, HyleeJJ'a, and Cabarnh,
(Nicanor). The country of Archilochus, the lambic
poet, (Strabo). An ifland famous for its white mar¬
ble, (Virgil, Horace, Ovid), called lychnites, becaufe
dug with lamps, (Pliny).
PAROTIDES, in anatomy. See there, n° 391.
PAROXYSM, in medicine, the fevere fit of a
difeafe, under which it grows higher or exafperated ;
as of the gout, &c.
PARR (Catharine), was the elded daughter of
Sir Thomas Parr of Kendall. She was fird married
to John Nevil, lord Latymer; after whofe death Ihe
fo captivated her amorous fovereign, that he raifed her
to the throne. The royal nuptials were folemnifed at
Hampton Court on the 12th of July 1543. Being
religioufly difpofed, (he was, in the early part of her
life, a zealous obferver of the Romiflr rites and cere¬
monies ; but,' in the dawning of the Reformation, fhe
became as zealous a promoter of the Lutheran doc¬
trine ; yet with fuch prudence and circumfpeftion as
her perilous lituation required. Neverthelefs, we are
told, that (he was in great danger of falling a facri-
fice to the Popifh faction, the chief of whom was bi-
ffiop Gardiner: he drew up articles againd her, and
prevailed on the king to fign a warrant to remove her
to the Tower. This warrant was, however, acciden-
dentally dropped, and immediately conveyed to her
majefty. What her apprehenfions mud have been on
this occafion, may beeafily imagined. She knew the
monarch, and die could not help recolleding the fate
of his former queens. A fudden illnefs was the natu¬
ral confequence. The news of her indifpofition brought
the king to her apartment. He was laviffi in expref-
fions of affedtion, and fent her a phyfician. His ma-
jedy being foon after alfo fomewhat indifpofed, (he
prudently returned the vifit; with which the king
feemed pleafed, and began to talk with her on reli¬
gious fubjedts, propofing certain queftions, concern¬
ing which he wanted her opinion. She anfwered,
that fuch profound fpeculations were not fuited to
her fex ; that it belonged to the hufband to choofe
principles for his wife ; the wife’s duty was, in all
cafes, to adopt implicitly the fentiments of her huf¬
band : and as to herfelf, it was* doubly her duty, be¬
ing bleffed with a htifband who was qualified, by his
judgment and learning, not only to choofe princt-
les for his own family, but for the mod wife and
nowing of every nation. “ Not fo, by St Mary,”
replied the king; “ you are now become a doctor,
Kate, and better fitted to give than receive indruc-
tion.” She meekly replied, that die was fenfible
how little fhe was entitled to thefe praifes ; that
though fhe ufually declined not any converfation,
however fublime, when propofed by his Majedy, fhe
well knew that her conceptions could ferve to no other
purpofe than to give him a little momentary amufe-
ment; that fhe found the convcrfatien a little apt to
languifh when not revived by fome oppofuion, and
33 E fhe
PAR [ 5880 ] PAR
Parr /he had ventured fometimes to feign a contrariety of
Par ^c de ^ent*ments» *n OTder to give him the pleafure of re-
rri 1 futing her; and that flie-alfo propofed, by this inno¬
cent artifice, to engage him into topics whence fhe
had obferved by frequent experience, that /he reaped
profit and inftruftion. “ And is it fo, fweetheart ?”
replied the king, “ then we are perfedt friends a-
gain.” He embraced her with great affe&ion, and
fent her away with aflurances of his prote&ion and
kindnefs.
The time being now come when /he was to be fent
to the Tower, the king, walking in the garden, fent
for'the queen, and met her with great good humour;
when lo the chancellor, with forty of the guards, ap¬
proached. He fell upon hig knees, and /poke foftly
with the king, who called him knave, arrant knave,
bead, fool, and commanded him inftantly to depart.
Henry then returned to the queen, who ventured to
intercede for the chancellor : “Ah poorfould!” faid
the king, “ thou little knoweft how evil he deferveth
this grace at thy hands. Of my word, fweetheart,
he hath been toward thee an arrant knave; and fo let
him go.” The king died in January 1547, juft three
years and a half after his marriage with this fecond
Catharine; who in a fiiort time was again efpoufed to
Sir Thomas Seymour lord-admiral of England; for,
in September 1548, /he died in childbed. Thehifto-
rians of this period generally infinuate, that /he was
poifoned by her hufband, to make way for his mar¬
riage with the lady Elizabeth.
That Catharine Parr was beautiful, is beyond a
doubt: that /he was pious and learned, is evident from
her waitings : and that her prudence and fagacity were
not inferior to her other accompli/hments, may be
concluded from her holding up the paflion of a capri¬
cious tyrant as a ftiield againft her enemies ; and that
at the latter end of his days, when his paffions were
enfeebled by age, and his peevi/h aufterity increafed
by difeafe. She wrote, 1. Queen Catharine Parr’s
lamentation of a finner, bewailing the ignorance of
her blind life ; Lond. 8vo, 1548, 1563. 2. Prayers
or meditations, wherein the mynd is ftirred patiently
to fuffre all affli&ions here, to fet at nought the vaine
profperitee of this worlde, and always to long for the
everlaftynge felicitee. Colle&ed out of holy workes,
by the moft virtuous and gracious princeffe Katharine,
queene of Englande, France, and Irelande. Printed
by John Wayland, 1545, 410,—J561, izmo. 3. Other
•Meditations, Prayers, Letters, &c. unpubli/hed.
Parr (Thomas), or Old Parr, a remarkable Eng-
li/hman, who lived in the reigns of ten kings and
queens; married a fecond wife when he was 120, and
had a child by her. See Longevity.
PARRELS, in a /hip, are frames made of trucks,
ribs, and ropes, which having both thefr ends faftened
to the yards, are fo contrived as to go round about
the mails, that the yards by their means may go up
and down upon themaft. Thefe alfo, with the breaft-
ropes, fallen the yards to the mafts.
PARRHESIA. See Oratory, n° 88.
PARRICIDE, the murder of one’s parents or
children. By the Roman law, it was puni/hed in a
much feverer manner than any other kind of homicide.
After being fcourged, the delinquents were fewed up
in a leathern fack, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and Parrot
an ape, and fo call into the fea. Solon, it is true, !1
in his laws, made none againft parricide ; apprehend- arfon*
ing it impoffible that one /hould be guilty of fo unna¬
tural a barbarity. And the Perfians, according to
Herodotus, entertained the fame notion, when they
adjudged all perfons who killed their reputed parents
to be baftards.. And upon fome fuch reafon as this
muft we account for the omiflion of an exemplary pu-
ni/hment for this crime in our Englf/h laws; which
treat it no otherwife than as fimple murder, unlefs the
child was alfo the fervant of the parent.
For though the breach of natural relation is unob- -
ferved, yet the breach of civil or ecclefiaftic connec¬
tions, when coupled with murder, denominates it a
new offence ; no lefs than a fpecies of treafon called
parva proditio, or petit treafon: which, however, is
nothing elfe but an aggravated degree of murder ; al¬
though, on account of the violation of private al¬
legiance, it is ftigmatized as an inferior fpecies of
treafon. And thus, in the ancient Gothic conftitu-
tion, we find the breach both of natural and civil re¬
lations ranked in the fame clafs with crimes againft
the ftate and fovereign.
PARROT, in ornithology. See Psittacus.
PARSLEY, in botany. See Apium.
PARSNEP, in botany. See Pastinaca.
PARSON and Vicar. A parfon, perfona eccle-
ft<e, is one that hath full poffefiion of all the rights of
a parochial church. He is called parfon, perfona, be-
caufe by his perfon the church, which is an invifible
body, is reprefented ; and he is in himfelf a body cor- BlaciJion''s
porate, in order to proted and defend the rights of Comment.
the church (which he perfonates) by a perpetual fuc-
ceflion. He is fometimes called the rettor or governor
of the church : but the appellation of parfon (how¬
ever it may be depreciated by familiar, clowni/h, and
indiferiminate ufe) is the moft legal, moft beneficial,
and moft honourable title that a pari/h-prieft can en¬
joy becaufe fuch a one (Sir Edward Coke obferves)
and he only, is faid vicem feu perfona7n ecclefue gerere.
A parfon has, during his life, the freehold in himfelf
of the parfonage-houfe, the glebe, the tithes, and
other dues. But thefe are fometimes appropriated;
that is to fay, the benefice is perpetually annexed to
fome fpiritual corporation, either foie or aggregate,
being the patron of the living ; whom the law efteems
equally capable of providing for the fervice of the * See tl]e
church as any fingle private clergyman *. article dp-
The appropriating corporations, or religious houfes,frs/>rM/i«».
were wont to depute one of their own body to per¬
form divine fervice, and adminifter the facraments, in
thofe parifhes of which the fociety was thus the par¬
fon. This officiating minifter was in reality no more
than a curate, deputy, or vicegerent of the appropri-
ator, and therefore called vicarius, or “ vicar.” His
ftipend was at the diferetion of the appropriator, who
was, however, bound of common right to find fome-
body, qui Hit de temporalibus, cpifcopo de fpiritualibus,
debeat refpondere. But this was done in fo fcandalous
a manner, and the pari/hes fuffered fo much by the
negleft of the appropriators, that the legi/lature was
forced to interpofe: and accordingly it is ena&ed, by
ftatute 15 Ric. II. c. 6. that in all appropriations of
churches
PAR [ 5881 ] PAR
P»rfon. churches the diocefan bifhop fhall ordain (In propor-
' tion to the value of the church) a competent fum to
be dlftributed among the poor parlfhioners annually ;
and that the vicarage fhall be fufficiently endowed. It
feems the parifh were frequently fufferers, not only by
the want of divine fervice, but alfo by with-holding
thofe alms for which, among other purpofes, the pay¬
ment of tithes was originally impofed : and therefore
in this aft a penfion is direfted to be diftributed among
the poor parochians, as well as a fufficient ftipend to
the vicar. But he, being liable to be removed at the
pleafure of the appropriator, was not likely to infift
too rigidly on the legal fufficiency of the ftipend ; and
therefore, by ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 12. it Is ordain¬
ed, that the vicar fhall be a fecular perfon, not a mem¬
ber of any religious houfe ; that he fhall be vicar per¬
petual, not removable at the caprice of the mona-
ftery ; and that he fhall be canonically inftituted and
indufted, and be fufficiently endowed, at the difcre-
tion of the ordinary ; for thefe three exprefs purpofes,
to do divine fervice, to inform the people, and to keep
hofpitality. The endowments, in confequence of thefe
ftatutes, have ufually been by a portion of the glebe
or land belonging to the parfonage, and a particular
fhare of the tithes, which the appropriators found it
inoft troublefome to colleft, and which are therefore
.generally called privy, ox fmall tithes ; the greater, or
predial tithes, being ftill referved to their own ufe.
But one and the fame rule was not obferved in the en¬
dowment of all vicarages. Hence fome are more li¬
berally, and fome more fcantily, endowed : and hence
the tithes of many things, as wood in particular, are
in fome parifhes reftorial, and in fome vicarial tithes.
The dittinftion therefore of a parfon and vicar is
this: The parfon has for the moft part the whole
right to all the ecclefiaflical dues in his parifh ; but a
vicar has generally an appropriator over him, entitled
to the beft part of the profits, to whom he is in effeft
perpetual curate, with a {landing falary. Though in
fome places the vicarage has been confiderably aug¬
mented by a large fhare of the great tithes; which
augmentations were greatly afiifted by the ftatute
27 Car. II. c. 8. enafted in favour of poor vicars
and curates, which rendered fuch temporary aug¬
mentations (when made by the appropriators) perpetual.
The method of becoming a parfon or vicar is much
the fame. To both there are four requifites necef-
fary ; holy orders, prefentation, inftitution, and in-
duftion. The method of conferring the holy orders of
deacon and prieft, according to the liturgy and canons,
is foreign to the prefent purpofe ; any farther than as
they are neceffary requifites to make a complete par¬
fon or vicar. By common law, a deacon, of any age,
might be inflituted and indufted to a parfonage or vi¬
carage: but it was ordained, by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 12.
that no perfon under twenty-three years of age, and
in deacon’s orders, fhould be prefented to any benefice
with cure ; and if he were not ordained prieft within
one year after his induftion, he fhould be ipfo fatto
deprived : and now, by ftatute 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 4.
no perfon is capable to be admitted to any benefice,
unlefs he hath been firft ordained a pried ; and then
he is, in the language of the law, a clerk in orders.
But if he obtains orders, or a licence to preach, by
money or corrupt praftices, (which feems to be the
true, though not the common, notion of fimony), the Parfo/r,
perfon giving fuch orders forfeits 401. and the perfon 
receiving, 101. and is incapable of any ecclefiaftical
preferment for feven years after.
Any clerk may be prefented to a parfonage or vi¬
carage; that is, the patron, to whom the advowfon
of the church belongs, may offer his clerk to the bi¬
fhop of the diocefe to be indituted. But when he is
prefented, the bifhop may refufe him upon many ac¬
counts. As, 1. If the patron is excommunicated,
and remains in contempt 40 days; or, 2. If the clerk
be unfit: which unfitnefs is of feveral kinds. Firll,
with regard to his perfon ; as if he be a badard, an
outlaw, an excommunicate, an alien, under age, or
the like. Next, with regard to his faith or morals f
as for any particular herefy, or vice that is malum in
fe; but if the bifhop alleges only in genera’s, as that
he h fchifmaticus inveteratus, or objefts a fault that is
malum prohibitum merely, as haunting taverns, playing
at unlawful games, or the like, it is not good caufe
of refufal. Or, ladly, the clerk may be undt to dif-
charge the padoral office for want of learning. In
any of which cafes, the bifhop may refufe the clerk.
In cafe the refufal is for herefy, fcliifm, inability of
learning, or other matter of ecclefiadical cognizance,
there the bifhop mud give notice to the patron of fuch
his caufe of refufal, who being ufually a layman, is
not fuppofed to have knowledge of it; elfe he cannot
prefent by lapfe* but if the caufe be temporal, there
he is not bound to give notice.
If an aftion at law be brought by the patron againft
the bifhop for refufing his clerk, the bilhop mud affign
the caufe. If the caufe be of a temporal nature, and
the faft admitted, (as, for inftance, outlawry), the
judges of the king’s courts mud determine its validity,
or whether it be fufficient caufe of refufal: but if the
faft be denied, it mad be determined by a jury. If
the caufe be of a fpiritual nature, (as herefy, particu¬
larly alleged), the faft, if denied, fliall alfo be deter¬
mined by a jury : and if the faft be admitted or found,
the court, upon confultation and advice of learned di¬
vines, fhall decide its fufficiency. If the canfe be want
of learning, the bifhop need not fpecify in what points
the clerk is deficient, but only allege that he is defi¬
cient; for the datute 9 Edw. II. U. 1. c. 13. is ex¬
prefs, that the examination of the fitnefs of a perfon
prefented to a benefice belongs to the ecclefiaftical
judge. But becaufe it would be nugatory in this cafe
to demand the reafon of refufal from the ordinary, if
the patron were bound to abide by his determination,
who has already pronounced his clerk unfit ; therefore
if the bifhop returns the clerk to be minus fufficiens in
literatura, the court fhall write to the metropolitan
to re-examine him, and certify his qualifications; whicli
certificate of the archbifhop is final.
If the bifhop hath no objeftions, but admits the pa¬
tron’s prefentation, the clerk fo admitted is next to be
indituted by him ; which is a kind of invediture of the
fpiritual part of the benefice ; for by inditution, the
care of the fouls of the parifh is committed to the charge
of the clerk. When a vicar is indituted, he (befides
the ufual forms) takes, if required by the bilhop, an
oath of perpetual refidence ; for the maxim of law is,
that vicarius non habet vicariurn: and as the non-refi-
dence of the appropriators was the caufe of the perpe-
33 E 2 tual
PAR [ 5S82 ] PAR
Pavfon. tual eftablifhment of vicarages, the law judges it very
' improper for them to defeat the end of their conftitu-
tion, and'by abfence to create the very mifchiefwhich
they were appointed to remedy ; efpecially as, if any
profits are to arife from putting in a curate and living
at a diftance from the parifh, the appropriator, who
is the real parfon, has undoubtedly the elder title to
them. When the ordinary is alfo the patron, and
confers the living, the prefentation and inftitution are
one and the fame ad, and are called a collation to a
benefice. By inftitution or collation the church is
full, fo that there can be no frefh prefentation till ano¬
ther vacancy, at leafl in the cafe of a common patron ;
but the church is not full againft the king till induc¬
tion : nay, even if a clerk is inftituted upon the king’s
prefentation, the crown may revoke it before induc¬
tion, and prefent another clerk. Upon inftitution alfo
the clerk may enter on the parfonage-houfe and glebe,
and take the tithes ; but he cannot grant or let them,
or bring an aftion for them, till induclion. See In¬
duction.
For the rights of a parfon or vicar, in his tithes and
ecclefiaftical dues, fee Tithes. As to his duties,
they are fo numerous, that it is impradicable to recite
them here with any tolerable concifenefs or accuracy ;
but the reader who has occafion may confult Bp Gib-
fon’s Codex, and Burn's Ecclejiajlical Lam. We (hall
therefore only juft mention the article of reiidence, up¬
on the fuppofition of which the law doth ftyle every
parochial minifter an incumbent. Byftatuteat Hen.
VIII. c. 13. perfons willingly abfenting themfelves
from their benefices, for one month together, or two
months in the year, incur a penalty of 5 1. to the king,
and 5 1. to any perfon that will fue for the fame ; ex¬
cept chaplains to the king, or others therein mention¬
ed, during their attendance in the houfehold of fuch
as retain them : and alfo except all heads of houfes,
magiftrates, and proftffors in the univerfities, and all
Undents under forty years of age refiding there, bona
fide, for fludy. Legal refidence is not only in the pa¬
rifh, but alfo in the parfonage-houfe ; for it hath been
refolved, that the ftatute intended refidence, not only
for ferving the cure and for hofpitality, but alfo for
maintaining the houfe, that the fucceffor alfo may keep
hofpitality there.
We have feen that there is but one way whereby
one may become a parfon or vicar: there are many
ways by which one may ceafe to be fo. 1. By death.
2. By ceffion, in taking another benefice ; for by fta¬
tute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. if any one having a bene¬
fice of SI. per annum, or upwards, in the king’s books,
(according to the prefent valuation), accepts any o-
ther, the firft (hall be adjudged void, unhfs he ob¬
tains a difpenfation; which no one is entitled to have
but the chaplains of the king and others therein men¬
tioned, the brethren and Tons of lords and knights,
and dpftors and bachelors of divinity and law, admit¬
ted by the univerfities of this realm. And a vacancy
thus made for want of a difpenfation, is called cefiian.
3. By confecration ; for, as was mentioned before,
when a clerk is promoted to a biftropric, all his other
preferments are void the inftant that he is confecrated.
But there is a method, by the favour of the crown, of
bolding fuch livings in commeniam. Commenda, or ec-
clefia cQ>nmendata> is a living commended by the crown
to the care of a clerk, to hold till a proper pallor is Parfonage,
provided for it. This may be temporary for one, two, Parfon.'.
or thrde years, or perpetual, being a kind of difpenfa¬
tion to avoid the vacancy of the living, and is called a
commenda retinere. There is alfo a commenda recit>erc,
which is to take a benefice de novo in the bifhop’s own
gift, or the gift of ibme other patron confenting to
the fame ; and this is the fame to him as inftitution
and induftion are to another clerk. 4. By refigna-
tion. But this is of no avail till accepted by the or¬
dinary, into whole hands the refignation muft be
made. 5. By deprivation, either by canonical cen-
fures, or in purfuance of divers penal ftatutes, which
declare the benefice void, for fome nonfeafance
or negledf, or elfe fome malefeafance or crime : as
for fimony ; for maintaining any doflrine in dero¬
gation of the king’s fupremacy, or of the thirty-nine
articles, or of the book of common-prayer; for ne-
gle&ing after inftitution to read the liturgy and ar¬
ticles in the church, or make the declarations againft
popery, or take the abjuration-oath ; for uiing any
other form of prayer than the liturgy of the church of
England ; or for abfenting himfelf 60 days in one year
from a benefice belonging to a popifti patron, to which
the clerk was prefented by either of the univerfities:
in all which, and fimilar cafes, the benefice is ipfo fatta
void, without any formal fentence of deprivation.
PARSONAGE, a reftory, or parifti-church, en¬
dowed with a glebe, houfe, lauds, tithes, &c. for the
maintenance of a rainifter, with cure of fouls within
fuch pariftr. See Parson.
PARSONS, or Persons, (Robert), an eminent
writer of the church of Rome, was born at Nether-
Stowey, near Bridgewater, in Somerfet(hire, in 1546,
and educated at Baliol college, Oxford, where he
diftinguiftied himfelf as a zealous Proteftant and an a-
cute difputant; but being charged by the fociety with
incontinency and embezzling the college money, he
went to Flanders, and declared himfelf a Catholic.
After travelling to feveral other places, he effe&ed the
eftabliftiment of the Englifti feminary at Rome, and
procured father Alien to be chofen re&or of it. He
himfelf was appointed the head of the million to Eng¬
land, in order to dethrone Queen Elizabeth, and if
pofiible extirpate the Proteftant religion. He accor¬
dingly came over to this kingdom in 1580, and took
fome bold fteps towards accomplilhing his purpofe, in
which he concealed himfdf with great art, travelling
about the country to gentlemens houfes, difguifed in
the habit, fometimes of a foldier, fometimes of a gen¬
tleman, and at other times like a minifter or an appa¬
ritor ; but father Campian being feized and committed
to prifon, our author efcaped out of England for fear
of the fame fate, and went to Rome, where he was
made redor of the Englifh feminary. He had long
entertained the moft fanguine hopes of converting to
the popilh faith the young king of Scots, which he
confidered as the beft and moil effedual means of-
bringing over his fubjeds to the fame religious prin¬
ciples ; but finding it impoffible to fucceed in his de-
fign, he publiftied, in 1594, his celebrated book, un¬
der the feigned name o( Dolejnan, in order to over¬
throw, as far as lay in his power, the title of that
prince to the crown of England. He died at Rome
ia 1610, and was buried in ;he chapd of the Englifh
PAR [ 5883 ] PAR
Part
Parthia.
college. Befitles the book already mentioned, he
wrote, 1 A defence of thfe Catholic hierarchy. 2. The
 liturgy of the facrament of the mafs. 3. A memorial
for the Reformation; and feveral other tradds.
PART, a portion of fome whole, coniidered as di¬
vided or divifible.
Aliquot Part, is a quantity which, being repeated
any number of times, becomes equal to an integer.
Thus 6 is an aliquot part of 24, and 5 an aliquot part
of 30, &c.
Aliquant Part, is a quantity which, being repeated
any number of times, becomes always either greateror
lefs than the whole. Thus 5 is an aliquant part of i 7,
and 9 an aliquant part of 10, &c.
The aliquant part is refolvible into aliquot parts.
Thus 15, an aliquant part of 20, is refolvible into 10^,
and 5 a fourth part of the fame.
Parts of fpeeck, in grammar, are all the forts of
words which can enter the compofuion of a difeourfe.
See Grammar.
PARTERRE, in gardening, a level divifion of
ground, which for the mod part faces the foutb, or
bell front of a houfe, and is generally furnilhed with
ever-greens, flowers, &c. There are two kinds of
thefe, the plain ones and the parterres of embroidery.
Plain parterres are moll valuable in England, be*
caufe of the firmnefs of the Englilh grafs turf, which
is fuperior to that of any other part of the world ;
and the parterres of embroidery are cut into Iheil and
fcroll work, with alleys between them. An oblong,
or long fquare, is accounted the mod proper figure for
a parterre ; and a parterre Ihould indeed be always
twice as long as it is broad, becaufe, according to the
known laws of perfpective, a long fquare always links
to a fqnare; and an exadl fquare always appears lefs
than it really is. As to the breadth of a parterre, it
is to be proportionable to the front of the houfe; but
lefs than too feet in breadth is too little.
There Ihould be on each fide the parterre a terras-
vvalk raifed for • view, and the flat of the parterre be¬
tween the terrafes Ihould never be more than 300 feet,
at the utmod, in breadth, and about 140 feet in
width, with twice and a half that in length, isedeem-
ed a very good fisre and proportion.
PARTHIA, a celebrated empire of antiquity,
bounded on the wed by Media, on the north by Hyr-
cania, on thread by Aria, on the fouth by Carmania
the defart ; furrounded on every fide by mountains,
which dill ferve as a boundary, though its name is
now changed, having obtained that of Eyrac or Arak;
and, to didinguilh it from Chaldaea, that of Eyrac
Agami. Ey Ptolemy it is divided into five didridls,
1 viz. Caminfine, or Gamifene, Parthyene, Choroane,
Ancient di-^tt;cene an(j Tabiene. The ancient geographers
enumerate a great many cities m this country. Ptole¬
my in particular reckons 25 large cities ; and it cer¬
tainly mud have been very populous, fince we have
accounts of 2.000 villages, befides a number of cities,
in this didrid. being deflroyed by earthquakes. Its
capital was named Hecatompolis, from the circumdance
of.its having loo gates. It was a noble and magni¬
ficent place ; and, according to fome, it dill remains
under the name of Ifpahan, the capital of the prefent
Perfian empire.
Earthia is by fome fuppofed to have been firft peo¬
pled by the Phetri cr Pathri, often mentioned in ferip- Parthia.
lure, and will have the Parthians to be defeended from
Patbrufim the fon of Mifraim. But however true this Whence
may be with regard to the ancient inhabitants, yet itPe°pk<b
is certain, that thofe Parthians who were fo famous in
hidory, dtfeended from the Scythians, though from
what tribe we are not certainly informed.
The hidory of the ancient Parthians is totally lod.
All that we know about them is, that they were firft
fubjed to the Medes, afterwards to the Perfians, and
ladly to Alexander the Great. After his death the
province fell to Seleucus Nicator, and was held by him
and his fucceflbrs till the reign of Antiochus Theus,
about the year 250 before Chrid. At this time the 3
Parthians revolted, and chofe one Arfaces for theirCaufeofthe
king. The immediate caufe of this revolt was the
lewdnefs of Agathocles, to whom Antiochus had com- Antiochus
mitted the care of all the provinces beyond the Eu- Theus.
phrates. This man made an infamous attempt on Te-
ridates, a youth of great beauty ; which fo enraged
his brother Arfaces, that he excited his countrymen to
revolt; and before Antiochus had leifure to attend to
the rebellion, it became too powerful to be crufhed.
Seleucus Cailinicus, the fucceflbr of Antiochus Theus,
attempted to reduce Arfaces; but the latter having
had fo much time to drengthen himfelf, defeated, and
drove his antagonid out of the country. Seleucus,
however, in a (hort time, undertook another expedi¬
tion againd Arfaces; but was dill more unfortunate
than he had been in the former, being not only de¬
feated in a great battle, but taken prifoner, and died
in captivity. The day on which Arfaces gained this
vidlory was ever after obferved among the Parthians as
an extraordinary fedival. Arfaces being thus fully
edablifhed in his new kingdom, reduced Hyrcania,
and fome other provinces under his power; and was at
lad killed in a battle againd Arearathes IV. king of
Cappadocia. From this prince all the other kings of
Panhia took the furname of Arfaces, as thofe of E-
gypt did that of Ptolemy from Ptolemy Soter.
Aifaces I. was fucceeded by his fon Arfaces II.
who, entering Media, made himfelf mader of that
country, while Antiochus the Great was engaged in
a war with Ptolemy Euergetes king of Egypt. An¬
tiochus, however, was no fooner difengaged from that
war, than he marched with all his forces againd Ar¬
faces, and at firll drove him quite out of Media. But
he foon returned with an army of ioo,coo foot and
20,060 horfe, with which he put a dop to the further
progrefs of Antiochus; and a treaty was foon after
concluded, in which it was agreed, that Arfaces fliould
remain mader of Parthia and Hyrcania, upon condi¬
tion of his alfilting him in his wars with other na¬
tions.
Arfaces II. was fucceeded by his fon Priapatius, 4
who reigned 15 years, and left threeTons, Phrahates, ConqueftT
Mithridates, and Artabanus. Phrahates, the elded,
fucceeded to the throne, and reduced under his fub- narc}ls>
jeftion the Mardi, who had never been conquered by
any but Alexander the Great. After him, bis brother
Mithridates was inveded with the regal dignity. He
reduced the Badrians, Medes, Perlians, Eiytneans,
and over-ran in a manner all the ead, penetrating be¬
yond the boundaries of Alexander’s conquefts. Ee-
pie;rius Nicator, who then reigned in Syria, endea¬
voured;
PAR [ 5884 ] PAR
Partllia- vouved to recover thofe provinces; but bis army was
entirety deftroyed, and himfelf taken prifoner, in which
Hate he remained till his death ; after which victory
Mithridates made himfelf mafter of Babylonia and
Mefopotamia, fo that he now commanded all the
-provinces from hefween the Euphrates and the
Ganges.
Mithridates died in the 37th year of his reign, and
left the throne to his fon Phrahates II. whowasfcarce
s fettled in his kingdom, when Antiochus Sidetes
Antiochus marched againft him at the head of a numerous army,
Sidetes de- under pretence of delivering his brother Demetrius,
ftroyedwith who was ftiil in captivity. Phrahates was defeated in
Ins whole three pitched battles, in confequence of which he loft
@rn,Jr’ all the countries conquered by his father, and was re¬
duced within the limits of the ancient Parthian king¬
dom. Antiochus did not, however, long enjoy his
good fortune ; for his army, on account of their num¬
ber, amounting to no fewer than 400,000, being obli¬
ged to feparate to fuch diftances as prevented them,
in cafe of any fudden attack, from joining together,
the inhabitants, whom they had molt cruelly opprefs-
ed, taking advantage of this feparation, confpired
with the Parthians to deftroy them. This was accord¬
ingly executed; and the vaft army of Antiochus, with
the monarch himfelf, were flaughtered in one day,
fcarce a Angle perfon efcaping to carry the news to
Syria. Phrahates, elated with this fuccefs, propofed
to invade Syria ; but in the mean time, happening to
quarrel with the Scythians, he was by them cut off
with his whole army, and was fucceeded by his uncle
Artabanus.
The new king enjoyed his dignity but a very fhort
time, being, a few days after his aecefiion, killed in
another battle with the Scythians. He was fucceeded
6 by Pacorus I. who entered into an alliance with the
Alliance Romans; and he by Phrahates III. This monarch
concluded took under his proteflion Tigranes the fon of Ti-
wiih the granes the Great, king of Armenia, gave him his
Romans. daughter in marriage, and invaded the kingdom with
a defign to place the fon on the throne of Armenia ;
but on the approach of Pompey he thought proper to
retire, and foon after folemnly renewed the treaty with
the Romans.
Phrahates was murdered by his children Mithridates
and Orodes; and foon after, the former was put to
death by his brother, who thus became foie mafter of
the Parthian empire. In his reign happened the me-
Crcefus re- morable war with the Romans under Craffus. This
tblves on a was occafioned not by any breach of treaty on the fide
war with of the Parthians, but through the fhameful avarice of
the Par- Craffus. The whole Roman empire at that time had
* lans■ been divided between Cssfar, Pompey, and Craffus ;
and by virtue of that partition, the eaftern provinces
had fallen to the lot of Craffus. No focner was he in-
velted with this dignity, than he refolved to carry the
war into Parthia, in order to enrich himfelf with the
fpoils of that people, who were then looked upon to
be very wealthy. Some of the tribunes oppofed him,
as the Parthians had religioufly obferved the treaty ;
but Craffus having, by the alfiftance of Pompey, car¬
ried every thing before him, left Rome in the year $5
B. C. and purfued his march to Brundufium, where he
immediately embarked his troops, though the wind
blew very high; and after a difficult paffage, where
he loft many of his ffiips, he reached the ports of Ga- Parthia.
latia. §
From Galatia Craffus haftened to Syria, and pafs- Plunders
ing through Judea,plundered the temple of Jerufalemthe temP!e
in his way. He then marched with as great expedi-^eru a'
tion as he could to the river Euphrates, which he
croffed on a bridge of boats; and, entering the Par¬
thian dominions, began hoftilities. As the enemy had
not expefted an invafion, they were quite unprepared
for reliftance, and therefore Craffus over-ran all Me¬
fopotamia ; and if he had taken advantage of the con-
fternation which the Parthians were in, might have
alfo reduced Babylonia. But inflead of this, early in
the autumn, he repaffed the Euphrates, leaving only
7000 foot and 1000 horfe to garrifon the places he
had reduced ; and putting his army into winter-quar¬
ters in Syria, gave himfelf totally up to his favourite
paffion of amaffing money.
Early in the fpring, the Roman general drew his
forces out of their winter-quarters, in order to purfue
the war with vigour; but, during the winter, Orodes
had collefted a very numerous army, and was well
prepared to oppofe him. Before he entered upon ac¬
tion, however, the Parthian monarch fent ambaffadors
to Craffus, in order to expoftulate with him on hisin-
juftice in attacking an ally of the Roman empire; but
Craffus, without attending to what they faid, only re¬
turned for anfwer, that “ they fhould have his anfwer
at Seleucia.”.
Orodes, finding that a war was not to be avoided,
divided his army into two bodies. One he command¬
ed in perfon, and marched towards Armenia, in order
to oppofe the king of that country, who had raifed a
confiderable army to afiift the Romans. The other he
fent into Mefopotamia, under the command of Sure- ^
na or Surenas, a moft experienced general, by whofe His ipldiers
conduft all the cities which Craffus had reduced were difteart-
quickly retaken. On this fome Roman foldiers whoened*
made their efcape, and fled to the camp of Craffus,
filled the minds of his army with terr at the accounts
of the number, power, and ftrength of the enemy.
They told their fellow-foldiers, that the Parthians
were very numerous, brave, and well difeiplined; that
it was impoffible to overtake them when they fled, or
efcape them when they purfued ; that their defenfive
weapons were proof againft the Roman darts, and
their offenfive weapons fo lharp, that no buckler was
proof againft them, &c. Craffus looked upon all this
only as the effe&s of cowardice ; but the common fol¬
diers, and even many of the chief officers, were fo dif-
heartened, that Caffius, the fame who afterwards con¬
fpired againft Casfar, and moft of the legionary tri¬
bunes, advifed Craffus to fufpend his march, and con-
fider better of the enterprife before he proceeded far¬
ther in it. But Craffus obftinately perfifted in his for¬
mer refolution, being encouraged by the arrival of Ar-
tabazus king of Armenia, who brought with him 6000
horfe, and promifed to fend 10,000 cuiraffiers and
30,000 foot, whenever he fliould Hand in need of
them. At the fame time, he advifed him by no
means to march his army through the plains of Mefo¬
potamia, but to take his route over the mountains of
Armenia. He told him, that as Armenia was a
mountainous country, the enemy’s cavalry, in which
their main ftrength confifted, would there be entirely
PAR [ 5885 ] PAR
Parthia. ufelefs ; and befides, his army would there be plenti¬
fully fupplied with all manner of neceffaries: whereas,
if he marched by the way of Mefopotamia, he would
be perpetually harrafled by the Parthian horfe, and fre¬
quently be obliged to lead his army thro’ fandy de¬
farts, where he would be diftreffed for want of water
and all other provifions. This falutary advice, how¬
ever, was rejefted, and Craffus entered Mefopotamia
with an army of about 40,000 men.
The Romans had no fooner crofTed the Euphrates,
than Caffius advifed his general to advance to fome of
thofe towns in which the garrifons yet remained, in
order to halt and refrefli his troops ; or if he did not
choofe to follow this advice, he faid that his beft way
would be to march along the banks of the Euphrates
to Seleucia ; as by this method he would prevent the
Parthians from, furrounding him, at the fame time that
he would be plentifully fupplied with provifions from
10 his (hips. Of this advice Craffus feemed to approve;
Betrayed by but was difluaded by Abgarus king of Edeffa, whom
Abgarus the Romans took for an ally, but who was in reality a
king of E- traitor fent by Surenas to bring about the deftruftion
a* of the Roman army.
Under the conduft of this faithlefs guide, the Ro¬
mans entered a vaft green plain divided by many rivu¬
lets. Their march proved very eafy through this fine
country; but the farther they advanced, the worfe the
roads became, infomuch, that they were at laft obli¬
ged to climb up rocky mountains, which brought
them to a dry and fandy plain, where they could nei¬
ther find food to fatisfy their hunger, nor water to
quench their thirft. Abgarus then began to be fufpec-
ted by the tribunes and other officers, who earneftly
intreated Craffus not to follow him any longer, but to
retreat to the mountains ; at the fame time an exprefs
arrived frem Artabazus, acquainting the Roman ge¬
neral that Orodes had invaded his dominions with a
great army, and that he was obliged to keep his
troops at home, in order to defend his own dominions.
The fame meflenger advifed Craffus in his matter’s
name to avoid by all means the barren plains, where
his army would certainly periffi with hunger and fa¬
tigue, and by all means to approach Armenia, that
they might join their forces againft the common ene¬
my. But all was to no purpofe; Craffus, inftead of
hearkening either to the advice of the king or his own
officers, firft Hew into a violent paffion with the mef-
fengers of Artabazus, and then told his troops, that
they were not to expe& the delights of Campania in
the moft remote parts of the world.
Thus they continued their march for fome days
crofs a defart, the very fight of which was fufficient
to throw them into the utmoft defpair ; for they could
not perceive, either near them or at a diftance, the
lead tree, plant, or brook, not fo much as an hill, or
a Angle blade of grafs ; nothing was to be feen all
around them, but huge heaps of burning fand. The
Romans had fcarcely got thro’ this defart, when word
was brought them by their fcouts, that a numerous
army of Parthians was advancing full march to attack
them ; for Abgarus, under pretence of going out on
parties, had often conferred with Surenas, and concert¬
ed meafures with him for deftroying the Roman army.
Upon this advice, which occafioned great confufion in
the camp, the Romans being quite exbaufted and ti¬
red out with their long and troublefome march, Craf- Parthia.
fus drew up his men in battalia, following at firft: the'
advice of Caffius, who was for extending the infantry
as wide as poffible, that they might take up the more
ground, and by that means prevent the enemy from
furrounding them ; but Abgarus affuring the procon-
ful, that the Parthian forces were not fo numerous as
was reprefented, he changed this difpofition, and be¬
lieving only the man who betrayed him, drew up his
troops in a fquare, which faced every way, and had
on each fide 12 cohorts in front. Near each cohort,
he placed a troop of horfe toffipport them, that they
might charge with the greater fecurity and boldnefs.
Thus the whole army looked more like one phalanx,
than troops drawn up in manipuli, with fpaces be¬
tween them, after the Roman manner. The general
himfelf commanded in the centre, his fon in the left
wing, and Caffius in the right.
In this order they advanced to the banks of a fmali
river called the Balijpus, the fight of which was very
pleafing to the foldiers, who were much harraffed with
drought and exceffive heat. Moft of the officers
were for encamping on the banks of this river, or ra ¬
ther rivulet, to give the troops time to refrelh them-
felves after the fatigues of fo long and painful a
march; and, in the meantime, to procure certain in¬
telligence of the number and difpofition of the Par¬
thian army ; but Craffus, fuffering himfelf to be hur¬
ried on by the inconfiderate ardour of his fon, and the
horfe he commanded, only allowed the legions to take
a meal Handing ; and before this could be done by
all, he ordered them to advance, not flowly, and halt¬
ing now and then, after the Roman manner, but as
fall as they could move, till they came in fight of the
enemy, who, contrary to their expedition, did not
appear either fo numerous or fo terrible as they had
been reprefented ; but this was a ftratagem of Surenas,
who had concealed his men in convenient places, or- Ir
dering them to cover their arms, left their brightnefsThe battle
fhould betray them, and, ftarting up at the firft fignal,of Canha?.
to attack the enemy on all fides. The ttratagem had
the defired effedt; for Surenas no fooner gave the fig-
nal, than the Parthians, rifing as it were out of the
ground, with dreadful cries, and a moft frightful noife,
advanced againft the Romans, who were greatly fur-
prifed and difmayed at that fight; and much more fo,
when the Parthiaus, throwing off the covering of their
arms, appeared in finning cuiraffes, and helmets of
burniihed fteel, finely mounted on horfes covered all
over with armour of the fame metal. At their head
appeared young Surenas, in a rich drefs, and was the
firft who charged the enemy, endeavouring, with his
pikemen, to break through the firft ranks of the Ro¬
man army ; but finding it too clofe and impenetrable,
the cohorts fupporting each other, he fell back, and
retired in a feeming confufion : but the Romans were
much furprifed when they faw themfelves fuddenly
furrounded on all fides, and galled with continual
ftiowers of arrows. Craffus ordered his light-armed
foot and archers to advance, and charge the enemy ;
but they were foon repulfed, and forced to cover
themfelves behind the heavy-armed foot. Then the
Parthian horfe, advancing near the Romans, difehar-
ged (bowers of arrows upon them, every one of which
did execution, the legionaries being drawn up in fuch
clofe ,
PAR [ 5886 J PAR
Paithia. clofe order, that it was itrvpofiible for the enemy to
.mifs their aim. As their arrows were of an extraordi¬
nary weight, and difcharged with incredible force and
imgetuofity, nothing was proof againft them. The
two wings advanced in good order to repulfe them,
but to no effeft ; for the Parthians fhot their arrows
with as great dexterity when their backs were turned,
as when they faced the enemy ; fo that the Romans,
whether they' kept their ground, or purfued the fly¬
ing enemy, were equally annoyed with their fatal ar¬
rows.
The Romans, as long as they had any hopes that
the Parthians, after having fpent their arrows; would
either betake themfelves to flight, or engage them
hand to hand, flood their ground with great refolu-
tion and intrepidity ; but when they obferved, that
there were a great many camels in their rear, loaded
with arrows, and that thofe who emptied their qui¬
vers wheeled about to fill them anew, they began to
Jofe courage, and loudly to complain of their general
for fuffering them thus to Hand Hill, and ferveonly as
a butt to the enemy’s arrow's, which, they well faw,
would not be exhaufted till they were all killed to a
man. Hereupon CrafTus ordered his fon to advance,
at all adventures, and attack the enemy with 1300
hoife, 500 archers, and 8 cohorts. But the Parthians
no fooner faw tins choice body (for it was the flower
of the army) marching up againft them, but they
wheeled about, and betook themfelves, according to
their cuftom, to flight. Hereupon young Craffus, cry¬
ing out as loud as he could, They fly before us, puflied
on full fpeed after them, not doubting but he Ihonld
gain a complete vidfory ; but, when he was at a great
diftance from the main body of the Roman army, he
perceived his miltake ; for thofe who before had fled,
facing about, charged him with incredible fury. Young
Craffus Ordered his troops to halt, hoping that the ene¬
my, upon feeing their fmall number, would not be
afraid to come to a clofe fight : but herein he was
likewife greatly difappointed ; for the Parthians, con¬
tenting themfelves to oppofe his front with their heavy¬
armed hoife, furrounded him on all fides; and, keep¬
ing at a diftance, difcharged inceflant fhowers of ar¬
rows upon the unfortunate Romans, thus furrounded
and pent up. The Parthian cavalry, in wheeling
about, raifed fo thick a dull, that the Romans could
fcarce fee one another, much lefs the enemy: never-
thelefs, they found themfelves wounded, with arrows,
tho’ they could not perceive whence they came. In a
fhort time, the place where they flood was all ftrown
with dead bodies.
Some of the unhappy Romans finding their entrails
Extremedi-torn’ anJ many overcoITie by the exquifite torments
ftrefs of the they fuffered, rolled themfelves on the fand with the
Romans, arrows in their bodies, and expired in that manner.
Others endeavouring to tear out by force the bearded
points of the arrows, only made the wounds the larger
and increafed their pain. Moll of them died in this
manner; and thofe who outlived their companions were
no more in a condition to aft ; for when young Craf¬
fus exhorted them to march up to the enemy, fome
fhewed him their wounded bodies, others their hands
nailed to their bucklers, and fome their feet pierced
through and pinned to the ground: fo that it was e-
qually impofiible for them either to attack the enemy
or defend themfelves. The young commander, there- Parthia.
fore, leaving his infantry to the mercy of the enemy, 
advanced at the head of the cavalry againft their heavy¬
armed horfe. The thoufand Gauls whom he had
brought with him from the weft, charged the enemy
with incredible boldnefs and vigour ; but their lances
did little execution on men armed with cuirafles, and
horfes covered with tried armour: however, they beha¬
ved with great refolution ; for fome of them taking
bold of the enemies fpears, and clofing with them,
threw them off their horfes on the ground, where they
lay without being able to ftir, by reafon of the great
weight of their armour 5 others difmounting, crept un¬
der the enemy’s horfes, and thrufting their fwords into
their bellies, made them throw their riders. Thus the
brave Gauls fought, tho’ greatly harraffed with heat
and third, which they were not accuftomed to bear,
till moft of their horfes were killed, and their com¬
mander dangeroufly wounded. They then thought it
advifeable to retire to their infantry, which they no
fooner joined, than the Parthians invefted them anew,
making a moft dreadful havock of them with their ar¬
rows. In this defperate condition, Craffus, fpying a
rifing ground at a fmall diftance, led the remains of
his detachment thither, with a defign to defend him-
fclf in the bell manner he could, till fuccours fltould
be fent him from his father. The Parthians purfued
him ; and having furrounded him in his new poll, con¬
tinued (howering arrows upon his men, till moft of
them were either killed or difabled, without being able
to make ufe of their arms, or give the enemy proofs
of their valour.
Young Craffus had two Greeks with him, who had
fettled in the city of Carrhse. Thefe, touched with
compaffion, at feeing fo brave a man reduced to fuch
ftreights, preffed him to retire with them to the neigh¬
bouring city of Ifchnes, which had declared for the
Romans; but the young Roman rejefted their propo-
fal with indignation, telling them, that he would ra¬
ther die a thoufand times than abandon fo many valiant
men, who ihcrificed their lives for his fake. Having
returned this anfwer to his two Greek friends, he em¬
braced and difmiffed them, giving them leave to re¬
tire and fhift for themfelves in the beft manner they
could. As for himfelf, having now loft all hopes of
being relieved, and feeing moft of his men and friends
killed round him, he gave way to his grief; and, not ,3
being able to make ufe of his-arm, which was (hot The death
thro’ with a large barbed arrow, he prtfented hisofy°ung
fide to one of his attendants, and ordered him to putCraflus‘
an end to his unhappy life. His example was fol¬
lowed by Cenforius, a fenator, by Megabacchus, an
experienced and brave officer, and by moft of the no-
biiity who ferved under him. Five hundred com¬
mon foldiers were taken prifoners, and the reft cut in
pieces.
The Parthians, having thus cut off or taken the
whole detachment commanded by young Craffus,
marched without delay againft his father, who, up¬
on the firll advice that the enemy fled before his fon,
and were clofely purfued by him, had taken heart, the
more becaufe thofe who had remained to make head
againft him, feemed to abate much of their ardour, the
greateft part of them having marched with the reft
againft his foo. Wherefore, having encouraged his
troops,
par [ 5887 1 PAR
PartMa. troops, lie had retired to a fmal] hill in his rear, to touring city of C'arrhae, which was held by a Roman Partliia.
wait there till his fon returned from the purfuit. garrifon. Agreeable to this refolution, they- began
Young Craflus had difpatched frequent exprefles to his their march as foon as the council broke up ; which
father, to acquaint him with the danger he was in • produced dreadful outcries among the fickand wound-
but they had fallen into the enemy’s hands, and been ed, who, perceiving that they were to be abandoned
by them put to the fword : only the laft, who had to the mercy of the enemy, filled the camp with their
efcaped with great difficulty, arrived fafe, and inform- complaints and lamentations: but their cries and tears,
ed him that his fon was loft if he did not fend him an though very affefting, did not flop the march of the
immediate and powerful reinforcement. This news others, which, indeed, was very flow, to give the
threw Craffus into the utmoft confternation ; a thou- ftragglers time to come up. There were only 300
fand affe&ing thoughts rofe in his mind, and difturb- light horfe, under the command of one ^Egnatius, who
ed his reafon to fuch a degree, that he fcarce knew purfued their march, without flopping. Thefe arri-
what he was doing. However, the defire he had of ving at Carrhse about midnight, iEgnatius, calling to
faving his fon, and fo many brave Romans who were the centineis on the walls, defired them to acquaint
under his command, made him immediately encamp, Coponius, governor of the place, that Craffus had
and march to their affiftance ; but he was not gone fought a great battle with the Parthians ; and, with-
far before he was met by the Parthians, who, with out faying a word more, or letting them know who he
loud (houts, and fongs of vi&ory, gave, at a di- was, continued his march with all poffible expedition
fiance, the unhappy father notice of his misfortune, to the bridge of Zeugma ; which he pafled, and by
They had cut off young Craffus’s head, and, having that means faved his troops, but was much blamed for
fixed it on the point of a lance, were advancing full abandoning his general.
fpeed to fall on the father. As they drew near, Craf- However,the mefl’age hefenttoCoponius was of fame
fus was (truck with that difmal and affefting fight; temporary fervice to Craffus. For that commander, wifely
but, on this occafion, behaved like an hero: for tho’ conjefturing, from the manner in which the unknown
he was under the deepeft concern, he had the prefence perfon had given him that intelligence, that fome mif-
of mind to ftifle his grief, for fear of difeouraging the fortune had befallen Craffus, immediately ordered bis
army, and to cry out to thedifmayed troops, “ This garrifon to ftand to their arms ; and, marching out,
misfortune is entirely mine ; the lofs of one man can- met Craffus, and condufted him and his army into the
not affeft the viftory. Let us charge, let us fight like city : for the Parthians, tho’ informed of his flight,
Romans : if you have any compaffion for a father who did not offer to purfue him, obferving therein the fu-
has juft now loft a fon whofe valour you admired, let perftitious cuftom which obtained among them and the
it appear in your rage and refentment againftthefe in- Perfians, not to fight in the night; but, when it was
fulling barbarians.” Thus Craffus drove to reanimate day, they entered the Roman camp, and, having put
his troops; but his efforts were unfuccefsful : their all the wounded, to the number of 4000, to the fword,
courage was quite funk, as appeared from the faint and difperfed their cavalry all over the plain, in purfuit of
languifhing fhout which they raifed, according to cu- the fugitives. One of Craffus’s lieutenants, named Varr
ftom, before theaftion. When the fignal was given, gunteius, having feparated in the night from the main
the Parthians, keeping to their old way of fighting, body of the army, with four cohorts, miffed his way,
difeharged clouds of arrows on the legionaries, with- and was overtaken by the enemy ; at whofe ap-
out drawing near them ; which did fuch dreadful exe- proach he withdrew to a neighbouring hill, where
cution, that many of the Romans, to avoid the ar- he defended himfelf with great valour, till all his
rows, which occafioned a long and painful death, men were killed, except 20, who made their way
threw themfelves, like men in defpair, on the enemy’s through the enemy fword in hand, and got fafe to
heavy-armed horfe, feeking from their fpears a more Carrhae : but Vargunteius himfelf loft his life on this
quick and eafy kind of death. Thus the Parthians occafion. xs
continued plying them inceffantly with their arfows In the mean time Surenas, not knowing whether Surenas
till night, when they left the field of battle, crying Craffius and Caffius had retired to Carrhae, or chofen Pre,ends
out, that they would allow the father one night to la- a different route ; in order to be informed of the truth, Craffus.™''
ment the death of his fon. and take his meafures accordingly, difpatched a mef-
Diftrefs of ^!s was a melancholy night for the Romans. Craf- fenger, who fpoke the Roman language, to the city
CrafiTus. fus kept himfelf concealed from the foldiery, lying not of Carrhae, enjoining him to approach the walls, and
in the general’s tent, but in the open air, and on the acquaint Craffus himfelf, or Caffius, that the Parthian
bare ground, with his head wrapped up in his paluda- general was inclined to enter into a treaty with them,
mentum or military cloak : and was, in that forlorn and demanded a conference. Both the proconful and
condition, fays Plutarch, a great example to the vul- his quaeftor Caffius fpoke from the walls with the mef-
gar, of the inftability of fortune; to the wife, a ftill fenger; and, acc£j>ting the propofal with great joy,
greater of the pernicious effefts of avarice, temerity, defired that the tinle-^udplace for an interview might
and ambition. Oftavius, one of his lieutenants, and be immediately agreedupon. The meffenger with-
Caffius, approached him, and endeavoured to raifehim drew', promifing to return quickly with an anfwer from
up and confole him : but, feeing him quite funk un- Surenas: but that general no fooner underftood that
der the weight of his affliftion, and deaf to all com- Craffus and Caffius were in Carrhae, than he marched
fort, they fummoned a council of war, compofed of thither with his whole army ; and, having invefted the
all the chief officers ; wherein it was unanimoufiy re- place, acquainted the Romans, that, if they expefted
folved, that they Ihould decamp before break, of day, any favourable terms, they muft deliver up Craffus and
and retire, without found of trumpet, to the neigh- Caffius to him in chains. Hereupon a council of the
V.ol. VIII. 1 33 F ck‘c£
PAR [ 5888 j PAR
Parthia. chief officers being fummoned, it was thought expe-
dient to retire from Carrhse that very night, and fetk
for another afylum. It was of the utmoit importance,
that none of the inhabitants of Carrhae fbould be ac¬
quainted with their defign till the time of its execu¬
tion ; but Craffus, whofe whole conduft evidently
fhews that he was blinded, as Dio Caflius obferves,
by fome divinity, imparted the whole matter in con¬
fidence to one Andromachus, choofing him for his
guide, and relying injudicioufly on the fidelity of a
man whom he fcarce knew. Andromachus immediate¬
ly acquainted Surenas with the defign of the Romans ;
promifing at the fame time, as the Parthians did not
engage in the night, to manage matters fo, that they
fhould not get out of his reach before day break. Pur-
fuant to his promife, he led them through many wind¬
ings and turnings, till he brought them into deep'
marlhy grounds, where the infantry were up to the
knees in mire. Then Cafiius, fufpe&ing that their
guide had led them into thofe bogs with no good de¬
fign, refufed to'follow him any longer; and, returning
to Carrhae, took his route tpwards Syria, which he
reached with 500 horfe. Odavius, with 5000 men
under his command, being conduced by trully guides,
gained the mountains called by Plutarch and Appian
Sitmacl, and there intrenched himfelf before break of
day.
As for Craffus, he was ftill- entangled in the marfhes,
when Surenas, at the riling of the fun, overtook him,
and invefted him with his cavalry. The proconful had
with him four cohorts, and a fmall body of horfe ;
and with thefe he gained, in fpite of all oppofition,
the fummit of another hill within 12 furlongs of Oc¬
tavius; who, feeing the danger that threatened his ge¬
neral, flew to his affiftance, firfl: with a fmall number
of his men, but was foon followed by all the reft, who,
being afhamed of their cowardice, quitted their poll,
tho’ very fafe, and, charging the Parthians with great
fury, difengaged Craffus, and obliged the enemy to
abandon the hill. Upon the retreat of the enemy,
they formed themfelves into an hollow fquare; and
placing Craffus in the middle, made a kind of rampart
round him with their bucklers, refolutely protefting,
that none of the enemy’s arrows ftiould touch their ge¬
neral’s body, till they were all killed fighting in his
defence. Surenas, loth to let fo fine a prey efcape,
furrounded the hill, as if he defigned to make a new
attack : but, finding his Parthians very backward, and
not doubting but the Romans, when night came on,
would purfue their march, and get out of his reach,
he had recourfe again to artifice; and declared be¬
fore fome prifoners, whom he foon after fet at li¬
berty, that he was inclined to treat with the pro¬
conful of a peace ; and that it was better to come to
a reconciliation with Rome, than to fow the feeds of
an eternal war, by (bedding the blood of one of her
generals.
Agreeable to this declaration, Surenas, as foon as
the prifoners were releafed, advanced towards the hill
where the Romans were pofted, attended only by fome
of his officers, and, with his bow unbent, and open
arms, invited Craffus to an interview. So fudden a
change feemed very fufpicious to the proconfu!; who
therefore declined the interview, till he was forced, by
his. own foldiers, to intruff his life with an enemy
whofe treachery they had all experienced ; for the le* Parthla.
gionaries flocking round him, not only abufed him in
an outrageous manner, but even menaced him if he
did not accept of the propofals made him by the Par¬
thian general. Seeing, therefore, that his troops were
ready to mutiny, he began to advance, without arms
or guards, towards the enemy, after having called the
gods and his officers to witnefs the violence his troops
offered him ; and intreated all who were prefent, but
efpecially Odlavius and Petronius, two of the chief
commanders, for the honour of Rome their common
mother, not to mention, after his death, the fliameful
behaviour of the Roman legionaries. Odtavius and
Petronius Could not refolve to let him go alone; but
attended him down the hill, as did likewife fome le¬
gionaries, keeping at a diftance. Craffus was met at
the foot of the hill by two Greeks; who, difmounting
from their horfes, fainted him with great refpect ;
and defired him, in the Greek tongue, to fend fome
of his attendants, who might fatisfy him, that Sure¬
nas, and thofe who were with him, came without
arms. Hereupon Craffus fent two brothers, of the
Rofcian family ; but.Surenas, having caufed them to
be feized, advanced to the foot of the hill, mounted on
a fine horfe, and attended by the chief officers of his
army. Craffus, who waited for the return of his two
meffengers, was furprifed to fee bimftlf prevented by
Surenas in perfon, when he lead expe&ed it. The
Parthian general, perceiving, as he approached Craf¬
fus, tfut he was on foot, cried out, in a feeming fur-
prize, “ What do I fee ? a Roman general on foot,
and we on horfeback ! Let an horfe be brought for
him immediately.” “ You need not be furprifed, (re¬
plied Craffus;) we are come ordy to an interview, each
after the cuftom of his country.” “ Very well, (an-
fwered Surenas ;) there (hall be henceforth a lading
peace between king Orodes and the people of Rome :
but we mud fign the articles of it on the banks of the
Euphrates; for you Romans do not always remem-
htr your conventions.” Craffus would have fent fort
an horfe: but a very ftately one, with a golden bit,
and richly caparifoned, was brought to him by a Par¬
thian ; which Surenas prefenting to him, “ Accept
this horfe from my hands, (faid he), which I give
you in the name of my mafter king Orodes.” He had
fcarce uttered thefe words, when fome of the king’s of¬
ficers,. taking Craffus by the middle, fet him upon the
horfe, which they began to whip with great violence
before them in order to make him quicken his pace.
O&avius, offended at this infult, took the horfe by
the bridle ; Petronius, and the few Romans who were
prefent, feconded him, and flocking all round Craffus,
(topped his horfe. The Parthians endeavoured to re-
pulfe them, and clear the way for the proconful;
whereupon they began to juftle and pu(h one another
with great tumult and diforder. At lad, O&avius,
drawing his fword, killed one of the king’s grooms ;
but, at the fame time, another coming behind Odta- iy
riiis, with one blow laid him dead at his feet. BothCrairus.
parties fought with great resolution, the Parthians kffied-
driving to carry off Craffus, and the Romans to refeue
him out of their hands. In this feuffle mod of the Ro¬
mans who came to the conference were killed ; and,
among the reft, Craffus himfelf, but whether by a Ro¬
man or a Parthian is uncertain.
PAR [ 5889 1 PAR
Parthia. Upon his death, the reft of the army either furren-
dered to the enemy, or, difpertlng in the night, were
purfued, and put to the fword. The Romans loft in
this campaign at leaft 30,000 men ; of which 20,000
were killed, and 10,000 taken prifoners.
When the battle of Carrhse was fought, king Orodes
was in Armenia, where he had made peace with Arta-
bazus. While the two kings were folemnizing their
new alliance with expenfive and public feafts, Styllaces,
or Syllaces, a Parthian officer, whom Surenas had
fent with the news of his late vidlory, and the head of
Craffus as a proof of it, arrived in the capital of Ar¬
menia. The tranfports of joy which Orodes felt at
this fight, and thefe news, are not to be exprefled ;
and the lords of both kingdoms, who attended their
fovereigns, raifed loud and repeated fhouts of joy.
Syllaces was ordered to give a more particular and di-
ftinft account of that memorable a&ion: which when
he had done, Orodes commanded melted gold to be
poured into Craffus’s mouth; reproaching him thereby
with avarice, which had been always his predominant
paifion.
lg Surenas did not long enjoy the pleafure of his
Surenas putvi&ory ; for Orodes, jealous of his power and au¬
to death bythority among the Parthians, foon after caufed him
Orodes. t0 be pUt t0 death. Pacorus, the king’s favourite
fon, was put at the head of the army; and, a-
reeable to his father’s diredions, invaded Syria : but
e was driven out from thence with great lofs by Ci¬
cero and Caffius, the only general who furvived the
defeat of Craffus. After this we find no mention of
the Parthians, till the time of the civil war between
Caefar and Pompey, when the latter fent ambaffadors
to folicit fuccour againft his rival. This Orodes was
willing to grant, upon condition that Syria was de¬
livered up to him : but as Pompey would not confent
to fuch a propofal, the fuccours were not only denied,
but, after the battle of Pharfalia, he put Lucius Hir-
tius in irons, whom Pompey had again fent to alkaffi-
ftance, or at leaft to defire leave to fhelter himfelf in
the Parthian dominions.
Caefar is faid to have meditated a war againft the
Parthians, which in all probability would have pro¬
ved fatal to them. His death delivered them from
’!> - this danger. But, not long after, the eaftern pro-
menced'a* v'nce8» being grievoufly opprefled by Mark An-
gainft the thony, rofe up in arms ; and having killed the tax-
Parthians gatherers, invited the Parthians to join them, and
by Mark drive out the Romans. They very readily accepted
Anthony. ^ jnvjtatjon> and croffed the Euphrates with a
powerful army under the command of Pacorus and
Labienus a Roman general of Pompey’s party. At
firft they met with great fuccefs, over-ran all Afia
Minor, and reduced all the countries as far as the
Hcllefpont and the Egaean Sea, fubduing likewife
Phoenicia, Syria, and even Judaea. They did not
however long enjoy their new conquelts: for being
elated with their vi&ories, and defpifing the enemy,
they engaged Venddius, Anthony’s lieutenant, before
Labienus had time to join them, and were utterly de¬
feated. This fo diffieartened Labienus’s army, that
they all abandoned him; and he himfelf, being thus ob¬
liged to wander from place to place in difguife, was at
lalt taken and put to death at Cyprus. Ventidius pur-
fuing his advantage, gained feveral other vidories ;
and at laft entirely defeated the Parthian army under Parthia.
Pacorus, cutting almoft the whole of them in pieces, ^  
and the prince himfclf among the reft. He did not, Pacorus de-
however, purfue this laft vidory as he might have feateia,'d
done; being afraid of giving umbrage to Anthony,
who had already become jealous of the great honour Ventl 1US*
gained by his lieutenant. He therefore contented
himfelf with reducing thofe places in Syria and Phoe¬
nicia which the Parthians had taken in the beginning
of the war, until Anthony arrived to take the command
of the army upon himfelf.
Orodes was almoft diftraded with grief on receiving
the dreadful, news of the lofa of his army and the death
of his favourite fon. However, when time had refto-
red the ufe of his faculties, he appointed Phrahates,
theeldeft, but themoft wicked, of all his children, to
fucceed him in the kingdom, admitting him at the
fame time to a fhare of the fovereign authority with
himfelf. The confequence of this was, that Phrahates
very foon attempted to poifon his father with hem¬
lock. But this, contrary to expedation, proving a
cure for the dropff which an excefs of grief had
brought upon the king, the unnatural fon had him0r0(1*J
ftifled in bed; and foon after not only murdered all his murjcsretj<
own brethren, who were 30 in number, but cut olf all
the reft of the royal family, not fparing even his own
eldeft fon, left the difeontented Parthians (hould place
him, as he was already of age, on the throne.
Many of the chief lords of Parthia, being intimi¬
dated by the cruelty of Phrahates, retired into foreign
countries ; and among thefe was one Moncefes, a per-
fon of great diftindion, as well as fkill and experience
in war. This man, having fled to Anthony, foon
gained his confidence, and was by him eafily prevailed
upon to engage in a war againft his countrymen.
But Phrahates, juftly dreading the confequences of
fuch a perfon’s defedion, fent a folemn embafly to in¬
vite him home on fuch terms as he Ihould think fit
to accept: which greatly provoked Anthony ; though
he did not hinder him from returning, left others fhould
thereby be difeouraged from coming over to him.
He therefore difmifled him with great civility, fending
ambafladors at the fame time to Phrahates to treat of
a peace. Thus he hoped to divert the Parthian mo¬
narch’s attention from making the neceflary prepara¬
tions for war, and that he ihould be able to fall upon
him in the fpring when he was in no condition to
make refiftance. But herein he was greatly difap-
pointed ; for, on his arrival at the Euphrates, which he
intended to pafs, and enter the Parthian dominions on
that fide, he found all the pafles fo well guarded, that
he thought proper to enter Media, with a defign firft
to reduce that country, and then to enter Parthia.
This plan had been fuggefted to him by Artabazusy.
king of Armenia, who in the end betrayed him ; for, betrayed by
inftead of conducing the army the ftraight way from Artabazns
Zeugma on the Euphrates, to the A'raxes which parted km8of Ar*
Media from Armenia, and which was about 5oo,n^nla,
miles diftant from the place whence he firft fet out,
Artabazus led them over rocks and mountains fo far
about, that the army had marched above 1000 miles
before they reached the borders of Media, where they
intended to begin the war. Thus they were not only
greatly fatigued, but had not fufficient time, the year
being far fpent, to put in execution the defign on
33 F 2 which
PAR [ 5891 ] PAR
Partliia. which they had come. However, as Anthony was
' impatient to get back to Cleopatra, he left behind
him moft of the baggage of the army, and 300 wag¬
gons loaded with battering rams and other military
engines for fieges ; appointing Statianus, one of his
lieutenants, with a body of 10,000 men, to guard
them, and to bring them, by flower marches, after the
Ten thou- arnty- With the reft of the forces he marched more
fand Ro- than 300 miles before the reft, without allowing his
mans cut nien any refpite till he arrived at Praafpa, or Phrahata,
the capital of Media, which he immediately invefted.
But the Parthians, W’dl knowing that he could not
make any progrefs without his military machines,
paffed by his army, in order to attack Statianus; which
they did with fuch fuccefs, that the body commanded
by him were all to a man cut off, and all their military
engines taken, among which was a battering ram 80
feet long,
Anthony, notwithftanding this difafter, continued
the fiege of Praafpa ; but was daily haraffed by failles
of the garrifon from within, and the enemy’s army
without. At laft he began to think of a retreat when
his provifions were almoft exhaufted, finding it im-
pofiible to become mafter of the city. But as he was
to march 300 miles through the enemy’s country, he
thought proper firft to fend ambaffadors to the Par¬
thian monarch, acquainting him that the Roman peo¬
ple were willing to allow him a peace, provided he
would reftore the ftandards and prifoners taken at
Carrhae. Phrahates received the ambaffadors, fitting
on a golden throne; and, after having bitterly in¬
veighed againft the avarice and unbounded ambition
of the Romans, told them that he would not part
with the ftandards and prifoners; but that, if Antony
would immediately raife the fiege of Praafpa, he would
fuffer him to retire unmolefted.
j*4 v Anthony, who was reduced to great ftraits, no
' leaves Par- fooner received this anfwer, than he broke up the fiege,
thia in great and marched towards Armenia. However, Phrahates
diftrefs. was not fo good as his word ; for the Romans were
attacked by the enemy no fewer than 18 times on their
march, and were thrice in the utmoft danger of being
cut off. A famine alfo raged in the Roman army ;
upon which they began to defcrt to the enemy ; and
indeed Anthony would probably have been left
by himfelf, had not the Parthians, in a very cruel as
well as impolitic manner, murdered all thofe who
fled to them in fight of the reft. At laft, after having
loft 32,000 men, and being reduced to fuch defpair
that he was with difficulty prevented from laying vio¬
lent hands on himfelf, he reached the river Araxes ;
when his men, finding themfclves out of the reach of
the enemy, fell down on the ground, and kiffedit with
tears of joy.
Antony was no fooner gone, than the kings of Me¬
dia and Parthia quarrelled about the booty they had
taken ; and after various contefts, Phrahates reduced
all Media and Armenia. After this, being elated with
his conquefts, he oppreffed his fubje&s in fnch a cruel
and tyrannical manner, that a civil war took place ; in
which the competitors were alternately driven out and
reftored, till the year 50, when one Vologefes, the fon
of Gotarzes, a former king, became peaceable poffcf-
for of the throne. He carried on fome wars againft
the Romans, but with very indifferent fugcefs, and at
laft gladly confented to a renewal of the ancient trea- Partbia.
ties with that powerful people. *Ts *
From this time the Parthian hiftory affords nothing Parthiafub-
remarkable till the reign of the emperor Trajan ; when dued by
the Parthian king, by name Cofdroes, infringed theTrajaI1'
treaty with Rome, by driving out the king of Arme¬
nia. Upon this Trajan, who was glad of any pre¬
tence to quarrel with the Parthians, immediately ha-
flened into Armenia. His arrival there was fo fudden
and unexpefted, that he reduced almoft the whole
country without oppofition; and took prifoner Par-
thamafiris, the king whom the Parthians had fet up.
After this he entered Mefopotamia, took the city of
Nifibis, and reduced to a Roman province the whole
of that wealthy country.
Early in the fpring of the following year, Trajan,
who had kept his winter-quarters in Syria, took the
field again ; but was warmly oppofed by Cofdroes.
He found him encamped on the banks of the Eu¬
phrates, with a defign to elifpute his paffage: which he
did with fuch vigour, that the emperor, after having
feveral times attempted to ford that river, and been
always repulfed with great flaughter, was obliged to
caufe boats to be built on the neighbouring mountains,
which he privately conveyed from thence on carriages
to the water-fide ; and having in the night-time form¬
ed a bridge with them, he paffed his army the next
day ; but not without great lofs and danger, the Par¬
thians harraffing his men the whole time with inceffant
fhowers of arrows, which did great execution. Ha¬
ving gained the oppofite bank, he advanced boldly in¬
to Affyria, the Parthians flying every where before
him, and made himfelf mafter of Arbela. Thence he
purfued his march; fubduing, with incredible rapidity,
countries where the Roman ftandard had never been
difplayed before. Babylonia, or the province of Ba¬
bylon, voluntarily fubmitted to him. The city itfelf
was, after a vigorous refiflance, taken by ftorm ; by
which means he became mafter of all Chaldea and Af¬
fyria, the two richeft provinces of the Parthian em¬
pire. From Babylon he marched to Ctefiphon, the
metropolis of the Parthian monarchy ; which he be-
fieged, and at laft reduced. But as to the particulars
of thefe great conquefts, we are quite in the dark; this
expedition, however glorious to the Roman name, be¬
ing rather hinted at, than deferibed, by the writers of
thofe times. While Trajan was thus making war in
the heart of the enemy’s cosntry, Cofdroes, having re¬
cruited his army, marched into Mefopotamia, with a
defign to recover that country, and cut off all commu¬
nication between the Roman army and Syria. On
his arrival in that province, the inhabitants flocked to
him from all parts ; and moft of the cities, driving out
the garrifons left by Trajan, opened their gates to him.
Hereupon the emperor detached Eucius and Maximus,
two of his chief commanders, into Mefopotamia, to
keep fuch cities in awe as had not revolted, and to
open a communication with Syria. Maximus was met
by Cofdroes ; and having ventured a battle, his army
was entirely "defeated, and himfelf killed. But Lucius
being joined by Euricius and Clarius, two othercom-
mauders fent by Trajan with frefh fupplies, gained
confiderable advantages over the enemy, and retook the
cities of Nifibis and Seleucia, which had revolted.
And now Trajan, feeing himfelf poffeffed of all the
beli
PAR [ 5891 ] PAR
Parthia. beft and mofl:' fruitful provinces of the Parthian em-
' pire; but at the fame time being well apprifed that he
. could not, without a vaft expence, maintain his con-
queils, nor keep in fubjedlion fo fierce and warlike a
people at fuch a diftance from Italy; refolved to fct
over them a king of his own choofing, who fhould hold
the crown of him and his fuccefiors, and acknowledge
them as hi* lords and fovereigns. With this view he
repaired to Ctefiphon ; and having there aflembled the
chief men of the nation, he crowned one of the royal
Parthanaf- byname Partkanafpates, king of Parti.;a, ob»
pates ap- liging all who were prelent to pay him their alle-
pointed giance. He chofe Parthanafpates, becaufe that prince
king by the jjgj j0;ne(j bim at his firlt entering the Parthian domi-
pe^or^but n'on3> condndfed him with great fidelity, and fhown
foon after on all occafions an extraordinary attachment to the
driven out. Romans. Thus the Parthians were at laft fubdued,
and their kingdom made tributary to Rome. But they
did not long continue in this ftate of fubjedtion : for
they no fooner heard of Trajan’s death, which hap¬
pened Ihonly after, than, taking up arms, they drove
Parthanafpates from the throne ; and, recalling Cof-,
droes, who had retired into the country of the Hyr-
canians, openly revolted from Rome. Adrian, who
was.then commander in chief of all the forces in the
eaft, and foon after acknowledged emperor by the ar¬
my, did not care, though he was at that time in Sy¬
ria with a very numerous army, to engage in a new
war with the Parthians ; but contented himfetf with
preferving the ancient limits of the empire, without
any ambitious profpedts of further conquefls. There¬
fore, in the beginning of his reign, he abandoned tbofe
provinces beyond the Euphrates which Trajan had
conquered; withdrew the Roman garrifons from Me-
fopotamia ; and, for the greater fafety of other places,
made the Euphrates the boundary of and barrier in
thofe parts, polling his legions along the banks of that
river.
Unfuccefs- Cofdroes died after a long reign, and was fucceeded
f»l wars of by his eldelt fon Vologefes : in whofe reign the Alani
Vologefes breaking into Media, then fubjedt to the Parthians,
R^ma^s committed there great devaftations ; but were prevail-
omans. Up0n, with rich prefents fent them by Vologefes,
to abandon that kingdom, and return home. Upon
their retreat, Vologefes, having no enemy to contend
with at home, fell unexpectedly upon Armenia ; fur-
prifed the legions there ; and having cut them all in
pieces to a man, entered Syria ; defeated with great
flaughter Attilius Cornelianus, governor of that pro¬
vince; and advanced, without oppofition, to the neigh¬
bourhood of Antioch ; putting every where the Ro¬
mans, and thofe who favoured them, to the fword.
Hereupon the emperor Verus, by the advice of his
colleague Antoninus furnamed the Philofopber, leaving
Rome, haftened into Syria : and having driven the
Parthians out of that province, ordered Statius Prif-
eus to invade Armenia; and Caffius, with Martius Ve¬
rus, to enter the Parthian territories, and carry the
war into the enemy’s country. Prifcus made himfclf
mailer of Artaxata ; and in one campaign drove the
Parthians, though not without great lofs on his fide,
quite out of Armenia. Cafiius, on the other hand,
having, in feveral encounters, defeated Vologefes, tho*
he had an army of 400,000 men under his command,
reduced, in four years time, all thofejproVincea which
had formerly fubmitted to Trajan, took Seleucia, Parthia.
burnt and plundered the famous cities of Babylon and
Ctefiphon, with the ftately palaces of the Parthian
monarchs, and ftruck terror into the moll remote pro¬
vinces of that great empire. On his return, he loll
above half the number of his forces by ficknefs and
famine; fo that, after all, the Romans, as Spartianus
obferves, had no great reafon to boall of their vidlo-
ries and conquefts.
However, Verus, who had never fiirred during
the whole time of the war from Antioch and Daph¬
ne, took upon him the lofty titles of Parthicus
and Armenicus, as if he had acquired them jullly in
the midll of his pleaftires and debaucheries. After
the revolt and death of Cafiitis, Antoninus the Phi -
lofopher repaired into Syria to fettle the affairs of that
province. On his arrival there, he was met by ambaffadors
from Vologefes; "who having recovered moll of the
provinced fubdued by Caffius, and being unwilling ei¬
ther to part with them or engage in a new war, fob-
cited the emperor to confirm him in the poffeffion of
them, promifing to hold them of him, and to acknow¬
ledge the fovereignty of Rome. To thefe terms Anto¬
ninus readily agreed, and a peace was accordingly
concluded between the two empires ; which Vologefes
did not long enjoy, being foon after carried off by a
dillemper, and not murdered by his own fubjefts, as
we read in Conllantinus Manaffcs, who calls him Bek-
gefes. j8
Upon his death, Vologefes III. the fon of his bro- Ctefiphoa
ther Sanatruccs, and grandfon of Cofdroes, was rai-taken by
fed to the throne. He fided with Niger againlt the°everus-
emperor Severus: who thereupon, having fettled mat¬
ters at home, marched with all his forces againft him;
and advancing to the city of Ctefiphon, whither he
had retired, laid clofe fiege to that metropolis. Volo¬
gefes made a mod gallant defence ; but the city, after
a long fiege, and much bloodlhed on both fides, was
at length taken by affault. The king’s treafures, with
his wives and children, fell into the emperor’s hands ;
but Vologefes himfelf had the good luck to make his
efcape ; which was a great difappointment to Severus,
who immediately difpatched an exprefs to acquaint the
fenate with the fuceefs that had attended him in his
expedition againll the only nation that was then for¬
midable to Rome. But he had no fooner croffed>the
Euphrates, than Vologefes recovered all the provinces,,
except Mefopotamia, which he had reduced. Thefe
expeditions were chargeable to the Romans, and coft
them much blood,, without reaping any advantages
from them ; for as they had not fufficient forces to
keep in awe the provinces they had .fubdued, the in¬
habitants, greatly attached to the family of Arfaces,
never failed to return to their ancient obedience as
foon as the Roman armies were withdrawn. Vologe¬
fes was foon after engaged in a war flill more trouble-
fome and deftru&ive, with his brother Artabanus,,
who, encouraged by fome of the difcontented nobles,
attempted to rob him of the crown, and place it on
his own head. Vologefes gained feveral vittories over
his brother and rebellious fubje&s; but died before he
could reftore the empire to its former tranquillity.
Artabanus, who had-a numerous army at his devo¬
tion, did not meet with any oppofition in feizing the
throne, vacant by the death of his brother, though
Tirii-- -
PAR [ 5892 ] PAR
ffarthia. Tiridates had a better title to it, as being his cider
brother. He had fcarce fettled the affairs of his king-
dom, when the emperor Caracalla, defirous to figna-
lize himfelf, as feveral of his predeceflbrs had done,
by fotne memorable exploit againft the Parthians, fent
a folemn embafly to him, defiring his daughter in
marriage. Artabanus, overjoyed at this propofal,
which he thought would be attended with a lading
peace between the two empires, received the ambaffa-
dors with all poffible marks of honour, and readily
Infamous complied with their requeft. Soon after, Caracalla
treachery of fent a fecond embafly, to acquaint the king that he
the emperor was com;ng to folemnife the nuptials; whereupon Ar-
Caraca a. tabanus went to meet him, attended with the chief of
the nobility and his bell troops, all unarmed, and in
moft pompous habits : but this peaceable train no
fooner approached the Roman army, than the fol-
diers, on a fignal given them, falling upon the king’s
retinue, made a moft terrible daughter of the unarm¬
ed multitude ; Artabanus himfelf efcaping with great
difficulty. The treacherous Caracalla, having gained
by this exploit great booty, and, as he thought, nolefs
glory, wrote a long and boafting letter to the fenate,
afiuming the title of Parthicus for this piece of trea¬
chery ; as he had before that of Germanicus, for
murdering, in like manner, fome of the German no¬
bility.
Artabantis, refolving to make the Romans pay dear
for their inhuman and barbarous treachery, raifed the
moft numerous army that had ever been known in Par-
thia, croffed the Euphrates, and entered Syria, put¬
ting all to fire and fword. But, Caracalla being mur¬
dered before this invafion, Macrinus, who had fuc-
ceeded him, met the Parthians at the head of a mighty
army, compofed of many legions, and all the auxilia-
A defperate”63 t^,e ftates °f Alia. The two armies no fooner
battle be- came in fight of each other, but they engaged with
tween the the utmoft fury. The battle continued two days;
an^R8"* R°mans ai,d Parthians fighting fo obftinately,
mans.0" that on^y Parted them, without any apparent
advantage on either fide ; though both retired, when
night had put an end to the conteft, crying, Vic¬
tory, victory. The field of battle was covered all
over with dead bodies, there being already above 40,000
killed, including both Romans and Parthians : never-
thelefs Artabanus was heard to fay, that the battle
was only begun, and that he would continue it till ei¬
ther the Parthians or Romans were all to a man cut
in pieces. But Macrinus, being well apprifed that
the king came highly enraged againft Caracalla in
particular, and dreading the confequences which would
attend the deftruftion of his army, fent an herald to
Artabanus, acquainting him with the death of Cara¬
calla, and propofing an alliance between the two
empires. The king, underftanding that his great
enemy was dead, readily embraced the propofals of
peace and amity, upon condition that all the prifoners
who had been taken by the treachery of Caracalla
ffiould be immediately reftored, and a large fum of
money paid him to defray the expences of the war.
Thefe articles being performed without delay or
hefitation, Artabanus returned into Parthia, and Ma¬
crinus to Antioch.
As Artabanus loft on this occafion the flower of
his army, Artaxerxes, a Perfian of mean defeent,
but of great courage and experience in war, revolting Parti
from the Parthians, prevailed on his countrymen to I
join him, and attempt the recovery of the fovereign 1>arti*~an‘
power, which he faid they had been unjuftly deprived 3*
of, fit ft by the Macedonians, and afterwards by the Per*
Parthians their vaffals. Artabanus, upon the news of*iajS0”^ f’
this revolt, marched with the whole ftrength of bisthrewthe
kingdom to ftipprefs it; but being met by Artaxerxes, Parthian
at the head of a no lefs powerful army, a bloody bat-emP,re’
tie enfued, which is faid to have lafted three days. At
length the Parthians, though they behaved with the
utmoft bravery, and fought like men in defpair, were
forced to yield to the Perfians, who were commanded
by a more experienced leader. Moft of their troops
were cutoff in the flight; and the king himfelf was taken
prifoner, and foon after put to death by Artaxerxes’s
order. The Parthians, having loft in this fatal en¬
gagement both their king and their army, were forced
to fubmit to the conqueror, and become vaffals to a
nation which had been fubjeft to them for the fpace
of 475 years.
For an account of the manners, cuftoms, &c. of the
ancient Parthians, fee the article Persia.
PARTI, Paktie, Party, or Parted, in heraldry,
is applied to a fliield or cfcutcheon, denoting it divi¬
ded or marked out into partitions.
Parti per pale, is when the fhield is divided perpen¬
dicularly into two halves, by a cut in the middle from
top to bottom.
Parti per fefs, is when the cut is acrofs the middle,
from fide to fide.
Parti per bend dexter, is when the cut comes from
the upper corner of the fhield on the right hand, and
defeends athwart to the oppofite lower corner.
Parti per bend fmifter, is when the cut, coming
from the upper left corner, defeends acrofs to the op¬
pofite lower one.
All thefe partitions, according to M. de la Colom-
biere, have their origin from the cuts and bruifes that
have appeared on ffiields after engagements ; and, be¬
ing proofs of the dangers to which the bearers had
been expofed, they gained them efteem : for which
reafon they were tranfmitted to pofterity, and be¬
came arms and marks of honour to their future fa¬
milies.
PARTICIPLE, in grammar, an adjeftive formed
of a verb; fo called, becaufe it participates partly of
the properties of a noun, and partly of thofe of a verb.
See Grammar,
PARTICLE, in phyfiology, the minute part of a
body, an affemblage of which conftitutes all natural
bodies.
Particle, in grammar, a denomination for all
thofe fmall words that tie or untie others, or that
exprefs the modes or manners of words. See Cram¬
mer.
PARTISAN, in .the art of war, a perfon dextrous
in commanding a party ; who, knowing the country
well, is employed in getting intelligence, or furpri-
fing the enemy’s convoy, &c. The word alfo means
an officer fent out upon a party, with the command of
a body of light troops, generally under the apellation
of the partifans corps. It is alfo neceffary that this
corps ftiould be compofed of infantry, light-horfe, and
huffars.
PA-
PAR [ 5893 ] PAR
Parmerfhip PARTNERSHIP, is a cantraft among two or
more perfons, to carry on a certain bufiners, at their
joint expence, and fhare the gain or lofs which arifes
from it. Of this there are four kinds.
I. Oecafional joint trade, where two or more mer¬
chants agree to employ a certain fum in trade, and
divide the gain or lofs fo foon as the adventure is
brought to an iffue. This kind of contraft being
generally private, the parties concerned are not liable
for each other. If one of them purchafe goods on
truft, the furnifher, who grants the credit through
confidence in him alone, has no recourfe, in cafe of
his infolvency, againll the other partners. They are
only anfwerable for the (hare of the adventure that be¬
longs to the infolvent partner.
If it be propofed to carry the adventure further
than originally agreed on, any partner may with¬
draw his intereft ; and, if it cannot be feparated from
the others, may infill that the whole lhall be brought
to an iffue.
II. Standing companies, which are generally clla-
blilhed by written contrail between the parlies, where
the ftock, the firm, duration, the divifion of the gain
or lofs, and other circumftances, are inferted.
All the partners are generally authorifed to fign
by the firm of the company, though this privilege
may be confined to fome of them by particular agree¬
ment. The firm ought only to be fubferibed at the
place where the copartnery is eftablilhed. If a part¬
ner has oecafion, when abfent, to write a letter re¬
lating to their affairs, he fubferibes his own name on
account of the company. When the fame partners
carry on bufinefs at different places, they generally
choofe different firms for each. The fignature of each
partner is generally fent to new correfpondents; and,
when a partner is admitted, although there be no al¬
teration in the firm, bis fignature is tranfmitted, with
an intimation of the change in the copartnery, to all
their correfpondents. Houfes that have been long
eftablilhed, often retain the old firm, though all the
original partners be dead or withdrawn.
The powers of each partner are, in general, dif-
cretionary ; but they ought not to adl, in matters of
importance, without confulting together, when there
is an opportunity. No partner is liable to makegood
the lofs arifing from his judging wrong in a cafe where
he had authority to aft. If be exceeds his power,
and the event prove unfuccefsful, he mull bear the
lofs; but, if it prove fuccefsful, the gain belongs to
the company: yet, if he acquaints the company im¬
mediately of what he has done, they mull either ac-
quiefee therein, or leave him the chance of gain, as
well as the rilk of lofs.
All debts contrafted under the firm of the company
are binding on the whole partners, though the money
was borrowed by one of them for his private ufe, with¬
out the confent of the reft. And, if a partner exceeds
bis power, the others are neverthelefs obliged to im¬
plement his engagements; tho’ they may render him
refponfible for his milbehaviour.
Although the fums to be advanced by the part¬
ners be limited by the contraft, if there be a neceflity
for raifing more money to anfwer emergencies or pay
the debts of the company, the partners mull furnilh
what is DeceHary, in proportion to their /hares.
A debt to a company is not cancelled by the pri- Partneifhip
vate debts of the partner; and, when a partner becomes^
infolvent, the company is not bound for his debts be¬
yond the extent of his ftiare.
The debts of the company are preferable, on the
company’s effefts, to the private debts of the part¬
ners.
Partnerlhip is generally diffolved by the death of a
partner: yet, when there are more partners than two,
it may, by agreement, fubfift among the furvivors.
Sometimes it is llipulated, that, in cafe of the death
of a partner, his place fliall be fupplied by his fon, or
fome other perfon condefcended on. The contraft
ought to fpecify the time and manner in which the
furviving partners Ihall reckon with the executors of
the deceafed for his (hare of the ftock, and a reafon-
able time allowed for that purpofe.
When partnerlhip is diffolved, there are often out-
llanding debts that cannot be recovered for a long
time, and effefts that cannot eafily be difpofed on.
The partnerlhip, though diffolved in other refpefts.
Hill fubfifts for the management of their outftanding
affairs; and the money arifing from them is divided
among the partners, or their reprefentatives, when it
it is recovered. But, as this may protraft the final
fettlement of the company’s affairs to a very inconve¬
nient length, other methods are fometimes ufed to
bring them to a conclufion, either in confequence of
the original contraft, or by agreement at the time of
diffolution. Sometimes the debts and efttfts are fold
by auftion ; fometimes they are divided among the
partners; and, when there are two partners, one di¬
vides them into lhares, as equal as poffible, and the
other choofes either lhare he thinks belt.
If a partner withdraws, he continues refponfible
for his former partners till it be publicly known that
he hath done fo. A deed of feparation, regiftrated
at a public office, is fufficient prefumption of fuch no¬
toriety.
III. Companies, where the bufinefs is condufted by
officers. There are many companies of this kind in
Britain, chiefly eftablilhed for purpof-s which require
a larger capital than private merchants can command.
The laws with refpeft to thefe companies, when not
ernfirmed by public authority, are the fame as the
former, but the articles of their agreement ufually
very different. The capital is condefcended on ; and
divided into a certain number of lhares, whereof each
partner may hold one or more', but is generally rellric-
ted to a certain number. Any partner may transfer
his lhare ; and the company mull admit his affignee as
a partner. The dea h of the partners has no effeft on
the company. No partner can aft perfonaliy in the
affairs of the company : but the execution of their bu-
finefs is intrnlled to officers, for whom they are refpon¬
fible ; and, when the partners are numerous, the fu-
perintendency of the officers is committed to direftors
chofen annually, or at other appointed times, by the
partners.
IV. Companies incorporated by authority. A royal
charter is neceffary to enable a company to hold lands,
to have a common feal, and enjoy the other privileges
of a corporation. A charter is fometimes procu¬
red, in order to limit the rifk of the partners: for,
in every private company, the partners are liable for
PAR [ 5894 } PAR
Partridge, the debts, without limitation ; in corporated focieties,
  they are only liable for their (hares in the ftock of the
fociety. The incorporation of focieties is fometimes
authorifed by a& of parliament; but this high autho¬
rity is not necefiary, unlefs for conferring exclufive
privileges.
PARTRIDGE, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
The partridge is fo valuable at the table, that a
great many ways of taking it have been invented by
fportfmen, all of which fucceed from the natural folly
and timidity of the animal.
The places partridges delight in moft are corn-fields, e-
fpecially whilft the corn grows, for underthat cover they
flicker and breed : neither are thofe places unfrequent¬
ed by them when the corn is cut down, by reafon of
the grain they find there, efpecially in wheat-ftubble,
the height of which they delight in, being to them as
a covert or (helter. When the wheat-ftubble is much
trodden by men or beads, they then betake chem-
felves to the barley-ftubble, provided it be frefh and
untrodden; and they will, in the furrows, amongftthe
clots, branches, and long grafs, hide both themfelves
and coveys, which are fometimes 20 in number; nay,
30 in a covey.
When the winter-feafon is arrived, and the ftubble-
fields are ploughed up, or over-foiled with cattle, par¬
tridges refort into the upland meadows, and lodge in
the dead-grafs, or fog under hedges, amongft mole¬
hills, or under the roots of trees; fometimes they
refort to coppices and under-woods, efpecially if any
corn-fields are adjacent, or where there is grown
broom, brakes, fern, &c.
In the harveft-time, when every field is full of men
and cattle, in the day-time they are found in the
fallow-fields which are next adjoining to the corn¬
fields, where they lie lurking till evening or morn¬
ing, and then they feed among the (heaves of corn.
When their haunts are known, according to the fi-
tuation of the country and feafon of the year, the
next care muft be to find them out in their haunts,
which is done feveral ways. Some do it by the eye
only ; and this art can never be taught, but learned
by frequent experience, the colour of the birds being
fo like that of the earth at a diftance, that no eye but
a very converfant one could diftinguilh them. Wh.m
they arc once feen, the bufinefs is to keep the eye up¬
on them, and then to keep in continual motion. They
are a very lazy bird, and by this means will let a per-
fon almoft tread upon them ; though if the perfon
(lands ftill to eye them, they will rife immediately,
» though they be at a confiderable diftance.
Another method of difcovering them, is by going
to their haunts very early in the morning, or at the
clofe of the evening, which is called the jucking-
time. The noife of the cock-partride is to be attend¬
ed to at this time, and is very loud and earned. The
hen will foon come up to the cock after her making
the noife, which (he does by way of anfwer; and when
they are got together, their chattering will difcover
them. Thus they may always be found at thefe times.
But there is a yet better method of finding this bird,
which is by the call. The bufinefs, in order to have
fuccefs in this way, is carefully to learn the notes of
the partridge, and be able to imitate all the feveral
founds. When perfed in this,, the perfon is to go to
the haunts morning and evening, and placing himfelf Partridge
in fome place where he can fee the birds without being !l
feen by them, he is to liften to their calling ; and when Party'
they are heard, he is to anfwer in the fame notes,
doubling again as they do : by continuing this, they
may be brought fo near, that the perfon lying down
on his back may count their whole number. Having
in this manner found where the birds are, the next
care is to catch them.
They are fo foolifh, that it is extremely eafy to take
them in nets. In order to this, there needs no more
than the going out, provided with two or three nets,
with mtflies fomewhat fmaller than thofe of the phea-
fant nets, and walking round about the covey, a net
is to be fixed fo as to draw over them, on pulling a
line at a diftance. All this may be eafily done ; for
fo long as the fportfman continues moving about, and
does not fix his eye too intenfely upon them, they will
let him come near enough to fix the net, without
moving. If they lie fo draggling, that one net will
not cover them, then two or three muft be fixed in the
fame manner. The fportfman may then draw the nets
over them, and they will often lie ftill with the nets
upon them till he comes up to fright them; then they
will rife, and be entangled in the net.
A fccond method of taking them is with bird-lime.
this is done by means of wheat-draws. Thefe muft
be large, and cut off between knot and knot; they
muft be well lined with the bed and ftrongeft bird¬
lime, and the fportmen mud carry a great number out
with him. Having found a field where there are par¬
tridges, he is to call; and if they anfwer, he is then
to (tick up the limed draws in rows acrofs two or
three lands, and going backward, call again to them,
leading them on in the road where the draws are :
they will follow one another like a flock of chickens,
and come out to the call ; and will in their way run
upon the draws, and liming themfelves they will daub
one another by crowding together, fo that very few of
them will be able to efcape.
But there is yet a pleafanter way of taking them
than this, that is, by driving of them. In order to
this, an engine is to be made of canvas (luffed with
draw, to reprefent a horfe ; this horfe and nets are to
be taken to the haunts of the partridges, and the nets
being placed flanting or flopewife in the lower part of
the field, the fportfman is to take the wind in his back
and get above them, driving them downwards; his
face is to be covered with fomething green or blue,
and placing the horfe before him, he is to go towards
them (lowly and gently ; and by this means they will
be raifed on their legs, bnt not on their wings, and
will run before the horfe into the nets. If in the way
they go into a wrong path, the horfe is to be moved
to face them ; and they will be thus driven back again,
and driven every way the fportfman pleafes.
PARTURITION, the art of bringing forth, or
being delivered of, young. See Midwifery.
PARTY, in a military fenfe, a fmall number of
men, horfe, or foot, fent upon any kind of duty; as
into an enemy’s country to pillage, to take prifoners,
and to oblige the country to come under contribution.
Parties are often fent out to view the roads and ways,
get intelligence, feek forage; to reconnoitre, or amufe
the enemy upon a march : they are alfo frequently fent
upon
Parulides,
Parus.
PAR [ 5895 ] PAS
upon the flanlcs of an army or regiment, to difcover the
enemy if near, and prevent furprife or ambufcade.
PARULIDES, in furgery, tumours and inflamma¬
tions of the gums, commonly called gum-boils. They
are to be treated with difcutients like other inflamma¬
tory tumours.
PARUS, or Titmouse, in ornithology, a genus
belonging to the order of pafleres. The bill is very
entire, covered at the bafis with hairs; the tongue is
truncated and hairy. There are 14 fpecies ; of which
the moft remarkable are,
1. The criftatus, or crefted titmoufe, weighs 13
pennyweight; the bill is black, with a fpot of the
fame colour above it; all the upper part of the body
gray ; the neck and under parts are white, with a faint
tinfture of red, which is deepeft juft below the wings.
The legs are of a lead colour. It eredfs its crown fea¬
thers into a creft. It inhabits the warm parts of Nort h
America; and frequents.foreft-trees, feeding upon in¬
fers.
2. The major, or great titmoufe, has the head and
throat black, the cheeks white, the back of a green
colour, the belly yellowifh green, divided in the middle
by a bed of black which extends to the vent; the
rump of a bluifh grey, the legs of a lead colour, the
toes divided to the very origin, and the back-toe very
large and ftrong. This fpecies fometimes vifits our
gardens ; but for the moft part inhabits woods, where
it builds in hollow trees, laying about ten eggs. It
feeds on infedts, which it finds in the bark of trees.
In the fpring they do a great deal of mifchief by pick¬
ing off the tender buds of the fruit-trees. Like wood¬
peckers, they are perpetually running up and down the
bodies of trees in queft of food. This bird has three
cheerful notes, which it begins to utter in the month
of February.
3. The cceruleus, or blue titmoufe, is a very beauti¬
ful bird. The bill is Ihort and dulky; the crown of
the head of a fine blue ; from the bill to the eyes is a
black line; the forehead and cheeks white; the back,
of a yellowifh green; the lower fide of the body yel¬
low ; the wings and tail blue, the former marked
tranfverfely with a white bar; the legs of a lead co¬
lour. They frequent gardens; and do great injury to
fruit-trees, by bruifing the tender buds in fearch of
the infers which lie under them. It breeds in holes
of walls, and lays 12 or 14 eggs.
4. The virginianus, or yellow rump, is found in Vir¬
ginia ; and is diftinguifhed by a yellow fpot on its
rump. All the reft of the feathers are brown, with .
a flight tinfture of green. It runs about the bodies
of trees; and feeds on infefts, which it pecks from the
crevices of the bark.
3. The caudatus, or long-tailed titmoufe, is about
five inches and a. quarter in length, and feven inches in
breadth. The bill is black, very thick and convex,
differing from all others of this genus. The top of
the head, from the bill to the hind part, is white, mix¬
ed with a few dark-grey feathers: this bed of white is
entirely furrounded with a broad ftroke of black ;
which rifing on each fide of the upper mandible, paf-
fes over each eye, unites at the hind part of the head,
and continues along the middle of the back to the
rump. The feathers on each fide of this black ftroke
are of a purplifli red, as are thofe immediately incum-
Vol. VIII. 2
bent on the tail. The tail is the longeft, in propor¬
tion to the bulk, of any Britifti bird, being in length
three inches, the form not unlike that of a magpie,
confiding of i2 feathers of unequal lengths, the mid-
dlemoft the longeft, thofe on each fide growing gra¬
dually fhorter. Thefe birds are often feen paffing
through our gardens, going from one tree to another,
as if in their road to fome other place, never making
any halt. They make their nefts with great elegance,
of an oval fhape, and about eight inches deep, having
near the upper .end a hole for admifiion. The exter¬
nal materials are moffes and lichens curioufly interwo¬
ven with wool. On the infide it is very warmly lined
with a thick bed of feathers. The female lays from
10 to 17 eggs. The young follow their parents the
whole winter ; and, from the flimnefs of their bodies,
and great length of tail, appear, while flying, like as
many darts cutting the air.
6. The biarmicus, or bearded titmoufe, has a fliort,
ftrong, and very convex bill, of a box colour ; the head
of a fine grey ; the chin and throat white ; the middle
of the bread flefli-coloured ; the fides and thighs of a
pale orange ; the hind part of the neck and back of"
orange bay ; the tail is two inches and three quarters
long ; the legs of a deep ftiining black. The fe¬
male wants the flrih-colour on the bread, and a trian¬
gular tuft of black feathers on each fide the bill which
adorn the male. They are found in marfhy places.
PASCAL (Blaise), one of the greateft geuiufea
and bed writers France has produced, was born at
Clermont in Auvergne, in the year 1623. His fa¬
ther, Stephen Pafcal, born in 1588, and of an ancient
family, was pfefident of the court of aids in his pro¬
vince : he was a very learned man, an able mathema¬
tician, and a friend of Des Cartes. Having an ex¬
traordinary tendernefs for this child, his only fon, he
quitted his office in his province, and went and fettled
at Paris in 1631, that he might be quite at leifure for
the inftru&ion of him ; and Blaife never had any ma¬
iler but his father. From his infancy he gave proofs
of a very extraordinary capacity: for he defired to know
the reafon of every thing ; and when good reafons were
not given him, he would feek for better ; nor would
he ever yield his affent but upon fuch as appeared to
him well grounded. There was room to fear, that
with fuch a call oFmind he would fall into free think¬
ing, or at leaft into heterodoxy ; yet he was always
very far from any thing of this nature.
What is told of his manner of learning the mathe¬
matics, as well as the progrefs he quickly made in that
fcience, feems almoft miraculous. His father, percei¬
ving in him an extraordinary inclination to reafoning,
was afraid left the knowledge of the mathematics
would hinder his learning the languages. He kept
him therefore as much as he could from all notions of
geometry, locked up all his books of that kind, and
refrained even from fpeaking of it in his prefence. He
could not, however, make his fon refrain from milling
upon proportions; and one day furprifed him at work
with charcoal upon his chamber-floor, and in the midll
of figures. He allied him what he was doing ? I am
fearching, fays Pafcal, for fuch a thing ; which was
juft the 32ft propofition of the firft book of Euclid.
He alked him then how he came to think of this ?
It was, fays Pafcal, becaufe I have found out fuch
33 G another
Pifeai
PAS [ 5896 ] PAS
Pafcal. another thing : and fo going backward, and ufing the
'names of Errand round, he came at length to the de¬
finitions and axioms he had formed to himfelf. Does
it not feem rr.i: aculous, that a boy fhould work his way
into the heart of a mathematical book, without ever
having feen that or any other book upon the fuhjeft,
or knowing any thing of the terms? Yet we are af-
fured of the truth of this by Madam Per'er, and fcve-
ral other writers, the credit of whofe teftimony can¬
not reafbnably be queftioned. He had, from hence¬
forward, full liberty to indulge his genius in mathe¬
matical purfuits. He underllood Euclid’s Elements
as foon as he cail his eyes upon them : and this was
not tlrange ; for, as we have feen, he underftood them
before. At 16 years of age he wrote a treatife of co¬
nic fefiions, which was accounted by the moll learned
a mighty effort of genius ; and therefore it is no won¬
der that Des Cartes, who had been in Holland a long
time, (hould, upon reading it, choofe to believe, that
Mr Pafcal, the father, wTas the real author of it. At
nineteen, he contrived an admirable arithmetical ma¬
chine, which was efteemed a very umnderful thing :
and at twenty-three, having feen the Torricellian ex¬
periment, he invented and tried a great number of
other new experiments.
After he had laboured abundantly in mathematical
and philofophical difquifitions, he forfook thofe ftudies
and a!Khuman learning at once; and determined to
know nothing, as it were, for the future, but Jefus
Chrift and him crucified. He was not 24 years of
age, when the reading fom-e pious books had put him
upon taking this holy refolution; and be became as
great a devotee as any age has produced. Mr Pafcal
now gave himfelf up entirely to a ftate of prayer and
mortification. He had always in his thoughts thefe
great maxims, of renouncing all pleafure and all fuper-
fluity; and this he pra&ifed with rigour even in his
illneffes, to which he was frequently fubjeft, being of
a very invalid habit of body: for inftance, when
his ficknefs obliged him to feed fomewhat delicately,
he took great care not to relifh or tafte what he eat.
He had no violent affedlion for thofe he loved ; he
thought it finful, fince a man pofftfies a heart which
belongs only to God. He found fault with fome dif-
courfes of his filler, which {be thought very innocent;
as if (he had faid upon occafion, that fiie had feen a
beautiful woman, he would be angry, and tell her,
that /he might raife bad thoughts in footmen and
young people. He frequently wore an iron girdle full
of pojnts next to his {kin ; and when any va n thought
came into his head, or when he took particular plea¬
fure in any thing, he gave himfelf fome blows with his
elbow, to redouble the prickings, and to recall him¬
felf to his duty.
Though Mr Pafcal had thus abftrafled himfelf from
the world, yet he could not forbear paying fome at¬
tention to what was doing in it; and he even intereft-
ed himfelf in the conteft: between the Jefuits and the
Janfeniils. The Jefuits, though they had the popes
and kings on their fide, were yet decried by the peo¬
ple,, who brought up afrefh againftthem the afiaffina-
tion of Henry the Great, and all the old (lories that
were likely to make them odious. Pafcal went far¬
ther ; and by his Lettres Provincialcs, publiftied in
1656, under the name of Louis de Montallt, made them
the fubje£l of ridicule. “ Thefe letters,” fays Vol- Pafc!
taire, “ may be confidered as a model of eloquence ^
and humour. The bed comedies of Moliere have not d qtl
more wit than the firft part of thefe letters ; and the
fublimity of the latter part of them is equal to any
thing in Boffuet. It is true, indeed, that the whole
book was built upon a falfe foundation ; for the extra¬
vagant- notions of a few Spanifh and Flemifh Jefuits
were artfully aferibed to the whole fociety. Many ab-
furdities might likewife have been difeovered among
the Dominican and Francifcan cafuifts: but this would
not have anfwered the purpofe; for the whole raillery
was to be levelled only at the Jefuits. Thefe letters
were intended to prove, that the Jefuits had formed a
defign to corrupt mankind ; a defign which no fed or
fociety ever had, or can have ” Voltaire, calls Pafcal
the firft of their fatyrifts; for Defpreaux, fays h-e;
muft be confidered as only the fecond. In another
place, fpeaking of this work' of Pafcal, he fays, that
“ examples of all the various fpecies of eloquence are
to be found in it. Though it has been now written
almoft too years, yet not a fingle word occurs in it,
favouring of that viciffitnde to which living languages
are fo fubjedt. Here then we are to fix the epocha
when our language may he faid to have affumed a fet¬
tled form. The bifliop of Lncon, fon of the celebra¬
ted Bufly, told me, that alking one day the biftiop of
Meaux what work he would covet moll to be the au¬
thor of, fuppofing his own perfftrmances fet afide,
Bofiuet replied, The Provincial Letters.” Thefe let¬
ters have been tranflated into all languages, and print¬
ed over and over again. Some have faid, that there
wgre decrees of formal condemnation againfl them ;
and alfo that Pafcal himfelf, in his laft illnefs, detefted
them, and repented of having been a Janfenift : but
both thefe particulars are faife and without foundation.
Father Daniel was fuppofed to be the anonymous au¬
thor of a piece againlt them, intitled, The Dialogues
of Oleander and Eudoxus.
Mr Pafcal died at Paris the 19th of Auguft 1662,
aged 39 years. He had been fome time about a work
againll atheifts and infidels, but did not live long
enough to digeft the materials he had colleded. What
was found among his papers was publdhed under the
title of Pepjees, &c. or Thoughts upon religion and o~
ther fubjeSis, and has been much admired. After his
death appeared alfo two other little trads ; one of
_which is intitled, The equilibrium of fluids ; and the
other, The weight ofthe mafs of air.
To conclude, Mr Pafcal was, all things confidered,
a man of a moft fingular compbfition ; or, as Mr Bayle
fays, “ a parodoxical individuum of the human kind.”
PASCHAL, fomething belonging to the paflbver,
or Eafter. See Passover and Easter.
PASIPHAE, in fabulous hillory, the daughter of
Apollo, and the wife of Minos, king of Crete, by
whom (he had Androgeos, Ariadne, and Phaedra.
She conceived a violent paffion for a bull ; and bad by
him the Minotaur, which was kept in the labyrinth,
where it was killed by Thefeus.
PASQUIN, a mutilated (latute at Rome, in a
corner of the palace of the Urfini. It takes its name
from a cobler of that city called Pafquin, famous for
his fneers and gibes, and who diverted himfelf by
pafiing his jokes on all that went through that ftreet.
After
PAS
Pafquinade After his death, as they were digging up the pave-
Ij. ment before his door, they found in the earth the
' a liU‘ ftattie of an ancient gladiator, well cut, but maimed
and half-fpoiled : this they fet up in the place where
it was found, and by common content named it Paf-
qtiin. Since that time all fatires are attributed to
that figure; and are either put into its mouth, pr
palled upon it, as if they were written by Pafquin
redivivus; and thefe are addreffed by Pafquin to Mar-
forio, another flatue at Rome. When Mjarforio is atf
tacked, Pafquin comes to his afliftance ; and, when
Pafquin is attacked, Marforio afiifts him in his turn :
that is, the people make the ftatues fpeak juft what
they pleafe.
PASQUINADE, a fatirical libel faftened to the
ftatue of Pafquin: thefe are commonly (hort, witty,
and pointed; and from hence .the term has been applied
to all lampoons of the fame call.
PASS, or Passade, in fencing ; an advance, or
leap forward upon the enemy. Of thefe there are
feveral kinds; as palfes within, above, beneath, to the
right, the left, and paffes under the line, &c. The
meafure of the pafs is when the fwords are fo near as
that they may touch one another.
Pass, in a military fenfe, a ftrait and difficult
paffage, which (huts up the entrance into a coun-
trJr>
¥tiSS-Parole, in military affiairs, a command given
at the head of an army, and thence communicated to
the rear, by paffing it from mouth to mouih.
PASSADE, in the manege, is a turn or courfe
of a horfe backwards or forwards on the fame fpot of
ground. Hence there are feveral forts of paffades, ac¬
cording to the different ways of turning, in order to
part or return upon the fame tread, which is called
clojing the pajjade; as the paffade of one time, the
paffade of five times, and the raifed or high paffades,
into which the demivolts are made into curvets. See
Horsemanship.
Sec Pole.
JMorth-eaJl Passage. 3
Right of Passage, in commerce, is an impofition
or duty exadted by fome princes, either by land or
fta, in certain clofe and narrow places in their terri¬
tories, on all veffels and carriages, and even fometimes
on perfons or paffengers coming in or going out of
ports, &c. The moll celebrated paffage of this kind
in Europe is the Sound ; the dues for paffing which
ftrait belong to the king of Denmark, and are paid
at Elfenore or Cronenburg.
PASSANT, in herald, a term applied to a lion or
other animal in a fliield, appearing to walk leifurely :
for moft beads, except lions, the trippant is frequently
ufed inftead ofpajfant.
PASSAU, an ancient, handfome, and celebrated
town of Germany, in lower Bavaria, with a bifhop’s
fee ami fort. The houfes are well built, and the ca¬
thedral is thought to be the fined in all Germany.
It is divided into four parts, three of which are forti¬
fied ; but the other is only a fuburb, and ha? nothing
but an old caftle in which the bifhop generally refides.
It is ft ated at the confluence of the rivers Inn and Iltz,
in E. Long. 13. 34. N. Lat. 48. 26.
Passau, a bifhopric of Germany, lying between
Lower Bavaria, Auftria, and Bohemia. It extends
PAS
not above 20 miles where largeft ; and has no confi-
derable place, except the capital which is of the fame
name.
PASSERAT (John), a celebrated proftffor of
eloquence in the royal college of Paris, and one of
the politeft writers of his time, was born at Troyes in
the province of Champagne, in 1534. He fpent three
years in ftudying the law under the famous Cujacius
at Bourges, where he became profeffor of eloquence
in ijya. He was an indefatigable ftudent, paffing
frequently whole days without eating a morfel ; yet
to an extraordinary erudition he joined an uncommon
politenefs of manners and pleafantry, having nothing
of the mere fcholar except the gown and hood. He
gained the efteem of the kings Charles IX. Henry III.
and of all thp men of wit and learning in his time.
Pie died in 1602, and left feveral admired works be¬
hind him.
PA5SERES, the name of a clafs of birds. See
Zoology.
PASSIONS, in moral philofophy, are certain mo¬
tions of the foul, which make it purfue what appears
to be good, and avoid whatever threatens evil. See
Metaphysics, n° 31, 32.
On the juft regulation and fubordination of the
paffions depends in a great meafure the happinefs
of mankind. See Moral Philofophy, n° 6, 17, 31,32,
68, 212.
Passions and Emotions, difference between them.
See Emotions and Paffions.
External Signs of Etnotions and Passions. So inti¬
mately connedled are the foul and body, that every
agitation in the former produces a vifible effedt up¬
on the latter. There is, at the fame time, a wonder¬
ful uniformity in that operation ; each clafs of emotions
and paffions being invariably attended with an ex¬
ternal appearance peculiar to itfelf. Thefe external
appearances, or figns, may not improperly be confi-
dered as a natural language, expreffing to all be¬
holders emotions and paffions as they arife in the
heart. Hope, fear, joy, grief, are difplayed exter¬
nally : the charadler of a man can be read in his
face ; and beauty, which makes fo deep an impreflion,
is known to refult, not fo much from regular features
and a fine complexion, as from good-nature, good-
fenfe, fprightlinefs, fweetnefs, or other mental qua¬
lity, exprtffcd upon the countenance. Though per-
fedl fkill in that language be rare, yet what is gene¬
rally known is fufficient for the ordicary purpofes of
life. But by what means we come to underftand the
language, is a point of fome intricacy. It cannot te
by fight merely ; for upon the meft attentive infpec-
tion of the human vifage, all that can be difeerned
are figure, colour, and motion, which, fingly or com¬
bined, never can reprefent a paffion, nor a fentiment ;
the external lign is indeed viffible ; but to underftand
its meaning, we muft be able to ccnnedl it with the
the paffion that caufes it, an operation far beyond the
reach of eye-fight. Where then is. the inflrudlor to
be found that can unveil this fecret connexion? If
we apply to experience, it is yielded, that from long
and diligent obfervation, we may gather, in fome
meafure, in what manner thofe we are acquainted with
exprefs their paffions externally : but with refpedt to
ftrangers, we are left in the dark,; and yet we are not
'33 G 2 puzzled
[ 5897 ]
Pa Herat
I
Pa (lions.
PAS [ 5898 ] PAS
Paffions. puzzled about the meaning of thefe external expref-
"fions in a ftranger, more than in a bofom-companion.
Further, had we no other means but experience for
underftanding the external figns of paflion, we could
not expedt any uniformity nor any degree of flcill in
the bulk of individuals: yet matters are fo much bet¬
ter ordered, that the external expreffions of paffion
form a language underftood by all, by the young as
well as the old, by the ignorant as well as the learned:
We talk of the plain and legible charadlers of that
language; for undoubtedly we are much indebted to
experience, in deciphering the dark and more delicate
expreflions. Where then fhall we apply for a folution
of this intricate problem, which feems to penetrate
deep into human nature ? Undoubtedly if the mean¬
ing of external figns be not derived to us from fight,
nor from experience, there is no remaining fource
whence it can be derived but from nature.
Elements of We may then venture to pronounce, with fome de-
Criticifm. gree 0f confidence, that man is provided by nature
with a fenfe or faculty that lays open to him every
paffion by means of its external expreffions. And we
cannot entertain any reafonable doubt of this, when
we refleft,. that the meaning of external figns is not
hid even from infants: an infant is remarkably affec¬
ted with the paffions of its nurfe exprefled on her
countenance ; a finite chears it, a frown makes it
afraid: but fear cannot be'without apprehending
danger ; and what danger can the infant (apprehend,
unlefs it be fenfible that its nurfe is angry ? We muft
therefore admit, that a child can read anger in its
nurfe’s face ; of which it muft be fenfible intuitively,
for it has no other mean of knowledge. We do
not affirm, that thefe particulars are clearly appre¬
hended by the child; for to produce clear and diflindl
perceptions, reflection and experience are requifite:
but that even an infant, when afraid, muft have fome
notion of its being in danger, is evident.
That we fhould be confcious intuitively of a paffion
From its external expreffions, is conformable to the
analogy of nature : the knowledge of that language
is of too great importance to be left upon experience;
becaufe a foundation fo uncertain and precarious,
would prove a great obftacle to the formation of fo-
cieties. Wifely therefore is it ordered, and agreeably
to the fyftem of Providence, that we fhould have na¬
ture for our inftru&or.
Manifold and admirable are the purpofes to which
, the external figns of paffion are. made fubfervient by
the Author of our nature.
1. The figns of internal agitation difplayed exter¬
nally to every fpe&ator, tend to fix the fignification
of many words. The only effeftual means toafeertain
the meaning of any doubtful word, is an appeal to the
thing it reprefents : and hence the ambiguity of words
expreffive of things that are not objefts of external
fenfe; for in that cafe an appeal is denied. Paffion,
ftri&jy fpeaking, is not an objeft of external fenfe:
but its external figns are ; and by means of thefe figns,
paffions may be appealed to with tolerable accuracy :
thus the words that denote our paffions, next to thofe
that denote external obje&s, have the moft dillinft
meaning. Words fignifying internal aftion and the
more delicate feelings, are lefs- diftin&. This defe&
with regard to internal a&ion, is what chieily occa*
fions the intricacy of logic: the terms of that fcience Paflions.
are far from being fufficiemly afeertained, even after ~
much care and labour beftowed by an eminent writer*; * Locke.
to whom however the world is greatly indebted, for
removing a mountain of rubbifh, and moulding the
fubjeft into a rational and corredt form. The fame de-
feCt is remarkable in criticifnj, which has for its ob¬
ject the more delicate feelings ; the terms that denote
thefe feelings being not more diftinCt than thofe of
logic.
z. Society among individuals is greatly promoted
by that univerfal language. Looks and geftures give
direCt accefs to the heart; and lead us to feleCt, with
tolerable accuracy, the perfons who are worthy of
our confidence. It is furprifing how quickly, and
for the moft part how correCtly, we judge of character
from external appearance.
3. After focial intercourfe is commenced, thefe ex¬
ternal figns, which diffufe through a whole afiembly
the feelings of each individual, contribute above all
other means to improve the focial' affeCtions. Lan¬
guage, no doubt, is the moft comprehenfive vehicle for
communicating emotions: but in expedition, as well
as in power of conviction, it falls (hort of the figns
under confideration ; the involuntary figns efpecially,
which are incapable of deceit. Where the counte¬
nance, the tones, the geftures, the aCtions, join with
the words in communicating emotions, thefe united
have a force irrefiftible : thus all the pleafant emo¬
tions of the human heart, with all the focial and vir¬
tuous affeCtions, are, by means of thefe external figns,
not only perceived, but felt. By this admirable con¬
trivance, converfation becomes that lively and ani¬
mating amufement, without which life would at belt
be intipid : one joyful countenance fpreads chearful-
nefs inftantaneoufly through a multitude of fpeCtators. .
4. Diffocial paffions, being hurtful by prompting
violence and mifehief, are noted by the moft confpi-
cuous external figns, in order to put us upon our
guard: thus anger and revenge, efpecially when fud-
den, difplay themfelves on the countenance in legible
character. The external figns, again, of every paffion
that threatens danger, raife in us the paffion of fear:
which frequently operating without reafon or reflection,
moves us by a fudden impulfe to avoid the impending
danger.
5. Thefe external figns are remarkably fubfervient
to morality. A painful paffion, being accompained
with difagreeable external figns, muft produce in every
fpeCtator a painful emotion : but then, if the paffion be
focial, the emotion it pruduces is attractive, and con-
neCts the fpeCtator with the perfon who fuffers. Dif¬
focial paffions only, are productive of repulfive emo¬
tions, involving the fpeCtator’s averfion, and frequently
his indignation. This artful contrivance makes us
cling to the virtuous, and abhor the wicked.
6. Of all the external figns of paffion, thofe of af¬
fliction or diltrefs are the moft illuftrious with refpeft
to a final caufe, and dtfervedly merit a place of di-
ftinCtion. They are illuftrious by the Angularity of
their contrivance ; and alfo by infpiring fympathy, a
paffion to which human fociety is indebted for its
greateft bleffing, that of providing relief for the di-
ftrefled. A fubjeCt fo interefting, deferves a leifurely
and attentive examination. The conformity of the na¬
ture
PAS [ 5899 ] PAS
Paffions. ture of man to his external circumftances, is in every
' particular wonderful: his nature makes him prone to
fociety ; and fociety is neceffary to his well-being,-be-
caufe in a folitary ftate he is a helpltfs being, defti-
tute of fupport, and in his diftreffes dellitute of re¬
lief : but mental fupport, the Ihining attribute of
fociety, is of too great moment to be left depen¬
dent upon cool reafon ; it is ordered more wifely,
and with greater conformity to the analogy of nature,
that it fhould be enforced even inftindively by the
paffion offympathy. Here fympathy makes a capital
figure ; and contributes, more than any other means,
to make life eafy and comfortable. But however ef-
fential the fympathy of others may be to our well¬
being, one beforehand would not readily conceive how
it could be raifed by external figns of diftrefs: forcon-
fidering the analogy of nature, if thefe figns be agree¬
able, they mud give birth to a pleafant emotion lead¬
ing every beholder to be pleafed with human woes: if
difagreeable, as they undoubtedly are, ought they not
naturally to repel the fpe&ator from them, in order
to be relieved from pain ? Such would be the reafon-
ing beforehand ; and fuch would be the effeft were
man purely a felfifh being. But the benevolence of
our nature gives a very different dire&ion to the pain¬
ful pafiion of fympathy, and to the defire involved in
it: inflead of avoiding diftrefs, we fly to it in order
to afford relief; and our fympathy cannot be other-
wife gratified but by giving all the fuccour in our
power. Thus external figns of diftrefs, though difa¬
greeable, are attraftive : and the fympathy they in-
fpire is a powerful caufe, impelling us to afford re¬
lief even to a ftranger, as if he were our friend or re¬
lation.
It is a noted obfervation, that the deepeft tragedies
are the moft crowded: which in an overly view will be
thought an unaccountable bias in human nature. Love
of novelty, defire of occupation, beauty of a&ion, make
us fond of theatrical reprefentations; and when once
engaged, we muft follow the ftory to the conclufion,
whatever diftrefs it may create. But we generally be¬
come wife by experience ; and when we forefee what
pain we fhall fuffcr during the courfe of the reprefen-
tation, is it not furprifing that perfons of refleftion do
not avoid fuch fpeftacles altogether ? And yet one who
has fcarce recovered from the diftrefs of a deep tragedy,
refolves coolly and deliberately to go to the very next,
without the flighted obftruftion from felf-love. The
whole myftery is explained by a Angle fcbfervation :
That fympathy, though painful, is attradlive; and at¬
taches us to an objeft in diftrefs, inftead of prompting
us to fly from it. And by this curious mechanifm it
is, that perfons of any degree of fenfibility are attrac¬
ted by afflidtion ftill more than by joy.
To conclude: the external figns of paflion are a ftrong
indication, that man, by his very conftitution, is fra¬
med to be open and fincere. A child, in all things
obedient to the impulfes of nature, hides none of its
emotions ; the favage and clown, who have no guide
but pure nature, expofe their hearts to view, by giving
way to all the natural figns. And even when men learo
to difiemble their fentiments, and when behaviour de¬
generates into art, there ftill remain checks, that keep
difixmulation within bounds, and prevent a great part
of its mifchievous effedks: the total fuppreffion of the
voluntary figns during any vivid paffion, begets the Paffieits.
utmoft uneafinefs, which cannot be endured for any
confiderable time : this operation becomes indeed lefs
painful by habit; but luckily the involuntary figns
cannot, by any effort, be fuppreffed nor even diffem-
bled. An abfolute hypocrify, by which the chara&er
is concealed and a fiftitious one afl’umed, is made im~
pradlicable; and nature has thereby prevented much
harm to fociety. We may pronounce, therefore, that
Nature, herfelf fincere and candid, intends that man¬
kind fhould preferve the fame charadler, by cultiva¬
ting fimplicity and truth, and banifbing every fort of
diffimulation that tends to mifehief.
Influence of Passion 'with refpett to our Perceptions,
Opinions, and Belief. So intimately are our perceptions,
paffions, and aftions, conne&ed, it would be won¬
derful if they fhould have no mutual influence. That
our aftions are too much influenced by paffion, is a
known truth ; but it is not lefs certain, though not fo
well known, that paffion hath alfo an influence upon
our perceptions, opinions, and belief. For example,
the opinions we form of men and things are generally
diredled by affedtion : An advice given by a man of fi¬
gure hath great weight ; the fame advice from one in
a low condition is defpifed or neglefted : a man of
courage under-rates danger; and to the indolent the
flighteft obftacle appears unfurmountable.
There is no truth more univerfally known, than Elements of
that tranquillity and fedatenefs are the proper ftate 0fCriticifm,
mind for accurate perception and cool deliberation ; ^c0c>'1'p'Ii3
and for that reafon, we never regard the opinion even
of the wifeft man, when we difeover prejudice or paf¬
fion behind the curtain. Paffion hath fuch influence
over us, as to give a falfe light to all its objefts. A-
greeable paffions prepoffefs the mind in favour of their
objefts; and difagreeable paffions, not lefs againft their
objefts : A woman is all perfection in her lover’s opi¬
nion, while in the eye of a rival beauty fhe is aukward
and difagreeable : when the paffion of love is gone,
beauty vanifhes with it;—nothing left of that genteel
motion, that fprightly converfation, thofe numberlefs
graces, which fonnerly, in the lover’s opinion, charm¬
ed all hearts. To a zealot every one of his own fed
is a faint, while the moft upright of a different fed
are to him children of perdition : the talent of fpeak-
ing in a friend, is more regarded than prudent condud
in any other. Nor will this furprife any one acquaint¬
ed with the world ; our opinions, the refult frequently
of various and complicated views, are commonly fo
flight and wavering, as readily to be fufceptible of a
bias from paffion.
With that natural bias another circumftance con¬
curs, to give paffion an undue influence on our opi¬
nions and belief; and that is a ftrong tendency in our
nature to juftify our paffions as well as our aftions,
not to others only, but even to ourfelves. That ten¬
dency is peculiarly remarkable with refped to difa¬
greeable paffions: by its influence, objeds are magni¬
fied or leffened, circumftances fnpplied or fuppreffed,
every thing coloured and difguifed, to anfwer the end
of juftification. Hence the foundation of felf-deceit,
where a man impofes upon himfelf innocently, and
even without fufpicion of a bias.
We proceed to illuftrate the foregoing ofcfervations
by proper examples.
Gratitude,
PAS [ 5900 ] PAS
•puSlonj. Gratitude, when warm, is often exerted upon the
" children of the benefa&or ; efpecially where he is re*
moved out of reach by death or abfence. The pafiion
in this cafe being exerted for the fake of the benefac¬
tor, requires no peculiar excellence in his children :
but the pra&ice of doing good to thefe children pro¬
duces affedion for them, which never fails to advance
them in our efteem. By fuch means, ftrong connec¬
tions of affedion are often formed among individuals,
upon the flight foundation now mentioned.
Envy isa pafiion, which, beingaltogether unjuftifiable,
cannot be excufed but by difguifing it under fome plau-
lible name. At the fame time, no paflion is more
eager than envy, to give its objed a difagreeable ap¬
pearance : it magnifies every bad quality, and fixes on
the moll humbling circumffances :
Cajjius. I cannot tell what you and other men
Think of this life ; but for my fingle felf,
I had as lief not be, as live to be
In awe of fuch a thing as I myfelf.
I was born free as Casfar, fo were you ;
We both have fed as well; and we can both
Endure the winter’s cold as well as he.
Por once, upon a raw and gully day.
The troubled Tyber chafing with his fliores,
Casfar fays to me, Dar’ll thou, Caflius, now
Leap in with me into this angry flood.
And fwim to yonder point ?—Upon the word,
Accoutred as I was, I plunged in,
And bid him follow; fo indeed he did.
The torrent roar’d, and we did buffet it
With lufty finews ; throwing it afide,
And Hemming it with hearts of controverfy.
But ere we could arrive the point propos’d,
Caefar cry’d, Help me, Caffius, or I fink.
I, as iEneas, our great anceftor,
Did from the flames of Troy upon his flioulder
The old Anchifes bear ; fo from the waves of Tyber
Did I the tired Caefar: and this man
Is now become a god ; and Cafiius is
A wretched creature, and mull bend his body
If Caefar carelefdy but nod on him.
He had a fever when he was in Spain ;
And when the fit was on him, I did mark
How he did lhake. ’Tis true, this god did {hake ;
His coward lips did from their colour fly ;
And that fame eye whofe bend doth awe the world.
Did lofe its luftre ; I did hear him groan ;
Ay, and that tongue of his, that bade the P.omans
Mark him, and write his fpeeches in their books,
Alas! it cry’d—Give me fome drink, Titinius,—
As a lick girl. Ye gods, it doth amaze me,
A man of fuch a feeble temper fliould
So get the ftart of the majeilic world,
And bear the palm alone. Julius Cafar, afl i.jfc. 3.
Glo’fter, inflamed with refentment againft. his fon
Edgar, could even force himfelf into a momentary
convi&ion that they were not related :
O ftrange faften’d villain !
Would he deny his letter?—I never got him.
King Lear, all 2. fc. 3.
When by great fenfibility of heart, or other meads,
grief becomes immoderate, the mind, in order toju-
flify itfelf, is prone to magnify the caufe j and if the
real caufe admit not of being magnified, the mind feeks Paflionj.
a caufe for its grief in imagined future events:
Bujby. Madam, your Majefty is much too fad :
You promis’d, when you parted with the king.
To lay afide felf-harming heavinefs,
And entertain a cheerful difpofition.
Queen. To pleafe the king, I did ; to pleafe myfdf,
I cannot do it. Yet I know no caufe
Why I ffiould welcome fuch a gueft as grief;
Save bidding farewell to fo fweet a gueft
As my fweet Richard : yet again, methinks.
Some unborn forrow, ripe in Fortune’s womb,
Is coming tow’rd me : and my inward foul
With fomething trembles, yet at nothing grieves.
More than with parting from my lord the king.
Richard II. all z. fc. 5.
Refentment at firft is vented on the relations tof the
offender, in order to punilh him : but as refentment,
when fo outrageous, is contrary to confcience, the
mind, to juftify its paflion, is difpofed to paint thefe
relations in the blacked colours ; and it comes at laft
to be convinced, that they ought to be punifhed for
their own demerits.
Anger raifed by an accidental ftroke upon a tender
part of the body, is fometimes vented upon the un-
defigning caufe. But as the pafiion in that cafe is ab-
furd, and as there can be no folid gratification in pu-
nilhing the innocent, the mind, prone to juftify as well
as to gratify its pafiion, deludes itfelf into a convic¬
tion of the aftion’s being voluntary. The conviction,
however, is but momentary ; the firft reflection fhows
it to be erroneous: and the pafiion vanifheth almoft
inftantaneoufly with the conviction. But anger, the
mod violent of all pafiions, has ftill greater influence :
it fometimes forces the mind to perfonify a flock or a
done if it happen to occafion bodily pain, and even to
believe it a voluntary agent, in order to be a proper
objeCt of refentment. And that we have really a mo¬
mentary conviction of its being a voluntary agent,
mud be evident from confidering, that without fuch
conviction the pafiion can neither be juftified nor gra¬
tified : the imagination can give no aid ; for a flock
or a ftone imagined fenfible, cannot be an objeCt of
punifhment, if the mind be confcious that it is an ima¬
gination merely without any reality. Of fuch perfo-
nification, involving a conviction of reality, there is
one illuftrious inftance. When the firft bridge of boats
over the Hrllefpont was deftroyed by a ftorm, Xerxes
fell into a tranfport of rage, fo excefiive, that he com¬
manded the fea to be punilhed with 300 ftripes ; and
a pair of fetters to be thrown into it, enjoining the
following words to be pronounced : “ O thou fait and
bitter water! thy mailer hath condemned thee to this
punifhment for offending him without caufe ; and islib. 7.
refolved to pafs over thee in defpight of thy infolence :
with reafon all men negleCt to facrifice to thee, becaufe
thou art both difagreeable and treacherous.”
Shakefpeare exhibits beautiful examples of the ir¬
regular influence of pafiion in making us believe things
to be otherwife than they are. King Lear, in his di-
ftrefs, peifonifies the rain, wind, and thunder; and
in order to juftify his refentment, believes them to be
taking part with his daughters :
Lear. Rumble thy bellyfull, fpit fire, fpout rain!
Nor
Pufliops.
PAS [ 5901 ] PAS
Paffions. Nor rain, wind, thunder, fire, are my daughters.
■" ' ” I tax not you, ye elements, with unkindncis ;
I never gave you kingdoms, call’d you children ;
You owe me no fubfeription. Then let fall
Your horrible pleafure.—Here I (land, your brave ;
A poor, infirm, weak, and defpis’d old m^n !
But yet I call you ftrvile minifttrs,
That have with two pernicious daughters js-'in’d
Your high-engendtr’d battles, ’gain ft ahead
So old and white as this. Oh ! oh ! ’tis foul!
AH i fc. 2.
King Richard, Full of indignation againft his favourite
horfe for carrying Bolingbroke, is led into the con-
vidtion of his being rational :
Groom. O, how it yearn’d my heart, when I beheld
In London ftreets, that coronation-day,
When Bolingbroke rode on Roan Barbary,
That horfe that thou fo often haft bedrid.
That horfe that I fo carefully have drefled.
K.Rich. Rode he on Barbary ? tell me, gentle friend,
How went he under him ?
Groom. So proudly as he had difdain’d the ground.
So proud that Bolingbroke was o,n his back!
That jade had eat bread from my royal hand.
This hand hath made him proud with clapping him.
Would he not ftumble ? would he not fall down,
(Since pride muft have a fall), and break the neck
Of that proud man that did ufurp his back ?
Richard II. aft fc. 11.
Hamlet, fwelled with indignation at his mother’s fe-
cond marriage, was ftrongly inclined to lefleo the time
of her widowhood, the ftiortnefs of the time being a
violent circumftance againft; her ; and he deludes him-
felf by degrees into the opinion of an interval (hotter
than the real one :
Hamlet. 1—  That it ftiould come to this!
But two months dead! nay, not fo much; not two—
So excellent a king, that was, to this,
Hyperion to a fatyr: fo loving to my mother,
That he permitted not the wind of heav’n
Vifit her face too roughly. Heav’n and earth !
Muft I remember—why, (he would hang on him,
As if increafe of appetite had grown
By what it fed on : yet, within a month 
Let me not think—Frailly, thy name is Woman!
A little month! or ere thofe fhoes were old,
With which (he follow’d my poor father’s body,
Like Niobe, all tears why (he, ev’n (he—
(O heav’n ! a beaft, that wants difcourfe of reafon,
Wou’d have mourn’d longer) married with mine uncle,
My father’s brother; but no more like my father,
Than I to Hercules. Within a month !—
Ere yet the fait of moft unrighteous tears
Had left the fluftiing in her gauled eyes,
She married Oh, moft wicked fpeed ! to poll
With fuch dexterity to inceftuous (beets!
It is not, nor it cannot come to good.
But break, my heart, for I mutt hold my tongue.
An i.>. 3.
The power of paflion to falfify the computation of
time is remarkable in this inftance ; becaufe time, which
hath an accurate meafure, is lefs obfequious to our de'
fires and wiihes, than objects which have no precife
ftandard of lefs or more.
Good news arc greedily fwallowed upon very (len¬
der evidence; our vvifttes magnify the probability of
the event, as well as the veracity of the relater ; and
we believe as certain, what at beft is doubtful:
Quel, che 1’ huom vede, amor li fa invifibie
L 1’invifibil fa vcder amore.
Quefto creduto ft), che ’1 mifer fuo’e
Dar facile credenza a’ quel, che vuole.
Or land. Furiof. cant. I. Jl. 56.
For the fame reafon, bad news gain alfo credit upon
the flighted evidence : fear, if once alarmed, has the
fame effedd with hope, to magnify every circumftance
that tends to convidlion. Shakefpeare, who (hows
more knowledge of human nature than any of our phi-
lofophers, hath in his Cymbeline reprefented this bias
of the mind ; for he makes the perfon who alone was
affedled with the bad news, yield to evidence that did
not convince any of his companions. And Othello is
convinced of his wife’s infidelity from circumftances
too flight to move any perfon lefs interefted.
If the news intereft us in fo low a degree as to give
place to reafon, the effedd will not be altogether the
fame : judging of the probability or improbability of
the (lory, the mind fettles in a rational conviddion ei¬
ther that it is true or not. But even in that cafe, the
mind is not allowed to reft in that degree of convic¬
tion which is produced by rational evidence: if the
news be in any degree favourable, our belief is raifed
by hope to an improper height; and if unfavourable,
by fear.
This obferyation holds equally with refpedd to fu¬
ture events : if a future event be either much vviihed
or dreaded, the mind never fails to augment the pro¬
bability beyond truth.
That eaiinefs of belief with refpedd to wonders and
prodigies, even the moft abfurd and ridiculous, is a
(trange phenomenon ; becaufe nothing can be more
evident than the following propolition, That the more
Angular any event is, the more evidence is required to
produce belief: a familiar event daily occurring, being
in itfelf extremely probable, finds ready credit, and
therefore is vouched by the flighted evidence ; but to
overcome the improbability of a ftrange and rare event,
contrary to the courfe of nature, the very ftrongeft
evidence is required. It is certain, however, that
wonders, and prodigies are fwailowed by the vulgar,,
upon evidence that would not be fuificient to ascer¬
tain the moft familiar, occurrence. It has been rec¬
koned difficult to explain that irregular bias of mind ;
but we are now made acquainted with the influence of
paflion upon opinion and belief: a (lory of ghofts or
fairies, told with an air of gravity and truth, raifeth
an emotion of wonder, and perhaps of dread ; and
thefe emotions impofing on a weak mind, imprefs
upon it a thorough, convidion contrary to reafon.
Opinion and" belief are influenced by propenfity as
well as by paffion. Am innate propenfity is all we have'
to convince us that the operations of nature are uni¬
form: influenced by that propenfity, we often raflily
think, that good or bad weather will never have an
end; and in natural philofophy, writers, influenced
by the fame propenfity, ftretch commonly their ana¬
logical reafbnings beyond juft bounds.
Opinion;
PAS [ 5902 ] PAS
Paffions. Opinion and belief are influenced by affettion as
well as by propenfity. The noted ftory of a fine lady
and a curate viewing the moon through a telefcope, is
a pleafant illuftration : “ I perceive,” fays the lady,
“ two fliadows inclining to each other ; they are cer¬
tainly two llappy lovers “ Not at all,” replies the
curate, “ they are two fteeples of a cathedral.”
Language 0/'Passion. Among the particulars that
compofe the focial part of our nature, a propenfity to
communicate our opinions, our emotions, and every
, thing that affe&s us, is remarkable. Bad fortune and
injuftice affeft us greatly ; and ofthefe we are fo prone
to complain, that if we have no friend nor acquaint¬
ance to take part in our fufferings, we fometimes utter
our complaints aloud, even where there are none to li-
ften.
But this propenfity operates not in every ftate of
mind. A man immoderately grieved, feeks to afflift
himfelf, rejefting all confolation : immoderate grief
accordingly is mute ; complaining is struggling for
confolation.
It is the wretch’s comfort ftill to have
Some fmall referve of near and inward wo,
Some unfufpe&ed hoard of inward grief.
Which they unfeen may wail, and weep, and mourn,
And glutton-like alone devour.
Mourning Bride, r.
When grief fubfides, it then, and no fooner, finds a
tongue : we complain, becaufe complaining is an ef¬
fort to difburden the mind of its diftrefs. This obfer-
vation is finely illuftrated by a ftory which Herodotus
records, b. 3. Cambyfes, when he conquered Egypt,
made Pfammenitus the king prifoner; and for trying
his conftancyr, ordered his daughter to be dreffed in the
habit of a flave, and to be employ’d in bringing water
from the river; his fon alfo was led to execution with
a halter about his neck. The Egyptians vented their
forrow in tears and lamentations: Pfammenitus only,
with a downcaft eye, remained filent. Afterward
meeting one of his companions, a man advanced in
years, who, being plundered of all, was begging alms,
he wept bitterly, calling him by his name. Cambyfes,
ftruck with wonder, demanded an anfwcr to the fol¬
lowing queftion : “ Pfammenitus, thy mafter Camby¬
fes is defirous to know, why, after thou hadft feen thy
daughter fo ignominiofly treated, and thy fon led to
execution, without exclaiming or weeping, thou fhouldft
be fo highly concerned for a poor man, no way rela¬
ted to thee ?” Pfammenitus returned the following
anfwer: “ Son of Cyrus, the calamities of my family
are too great to leave me the power of weeping; but
the misfortunes of a companion, reduced in his old
age to want of bread, is a fit fubjefl for lamentation.”
Surprife and terror are filent paffions, for a different
reafon : they agitate the mind fo violently, as for a
time to fufpend the exercife of its faculties, and among
others the faculty of fpeech.
Love and revenge, when immoderate, are not more
loquacious than immoderate grief. But when thefe
paffions become moderate, they fet the tongue free,
and, like moderate grief, become loquacious. Mode¬
rate love, when unfuccefsful, is vented in complaints
when fuccefsful, is full of joy expreffed by words and
geftures.
As no paffion hath any long uninterrupted exiftence, Paffions,
nor beats always with an equal pulfe, the language'
fuggefted by paffion is not only unequal but frequent¬
ly interrupted : and even during an Uninterrupted fit
of paffion, we only exprefs in words the more capital
fentiments. In familiar converfation, one who vests
every fingle thought, is juflly branded with the cha-
ra&er of loquacity4 becaufe fenfible people exprefs no
thoughts but what make fome figure : in the fame
manner, we are only difpofed to exprefs the ftrongeft
impulfes of paffion, efpecially when it returns with im-
petuofity after interruption.
It is elfewhere obferved *, that the fentiments ought * ?e.e ‘*!e
to be tuned to the paffion, and the language to both.*
Elevated fentiments require elevated language : tender
fentiments ought to be clothed in words that are foft
and flowing: when the mind is depreffed with any
paffion, the fentiments muft be expreffed in words that
are humble, not low. Words being intimately con-
pe&ed with the ideas they reprefent, the greateft har¬
mony is required between them: to exprefs, for ex¬
ample, an humble fentiment in high-founding words,
is difagreeable by a difcordant mixture of feelings;
and the difcord is notlefs when elevated fentiments are
dreffed in low whrds ;
Verfibus exponi tragicis res comlca non vult.
Indignatur item privatis ac prope focco
Dignis carminibus narrari ccena Thyeflee.
Herat. An poet. 1. 89.
This, however, excludes not figurative expreffion,
which, within moderate bounds, communicates to the
fentiment an agreeable elevation. We are fenfible of
an effedl direftly oppofite, where figurative expreffion
is indulged beyond a juft meafure : the oppofition be¬
tween the expreffion and the fentiment makes the dif¬
cord appear greater than it is in reality.
At the fame time, figures are not equally the lan¬
guage of every paffion : pleafant emotions, which ele¬
vate or fwell the mind, vent themfelves in ftrong epi¬
thets and figurative expreffion ; but humbling and dif-
piriting paffions affedt to fpeak plain :
Et tragicus plerumque dolet fermone pedeftri
Telephus et Peleus: cum pauper et exul uterque ;
Projicit ampullas et fefquipedalia verba.
Si curat cor fpedlantis tetigeffe querela.
Herat. Art poet. 95.
Figurative expreffion, being the work of an enlivened
imagination, cannot be the language of anguifti or di-
ftrefs. Otway, fenfible of this, has painted a feene of
diftrefs in colours finely adapted to the fubjedt : there
is fcarce a figure in it, except a ffiort and natural fi-
mile with which the fpeech is introduced. Belvidera
talking to her father of her hufband :
Think you faw what paft at our laft parting;
Think you beheld him like a raging lion,
Pacing the earth, and tearing up his fteps,
Fate in his eyes, and roaring with the pain
Of burning fury ; think you faw his one hand
Fix’d on my throat, while the extended other
Grafp’d a keen threat’ning dagger: oh, ’twas thus
We laft embrac’d, when, trembling with revenge.
He dragg’d me to the ground, and at my bofom
Prefented horrid death ; cry’d out, My friends!
Where
PAS [ 5903 ] PAS
Piffions. Where are my friends ? fwore, wept, rag’d, threaten’d,
" Forhe yet lov’d, and that dear love preferv’d me [lov’d;
To this laft trial of a father’s pity.
I fear not death, but cannot bear a thought
That that dear hand fliould do th’ unfriendly office.
If I was ever then your care, now hear me ;
Fly to the fenate, fave the promis’d lives
Of his dear friends, ere mine be made the facrifice.
Venice preferv'dy aft 5.
To preferve the forefaid refemblance between words
and their meaning, the fentiments of active and hurry¬
ing pafiions ought to be dreffed in words where fyl-
lables prevail that are pronounced (hort or fad ; for
thefe make an impreffion of hurry and precipitation.
Emotions, on the other hand,, that reft upon their
objedfs, are beft expreifed by words where fyllables
prevail that are pronounced long or flow. A perfon
affedted with melancholy, has a languid and flow train
of perceptions. Theexpreffion belt fuited to that ftate
of mind, is where words, not only of long, but of
many fyllables, abound in the compofition ; and for
that reafon, nothing can be finer than the following
paflage:
In thofe deep folitudes, end awful cells,
Where heav’nly-penfive Contemplation dwells,
And ever-muling Melancholy reigns.
Pope, Eloifa to Abelard.
To preferve the fame refemblance, another circum-
flance is requifite, that the language, like the emo¬
tion, be rough or fmooth, broken or uniform. Calm
and fweet emotions are beft exprefled by words that
glide foftly: furprife, fear, and other turbulent paf¬
iions, require an expreffion both rough and broken.
It cannot ha=ve efcaped any diligent inquirer into na¬
ture, that in the hurry of paffion, one generally ex-
preffes that thing firft which is moft at heart; which is
beautifully done in the following paflage.
Me, me; adfum qui feci: in me convertite ferrum,
O Rutuli, mea fraus omnis. JEneid. ix. 427.
Paffion has often the effe& of redoubling words,
the better to make them exprefs the ftrong conception
of the mind. This is finely imitated in the following
examples.
 Thou fun, faid I, fair light!
And thou enlighten’d earth, fo frefh and gay!
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains'
And ye that live, and move, fair creatures! tell,
Tell, if ye faw, how came I thus, how here.—
Paradife Lojl, b. viii. 273.
 Both have finn’d! but thou
Againft God only; I, ’gainft God and thee :
And to the place of judgment will return ;
There with my cries importune Heaven, that all
The fentence, from thy head remov’d, may light
On me, foie caufe to thee of all this wo ;
Me! me! only juft objefl of his ire.
Paradife Left, b. x. 930.
1. In general, the language of violent pafficn ought
to be broken and interrupted. Soliloquies ought to be
fo in a peculiar manner : language is intended by na¬
ture for fociety ; and a man when alone, though he
always clothes his thoughts in words, feldom gives his
Vol. VIII. I
words utterance, unlefs when prompted by fome ftrong Paffiens’
emotion ; and even then by ftarts and intervals only. 
Shakefpeare’s foliloquies may be juftly eftablifhed as a
model ; for it is not eafy to conceive any model more
perfeft. Of his many incomparable foliloquies, the two
following only fhall be quoted, being different in their
manner.
Hamlet. Oh, that this too, too folid flefh would
Thaw, and refolve itfelf into a dew ! [melt,
Or that the Everlafling had not fix’d
His canon ’gainft felf-flaughter! O God! O God!
How weary, ftale, flat, and unprofitable
Seem to me all the ufes of this world !
Fie on’t! O fie! ’tis an unweeded garden,
That grows to feed: things rank and grofs in nature
Poffefs it merely. That it fliould come to this!
But two months dead! nay, not fo much ; not two—
So excellent a king, that was, to this,
Hyperion to a fatyr: fo loving to my mother,
That he permitted not the vvinds of heav’n
Vifit her face too roughly. Heav’n and earth !
Mu ft I remember—why, fhe would hang on him,
As if increafe of appetite had grown
By what it fed on : yet, within a month 
Let me not think—Frailty, thy name is Woman!
A little month! or ere thofe {hoes were old,
With which fhe follow’d my poor father’s body,
Like Niobe, all tears why ftie, ev’n ftie 
(O heav’n! a beaft, that wants difeourfe of reafon.
Would have mourn’d longer—) married with mine
uncle,
My father’s brother; but no more like my father,
Than I to Hercules. Within a month! 
Ere yet the fait of moft unrighteous tears
Had left the flufliing in her galled eyes,
She married Oh, moft wicked fpeed, to poft
With fuch dexterity to incelluous fheets!
It is not, nor it cannot come to good.
But break, my heart, for I muft hold my tongue
Hamlet, aft 1. ft. 3.
“ Ford. Hum! ha! is this a vifion ? is this a dream ?
“ do I fleep? Mr Ford, awake; awake, Mr Ford;
“ there’s a hole made in your beft coat, Mr Ford!
“ this ’tis to be married! this ’tis to have linen and
“ buck bafleets ? Well, I will proclaim myfelf what
“ I am; I will now take the leacher ; he is at my
“ h°u{e 5 he cannot ’fcape me; ’tis impoffible he
“ fliould ; he cannot creep into a half-penny purfe,
“ nor into a pepper-box. But left the devil that
“ guides him fhould aid him, I will fearch impoflible
“ places; tho’ what I am I cannot avoid, yet to be
“ what I would not, fhall not make me tame.”
Merry Wives of Windfor, aft 3. fc. laft.
Thefe foliloqnies are accurate and bold copies of na¬
ture: in a paffionate foliloquy one begins with think¬
ing aloud ; and the ftrongeft feelings only, are ex-
prtiled ; as the fpeaker warms, he begins to irragine
one liftening, and gradually Aides into a connedled dif¬
eourfe.
How far diftant are foliloquies generally from thefe
models? So far indeed as to give difguft inftead of
pleafure. The firft feene of Iphigenia in Tauris dif-
covtrs that princefs, in a foliloquy, gravely reporting
to herfelf her own hiftory. There is the fame impro-
33 H pnety
Paffions.
PAS
priety in the firfl: fcene of Alceftes, and in the other
"introdu&ions of Euripides, almoft without exception.
Nothing can be more ridiculous s it puts one in mind
of a moft curious device in Gothic paintings, that of
making every figure explain itfelf by a written label
iffuing from its mouth. The defcription which a pa-
rafite, in the eunuch of Terence (aft z. fc. 2.) gives
of himfelf, makes a fprightly foliloquy : but it is not
confiftent with the rules of propriety ; for no man, in
his ordinary (late of mind and upon a familiar fubjedl,
ever thinks of talking aloud to himfelf. The fame ob-
je&ion lies againft a,foliloquy in the Adelphi of the
fame author, (aft \. fc. i.) The foliloquy which
makes the third fcene a& third of his Heicyra, is in-
fufferable ; for there Pamphilus, foberly and circum-
ftantially, relates to himfelf an adventure which had
happened to him a moment before.
Corneille is unhappy in his foliloquies : Take for a
fpecimen the firft fcene of Cinna.
Racine is extremely faulty in the fame refpeif. His
foliloquies are regular harangues, a chain completed in
every link, without interruption or interval: that of
Antiochus in Berenice (aft r. fc. 2.) refembles a re¬
gular pleading, where the parties pro and con difplay
their argHments at full length. The following folilo¬
quies are equally faulty ; Bajazst, aft 3. fc. 7; Mi-
thridate, aft. 3. fc. 4. and aft. 4. fc. 5.; Iphigenia,
aft. 4. fc. 8.
Soliloquies upon lively or interefting fubjefls, but
without any turbulence of pafiion, may be carried on
in a continued chain of thought. If, for example, the
nature and fprightlinefs of the fubjedt prompt a man to
fpeak his thoughts in the form of a dialogue, the ex-
prefiion mull be carried on without break or interrup¬
tion, as in a dialogue between two perfons ; which
juftifies FalftafF’s foliloquy upon honour :
“ What need I be fo forward with Death, that
“ calls not on me ? Weil, ’tis no matter, Honour-pricks
“ me on. But how if Honour prick me off, when I
“ come on ? how then ? Can Honour fet a leg ? No. Or
“ an arm ? No. Or take away the grief of a wound !
“ No. Honour hath no Ikill in furgery then ? No.
“ What is Honour? A word What is that word ho~
“ nour” Air; a trim reckoning.—Who hath it ? He
“ that dy’d a Wednefday. Doth he feel it ? No.
“ Doth he hear it ? No. Is it infenfible then ? Yea,
“ to the dead. But will it not live with the living ?
“ No. Why ? Detradlion will not fuller it. There-
“ fore I’ll none of it; honour is a mere fcutcheon :
“ and fo ends my catechifm.
Firji Part, Henry IV. aft 5. fc. 2.
And even without dialogue, a continued fiifcourfe may
be juftified, where a man reafons in a foliloquy upon
an important fubjedl; for if in fuch a cafe it be at all
excufeable to think aloud, it is neceffary that the rea-
foning be carried on in a chain ; which juftifies that
admirable foliloquy in Hamlet upon life and immor¬
tality, being a ferene meditation upon the moft inte¬
refting of all fubjedls. And the fame confideration
will juftify the foliloquy that introduces the 5th adl of
Addifon’s Cato.
2. Language ought not to be elevated above the
tone of the fentiment.
'Lara. Swift as occafion, I
PAS
Myfelf will fly; and earlier than the morn Paflions.
Wake thee to freedom. Now ’tis late; and yet
Some news few minutes paft arriv’d, which feena’d
To ftiake the temper of the king Who knows
What racking cares difeafe a monarch’s bed?
Or love, that late at night ftill lights his lamp,
And ftrikes his rays through dulk, and folded lids,
Forbidding reft, may ftretch his eyes awake,
And force their balls abroad at this dead hour.
I’ll try. Mourning Bride, aft $. fc. 4.
The language here is undoubtedly too pompous ant}
laboured for defcribing fo Ample a circumftance as ab-
fence of fleep. In the following paffage, the tone of
the language, warm and plaintive, is well foiled to the
paffion, which is recent grief: but every one will be
fenfible, that in the la ft couplet fave one the tone is
changed, and the mind fuddenly elevated to be let fall
as fuddenly in the laft couplet:
II detefte a jamais fa coupable vidoire,
II renonce a la cour, aux humains, a la gloire;
Et fe fuiant lui-meme, au milieu des defects,
II va cacher fa peine au bout de 1’univers;
La, foil que le foleil rendit le jour au monde,
Soit qu'il fintt fa courfe au vajle feine de I’onde,
Sa voix faifoit redire aux echos attendris,
Le nom, le trifte nom, de fon malheureux fils.
Henriade, chant, viii. 229.
3. Light and airy language is unfuitable to a fevere
paffion.
Imagery and figurative expreflion are difcordant, in
the higheft degree, with the agony of a mother, who
is deprived of two hopeful fons by a brutal murder.
Therefore the following pafiage is undoubtedly in a bad
tafte :
Qjieen. Ah, my poor princes! ah, my tender babes!
My unblown flowers, new appearing fweets!
If yet your gentle fouls fly in the air.
And be not fixt in doom perpetual,
Hover about me with your airy wings,
And hear your mother’s lamentatifm.
Richard III. aft 4. fc. 4.
Again,
K. Philip. Yrou are as fond of grief as of your child-
Conjlance. Grief fills the room up of my abfent child.
Lies in Ffis bed, walks up and down with me.
Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words,
Remembers me of all his grecious parts,
Stuffs out his vacant garment with his form;
Then have I reafon to be fond of grief.
King John, aft 3. fc. 9.
4. Thoughts that turn upon the exprelfion inftead
of the fubjedl, commonly called a play of ’•coords, be¬
ing low and childifli, are unworthy of any compoli-
tion, whether gay or ferious, that pretends to any de¬
gree of elevation. •
In the Asnynta of Ta'ffo, the lover falls into a mere
play of words, demanding how he who had loft him¬
felf, could find a millrefs. And for the fame reafon,
the following paffage in Corneille has been generally
condemned :
Chimene. Mon pere eft mort, Elvire, et la pre¬
miere epee
Dont s’tft armec Rodrigue a fa trame coupee.
Pleurez
[ 5904 1
Paffion?, '
PAS
Paflions. Pleurez, pleurez, mes yeux, et fondez-vous en eau
' La moletie de ma vie a mis 1’autfe au tombeau,
Et tn’oblige a venger, apres ce coup funefte,
Celle que je n’ai plus, fur celle que me refte.
Cid, att 3. fc. 3.
To die is to be banifh’d from myfelf:
And Sylvia is myfelf: banifh’dfrom her,
Is felf from felf; a deadly banifhment?
TW Gentlemen of Verona, a£l 3. fc. 3.
Counteft. I pray thee, Lady, have a better cheer ;
If thou engrofleft all the griefs as thine,
Thou robb’ft me of a moiety.
AW swell that ends well, aft 3. fc. 3.
K. Henry. O my poor kingdom, fick with civil
blows !
When that my care could not with-hold thy riots,
What wilt thou do when riot is thy care ?
O, thou wilt be a wildernefs again,
Peopled with wolves, thy old inhabitants.
Second Part, Henry IV. aft 4. fc. 1 r.
Cruda Amarilli, che col nome ancora
D’amar, ahi laffo, amaramente infegni.
Pafor Ft do, ail l. fc. 2.
Antony, fpeaking of Julius Caefar :
O world ! thou waft the foreft of this hart;
And this, indeed, O world, the heart of thee.
How like a deer, ftriken by many princes,
Doft thou here lie ! Julius Cocfar, ail 1. fc. 3.
Playing thus with the found of words, which is ftill
worfe than a pun, is the meaneft of all conceits. But
Shakefpeare, when he defcends to a play of words,
is not always in the wrong; for it is done fometimes
to denote a peculiar character, as in the following
paflage:
K. Philip. What fay’ft thou, boy ? look in the
lady’s face.
Lewis. I do, my Lord, and in her eye I find
A wonder, or a wond’rous miracle;
The fliadow of myfelf form’d in her eye ;
Which being but the fiiadow of your fon,
Becomes a fun, and makes your fon a lhadow.
I do proteft, I never lov’d myfelf
Till now infixed I beheld myfelf
Drawn in the flatt’ring table of her eye.
Faulconbridge. Drawn in the flatt’ring table of
, her eye!
Hang’d in the frowning wrinkle of her brow !
And quarter’d in her heart! he doth efpy
Himfelf Love’s traitor: this is pity now,
That hang’d, and drawn, and quarter’d, there
fhould be,
In fuch a love fo vile a lout as he.
King John, ail 2. fc. 5.
A jingle of words is the loweft fpecies of that low
wit; which is fcarce fufferable in any cafe, and leaft of
all in an heroic poem : and yet Milton in fome inftan-
ces has defcended to that puerility :
And brought into the world a world of wo.
• Begirt th’Almighty throne
Befeeching or befieging 
Which tempted our attempt 
At one flight bound high overleap’d all bound.
PAS
With a fhout
Loud as from numbers without number.
5. One ftiould think it unneceffary to enter a caveat
againft an expreflion that has no meaning, or no di-
ftinft meaning; and yet fomewhat of that kind may¬
be found even among good writers.
Sebaflian. I beg no pity for this mould’ring clay-
For if you give it burial, there it takes
Poflefiion of your earth :
- If burnt and fcatter’d in the air; the winds
That ftrow my dull, diffufe my royalty,
And fpread me o’er your clime; for where one atom
Of mipe fhall light, know there Sebaftian reigns.
Dryden, Don Sebafian king of Portugal, ail r.
Cleopatra. Now; what news, my Charmion ?
Will he be kind ? and will he not forfake me ?
Am I to live or die? nay, do I live ?
Or am I dead ? for when h« gave his anfwer,
Fate took the word, and then I liv’d or dy’d.
Dryden, All for love, ail 2.
If flie be coy, and fcorn my noble fire,
If her chill heart I cannot move ;
Why, I’ll enjoy the very love,
And make a miftrefs of my own defire.
Coweey, poem inferibed, “ The Requeft.”
His whole poem, inferibed, My piiiure, is a jargon
of the fame kind.
 ’Tis he, they cry, by whom
Not men, but war itfelf is overcome.
Indian Fhteen.
Such empty expreflions are finely ridiculed in the Re-
hearfal.
Was’t not unjuft to ravifh hence her breath.
And in life’s ftead to leave us nought but death?
Ail 4. fc. i.
Passions, in Medicine, make one of the non¬
naturals, and produce very fenfible effedls. Joy, an¬
ger, and fear, are the principal. In the two firft, the
fpirits are hurried with too great vivacity ; whereas,
in fear or dread, they are as it were curbed and con¬
centrated : whence we may conclude, that they have a
very bad effeft upon health; and therefore it will be
beft to keep them within bounds as much as pofiible,
and to preferve an inward ferenity, cahnnefs, and tran¬
quillity.
Passions, in Painting, are the external exprefiions
of the different difpofitions and affedions of the mind;
but particularly their different effefts upon the feveral
features of the face : for though the arms, and indeed
every part of the body*, ferve likewife, by their * See Ora-
quick, languid, and varioufly diverfified motions, to/<?0'>
exprefs the pafliotns of the foul; yet, in painting, tins'5*5’
difference is moft confpicuous in the face. See Paint¬
ing, n° 15. and Drawing, art. 9.
In forrow, joy, love, lhame, and compaffion, the
eyes fwell all of a fudden, are covered with a fupera-
bundant moifture, and drop tears ; and, in grief efpe-
cially, the corners of the mouth hang down, the eye¬
lids are half Unit, and the pupil of the eye is elevated
and half covered ; and all the other mufcles of the face
are relaxed, fo that the vifage appears longer than or¬
dinary. <
2 33 H 2 In
[ 59°J 1
PAT [ 5906 ] PAT
PalHon In fear, terror, fright, and horror, the eye-brows
^ I are greatly elevated: the eye-lids are expanded as
a |,Qrt‘ wide as poffible, fo as to difeover the white of the
eye ; and the pupil is depreffed, and half covered by
the lower eye-lid : the hair ftands on ettd : the mouth
• is at the fame time wide open ; and the lips are fo far
drawn back, that the teeth both of the upper and under
jaw appear.
Contempt is exprefled by raifing one fide of the
upper lip, fo as to difeover the teeth, whilit the other
fide has a movement like that in laughter , the eye,
on that fide where the teeth appear, is half {hut, whilft
the other remains open; however, both the pupils are
depreffed.
In jealoufy, envy, hatred, and malice, the eye¬
brows are knit; and, in laughter, all the parts agree,
tending as it were towards the centre of the face. See
Plates XC. XCVIII.
PAssion-ivWer. See Passiflora.
PAssiog-the week immediately preceding the
feftival of Eafter: fo called, beeaufe in that week
our Sa'viour’s paffion and death happened. The
Thurfday of this week is called Maunday Thurfday ;
the Friday, Good Friday; and the Saturday, the Great
Sabbath.
PASSIVE, in general, denotes fomething that fuf-
fers the a&ion of another, called an age?it or aftive
power. In grammar, the verb or word that expreffes
this palfion is termed z pajjive verb: which, in the
learned languages, has a peculiar termination ; as
amor, doceor, &c. in Latin ; that is, an r is added to
the a£lives doceo; and, in the Greek, the inflec¬
tion is made by changing « into o,«s« ; as rurfo tv*1q-
&c. But, in the modern languages, the paffive
inflexion is performed by means of auxiliary verbs,
joined to the participle paffive ; as, “ I am praifed,”
in Latin laudor, and in Greek iTr*mov.ai; or, “ I am
loved,” in Latin amor, and in Greek pixso^cu. Thus
it appears, that the auxiliary verb I ayn, ferves to
form the paffives of Engfifh verbs: and the fame
holds of the French; as, J-e fms loue, '* I am prai-
fed j’aiete hue, “ I have been praifed,” &c.
Passive Tit/e, in Scots law. See Law, Part III.
N° clxxx. 30.
PASSOVER, a folemn feftival of the Jews, cele¬
brated on the 14th day of the month next after the
vernal equinox, and inftituted in commemoration of
their coming out of Egypt; becaufe, on the night
before their departure, the deftrerying angel, who put
to death the firft-born of the Egyptians, palled over
the houfes of the Hebrews, which were fprinkled with
the blood of a lamb. The whole tranfa&ion is rela¬
ted in the xiith chapter of Exodus.
PASSPORT, or Pass, a licence or writing ob¬
tained from a prince or governor, granting permiffion
and a fafe-conduft to pafs through his territories with¬
out moleftation. Alfo a permiffion granted by any
ftate to navigate in fome particular fea, without hin¬
drance or moleftation from it. It contains the name
of the vtflel, and that of the maftir, together with
her tonnage and the number of her crew, certifying
that (he belongs to the fubje&s of a particular ftate,
and requiring all perfons at peace with that ftate to
fuffer her to proceed on her voyage without interrup¬
tion..
PASTEBOARD, a kind of thick paper, formed Pafteboard
of feveral fingle ffieets palled one upon another. The
chief ufe of pafttboard is for binding books, making a ure*
letter-cafes, 8cc.
PASTERN ofa Horse, in the menage, is the di-
ftance betwixt the joint next the foot and the coronet
of the hoof. This part flrould be fhort, efpecially in
middle-fized horfes ; becaufe long patterns are weak*
and cannot fo welt endure travelling.
PasteRN-jfr/ff/, the joint next a horfe’s foot.
PASTIL, or Pastel, among painters, a kind of
pafte made of different colours, ground up with gum-
water, in order to make Crayons.
Pastil, in pharmacy, is a dry compofition of
fweet-fmelling refins, aromatic woods, &c. fometimes
burnt to clear and feent the air of a chamber.
PASTINACA, the Parsnep, in botany, a genus
of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants. There are only iwo fpecies of this
genus; the principal of which is the pajlinaca fativa,
or garden-parfnep : which is an exceeding fine efculent
root. It is to be propagated by fawing the feeds in
February or March, in a rich mellow foil,, which mult
be deep dug, that the roots may be able to run deep
without hindrance.
It is a common practice to fow carrots at the fame
time, upon the fame ground with the parfneps; and
if the carrots are defigned to be drawn young, there
is no harm in it. The parfneps, when they are grown
up a little, mull be thinned to a foot diftance, and
carefully kept clear of weeds. They are finett tatted
juft at the feafon when the leaves are decayed ; and
fuch as are defirous to eat them in fpring ffiould have
them taken up in autumn, and preferved in fand.
,When the feeds are to be faved, fome very ftrong and
fine plants Ihould be left four feet diftance ; and to¬
wards the end of Auguft, or in the beginning of Sep¬
tember, the feeds will be ripe: they muft then be
carefully gathered, and dried on a coarfe cloth. They
Ihould always be fown the fpring following ; for they
do not keep well.
PASTORAL, in general, fomething that relates
to Ihepherds; hence we fay, pattorai life, manners,
poetry, &c.
Pastoral Poetry. See Poetry, n° 63.
PASTRY, that branch of cookery which is chiefly
taken up in making pies, patties, cakes, &c.
Dr Cullen obferves, that pafte is very hard and in-
digettible without butter; and, even with it, is apt to
produce heart-burn and acefceney. Perhaps this is
increafed by the burned butter, from a certain fenfitri-
lity in the ftoroaeh, which oecafions all empyreumatic
oils to be long retained, and fo turn rancefcent and
acid.
PAS rLTRE, or Px%TVKU-Land, is that referred
for feeding cattle.
Pafture-land is of fuch advantage to hufbandry, that
many prefer it even to corn-land, becaufe of the fmall
hazard and labour that attends it; and as it lays the
foundation for moft of the profit that is expedled from,
the arable land, becaufe of the manure afforded by
the cattle which are fed upon it. Where dung is
not to be bought, as is often the cafe in places diftant
from large towns, the farmer is forced to proportion
the arable to the pafture land, in fuch a manner, that
Patagonia,
PAT [ 5907 ] PAT
the cattle Fed on the latter may be fufficient For a fup-
ly of dung fo riecelTary for producing the Fruits of the
former.
PATAGONIA, a country of Sonth America, com¬
prehending all that country extending from Chili and
Paraguay to the ntmoft extremity of South America;
that is, from 350 ahnoft to 54.0 of latitude: being fur-
rounded by the countries jutt mentioned, the South and
North Seas, and the Straits of Magellan, which fepa-
rate it from the ifland called Terra del Fuego, and ex¬
tend about 116 leagues in length from fea to fea, but
only from half a league to three or four in breadth.
This country had the name of Terra Magellanka,
from Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguefe officer in the
fervice of the Catholic king, who is reported to have
failed through the (traits that alfo bear his name, from
the North to the Sonth Sea, in the year 1510.
The lofty mountains of the Andes, which are co¬
vered with fnowa great part of the year, traverfing the
country from north to fouth, the air is faid to be much
colder than in the north under the fame parallels of
latitude. Towards the north, it is faid to be covered
with wood, and ttored with an inexhanftible fund of
large timber; whereas, to the fouthward, not fo much
as a fingle tree fit for any mechanical purpofe is to be
feen: yet there is good pafture, and incredible numbers
of wild horned cattle and horfes, which were firft
brought hither by the Spaniards, and have increafed
amazingly. Freffi water, we are told by feme writers,
is very fcarce ; but if that were really the cafe, it is dif¬
ficult to conceive how the prefent inhabitants, and fuch
multitudes of cattle, could fubfift. The eaft coaft is
moftly low land, with few or no good harbours: one of
the beft is Port St Julian.
Patagonia is inhabited by a variety of Indian tribes;
as the Patagons, from which the country takes its
name; the Pampas, the Coffares, &c. of whom we
know very little. Only it appears, from the accounts of
former voyagers, lately confirmed by commodore Byron
and his crew, and the tellimonies of other navigators,
that fome of them are of a gigantic ftature, and clo¬
thed with fkins; but it would feetn that there are o-
thers who go almoft quite naked, notwithftanding the
inclemency of the climate. Some of them alfo, that
live about the Straits, if we may credit the navigators
who have paffed that way into the South Sea, are per-
fe& favages: but thofe with whom commodore Byron
and his people converfed, are reprefented as of a more
gentle humane difpofition; only, like other favages, they
live on fi(h and game, and what the earth produces
fpontaneoufly.
The Spaniards once built a fort upon the Straits,
and left a garrifon in it, to prevent any other Euro¬
pean nation paffing that way into the South Sea: but
motl' of the men periffied by famine, whence the place
obtained the name of Port Famine; and no people have
attempted to plant colonies here ever fince.
About the middle of the Strait is a promontory call¬
ed Cape Froifard, which is the mod foutherly on the
Continent of South America.
On the coafts of Patagonia lie a great number of
iflands, or clufters of iflands. On the weft coaft are the
iflands Madre de Dios, Santa Trinidad, Santa Cruz,
the ifles of the Chunians and Huillans, the Sarmientos,
and many others; to the number of 80 in all, as fome
fay. Of thofe on the fouth coaft, the moft confider- Patan
able are Terra del Fuego, and Staten Land* Ste thefe II
articles. *>atenC'
PATAN, a kingdom of Afia, in the Eaft Indies,
and in the peninfula of Malacca, and on the eaftern
coaft between the kingdoms of Siam and Paha. The
inhabitants are partly Mahometans and partly Gentoos;
but they are all very voluptuous. The air is wholefome,
though very hot; and they have no feafons but the
winter and fummer. The former is more properly the
rainy feafon ; and contains the months of November,
December, and January. The woods are full of ele¬
phants and many wild animals. Some voyagers pre¬
tend that this country is governed by a queen, who ne¬
ver marries, but may have as many gallants as (he
pleafes. They have fome trade with theChinefe; and
the principal town is of the fame name, which is one
of the ftrongeft in thefe parts, having a well defended
habour.
Patan, a town of Afia, and capital of a province of
the fame name, in the dominions of the Great Mogul;
it is very little known. E. Long. 109. o. N. Lat. 27.
3a
PATAVINITY, among critics, denotes a peculi¬
arity of Livy’s didlion; derived from Patavium or Pa*
dua, the place of his nativity: but wherein this pata*
vinity confifts, they are by no means agreed.
PATARA, (Livy, Mela); the capital of Lycia,
to the eaft of the mouth of the river Xanthus; famous
for a temple and oracle of Apollo, thence called Pa-
tareus, three fyllables only; but Pataraus, (Horace).
For the fix winter months, Apollo gave anfwers at Pa-
tara; and for the fix fummer at Delos, (Virgil, Ser-
vius): thefe are the Lyciee Sorter of Virgil. The town
was fituated in a peninfula, called Lyciorum Cherfonefuiy
(Stephanus).
PATAVIUM, (Tacitus, Strabo) ; a town of the
Tranfpadana, fituate on the left or north bank of the
Medoacns Minor; founded by Antenor the Trojan,
(Mela, Virgil, Seneca); Pafotw/, the people, (Livy);,
who himfelf was a native, and by Afinius Pollio char¬
ged with pativinity. Now Padua, in the territory and
to the weft of Venice. E. Long. 12. 15. N. Lat. 45.
3°-
PATAY, a town of France, in the province of Or-
leannois, remarkable for the defeat of the Engliffi in
1429, and where Joan of Arc did wonders. E. Long.
I. 43. N. Lat. 48. 5.
PATE, in fortification, a kind of platform, refem-
bling what is called an horfe’s Jhoe.
PATEE, or Pattee, in heraldry, a crofs fmall in
the centre, and widening to the extremes, which are
very broad.
PATELLA, or Knee-pan, in anatomy. See
there, n° 58.
Patella, the Limpet, a genus of infe&s belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teftacea. It is an animal
of the fnail kind ; the (hell conlifts of one conical valve
without any fpiral. There are 36'fpecies ; principally
diftinguiftied by peculiarities in their (hells.
PATENT, in general, denotes fomething that
ftand open or expanded : thus a leaf is faid i» be pa¬
tent, when it (lands almoft at right angles with the
flalk.
Patent, or Letters Patent, See Letter.
PATE&
PAT [ 5908 1 PAT
Pater PATER noster, i\\c Lord’s Prayer, fo called from
H the two firft words thereof in Latin.
a ercu us. pATER Nojier, iflands of Afia, in the Eaft Indian
fea, fo called becaufe of the great number of rocks,
which failors have likened to the beads with which
the Papifts tell their pater-nofter. They abound in corn
and fruits, and are very populous.
PATER patratus, in Roman antiquity, an offi¬
cer chofen by one of the college of feciales out of their
own body, to treat with an enemy on the fubjeft of
war and peace. He derived his title from a circum-
ilance necefiary to his enjoying it: for in order that he
might be the more firmly interefted in the fate of his
country, he was to have both a father and a fon living
at the fame time.
PATERA, among antiquaries, a goblet or vefiel
ufed by the Romans in their facrifices ; wherein they
offered their confecrated meats to the gods, and where¬
with they made libations. See Sacrifice and Liba¬
tion. *
The word is Latin, formed from pateo, “ I am o-
pen;” quodpateat, “ becaufe it has a great aperture;”
in contraditiinftion to bottles, &c. which have only
narrow necks, or whofe aperture is lefs than the body
of the veffef.
On medals the patera is feen in the hands of feveral
deities ; and frequently in the hands of princes, to
mark the facerdotal authority joined with the imperial,
&c.
Hence F. Joubert obferves, that befide the patera,
there is frequently an altar upon which the patera feems
to be pouring its contents.
The patera was of gold, filver, marble, brafs, glafs,
or earth ; and they ufed to inclofe it in urns with the
alhes of the deceafed, after it had ferved for the liba¬
tions of the wine and liquors at the funeral.
The patera is an ornament in archite&ure, frequently
feen in the Doric freeze, and the tympans of arches.
PATERCULUS‘(Caius Velleius), an ancient Ro¬
man hiitorian, who fiourifhed in the reign of Tiberius
Csefar, was born in the year of Rome 735. His ance-
ftors were illuftrious for their merit and their offi¬
ces. His grandfather efpoufed the party of Tibe¬
rius Nero, the emperor’s father; but being old and
infirm, and not able to accompany Nero when he
retired from Naples, he ran himfelf through with
his fword. His father was a foldier of rank, and fo
was Paterculus himfelf. He was a' military tribune
when Cains Caefar, a grandfon of Augnftus, had an
interview with the king of the Parthians, in an ifland
of the river Euphrates, in the year 753. He com¬
manded the cavalry in Germany under Tiberius; and
accompanied that prince for nine years fucceffively in
all his expeditions. He received honourable rewards
from him ; but we do not find that he was preferred
to any higher dignity than the praetorlhip. Thepraifes
he bellows upon Sejanus give fome probability to the
conje&ure, that he was looked upon as a friend of this
.favourite, and confequently that he was involved in his
ruin. His death is placed by Mr Dsdwell in the year
of Rome 784, when he was in his 50th year.
He wrote an abridgment of the Roman hiftory in
two books, which is very curious. His purpofe was
only to deduce things from the foundation of Rome to
the time wherein he lived, but he began his work with
things previous to that memorable aera: for, though Paterculus,
the beginning of his firft book is wanting, we yet find
in what remains of it, an account of many cities more
ancient than Rome. He promifed a larger hiftory ;
arid no doubt would have executed it well: for during
his military expeditions he had feen, as he tells us, the
provinces' of Thrace, Macedonia, Achaia, Afia Minor,
and other more eafterly regions; efpecially upon the
Ihores of the Euxine fea, which had furnilhed his mind
with much entertaining and ufeful knowledge. In the
Abridgment which we have, many particulars are rela¬
ted that are no where elfe to be found; and this makes
it the more valuable. The ftyle of Paterculus, though
miferably difguifed through the careleffnefs of tranferi-
bers, and impoffible to be reftored to purity for want
of manuferipts, is yet manifeftly worthy of his age,
which was the time of pure Latinity. The greateft
excellence of this hiftorian lies in bis manner of com¬
mending and blaming thofe he fpeaks of; which he
does in the fineft terms and molt delicate expreffions.
He is, however, condemned, and indeed with the
greateft reafo.n, for his partiality to the houfe of Au-
guftus; and for making the moft extravagant eulogies,
not only upon Tiberius, but even upon his favourite Se-
janus: whom, though a vile and cruel monfter, Parter-
culus celebrates as one of the moft excellent perfons the
Roman commonwealth had produced. Lipfius, though
he praifes him in other refpedls, yet cenfures him moft
feverely for his infincerity and partiality. “ Velleius
Paterculus (fays he), raifes my indignation: he repre-
fents Sejanus as endowed with all good qualities. The
impudence of this hiftorian! But we know, that he was
born, and died, to the deftru&ion of mankind. After
many commendations, he conclude#, that Livia was a
woman more refembling the gods than men: and as to
Tiberius, he thinks it a crime to fpeak otherwife of him
than as of an immortal Jove. What fincere and honeft
mind can bear this? On the other hand, how artfully
does he every where conceal the great qualities of Cte-
far Germanicus! how obliquely does he ruin the repu¬
tation of Agrippina and others, whom Tiberius was
thought to hate! In ftiort, he is nothing but a court-
proftitute. You will fay, perhaps, it was unfafe to
fpeak the truth at thofe times: I grant it; but if he
could not write the truth, he ought not to haye writ*
ten lies: none are called to account for filence.” La
Mothe le Vayer has made a very juft remark upon this
occafion: “ The fame fault (fays he) may be obferved
in many others, who have written the hiftory of their
own times, with a defign to be publiffied while they
lived.”
It is ftrange, that a work fo elegant and worthy to
be preferred, and of which, by reafon of its ftiortnefs,
copies might be fo eafily taken, (hould have been fo
near being loft. One manufeript only has had the luck
to be found, as well of this author among the Latins,
as of Hefychius among the Greeks: in which, fays a
great critic of our own nation, “ The faults of the
icribes are found fo numerous, and the defeats fo be¬
yond all redrefs, that notwithftanding the pains of the
Lamed and moft. acute critics for two whole centuries,
tfiefe books ftill are, and are like to continue, a ifiere
heap of errors.” No ancient author but Prifcian makes
mention of Paterculus: the moderns have done him in¬
finitely more juftice, and have iiluftrafed him with notes
PAT [ 5909 ] PAT
Path and commentaries. He was firft published, from the
Patmos roanufcript of Morbac, by Rhenanus, at Bafii in 1520:
  11. afterwards by Lipfius at Leyden in 1581; then by Ge¬
rard Voflius in J639; next by Boeclerus at Strafburg
101642; then by Thyfius and others; and, laftly, by
Peter Barman at Leyden 1719, in 8vo. To the Ox¬
ford edition in 1693, 8vo, were prefixed the Annales
Velleiani of Mr Dodwell, which (hew deep learning
and a great knowledge of antiquity.
PATH,in general, denotes the courfe or track mark¬
ed out or run over by a body in motion.
For the path of the moon, &c. fee Astronomy,
n° I47* t55-
PATHETIC, whatever relates to the paffions, or
that is proper .to excite or awake them. The word
comes from the Greek pajfion, or emotion. See
Passion.
PATHOGNOMONIC, among phyficians, an ap¬
pellation for a fymptom, or concourfe of fymptoms that
are infeparable from a diftemper, and are found in that
only, and in no other.
PATHOLOGY, that part of medicine which ex¬
plains the nature of difeafes, their caufes and fymp¬
toms. See Medicine.
PATHOS, a Greek term, literally fignifying paf-
fion.
PATIN (Guy), profefibr of phyfic in the royal col¬
lege of Paris, was born in 1602. He made his way
into the world merely by the force of his genius, be¬
ing at firft corrector of a printing-houfe. He was a
man of great wit and erudition: he fpoke with the
gravity of a Stoic, but his expreffions were very fati-
rical. He hated bigotry, fuperftition, and knavery;
had an upright foul, and a well-difpofed heart. He
was a moft tender father, courteous to every body, and
polite in the higheft degree. He died in 1672, and did
not owe his reputation to any writings publifhed in his
life-time upon phyfic; but l »'s letters which appeared
after his death have rendered his name very famous.
He left a fon mentioned in the enfuing article.
Patin (Charles), who made a great figure in the
world, and excelled in the knowledge of medals. He
was born in Paris in 1633 ; and made fo furprifing a
progrefs, that he maintained thefes in Greek and La¬
tin, on all parts of philofopby, in 1647. He ftudied
the law in compliance to an uncle, and was admitted
an advocate in the parliament of Paris; but could not
lay afide that of phyfic; for which he always had
an inclination. He therefore quitted the law, and
dlvoted himfelf to phyfic; in which, after taking the
doctor’s degree, he applied himfelf to pra&ice, with
great fuccefs. He afterwards travelled into Germany,
Holland, England, Switzerland, and Italy. In 1676
he was appointed profeffor of pbyfic in Padua; and
three years after was created a knight of St Mark. He
died in that city in 1694. His works are many, and
well known to the learned world. His wife too, and
bis daughters, were authoreffes.
PATMOS (anc. geog.), one of the Sporades (Bio-
nyfius); 30 miles in compafs (Pliny); concerning which
we read very little in authors. It was rendered famous
by the exile of St John and the Revelation {hewed him
there. It is now in the hands of the Turks. It is con-
fiderable for its harbours; but the inhabitants derive
little benefit from them, becaufe the corfairs have ob¬
liged them to quit the town and retire to a hill on Patna
which St John’s convent ftands. This convent is a cita- jl
del, confiding of feveral irregular towers, and is a fub- Patriarc,K
ftantial building feated on a very deep rock. The
whole ifland is very barren, and without wood; how¬
ever, it abounds with partridges, rabbits, quails,
turtles, pigeons, and fnipes. All their corn does not
amount to Jcoo barrels in a year. It is 18 miles in
circumference; and there are fcarce 300 men in it: but
there are above 20 women to one man, who expedi that
all ftrangers who land in the ifland fliould carry fome
of them away. To the memory of St John, is an her¬
mitage on the fide of a mountain, where there is a cha¬
pel not above eight paces long and five broad. Over
head they (hew a chink in the rock, through which
they pretend that the Holy Ghoft didated to St John.
E. Long. 26. 40. N. Lat. 37. 20.
PATNA, a town of Afia, in the dominions of the
Great Mogul, and capital of a territory of the fame
name, to the north of the kingdom of Bengal, where
the Englifh have factories for faltpetre, borax, and
raw-filk. It alfo produces large quantities of opium.
The town is large, but the houfes are built at a di-
ftance from each other. It is feated in a fertile plea-
fant country, 400 miles eaft of Agra. E. Long. 85.
40. N. Lat. 25. 25.
PATANCE, in heraldry, is a crofs, fiory at the
ends ; from which it differs only in this, that the ends,
inftead of turning down like afleurde lis, are extend¬
ed fomewhat in the pattee form. See Flory.
POTOMACK, a large river of North America,
in Virginia, which rifes in the Alleghany mountains,
feparates Virginia from Maryland, and falls into Chc-
fapeak bay. It is about feven miles broad, and is
navigable for near 200 miles.
PATRANA, or Pastrana, a town of New Ca-
ftile in Spain, with the title of a dueby. It is feated
bet ween (he rivers Tajo and Tajuna, in E. Lon. o. 15.
PATRAS, an ancient and flourifhing town of Eu¬
ropean Turky, in theMorea, capital of a duchy, with
a Greek archbilhop’s fee. It is pretty large and po¬
pulous ; and the Jexfrs, who are one third part of the
inhabitants,..have four fynagogues. There are feveral
handfome mofques and Greek churches. The Jews
carry on a great trade in filk, leather, honey, wax,
and cheefe. There are cyprefs trees of a prodigious
height, and excellent pomegranates, Citrons, and oran¬
ges. It has been feveral times taken and retaken, and
it is juft now in the hands of the Turks. It is feated
in E. Long. 21. 57. N. Lat. 38. 20.
PATRICA, a town of Italy in the territory of the
church, and in the Campagna of Rome, towards the
fea-coaft, and eight miles eaft of Oftia. About a
mile from this place is a hill called Monte di Livanoy.
which fome have thought to be the ancient Lavinium
founded by iEneas.
PATRES, conscripti. See Conscript and Se¬
nator-
PATRIARCH, Patriarcha, one of thofe firft
fathers who lived towards the beginning of the world,
and who became famous by their long lines of defend¬
ants. Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, and his twelve
fons, are the patriarchs of the Old Teftament ; Seth,
Enoch, &c. were autediluvian patriarchs.
Patriarchs* among Chriftians, are ecclefiaftical
dig,-
PAT [ 5912 ] PAT
Patriarchs dignitaries, or bifhops, fo called from their paternal
1J authority in the church. The power of patriarchs was
Patrick. nQt fame ;n a\\t but differed according to the dif¬
ferent cuftoms of countries, or the pleafures of kings
and councils. Thus the patriarch of Conftantinople
grew to be a patriarch over the patriarchs of Ephefus
and Csfarea, and was called the oecumenical and uni-
verfalpatriarch ; and the patriarch of Alexandria had
fome prerogatives which no other patriarch but himfelf
enjoyed, fuch as the right of confecrating and ap¬
proving every fingle bilhop under his jurifdi&ion.
PATRIARCHAL cross, in heraldry, is that
where the fhaft is twice croffed ; the lower arms being
longer than the upper ones.
PATRICIAN, among the ancient Romans, a title
given to the defcendents of the hundred, or, according
to others, of the two hundred firft fenators chofen by
Romulus, and by him called patres, “ fathers.”
PATRICK (St), the apoffle of Ireland, and fe-
cond bifhop of that country in the 5th century. At
_ 16 years of age he was made a flave, and continued fo
for fix years. Then he became a difciplc of St Mar-
tine of Tours, who ordained him prieil, and fent him
into Ireland, where he laboured fuccefsfully for 60
years in converting the inhabitants.
Patrick (Simon), a very learned Englilh bifltop,
was born at Gainfborough in Lincolnfhire in 1626.
In 1644 he was admitted into Queen’s college, Cam¬
bridge, and entered into holy orders. After being for
fome time chaplain to Sir Walter St John, and vicar of
the church at Batterfea in Surry, he was preferred to
the redory of St Paul’s, Covent-garden, in London,
where he continued all the time of the plague in 1665
among his pariihioners, to their great comfort. In
1668 he publifhed his between a Con-
formift and a Non-conformift. This was anfwered by
the Diffenters, whom he had much exafperated by it ;
but by his moderation and candour toward them after¬
wards, they were perfc&ly reconciled to him, and he
brought over many of them to the communion of the
eftablilhed church. In 1678 he was made dean of
Peterborough, where he was much beloved. In 1682,
Hr Lewis de Moulin, who had been a hittory-profef-
for at Oxford, and written many bitter books againft
the church of England, fent for Dr Patrick upon his
fick-bed, and made a folemn declaration of his regret
on that account, which he figned, and it was pubidh-
ed after his death. During the reign of king James,
the dean’s behaviour fhewed that he had nothing more
at heart than the Proteftant religion ; for which he
ventured all that was dear to him, by preaching and
writing againft the errors of the church of Rome. In
1687 he publiflwd a prayer compofed for that difficult
time, when perfecution was txpe&ed by all who Hood
firm to their religion. The year after the Revolution,
the dean was appointed bifti'opof Chichefter, and was
employed with others of the new biftvops to fettle the
affairs of the church in Ireland. In 1691 he was
tranflated to the fee of Ely, in the room of the de¬
prived bifiiop Turner. He died in 1707, after having
publiftred various works ; among which the moft di-
ftinguiihed are his Paraphrafes and Commentaries on
the holy feriptures, 3 volumes folio. Thefe, with
Lowth on the proverbs, Arnold on the Apocrypha,
and Whitby on the New Teftament, make a regular Patrimony
continued commentary in Englifti on all the facred ffi
books. patron-
PATRIMONY, a right or eftate inherited by a
perfon from his anceftors.
The term patrimony has been alfo given to church-
eftates or revenues; in which fenfe authors ftill fay,
the patrimony of the church of Rimini, Milan, &c.
The church of Rome hath patrimonies in France, A-
frica, Sicily, and many other countries. To create
the greater refpeft to the eftates belonging to the
church, it was ufual to give their patrimonies the-names
of the faints they held in the higheft veneration : thua
the eftate of the church of Ravenna was called the pa¬
trimony of St Apcllinarius ; that of Milan, the patri¬
mony of St Ambroje; and the eftates of the Roman
church were called the patrimony of St Peter in Abruz-
zo, the patrimony of St Peter Pi Sicily, and the like.
What is now called St Peter's patrimony is only the
duchy of Caftro, and the territory of Orvietto. See
Castro, &c.
PATRIPASSIANS, patripassiani, in church-
hiftory, a Chriftian fe£I, who appeared about the lat¬
ter end of the 2d century ; fo called, from their aferi-
bing the paffion to the Father; for they afferted the
unity of God in fuch a manner as to deftroy all di-
ftindions of perfons, and to make the Father and Son
precifcly the fame ; in which they were followed by
the Sabellians and others. The author and head of
the Patripaffians was Praxeas, a philofopher of Phry¬
gia in Alia.
PATROL, in war, a round or march made by the
guards or watch in the night-time, to obferve what
paffes in the ftreets, and to fecure the peace and tran¬
quillity of a city or camp. The patrol generally con-
fifts of a body of five or fix men, detached from a bo¬
dy on guard, and commanded by a ferjeant.
They go every hour of the night, from the beating
of the tattoo until the reveille : they are to walk in
the ftreets in garrifons, and all over the camp in the
field, to prevent diforders, or any number of people
from affembling together; they are to fee the lights
in the foldiers barracks put out, and to take up all the
foldiers they find out of their quarters. Sometimes
patrols confift of an officer and 30 or 40 men, as well
infantry as cavalry ; but then the enemy is generally
near at hand, and confequently the danger greater.
PATRON, among the Romans, was an appellation
given to a mailer who had freed his Have. As foon as
the relation of mailer expired, that of patron began :
for the Romans in giving their Haves their freedom,
did not defpoil themielves of all rights and privileges
in them ; the law ftill fubje&ed them to confiderable
fervices and duties towards their patrons, the negledl
of which was very feverely punifhed.
Patron was alfo a name which the people of Rome
gave to fome great man, under whofe prote&ion they
uiually put themfelves ; paying him all kinds of ho¬
nour and refped, and denominating thtmfelves his
clients; while the patron, on his fide, granted them
his credit and protection.
Patron, in the church of Rome, a faint, whofe
name a perfon bears, or under whofe protedlion he is
put, and whom he takes particular care to invoke : or
a
PAT
[ 59.3 ] PAT
|. J>atronagc. a faint, in whofe name a church or order ia founded.
*    Patron, in the canon and common law, is a per-
fon, who having the advowfon of a parfonage, vica¬
rage, or the like fpiritual promotion, belonging to his
manor, hath, on that account, the gift and difpofition
of the benefice, and may prefent to it whenever it be¬
comes vacant. The patron’s right of difpofing of a
benefice, originally arifes either from the patron, or
h:sanceftors, See. being the founders or builders, of the
church ; from their having given lands for the main-
renance thereof; or, from the church’s being built oti
their ground; and frequently from all three toge¬
ther.
PATRONAGE, or Advowson, a fort of incor¬
poreal hereditament, confiding in the right of prefen-
tation to a church or ecclefiaftical benefice. Ad¬
vowfon, advocatio, fignifies in clientela?n rccipere, the
taking into proteftion ; and therefore is fynonymous
with patronage, patronatus: and Ire who has the
right of advowfon is called the patron of the church.
Blackjt. For, when lords of manors firft built churches on their
Comment, own demefnes, and appointed the tithes of thofe ma¬
nors to be paid to the officiating miniders, which be¬
fore were given to the clergy in common (from whence
arofe the divifion of parifhes), the lord, who thus built
‘ a church, and endowed it with glebe or land, had of
common right a power annexed of nominating fuch
minider as he pleafed, (provided he were canonically
qualified), to officiate in that church, of which he was
the founder, endower, maintainer, or, in one word, the
patron.
Advowfons are either advowfons appendant, or ad-
vowfons in grofs. Lords of manors being originally
the only founders, and of courfe the only patrons, of
churches, the right of patronage or prefentation, fo
long as it continues annexed to the pcffeffion of the
manor, as fome have done from the foundation of the
church to this day, is called an advonvfon appendant:
and it will pafs, or be conveyed, together with the
manor, as incident and appendant thereto, by a grant
of the manor only, without adding any other words.
But where the property of the advowfon has been
once feparated from the property of the manor, by
legal conveyance, it is called an advonufon in grofs,
or at large, and never can be appendant any more ;
but is for the future annexed to the perfon of its owner,
and not to his manor or lands.
Advowfons are alfo either prefentative, collative, or
■donative. And advowfon prefentative is where the
patron hath a right of prefentation to the biihop or
ordinary, and moreover to demand of him to inftitute
his clerk if he finds him canonically qualified : and
this is the moil ufual advowfon. An advowfon colla¬
tive is where the biftiop and patron are one and the
fame perfon : in which cafe the bifliop cannot prefent
to himfelf; but be does, by the one a£ of collation,
or conferring the benefice, the whole that is done in
common cafes, by both prefentation and inftitution.
An advowfon donative is when the king, or any fub-
je<ft by his licence, doth found a churth or chapel,
and ordains that it lhall be merely in the gift or dif-
- pofal of the patron ; fubje& to his vifitation only, and
not to that of the ordinary ; and veiled abfolutely in
the clerk by the patron’s deed of donation, without
prefentation, inftitution, or indudion. This is faid
Vo«r VIII. 1
to have been anciently the only way of conferring Patronage,
ecclefiaftical benefices in England ; the method of in- Patronymic
ftitution by the bifhop not being eftablifhed more
early than the time of archbiihop Becket in the
reign of Henry II. and therefore, though pope Alex*
ander III. in a letter to Becket, feverely inveighs
againft the prava confuetudo, as he calls it, of invefti-
ture conferred by the patron only, this however ihews
what was then the common ufage. Others contend,
that the claim of the bilhops to inftitution is as old
as the firft planting of Chriflianity in this ifland;
and in proof of it they allege a letter from the Eng-
lifh nobility to the pope in the reign of Henry the
third, recorded by Matthew Paris, which fpeaks of
prefentation to the bilhop as a thing immemorial.
The truth feems to be, that, where the benefice was
to be conferred on a mere layman, he was firft pre-
fented to the bifhop in order to receive ordination,
who was at liberty to examine and refufe him : but
where the clerk was already in orders, the living was
ufually veiled in him by the foie donation of the pa¬
tron ; till about the middle of the 12th century, when
the pope and his bifhops endeavoured to introduce a
kind of feodal dominion over ecclefiaftical benefices,
and, in confequence of that, began to claim and exer-
cife the right of inftitution universally, as a fpecies of
fpiritual inveftiture.
However this may be, if, as the law now (lands,
the true patron once waives this privilege of donation,
and prefents to the bifhop, and his clerk is admitted
and inftituted, the advowfon is now become for ever
prefentative, and (hall never be donative any more.
For thefe exceptions to general rules and common
right, are ever looked upon by the law in an un¬
favourable view, and conftrued as ftrnftly as poffible.
If therefore the patron, in whom fuch peculiar right
refides, does once give up that right, the law, which
loves uniformity, will interpret it to be done with an
intention of giving it up for ever; and will therefore
reduce it to the flandard of other ecclefiaftical livings.
See further, Law, Part III. N° clix. 5,—9.
j4rms (^Patronage, in heraldry, are thofe on the
top of which are fome marks of fubjeftion and de¬
pendence : thus the city of Paris bears the fleursde lis
in chief, to fhew her fubje&ion to the king ; and the
cardinals, on the top of their arms, bear thofe of the
pope, who gave them the hat, to fhew that they are
his creatures.
PATRONYMIC, among grammarians, is applied
to fuch names of men or women as are derived from
thofe of parents or anceflors.
Patronymics are derived, r. From the father; as
Pelidts, i. e. Achilles the fon of Peleus. 2. From
the mother ; as Philyrides, i. e. Chiron the fon of
Philyra. 3. From the grandfather on the father’s
fide; as iEacides, i. e. Achilles the grandfon of iEa-
cus. 4. From the grandfather by the mother’s fide ;
as Atlanfciades, i. e. Mercury the grandfon of Atlas.
And,. 5. From the kings and founders of nations ; as
Romulidte, i. e‘. the Romans, from their founder king
Romulus.
The termination of Greek and Latin patronymics
are chiefly four, viz. des, of which we have examples
above ; as, as Thaumantias, ;. e. Iris the daughter of
Thamaus; is, as Atlantis, i. e. Eleftra the daughter
33 I of
PAY [ 5914 ] P A U
Patros of Atlas; and ne, as Nerine, the daughter of Nereus.
II. Of thefe terminations^/ is mafculine ; and as, is, and
Pavia' ne, feminine : des and ?ie are of the firft declenfion, as
and is of the third.
PATROS, (Jeremiah, Ezekiel), appears from the
context to be meant of a part of Egypt. Bochart
thinks it denotes the Higher Egypt: the Septuagint
tranflate it the country of Patbure; in Pliny we have
the Notnos 'Phaturites in the Thebais ; in Ptolemy,
Patkyris, probably the metropolis. From the He¬
brew appellation Patros comes the gentilitious name
Pathruftm, Mofes.
PATRU (Oliver), a counfellor in parliament, and
dean of the French academy, was born at Pairs in
1604. He had an excellent faculty both of fpeaking
and writing. Upon his admiflion into the French
academy in 1640, he made an oration of thanks, that
gave rife to the cuHorn of admiffory fpeeches, which
are Hill in ufe in that fociety. Mr de Vaugilas owns
himfelf much indebted to him for his afliftance in com-
pofing his Remarks on the French tongue, of which
he was by far the greateft matter in France ; fo that
he was confulted as an oracle by all the beft writers of
that nation.
Patru was eftimable for the qualities of his heart,
as well as for thofe of the head : was honeft, generous,
fincere ; and preferved a gaynefs of chara&er, which
no ill-fortune could alter or affeft. For this famous
advocate, in fpite of all his great talents, lived almoft
in a ftate of indigence. The love of the belles lettres
made him negleft the law; and the barren glory of
being an oracle to the beft French writers had more
charms for him, than all the profits of the bar. Hence
he became fo poor, as to be reduced to the neceflity
of felling his books, which feemed dearer to him than
his life; and would aftually have fold them for an
under-price, if Boileau had not generoufly advanced
him a larger fum, with this further privilege, that he
Jhould have the ufe of them as long as he lived. His
death was preceded by a tedious illnefs, during which
he received a prefent of 500 crowns from Colbert, as
a mark of the efteem which the king bad for him.
He died the 16th of January 1681. The prodigious
care and exaftnefs with which he retouched and finiftied
every thing he wrote, did not permit him to publilh
much. His mifcellaneous works were printed at Paris
in 1670, 4to ; the third edition of which, in 1714,
4to, was augmented with feveral pieces. They con-
iift of Pleadings, Orations, Letters, Lives of fome
of his friends, Remarks upon the French language,
&c.
PAU, a handfome town of France, in the province
of Gafcony and territory of Bearne, with a parlia¬
ment, a mint, and a cattle where Henry IV. was
born. It is feated on an eminence, at the foot of
which runs the river Gave. W. Long. o. 29. N.
Lat. 43. 15.
PAVIA, an ancient and celebrated town of Italy,
in the duchy of Milan, and capital of the Pavefan,
with an univerfity and bifhop’s fee. It is defended by
ftrong walls, large ditches, good ramparts, excellent
baftions, and a bridge over the river Tafin. In the
centre of the town is a ftrong cattle, where the duke of
Milan was wont to refide. There are a great number
of magnificent cattles, and fome colleges. It was
taken by the duke of Savoy in 1706 ; by the French Pavilion,’
*n I733 > by the French and Spaniards in 1745 ; but Paub
retaken by the Auftrians in 1746. E. Long. 9. *
N. Lat. 45. 10
PAVILION, in architefture, fignifies a kind of
turret or building, ufually kifulated, and contained un¬
der a Angle roof; fometimes fquare, and fometimes in
form of a dome : thus called from the refemblance of its
roof to a tent.
Pavilions are fometimes alfo projefting pieces, in the
front of a building, marking the middle thereof; fome¬
times the pavilion flanks a corner, in which cafe it is
called an angular pavilion. The Louvre is flanked
with four pavilions: the pavilions are ufually higher
than the reft of the building. There are pavilions built
in gardens, commonly called fummer-houfes, pleafure-
houfes, &c. Some cattles or forts confift only of a iingle
pavilion.
Pavilion, in military affairs, fignifies a tent raifed
on polls, to lodge under in the fummer time.
Pavilion, is alfo fometimes applied to flags, co¬
lours, enfigns, ftandards, banners, &c.
Pavilion, in heraldry, denotes a covering in form
of a tent, which invefts or wraps up the armories of
divers kings and fovereigns, depending only on God
and theirjword.
The pavilion confifts of two parts ; the top, which
is the chapeau, or coronet; and the curtain, which
makes the mantle.
None but fovereign monarchs, according to the
French heralds, may bear the pavilion entire, and in
all its parts. Thofe who are eleftive, or have any
dependence, fay the heralds, mutt take off the head,
and retain nothing but the curtains.
Pavilions, among jewellers, the underfides and
corners of the brilliants, lying between the girdle and
the collet.
PAUL (St) the apoftle, was born at Tarfus in
Cilicia, of Jewifli parents. He was educated at Tar¬
fus ; which, as Strabo informs us, excelled Alexan¬
dria, Athens, and Rome itfelf, for polite learning.
Thence he was fent to Jerufalem, to ftudy the law under
Gamaliel. Here he became a Pharifee, and engaged
in a violent perfecution ; but was wonderfully con¬
verted in his way to Damafcus. After which he
preached the gofpel in various parts, until he was at
laft fent to Rome, where he is faid to have converted
Poppea Sabina, Nero’s concubine ; for which Nero
being enraged againft him, commanded him to be
beheaded.
Paul, firft bilhop of Narbonne, or Sergius Paulus
the proconful, converted and made bifhop by St Paul,
was defeended form one of !the beft families of Rome.
It is faid the apoftle called himfelf Paul from his
name. The Spaniards will have him to be their
apoftle, which is not improbable; and it is faid he
died a martyr at Narbonne.
Paul (Father), was born at Venice in 1552. He
was educated by his uncle Ambrofio Morelli, and
foon made great progrefs in learning. He was re¬
markable for two qualities, which feldom meet in the
fame perfon; a ftrong memory, and clear judgment.
He took upon him the habit of the Servites in 1566.
Upon entering into this order, he changed his name
of Peter Sarpi for that of Paul. He was afterwards
tfhaplain
P A U [ 5915 ] P A U
Paul chaplain to the duke of Mantua, and reader of pofi-
81 tive and cafuiftical divinity and canon law in that city.
Favo' So he became a perfect mailer of the Hebrew lan¬
guage and of hiftory ; but (hewed the utmoft con¬
tempt for judicial aftrology. When weary of a court
life, he returned to his convent at Venice; and fo in-
tenfely applied himfelf to ftudy, that he injured his
health by it. He was chofen provincial of his order for
the province of Venice at 26 years of age ; and dif-
charged this poll with fuch honour, that 1759 he was
appointed, with two others, to draw up new regula¬
tions and ftatutes for his order. This he executed
with great fuccefs; and when his office of provincial
was expired, he retired for three years to the ftudy of
natural and experimental philofophy and anatomy,
in which he is faid to have made fome ufeful difco-
veries. He was then chofen procurator-general of his
order; and during his refidence at Rome was greatly
efteemed by pope Sixtus V. and contradled an inti¬
mate friendftnp with cardinal Bellarmine and other
eminent perfons. Some time after, he was accufed of
herefy; and brought into a feries of troubles, which
he fupported with exemplary patience and magnani¬
mity ; till at length, growing extremely odious to
the pope’s party, he was affaffinated, and left for
dead, by five ruffians, who retired to the palace of the
pope’s nuncio in Venice, from whence they efcaped
to Ravenna or Ferrara. Thefe circumftances difco-
vered who were concerned in this attempt. He re¬
covered, however, of his wounds; and retired to a
place of fecurity, where he wrote his hiftory of the
council of Trent, which he compiled principally for
the fake of king James I. of England, with whom he
correfponded. His name, ever fince the interdid,
was become famous all over Europe; and two kings
made him very advantageous offers to refide in their
dominions. He died as he had lived, with piety and
rcfignation, in 1623. He was a good controverfial
writer, a judicious and elegant hiftorian.
PAULIONISTS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian he¬
retics of the third century, difciples of Paul Samota-
fenfis bifhop of Antioch, who denied Chrift’s divinity;
maintaining, that, when we call him the Son of God,
we do not therefore mean that he is truly and really
God ; but only that he was fo perfect a man, and fo
fuperior in virtue to all others, that he had this name
given him by way of eminence.
PAUL1CIANS, Chriftian heretics of the feventh
century, difciples of one Conftantine a native of Ar¬
menia, and a favourer of the errors of Manes ; who, as
the name Manichee was become odious, gave thofe of
his fed the name of Paulicians, on the pretence that
they followed only the do&rine of St Paul.
PAVO, the peacock, in ornithology; a genus be-
longing to the order of gallinas. The head is co¬
vered with feathers which bend backwards; the fea¬
thers of the tail are very long, and beautifully va¬
riegated with eyes of different colours. There are
three fpecies.
1. The criftatus, or common peacock of Engliffi
authors, has a compreffed creft and folitary fpurs. It
is a native of India ; and we are affured, that they are
Hill found in a wild ftate in the iflands of Ceyland and
Java. So beautiful a bird could not long be permitted
to be a ftranger in the more diftant parts ; for fo early
2
as the days of Solomon, we find, among the articles Pavo
imported in his Tarlhifh navies, apes and peacocks. A i!
monarch fo converfant in all branches of natural hi-
ftory, “ who fpoke of trees, from the cedar of Leba¬
non, even unto the hyffop that fpnngeth out of the
wall; who fpoke alfo of beafts and of fowl,” would
certainly not negleft furnilhing his officers with in-
ftru&ions for collefting every curiolity in the coun¬
tries they voyaged to, which gave him a knowledge
that diftinguifhed him from all the princes of his time.
iElian relates, that they were brought into Greece
from fome barbarous country; and that they were held
in fuch high efteem, that a male and female were va¬
lued at Athens at 1000 drachmas, or 32 1. 3 s. 10 d.
Their next ftep might be to Samos; where they were
preferred about the temple of Juno, being the birds fa-
cred to the goddefs: and Gellius, in his Nodes Attics,
c. 16. commends the excellency of the Samian pea¬
cocks. It is therefore probable, that they were
brought here originally for the purpofes of fuperfti-
tion, and afterwards cultivated for the ufes of luxury.'
We are alfo told, when Alexander was in India, he
found vaft numbers of wild ones on the banks of the
Hyarotis; and was fo ftruck with their beauty, as
to appoint a fevere punifhment on any perfon that kill¬
ed them.
Peacock’s crefts, in ancient times, were among the
ornaments of the kings of England. Ernald de Ac-
lent was fined to king John in 140 palfries, with fack-
buts, lorains, gilt fpurs, and peacock’s crefts, fuch as
would be for his credit.
2. The bicalcaratas has a fmall creft and double
fpurs. It is a native of China.
3. The muticus has a (harp-pointed creft, and no
fpurs ; the orbits of the eyes are red. It is found in
Japan. _ . ■
PAVO, inaftronomy. See Astronomy, n° 206.
PAURiEDASTYLiE, in natural hiftory, the
name of a genus of perfeft cryftals with double py¬
ramids, and no intermediate column, compofed of
12 planes, or two hexangular pyramids joined bafe to
bafe.
PAUSANIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival i»
which were folemn games, wherein nobody contend¬
ed but free-born Spartans; in honour of Paufaniaa
the Spartan general, under whom the Greeks over¬
came the Pertians in the famous battle of Plataea.
PAUSANIAS,a learned Greek hiftorian and ora¬
tor, in the fecond century, under the reign of Antoni¬
nus the philofopher, was the difciple of Herodus At-
ticus. He lived for a long time in Greece ; and af¬
terwards went to Rome, where he died at a great age.
He wrote an excellent Defcription of Greece, in ten
books; in which we find not only the fituation of
places, but the antiquities of Greece, and every thing
moft curious and worthy of knowledge. Abbd Gedoin
has given a French tranflation of it, in 2 vols qto.
PAUSE, a Hop or ceffation in fpeaking, finging,
playing, or the like. One ufe pointing in grammar is
to make proper paufes, in certain places. There is a
paufe in the middle of each verfe; in an hemiftich, it is
called a reji or repofe. See Poetry, n° 118, &c. and
Reading, n° xi.
PAW, in the manege. A horfe is fa!d to paw the
ground, when, his leg being either tired or painful, he
33 I 2 does
PEA , [ 59
Pea does not reft it upon the groun.d> and fears to hurt
I1 hjmfelf as he walks.
Ieil ' PEA, in botany. See Pisum.
PEACH, in botany. See Amygdalus.
PEACOCK, in ornithology. See Pavo,
PEAK of Derbyshire, a chain of very high
mountains in the county of Derby in England, famous
for the mines they contain, and for their remarkable
caverns. The moft remarkable of thefe are Pool’s*
hole and Elden-hole. The former is a cave at the foot
of a high hill called Coitmofs} fo narrow at the en¬
trance that paflengers are obliged to creep on all-fours;
but it foon opens to a confiderable height, extending
to above a quarter of a mile, with a roof fomewhat re-
fembling that of an ancient cathedral. By the petrify¬
ing water continually dropping in many parts of the
cave are formed a variety of curious figures and re-
prefentations of the works both of nature and art.
There is a column here as clear as alabafter, which is
called the Queen of Scots Pillar, becaufe Queen Mary
is faid to have proceeded thus far when fhe vifited the
cavern. If a piftol is fired by this pillar, it will make
a report as loud as a cannon. Near the extremity
there is a hollow in the roof, called the Needle's eye;
in which if a candle is placed, it will reprefent a liar
in the firmament to thofe who are below. At a little
diftance from this cave is at fmall clear ftream con-
fifting of hot and cold water, fo near each other,
that the finger and thumb of the fame hand may
be put, the one into the hot water, and the other into
the cold.
Eiden-hole is a dreadful chafm in the fide of a moun¬
tain ; which, before the latter part of the laft cen¬
tury, was thought to be altogether unfathomable. In
the time of queen Elizabeth, a poor man was let
down into it for 200 yards; but he was drawn up in
a frenzy, and foon after died. In 1682, it was exami¬
ned by Captain Collins, and in 1699 by Captain Stur-
my, who publilhed their accounts in the Philofophical
Tranfadtions. The latter defcended by ropes fixed at
the top of an old lead-ore pit, four fathoms almoll
perpendicular, and from thence three fathoms more
obliquely, between two great rocks. At the bottom
of this he found an entrance into a very fpacious ca¬
vern, from whence he defcended along with a miner
for 25 fathoms perpendicular. At laft they came to
a great river or water, which he found to be 20 fa¬
thoms broad and eight fathoms deep. The miner who
accompanied him, infilled that this water ebbed and
flowed with the fea ; but the Captain difproved this
aflertion by remaining in the place from three hours
flood to two hours ebb, during which time there was
no alteratiun in the height of the water. As they
walked by the fide of this water, they obferved a hol¬
low in the rock fome feet above them. The miner went
into this place, which'was the mouth of another cavern;
and walked for about 70 paces in it, till he juft loft
fight of the Captain. He then called to him, that he
had found a rich mine; but immediately after came
running out and crying,, that he had feen an evil fpi-
rit; neither could any perfuafions induce him to re¬
turn. The floor of thefe caverns is a kind of white
flone enamelled with lead ore, and the roofs are en-
crulled with fhining fpar. On his return from this fub-
terraneous journey, Captain Sturroy was fei&ed with a
16 ] PEA
violent head-ach, which, after continuing four days,
terminated in a fever, of which he died in a fhort
time.
A few years ago this cavern was rifited by the late
Mr James Fergufon : who tells us, that it confifts of
two hollows one over another ; but that the mouth of
the lowermoft is now flopped up by planks of timber
laid acrofs it, on which are a heap of ftones thrown in
at the upper mouth with a defign to fill up the cavern
entirely ; which, however, will probably be never ac-
complilhed on account of its vatl fize.
PEAN, in heraldry, is when the field of a coat of
arms is fable, and the powderings or.
PEAR, in botany. See Pyrus.
PEARCE (Dr), lord bifhop of Rochefter, was ths
fon of a diftiller in High Holborn. He married Mifs
Adams, the daughter of a diftiller in the fame neigh-'
bourhood, with a confiderable fortune, who lived with
him 52 years in the higheft degree of connubial hap-
pinefs. He had his education in Weftminfter fchool,
where he was diftinguilhed by his merit, and ele&ed
one of the king’s fcholars. In 1710, when he was 20
years old, he was defied to Trinity College, Cam¬
bridge. During the firft years of his refidence at the
univerfity, he fometimes amufed himfelf with lighter
compofitions, fome of which are inferted in the Guar¬
dian and Speflator. In 1716, he publifhed his edi¬
tion of Cicero de Oratore, and, at the defire of a friend,
luckily dedicated it to Lord Chief Juftice Parker, (af¬
terwards Earl of Macclesfield,) to whom he was a
ftranger. This incident laid the foundation of his fu¬
ture fortune : for Lord Parker foon recommended him
to Dr Bentley, mailer of Trinity, to be made one of
the fellows; and the doflor confented to it on this
condition, that his lordlhip would promife to unmake
him again as foon as it lay in his power to give him
a living. In 1717, Mr Pearce was ordained at the
age of 27 ; having taken time enough, as he thought,
to attain a fufficient knowledge of the facred office.
In 1718, Lord Parker was appointed chancellor, and
invited Mr Pearce to live with him in his houfe as
chaplain. In 1719, he was inftituted into the redtory
of Stapleford Abbots, in Effex; and in 1720, into
that of St Bartholomew, behind the Royal Exchange,
worth 400 1. per annum. In 1723, the lord chancel¬
lor prefented him to St Martin’s in the Fields. His
Majefty, who was then at Hanover, was applied to in-
favour of St Claget, who was then along with him ;
and the doflor aflually kiffed hands upon the occa-
fion : but the chancellor, upon the king’s return, dif-
puted the point, and was permitted to prefent Mr
Pearce.—Mr Pearce foon attradled the notice and
efteem of perfons in the higheft ftations and of the
greateft abilities. Befide Lord Parker, he could rec¬
kon amongft his patrons or friends, Lord Maccles¬
field, Mr Pulteney (afterwards Earl of Bath), arch-
bilhop Potter, Lord Hardwicke, Sir Ifaac Newton,
and other illuftrious perfonages.—In 1724, the de¬
gree of doctor of divinity was conferred on him by
archbilhop Wake. The fame year he dedicated to his
patron, the Earf of Macclesfield, his edition of Lon~
ginus on the Sublime, with a new Latin verfion and
notes.
When the church of St Martin’s was rebuilt, Dr
Pearce preached, a fermon at the confecration, which
he
Pesn
n II
Pearce.
P E A [ 59
Pearce, he afterwards printed, and accompanied with an eflay
' on the origin and progrefs of temples, traced from the
rude ftones which were firft ufed for altars, to the noble
ftrufture of Solomon, which he confiders as the firft
temple completely covered. His obfervations on that
building, which is called the temple of Dagon, r?mo\e$
part of the difficulty which prefents itfelf in the nar¬
ration of the manner in which Samfon deftroyed it.
The deanry of Winchefter becoming vacant, Dr
Pearce was appointed dean it) 1739; and in the year
1744. he was ele&ed prolocutor of the lower houfe of
convocation for the province of Canterbury. His friends
now began to think of him for the epifcopal dignity ;
but Mr Dean’s language rather delined it. However,
after feveral difficulties had been ftarted and removed,
he confented to accept the bifhoprick of Bangor, and
promifed Lord Hardwicke to do it with a good grace.
He accordingly made proper acknowledgments of the
royal goodnefs, and was confecrated Feb. 12. 1748.
Upon the declining ftate of health of Dr Wilcocks,
bilhop of Rochefter, the bilhop of Bangor was feveral
times applied to by archbifhop Herring to accept of
Rochefter, and the deanry ofWeftminfter, in exchange
for Bangor; but the bifhop then firft fignified his de¬
fire to obtain leave to refign and retire to a private
life. His lordfhip, however, upon being preffed, fuf-
fered himfelf to be prevailed upon “ My Lord,”
faid he to the Duke of Newcaftle, “ your grace offers
thefe dignities to me in fo generous and friendly a man¬
ner, that I promife you to accept them.” Upon the
death of bifhop Wilcocks he was accordingly promp¬
ted to the fee of Rochefter and deanry ofWeftminfter
in 1756. Biftiop Sherlock died in 1761, and Lord
Bath offered his intereft for getting the bifhop of Ro-
chefter appointed to fucceed him in the diocefe of Lon¬
don ; but the bifhop told his lordfhip, that he had de¬
termined never to be bifhop of London or archbifhop
of Canterbury.
In the year 1763, his lordfhip being 73 years old,
and finding himfelf lefs fit for the bufinefs of his Rations
as bifhop and dean, informed his friend lord Bath of
his intention to rdign both, and live in a retired man¬
ner upon his private fortune. Lord Bath undertook
to acquaint his majefty ; who named a day and hour,
when the bifhop was admitted alone into the clofet.
He told the king, that he wifhed to have fame inter¬
val between the fatigues of buftnefs and eternity; and
defired his majefty to confult proper perfons about the
propriety and legality of his refignation. In about
two months the king informed him, that Lord Mans¬
field faw no objeftion ; and that Lord Northington,
who had been doubtful, on farther confideration
thought that the requeft might be complied with.
Unfortunately for the bifhop, lord Bath applied for
bifhop Newton to fucceed. This alarmed the mini-
ftry, who thought that no dignities fhould be obtain¬
ed but through their hands. They therefore oppofed
the refignation ; and his majefty was informed that the
bifhops difliked the defign. His majefty fent to him
again ; and at a third audience told him, that he muft
think no more of refigning. The bifhop replied, u Sir,
I am all duty and tubmifiion;” and then retired.
„ In 1768 he obtained leave to refign the deanry ; in
1773, he loft his lady ^ and after fome months of ling¬
ering d^cay, he died at Little Ealing, June 29, 1774.
17! PEA
This eminent prelate diftinguifked himfelf in every Pearch.
part of his life by the virtues proper to his Ration.
His literary abilities, and application to facred and
philological learning, appear by his works ; the prin¬
cipal of which are, A letter to the clergy of the church
of England, on occafion of the bifhop of Rochefter’s
commitment to the Tower, 2d ed. 1722. Miracles of
Jefus vindicated, 1727 and 1728. A review of the
text of Milton, 1733. Two letters againft Dr Mid¬
dleton, occafioned by the doftor’s letter to Waterland,
on the publication of his treatife, intitled Scripture Vin¬
dicated, 3d edit. 1752. And fince his deatli, a com¬
mentary with notes on the four Evangelifts and the Aft*
of the Apoftles, together with a new tranflation of St
Paul’s firft Epiftle to the Corinthians, with a para-
phrafe and notes, have been publifhed, with hia life
prefixed, from original MSS. in 2 vols 410.
PEARCH, in ichthyology. See Perca.
The pearch affords good fport for the angler. The
beft time for their biting is when the fpring is over,
and before the heats of fummer come on. At this
time they are very greedy ; and the angler, with good
management, may take at one Handing all that are
in the hole, be they ever fo many.
The proper baits are a minow or young frog ; but
the worm called the brandling, well fcowered, is alfo
excellent at all times of the year. When the pearch
bites, he fhould always have a great deal of time al¬
lowed him to fwallow the bait.
The pearch will bite all day long, if the weather be
cloudy ; but the beft time is from eight to ten in the
morning, and from three till fix in the afternoon.
The pearch is very abftemious in winter, and will fel-
dom bite in this feafon of the year ; if he does at all,
it is in the middle of the day : at which time indeed
all fifh bite beft at that feafon.
If the bait be a minow, which is the bait that af¬
fords moft diverfion to the angler, it muft be faftened
to the hook alive, by putting the hook through the
upper lip or back-fin; it muft; be kept at about mid¬
water, and the float muft be a quill and a cork, that
the minow alone may not be able to fink it.
The line muft be of filk, and ftrong ; and the hook
armed with a final] and fine wire, that if a pike fhould
take the bait, as is not unfrequently the cafe, he may¬
be taken. The way to carry the minows or fmall
gudgeons alive for baits is this: A tin-pot is to be
provided, with holes in the lid, and filled with water;,
and the fifh being put in this, the water is to be chats-
ged once in a quarter of an hour by the holes, with¬
out taking off the lid at any time, except when the
bait is to be taken out.
A fmall cafting-net, made for thefe little fifh, fhould
be taken out with the pearch-tackle ; and one or two-
cafts of this will take baits enough for the day, with¬
out any farther trouble. When the bait is a frog,
the hook is to be faftened to the upper part of the
leg. The beft. place for the fifhing for pearch is in
the turn of the water near fome gravelly fcour. A
place of this kind being pitched upon, it fhould be
baited over-night with lobworms chopped to pieces;
and in the morning, on going to it, the depth is to-
be regularly plumbed, and then the hook is to be
baited with the worm or other bait; and as it drags
%|ong, the pearch will foon feize upon iu
PEA
Pearch, PEAftCH-G/^, the name of a kind of glue, of re-
Pearl, markable ftrength and purity, made from the (kins of
pearches.
PEARL, in natural hiftory, a hard, white, (hi-
ning body, ufually roundilh, found in a teftaceous filh
refembling an oyfter.
Pearls, though efteemed of the number of gems by
our jewellers, and highly valued, not only at this time,
but in all ages, proceed only from a diftemper in the
creature that produces them, analagous to the bezoars,
and other ftony concretions in feveral animals of other
kinds.
The fi(h in which thefe are ufually produced is the
Eaft-Indian pearl-oyfter, as it is commonly called.
Befides this (hell, there are many others that are found
to produce pearls ; as the common oyfter, the mufcle,
and feveral others ; the pearls of which are often very
good ; but thofe of the true Indian berberi, or pearl-
oyfter, are in general fuperior to all. The fmall or
feed-pearls, alfo called ounce-pearls, from their being
fold by the ounce and not by tale, are vaftly the
moft numerous and common : but, as in diamonds,
among the multitudes of fmall ones, there are fmaller
numbers and larger found, fo in pearls there are larger
and larger kinds ; but as they increafe in fize, they
are proportionably lefs frequent; and this is one rea-
fon of their great price. We have Scotch pearls fre¬
quently as big as a little tare, fome as big as a large
pea, and fome few of the fize of a horfe-bean ; but
thefe are ufually of a bad fhape, and of little value in
proportion to their weight. Philip II. of Spain had
a pearl perfeft in its fhape and colour, and of the fize
of a pigeon’s egg. The fineft, and what is called the
true fhape of the pearl, is a perfeft round ; but if
pearls of a confiderable fize, are of the fhape of a pear,
as is not unfrequently the cafe, they are not lefs va¬
lued, as they ferve for ear-rings and other ornaments.
Their colour ought to be a pure white ; and that not
a dead andlifelefs, but a clear and brilliant one : they
muft be perfeftly free from any foulnefs, fpot, or
ftain ; and their furfaces muft be naturally fmooth and
glofly ; for they bring their natural polifh with them,
which art is not able to improve.
All pearls are formed of the matter of the fhell,
and confift of a number of coats fpread with perfedt
regularity one over another, in the manner of the fe¬
veral coats of an onion, or like the feveral ftrata of
the flones found in the bladders or ftomachs of ani¬
mals, only much thinner.
Manner of fijhing for Pearls in the Eajl Indies.
There are two feafons for pearl-fifhiug : the firft is in
March and April, and the laft in Auguft and Septem¬
ber ; and the more rain there falls in the year, the
more plentiful are thefe fifheries. At the beginning
of the feafon there are fometimes 250 barks on the
banks; the larger barks have two divers, and the
fmaller one. As foon as the barks arrive at the place
where the fifh lie, and have caft anchor, each diver
binds a ftone, fix inches thick and a foot long, under
his body ; which ferves him as ballaft, prevents his
being driven away by the motion of the water, and
enables him to walk -more fteadily under the waves.
They alfo tie another very heavy ftone to one foot, by
which they are very fpeedily fent to the bottom of the
fea ; aod as the oyfters are ufually firmly fattened to
PEA
the rocks, they arm their hands with leather mittens, Peart*
to prevent their being wounded in pulling them vio- 
lently off; but this talk fome perform with an iron
rake. In the laft place, each diver carries down
with him a large net in the manner of a fack, tied to
his neck by a long cord, the other end of which is
fattened to the fide of the bark. This net is to hold
the oyfters gathered from the rock; and the cord is
to pull up the diver when his bag is full, or he wants
air.
In this equipage he fometimes precipitates him-
felf fixty feet under water ; and as he has no time to
lofe, he no fooner arrives at the bottom, than he be¬
gins to run from fide to fide, tearing up all the oy¬
fters he meets with, and cramming them into his bud-
get.
At whatever depth the divers are, the light is fo
great, that they eafily fee whatever paffes in the fea ;
and, to their great confternation, fometimes perceive
monftrous fifties, from which all their addrefs in mud¬
dying the water, &c. will not always fave them, but
they unhappily become their prey : and of all the
dangers of the fiftiery, this is one of the greateft and
moft ufual. The beft divers will keep under water
near half an hour, and the reft do not flay lefs than a
quarter. During this time they hold their breath
without the ufe of oils or any other liquors; only
acquiring the habit by long praftice. When they
find themfelves ftraitened, they pull the rope to
which the bag is fattened, and hold fall by it with
both hands ; when thofe in the bark, taking the fig-
nal, heave them up into the air, and unload them of
their fifti; which is fometimes 500 oyfters, and fome¬
times not above 50. Some of the divers need a mo¬
ment’s refpite to recover breath ; others jump in again
inftantly, continuing this violent exercife without in-
termiflion for feveral hours.
On the ftiore they unload their barks, and lay their
oyfters in an infinite number of little pits dug in the
fand four or five feet fquare, raifing heaps of fand
over them to the height of a man ; and in this condi¬
tion they are left till the rain, wind, and fun, have
obliged them to open, which foon kills them : upon
this the flefh rots and dries, and the pearls, thus difen-
gaged, fall into the pit, on their taking out the {hells.
After clearing the pits of the groffer filth, they fift
the fand feveral times in order to find the pearl; but,
whatever care they take, they always lofe a great
many. After cleaning and drying the pearls, they
are paffed through a kind of fieve, according to their
fizes ; the fmalleft are then fold as feed-pearls, and
the reft put up to au&ion, and fold to the higheft
bidder.
Artificial H'e.kKx.s. Attempts have been made to
take out ftains from pearls, and to render the foul
opaque-coloured ones equal in luftre to the oriental.
Abundance of proceffes are given for this purpofe in
books of fecyets and travels ; but they are very far
from anfwering what is expefted from them. Pearls
may be cleaned indeed from any external foulneffes by
wafhing and rubbing them with a little Venice foap
and warm water, or with ground rice and fait, with
ftarch and powder-blue, plafter of Paris, coral, white
vitriol and tartar, cuttle-bone, pumice-ftone, and
other fimilar fubftances; but a ftain that reaches deep
into
[ 59l8 1
PEA [ 5919 ] PEA
into the fubftance of the pearls is impoffible to be
taken out. Nor can a number of fmall pearls be uni¬
ted into a mafs fimilar to an entire natural one, as
fome pretend.
There are, however, methods of making artificial
pearls, in fuch manner as to be with difficulty diftin-
guifhed from the beft oriental. The ingredient ufed
for this purpofe was long kept a fecret; but is now
difcovered to be a fine filver-like fubftance found upon
the under fide of the fcales of the blay or bleak fifh.
The fcales, taken off in the ufual manner, are wafhed
and rubbed with frefh parcels of fair water, and the
feveral liquors fuffered to fettle : the water being then
poured off, the pearly matter remains at the bottom,
of the confiftence of oil, called by the French ejence
d’orient. A little of this is dropped into a hollow
bead of bluifh glafs, and fhaken about fo as to line
the internal furface ; after which the cavity is filled up
with wax, to give folidity and weight. Pearls made
in this manner are diftinguilhable from the natural only
by their having fewer blemifhes.
Mother-of-X!*.kv>\. is the (hell, not of the pearl oyfter,
but of another fea-filh of the oyfter kind. This fhell,
on the infide, is extremely fmooth, and of the white-
nefs and water of pearl itfelf: it has alfo the fame luftre
on the outfide after the external laminae have been ta¬
ken off by aquafortis and the lapidary’s mill. Mo¬
ther of pearl is ufed in inlaid works, and in feveral toys,
as fnuff-boxes, &c.
PEARSON (John), a very learned Englifh biftiop
in the 17th century, was born at Snoring in 1613.
After his education at Eton and Cambridge, he enter¬
ed into holy orders in 1639, and was the fame year col¬
lated to the prebend of Netherhaven in the church of
Sarum. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to the lord
keeper Finch, and by him prefented to the living of
Torrington in Suffolk. In 1650 he was made minifter
of St Clement’s, Eaft-cheap, in London. In 1657, he
and Mr Gunning had a difpute with two Roman Ca¬
tholics, upon the fubjeft of fchifm ; a very unfair ac¬
count of which was printed at Paris in 1658. Some
time after, he publilhed his Expofition of the Creed, and
feveral other works. After various preferments, he
was advanced in 1672 to the fee of Chefter; where he
died, in 1686.
PEAT, a kind of turf ufed for fuel in feveral coun¬
tries. See Chemistry, n°5i6.
There are very confiderable differences in peat, pro¬
ceeding perhaps wholly from different mineral admix¬
tures; for the fubftance of the peat is plainly of vege¬
table origin, whence it is found to anfwer for the fmelt-
ing of ores, and the redu&ion of metallic calces, nearly
in the fame manner as the coals of wood. Some forts
yield in burning a very difagreeable fmell, which ex¬
tends to a great diftance; whilft others are inoffenfive.
Some burn into grey or white, and others into red fer-
rugineous allies. The alhes yield, on elixation, a fmall
quantity of alkaline fait, with fometimes one and fome-
times another fait of the neutral kind.
The fmoke of peat does not preferve or harden flelh
like that of wood ; and the foot, into which it con-
denfes, is more difpofed to liquefy in moift weather.
On diftilling peat in clofe veffels, there arifes a clear in-
fipid phlegm, an acid liquor, which is fucceeded by an
alkaline one, and a dark coloured oil. The oil has a
very pungent tafte; and an empyreumatic fmell, lefs
fetid than that of animal fubftances, more fo than that J[
of mineral bitumens : it congeals in the cold into a Pc e--
pitchy mafs, which liquefies in a fmall heat: it readily
catches fire from a candle, but burns lefs vehemently
than other oils, and immediately goes out upon remo¬
ving the external flame: it diffolves almoft totally in
reflified fpirit of wine into a dark brownifh red li¬
quor.
PEBBLES, the name of a genus of folfils, diftin-
guilhed from the flints and horaochroa by their ha¬
ving a variety of colours. Thefe are defined to be
ftones compofed of a cryftalline matter debafed by
earths of various kinds in the fame fpecies, and then
fubjeft to veins, clouds, and other variegations, ufually
formed by incruftation round a central nucleus, but
fometimes the effeft of a Ample concretion ; and veined
like the agates, by the difpofition which the motion of
the fluid they were formed in gave their differently co¬
loured fubftances.
The variety of pebbles is fo great, that an hafty de-
fcriber would be apt to make almoft as many fpecies as
he faw fpecimens. A careful examination will teach
us, however, to diftinguifh them into a certain number
of effentially different fpecies, to which all the reft may
be referred as accidental varieties. When we find the
fame colours, or thofe refulting from a mixture of the
fame, fuch as nature frequently makes in a number of
^ftones, we (hall eafily be able to determine that thefe
are all of them the fame fpecies, though of different
appearances; and that whether the matter be difpofed
of in one or two, or in 20 crufts, laid regularly round
a nucleus; or thrown irregularly, without a nucleus,
into irregular lines ; or laftly, if blended into an uni¬
form mafs.
Thefe are the three dates in which every pebble is
found; for if it has been naturally and regularly form¬
ed by incruftation round a certain nucleus, we find that
always the fame in the fame fpecies, and the crufts not
lefs regular and certain. If the whole has been more
haftily formed, and the refult only of one fimple con¬
cretion, if that has happened while its different fub¬
ftances were all moift and thin, they have blended to¬
gether and made a mixed mafs of the joint colour of
them all. But if they have been fomething harder
when this has happened, and too far concreted to dif-
fufe wholly among one another, they are found thrown
together into irregular veins. Thefe are the natural
differences of all the pebbles; and having regard to
thefe in the feveral variegations, all the known pebbles
may be reduced to 34 fpecies.
PECCANT, in medicine, a term ufed for thofe hu¬
mours of the body which offend either by their quan¬
tity or quality.
PECCARY, or Tajacu, in zoology; a fpecies of
Sus.
PECK, a meafure of capacity, four of which make
a bufhel.
PECORA, in zoology, the fifth order of the clafs
mammalia, in the Linnean fyftem. See Zoology.
PECTEN, the Scallop; a genus of (hell-fifti, the
charafters of which are thefe: The animal is a tethys;
the (hell bivalve and unequal; the hinge toothlefs, ha¬
ving a fmall ovated hollow. This (hell-fi(h is one of the
fpianers, having the power of fpinning threads like the
mufde
PEC [ 5920 ] P E D
Feforal mufcle: but they are much fhorter and coarfer than
II.. even thofe of that fifh; fo that they can never be
ecoiuir. wrought into any kind of work like the longer and
finer threads of the pinna marina. The ufe of the threads
Which are fpun by the fcallop is to fix the creature to
any folid body near its fhell. All thefe proceed, as in
the mufcle, from one common trunk. It is an evident
proof that the filh has a power of fixing itfelf at plea-
lure to any folid body by means of thefe threads, that
after ftorms the fcallops are often found toffed upon
rocks, where there were none the day before; and yet
thefe are fixed by their threads, as well as thofe which
had remained ever fo long in their place. They form
their threads in the very fame manner with the mufcle;
only their organ which ferves for fpinning is (horter,
and has a wider hollow, whence the threads are necef-
farily thicker and (horter. The moft remarkable fpe-
cies of this genus is,
The maxim US', or great fcallop, with 14 rays, very
rominent and broad; ftriated lengthwife above and
elow. Thefe grow to a large fize; are found in beds
by themfelves; are dredged up, and barrelled for fale.
The ancients fay that they have a power of removing
themfelves from place to place by vaft fprings or leaps.
This (hell was called by the Greeks by the La¬
tins petten; and was ufed by both as a food. When
drdfed with pepper and cummin, it was taken medici¬
nally.
The fcallop was commonly worn by pilgrims on
their hat, or the cape of their coat, as a mark that
they had croffed the fea in their way to the Holy Land,
or fome diftant objeft of devotion.
PECTORAL, an epithet for medicines good in dif-
eafes of the bread and lungs.
PECTORALIS, in anatomy. See there, Table of
the Mufcles.
PECULATE, in civil law, the crime of embezzling
the public money, by a perfon intruded with the re¬
ceipt, management, or cudody thereof. This term is
alfo ufed by civilians for a theft, whether the thing be
public, fifcal, facred, or religious.
PECULIAR, in the canon law, fignifies a particu¬
lar paridi or church that has jurifdiAion within itfelf
for granting probates of wills and adminidrations, ex¬
empt from the ordinary or biftrop’s courts. The king’s
chapel is a royal peculiar, exempt from all fpiritual ju-
rifdiftion, and referved to the vifitation and immediate
government of the king himfelf. There is likewife the
archbilhop’s peculiar; for it is an ancient privilege of
the fee of Canterbury, that wherever any manors or
advowfons belong to it, they forthwith become exempt
from the ordinary, and are reputed peculiars: there
are 57 fuch peculiars in the fee of Canterbury.
Befides thefe, there are fome peculiars belonging to
deans, chapters, and prebendaries, which are only ex¬
empted from the jyrifdiftion of the archdeacon: thefe
are derived from the bifhop, who may vifit them, and
to whom there lies an appeal.
Peculiars [Court of),\s a branch of, and annexed
to, the court of arches. It has a jurifdiftion over all
thofe paridies difperfed'through the province of Can¬
terbury in the midd of other diocefes, which are exempt
from the ordinary’s jurifdidlion, and fubjeft to the me¬
tropolitan only. All ecclefiadical caufes, arifing with¬
in thefe peculiar or exempt jurifdidions, are originally
cognizable by this court; from which an appeal lay
formerly to the pope, but now by the dat. 25 H. VIIL
c. 19. to the king in chancery.
PECULIUM, the dock or edate which a perfon,
in the power of another, as a flave, may acquire by his
indudry.
In the Romidr church, peculium denotes the goods
which each religious referves and podeffes to himfelf.
PEDALS, the larged pipes of an organ, fo called
becaufe played and dopped with the foot. The pedals
are made fquare, and of wood; they are ufuaily 13 in
number. They are of modern invention, and ferve to
to carry the founds of an o&ave deeper than the red.
See Organ.
PEDAGOGUE, or Pedagogue, a tutor or ma-
der, to whom is committed the difeipline and dire&ion
of a fcholar, to be indru&ed in grammar and other
arts. The word is formed from the Greek »««!'»»uyuyos,
puerorum duttor, “ leader of boys.”
M. Fleury obferves, that the Greeks gave the name
pcedagogus to flaves appointed to attend their children,
lead them, and teach them to walk, &c. The Romans
gave the fame denomination to the flaves who were in¬
truded with the care and inftru&ion of their children.
PEDANT, a fchool-mader, or pedagogue, who
profedes to indruA and govern youth, teach them the
humanities, and the arts. See Pedagogue.
Pedant is alfo ufed for a rough, unpoliflied man of
letters, who makes an impertinent ufe of the fciences,
and abounds in unfeafonable criticifms and obferva-
tions.
Dacier defines a pedant, a perfon who has more read¬
ing than good fenfe. See Pedantry.
Pedants are people ever armed with quibbles and fyl-
logifms; breathe nothing but difputation and chican-
ry, and purfue a propofition to the lad limits of lo¬
gic.
Malebranche deferibes a pedant as a man full of falfe
erudition, who makes a parade of his knowledge, and
is ever quoting fome Greek or Latin author, or hunt¬
ing back to a remote etymology.
St Evremont fays, that to paint the folly of a pe¬
dant, we mud reprefent him as turning all converfation
to fome one fcience or fubje& he is bed acquainted
withal.
There are pedants of all conditions, and all robes.
Wicquefort fays, an ambadador, always attentive to
formalities and decorums, is nothing elfe but a politi¬
cal pedant.
PEDANTRY, or PEDANTisM,the quality or man¬
ner of a pedant. See Pedant.
To fwell up little and low things, to make a vain
(how of fcience, to heap up Greek and Latin without
judgment, to tear thofe to pieces who differ from us
about a paffage in Suetonius or the etymology of a
word, to dir up all the world againd a man for not
admiring Cicero enough, to be intereded for the re¬
putation of an ancient as if he were our next of kin,
is what we properly call pedantry.
FEDARIAN, in Roman antiquity, thofe fenators
who fignified their votes by their feet, not their tongues;
that is, fuch as walked over to the fide of thofe whofe
opinion they approved of, in divilions of the houfe.
PEDERASTS, the fame with Sodomites.
PEDESTAL, in architecture, the lowed part of
an
Peculium
«
Pedeftal.
Pedicle,
Pediculus.
P E D [ 5921 ] P E D
an order of columns, being that part which fuftains the
column, and ferves it as a foot or Hand. See Column.
PEDICLE, among botanifts, that part of a (talk
which immediately fuftains the leaf of a flower or a
fruit, and is commonly called a footjialk.
PEDICULUS, the Louse, in zoology, a genus
of infefts belonging to the order of aptera. It has fix
feet, two eyes, and a fort of fting in the mouth; the
feelers are as long as the thorax; and the belly is dc-
preffed and fublobated.
Many animals both of the quadruped and flying
kinds are fubjeft to lice; but thefe are of peculiar fpe-
cies on each animal, and are not at all like thofe which
infeft the human body. Nay, even infers are infefted
with vermin'which feed on and torment them. Seve¬
ral kinds of beetles are fubjecl to lice; but particu¬
larly that kind called thence tht loufy beetle. The lice
on this are very numerous, and will not be Ihook off.
The earwig is often infefted with lice, juft at the fel¬
ting on of its head: thefe are white, and fhining like
mites, but they are much fmaller; they are round-
backed, flat bellied, and have long legs, particularly
the foremoft pair. Snails of all kinds, but efpecially
the large naked forts, are very fubjedl to lice ; which
are continually feen running about them, and devour¬
ing them. Numbers of little red lice, with a very
ftnall head, and in fhape refembling a tortoife, are of¬
ten feen about the legs of fpiders, and they never leave
the animal while he lives; but if he is killed, they al-
moft inftantly forfake him. A fort of whitifh lice is
found on humble-bees: they are alfo found upon ants;
and fifties are not lefs fubjedl to them than other ani¬
mals.
Kircher tells us, that he found lice alfo on flies, and
M. de la Hire has given a curious account of the crea¬
ture which he found on the common fly. Having oc-
cafion to view a living fly with the microfcope, he ob-
ferved on its head, back, and fhoulders, a great num¬
ber of fmall animals crawling very nimbly about, and
often climbing up the hairs which grow at the origin
of the fly’s legs. He with a fine needle took up one of
thefe, and placed it before the microfcope ufed to view
the animalcules in fluids. It had eight legs; four on
each fide. Thefe were not placed very diftant from
each other; but the four towards the head were fepa-
rated by a fmall fpace from the four towards the tail.
The feet were of a particular ftrufture, being compo-
fed of feveral fingers, as it were, and fitted for taking
fait hold of any thing; but the two neareft the head
•were alfo more remarkable in this particular than thofe
near the tail; the extremities of the legs for a little
way above the feet were dry and void of flefh like the
legs of birds, but above this part they appeared plump
and flefhy. It bad two fmall horns upon its head,
formed of feveral hairs arranged clofely together; and
there were fome other clufters of hairs by the fide of thefe
horns, but they had not the fame figure; and towards
the origin of the hinder legs there were two other fuch
clufters of hairs which took their origin at the middle
of the back. The whole creature was of a bright yel-
lowifh red; the legs, and ail the body, except a large
fpot in the centre, were perfeftly tranfparent. In fize,
he computed it to be about ^-oVo-th Part t^ie ^eac^
the fly; and he obferves, that fuch kind of vermin are
rarely found on flies.
Vol. VIII. 3
The loufe which infefb the human body makes a P«<3
very curious appearance through a microfcope. It has
fuch a tranfparent fhell or flcin, that we are able to
difcoyer more of what pafles within its body than in
molt other living creatures. It has naturally three di-
vifions, the head, the breaft, and the tail part. In
the head appear two fine black eyes, with a horn that
has five joints, and is furrounded with hairs handing
before each eye; and from the end of the nofe or fnout
there is a pointed projefting part, which ferves as a
Iheath or cafe to a piercer or fucker, which the crea¬
ture thrufts into the fltin to draw out the blood and
humours which are its deftined food ; for it has no
mouth that opens in the common way, This piercer
or fucker is judged to be 700 times fmaller than a
hair, and is contained in another cafe within the firft,
and can be drawn in or thruft out at pleafure. The
breaft is very beautifully marked in the middle; the
flcin is tranfparent, and full of little pits; and from
the under part of it proceed fix legs, each having five
joints, and their flcin all the way refembling fhagreen,
except at the ends where it is fmoother. Each leg is
terminated by twa claws, which are hooked, and are
of an unequal length and fize. Thefe it ufrs as we
would a thumb and middle finger ; and there are hairs
between thefe claws as well as all over the legs. On
the back part of the tail there may be difcovered fome
ring-like divifions, and a fort of marks which look
like the ftrokes of a rod on the human flcin ; the belly
looks like fhagreen, and towards the lower end it is
very clear, and full of pits: at the extremity of the
tail there are two femicircular parts all covered over
with hairs, which ferve to conceal the anus. When
the loufe moves its legs, the motion of the mufcles,
which all unite in an oblong dark fpot in the middle of
the breaft, may be difttnguifhed perfe&!y, andfo may
the motion of the mufcles of the head when it moves
its horns. We may likewife fee the various ramifica¬
tions of the veins and arteries, which are white, with
the pulfe regularly beating in the arteries. But the
moft furprifing of all the fights is the periftaltic motion
of the guts, which is continued all the way from the
ftomach down to the anus.
If one of thefe creatures, when hungry, be placed
on the back of the hand, it will thruft its fucker into
the fkin, and the blood which it fucks may be feen
pafiing in a fine ftream to the fore-part of the head ;
where, falling into a roundifh cavity, it pafies again in
a fine ftream to another circular receptacle in the
middle of the head ; from thence it runs thro’ a fmall
veffel to the breaft, and then to a- gut which reaches
to the hinder part of the body, where in a curve it
turns again a little upward ; in the breaft and gut the
blood is moved without intermiflion, with a great
force; efpecially in the gut, where it occafions fuch a
contraftion of the gut as is very furprifing. In the
upper part of the crooked afcending gut above-men¬
tioned, the propelled blood (lands (till, and feems to
undergo a reparation, fome of it becoming clear and
waterifti, while other black particles are puflied for¬
ward to the anus. If a loufe is placed on its back,
two bloody darkifh fpots appear ; the larger in the
middle of the body, the lefler towards the tail; the
motions of which are followed by the puliation of the
dark bloody fpst, in or over which the white bladder
33 K feems
PedkuLt
FED [ 5922 ] FED
«5. feema to lie. This motion of the fyftole and diaftole
is beft feen when the creature begins to grow weak ;
and on pricking the white bladder, which feems to be
the heart, the creature inftantly dies. The lower dark
fpot is fuppofed to be the excrement in the gut.
Lice have been fuppofed to be hermaphrodites: but
this is erroneous ; for Mr Lieuwenhoeck obferved, that
the males have flings in their tails, which the females
have not. And he fuppofes the fmarting pain, which
thofe creatures fometimes give, to be owing to their
flinging with thefe flings when made uneafy by pref-
fure or otherwife. He fays, that he felt little or no
pain from their fuckers, though fix of them were feed-
iug on his hand at once.
In order to know the true hiflory and manner of
breeding of thefe creatures, Mr Lieuwenhoeck put two
female lice into a black flocking, which he wore
night and day. He found on examination that, in fix
days one of them had laid above 50 eggs ; and, upon
diffedling it, be found as many yet remaining in the
ovary : whence he concludes, that in 12 days it would
have laid too eggs. Thefe eggs naturally hatch in
fix days, and would then probably have produced 50
males, and as many females; and thefe females coming
to their full growth in 18 days, might each of them
be fuppofed after 12 days more to lay too eggs;
which eggs, in fix days more, might produce a young
brood of 5000 ; fo that in eight weeks, one loufe may
fee 5000 of its own defcendents.
Signior Rhedi, who has more attentively obferved
thefe animals than any other author, has given feveral
engravings of the different fpecies of lice found on dif¬
ferent animals. Men, he obferves, are fubjedl to two
kinds ; the common loufe, and the crab-loufe. He
obferves alfo, that the fize of the lice is not at all pro¬
portioned to that of the animal which they infeft ;
fince the darling has them as large as the fwan.
Some kinds of confutations are more apt to breed
lice than others; and in fome places of different de¬
grees of heat, they are certain to be deftroyed upon
people who in other climates are over-run with them.
It is an obfervation of Oviedp, that the Spanifh fail-
ors, who are generally much afflidled with lice, always
lofe them in a certain degree of latitude in their voy¬
age to the Eaft Indies, and have them again on their
returning to the fame degree. This is not only true of
the Spaniards, but of all other people who make the
fame voyage; for though they fet out ever fo loufy,
they have not one of thofe creatures by the time they
come to the tropic. And in the Indies there is no
fuch thing as a loufe about the body, though the
people be ever fo natty. The failors continue free
from thefe creatures till their return ; but in going
back, they ufually begin to be loufy after they arrive
at the latitude of the Madeira iflands. The extreme
fweats, which the working people naturally fall into,
between the latitude of Madeira and the Indies, drown
and deflroy the lice ; and have the fame effedt as the
rubbing over the loufy heads of children with butter
and oil. The fweat, in thefe hot climates, is not rank
as in Europe, and therefore it is not apt to breed lice;
but where people return into latitudes where they
fweat rank again, their naftinefs fubjedls them to the
fame vifitations of thtfe vermin as before. The people
in general in the Indies are very fubjedt to lice in then-
heads, tho’ free from them on their bodies. The reafon Pcdiluvlum
of this is, that their heads fweat lefs than their bodies, “
and they take no care to comb and clean them. The
Spanifh negroes wafh their heads thoroughly once every
week with foap, to prevent their being loufy. The
makes them efcape much better than the other ne¬
groes who are flaves there; for the lice grow fo nu¬
merous in their heads, that they often eat large holes
in them.
PEDILUVIUM, or Bathing of the Feet. The
ufes of warm bathing in general, and of the pedilu-
vium in particular, are fo little underttood, that they
are often prepofteroufiy ufed, and fometimes as injudi-
cioufiy abftained from.
In the Edinburgh medical effays, we find an in¬
genious author’s opinion of the warm pediluvium, not-
withftanding that of Borelli, Boerbaave, and Hoff¬
man, to the contrary, to be, That, the legs becoming
warmer than before, the blood in them is warmed :
this blood rarefying, diftends the veflcls; and in circu¬
lating imparts a great degree of warmth to the rdlof
the mafs ; and as there is a portion of it conllantly
palling through the legs, and acquiting new heat
there, which heat is in the courfe of circulation com¬
municated to the reft of the blood, the whole mafs ra¬
refying, occupies a larger fpace, and of confequence
circulates with greater force. The volume of the
blood being thus increafed, every velfel is diftended,
and every part of the body feels the effeds of it ; the
diilant parts a little later than thofe firlt heated. The
benefit obtained by a warm pediluvium is generally at¬
tributed to its making a derivation into the parts im-
merfed, and a revulfion from thofe affected, becaufe
they are relieved ; but the cure is performed by the di-
red contrary method of operating, viz. by a greater
force of circulation through the parts affeded, remo¬
ving what was flagnant or moving too fluggifhly
there. Warm bathing is of no ferviee where there is
an irrefoluble obftrudion, though, by its taking off
from a fpafm in general, it may feem to give a mo¬
ment’s cafe : nor does it draw from the dillant parts,
but often hurts by pufhing^againft matter that will not
yield with a (Longer impetus of circulation than the
ftretched and difeafed vtfl'els can bear : fo that where
there is any fufpicion of feirrhus, warm bathing of
any fort Ihould never be ufed. On the other hand,
where obftrudions are not of long (landing, and the
impaded matter is not obftinate, warm baths may be
of great ufe to refolve them quickly. In recent colds,
with flight humoral peripneumonies, they are frequent¬
ly an immediate cure. This they effed by increafing
the force of the circulation, opening the (kin, and dri¬
ving freely through the lungs that lentor which (lag-
nated or moved flowly in them. As thus conducing
to the refolution of obftrudions, they may be confi-
dered as (hort and fafe fevers; and in ufing them we
imitate nature, which by a fever often carries off an
obftruding caufe of a chronical ailment. Borelli,
Boerhaave, and Hoffman, are all of opinion, that the
warm pediluvium ads by deriving a larger quantity of
blood into the parts immerfed. But arguments mull
give way to fads: the experiments related in the
Medical Effays ftem to prove to a demonftration,
that the warm pediiuvium ads by rarifying the blood.
A warm gediluviutn, when rightly tempered, may be
uled
PEE [ 5923 ] PEE
Pi'diment ufed as a fafe cordial, by which circulation can be
I roufed, or a gentle fever raifed ; with this advantage
.Peebles. over t^e ccr(];ais ancj fudorifics, that the effedt of thun
may be taken off at pleafure.
Pediltivia are fometimes ufed in the fmall-pox ;
but Dr Stevenfon thinks their frequent tumultuous
operations render that fufpedled, and at heft of very
doubtful effed ; and he therefore prefers Monf. Mar¬
tin of Laufanne’s method of bathing the fkin, not
only of the* legs, but of the whole body, with a foft
cloth dipped in warm water, every four hours, til! the
eruption ; by which means the pnflules may become
univerfally higher, and confequently more fafe.
PEDIMENT. See Architecture, n° 77.
PEDLAR, a travelling foot-trader. See Haw¬
ker.
Among the Britifh and French the pedlars are de-
fpifed ; but it is otherwife in certain countries. In
Spanilh America', the bufmefs is fo profitable, that it
is thought by no means difhonourable and there are
many gentlemen in Old Spain, who, when their cir-
cumitances are declining, fend their fons to the In¬
dies to retrieve their fortunes in this way. Al-
moft all the commodities of Europe are diftributed
through the fouthern continent of America by means
of thefe pedlars. They come from Panama to Pai-
ta by fea ; and in the road from the port laft men¬
tioned, they make Peura their firft voyage to Li¬
ma. Some take the road through Caxamalia ; others
through Truxillo, along (bore from Lima. They take
their paffage back to Panama by fea, and perhaps take
with them a little cargo of brandy. At Panama they
again flock themfelves with European goods, return¬
ing by fea to Paita, where they are put on fliore; there
they hire mules and load them, the Indians going with
them in order to lead them back. Their travelling ex-
pences are next to nothing; for the Indians are
brought under fuch fubjedtion, that they find lodging
for them, and provender for their mules, frequently
thinking it an honour done them for their guefts to ac¬
cept of this for nothing, unlefs the ftranger now and
then, out of generofity or compafiion, makes a fmall
recompence.
In Poland, where there are few or no manufa&ures,
almoft all the merchandife is carried on by pedlars,
who are faid to be generally Scotfmen, and who, in
the reign of king Charles if. are faid to have amount¬
ed to no fewer than 53,000.
PEDUNCLE, io botany. See Pedicle.
PEEBLES, or Tweedale, a county of Scotland,
extending 25 miles in length, and 18 in breadth. It
is bounded on the eaft by Ettrick Foreft, on the fouth
by Annandale, on the weft by Clydefdale, and on the
north by Mid Lothian. Tweedale is a hilly country,
well watered with the Tweed, the Yarrow, and a
great number of {mailer dreams that fertilize the val¬
leys, which produce good harvefts of oats and barley,
with fome proportion of wheat. All the rivers of any
confeqnence abound with trout and falmon. The lake
called Weft-Water Loch fwarms with a prodigious
number of eels. In the month of Anguft, when the
weft wind blows, they tumble into the river Yarrow in
fuch fhoals, that the people who wade in to catch
them run the rifle of being overturned. There is ano¬
ther lake on the borders of Annandale, called Loch-
gentien, which forms a cataraft over a precipice 250 Peebles
paces high : here the water falls with fuch a momen-
turn as to kill the fifh underneath. About the middle ecf*
of this country is the hill or mountain of Braidalb,
from the top of which the fea may be ften on each fide
of the ifland. Tweedale abounds with limeftone and
freeftone. The hills are generally as green as the
downs in Suffex, and feed innumerable flocks of fheep,
that yield great quantities of excellent wool. The
country is well fhaded with woods and plantations,
abounds with all the nectffaries of life, and is adorned
with many fine feats and populous villages. The earls
of March were hereditary fheriffs of Tweedale, which
beftows the title of marquis on a branch of the an¬
cient houfe of Hay, earls of Errol, and hereditary
high conftables of Scotland. The family of Tweedale
is, by the female fide, defeended from the famous Si¬
mon de Frafer, proprietor of great part of this coun¬
try, who had a great lhare in obtaining the triple vic¬
tory at Roflin. The chief, and indeed the only town
of confequence in Tweedale, is Peebles, a fmall in-
confiderabie royal borough, and feat of a prefbytery,
pleafantly fituated on the banks of the Tweed, over
which there is at this place a (lately (lone bridge of
five arches. In the neighbourhood of Peebles, near
the village of Romana, on the river Lene, we fee the
vdliges of two Roman caftella, or ftationary forts ;
and a great many terraces on the neighbouring hills,
which perhaps have ferved as itinerary encampments.
In the (hire of Tweedale there are many ancient and
honourable families of the gentry. Among thefe,
Douglas of Cavers, who was hereditary (heriff of the
county, dill preferves the ftandard and the iron mace
of the gallant lord Douglas, who fell in the battle of
Otterburn, juft as his troops had defeated and taken
Henry Percy, furnamed Hotfpur. In the church¬
yard of Drumelzier, belonging to an ancient branch
of the Hay-family, the famous Merlin is fuppofed to
lie buried. There was an old traditional prophecy,
that the two kingdoms (hould be united, when the wa¬
ters of the Tweed and the Panfel (hould meet at his
grave. Accordingly, the country people obferve
that this meeting happened in confequence of an inun¬
dation at the acceffion of James VI. to the crown of
England.
PEEK, in the fea-language, is a word ufed in va¬
rious fenfes. Thus the anchor is faid to be a-peek,
when the (hip being about to weigh comes over her
anchor in fnch a manner that the cable hangs perpen¬
dicularly between the hanfe and the anchor.
To have a-peek is to bring the peek fo as that the
anchor may hang a-peek. A (hip is faid to ride a-
peek, when lying with her main and fore yards hoift-
ed up, one end of her yards is brought down to the
(hrouds, and the other raifed up an end; which is
chit-fly done when (he lies in rivers, left other (hips
falling foul of the yards (hould break them. Riding
a-broad peek, denotes much the fame, excepting that
the yards are only raifed to half the height.
Peek is alfo ufed for a room in the hold, extending
from the bitts forward to the (lem : in this room men
of war keep their powder, and merchant-men their
vidluals.
PEER, in general, fignifies an equal, or one of the
fame rank and flation : hence in the ads of fomecoun-
33 K 2 oils,
PEE [ 5924 ] PEG
Peer, cils, we find thefe words, nuith the confent of our peers,
~ lijhops, abbots, &C. Afterwards the fame term was
applied to the vaffals or tenants of the fame lord, who
were called peers, becaufe they were all equal in con¬
dition, and obliged to ferve and attend him in his
courts; and peers in fiefs, becaufe they all held fiefs
of the fame lord.
The term peers is now applied to thofe who are im-
pannelled in an inqueft upon a perfon for convicting
or acquitting him of any offence laid to his charge :
and the reafon why the jury is fo called, is becaufe
by the common law and the cuftom of this kingdom,
every perfon is to be tried by his peers or equals; a
lord by the lords, and a commoner by commoners.
See the article Jury.
Peer of the Realm, a noble lord who has a feat and
vote in the Houfe of Lords, which is alfo called the
Houfe of Peers,
Thefe lords are called peers, becaufe though there
is a diflindlion of degrees in our nobility, yet in public
aftions they are equal, as in their votes in parliament,
and in trying any nobleman or other perfon impeached
by the commons, &c. See Parliament.
Houfe of Peers, or Houfe of Lords, forms one of the
three eftates of parliament. See Lords and Par¬
liament.
In ajudicative capacity, the houfe of peers is the
fupreme court of the kingdom, having at prefent no
original jurifJiflion oVer caufes, but only upon appeals
and writ^pf error ; to reftify any injuftice or miftake
of the law committed by the courts below. To this
authority they fucceeded of courfeupon the difiblution
of ^he Aula Regia. For as the barons of parliament
were conftituent members of that court, and the reft
of its jurifdiftion was dealt out to other tribunals, over
which the great officers who accompanied thofe barons
were refpeftively delegated to prefide, it followed, that
the right of receiving appeals, and fuperintending all
other jurifdidfions, ftill remained in that noble affem-
bly, from which every other great court was derived.
They are therefore in all cafes the laft refort, from
whofe judgment no farther appeal is permitted ; but
' every fubordinate tribunal muft conform to their de¬
terminations: The law repofing an entire confidence
in the honour and confcience of the noble perfons who
compofe this important afiembly, that they will make
themfelves mafters of thofe quellions upon which they
undertake to decide ; fince upon their decifion all pro¬
perty muft finally depend. Se,e Lords.
Peers of France, are twelve great lords of that
kingdom ; of which fix are dukes and fix counts ; and
of thefe, fix are ecclefiaftics and fix laymen : thus the
archbifhop of Rheims, and the bifhop of Laon and
Langres, are dukes and peers ; and the bifhops, of
Chalon on the Marn, Noyons, and Beauvais, are
counts and peers. The dukes of Burgundy, Norman¬
dy, and Aquitain, are lay peers and dukes; and the
counts of Flanders, Champaign, and Touloufe, lay
peers and counts. Thefe peers ftill affift at the coro¬
nation of kings, either in perfon or by their repre-
fentatives, where each performs the funflions attach¬
ed to his refpeedive dignity : but as the fix lay peer¬
ages are all at prefent united to the crown, except
that of the count of Flanders, fix lords of the firft
quality are chofen to reprrfent them : but the eccle-
fiaftical peers ufually affift in perfon. At prefent the
title of peer is beftowed on every lord whofe eftate is
erefted into a peerage ; the number of which is uncer¬
tain, as it depends entirely on the king.
PEERESS, a woman who is noble by defeent, crea¬
tion, or marriage.
If a peerefs, by defeent or creation, marries a per¬
fon under the degree of nobility, (he ftill continues
noble: but if ffie obtains that dignity only by mar¬
riage, (he lofes it, on her afterwards marrying a com¬
moner ; yet by the curtefy of England, fhe always re¬
tains the title of her nobility.
PEWIT, in ornithology. See Larus.
PEGASUS, among the poets, a horfe imagined to
have wings; being that whereon Bellerophon was
fabled to be mounted when he engaged the chimera.
See Chimera.
The opening of the fountain Hippocrene on mount
Helicon, is aferibed to a blow of PegafusV hoof. It
was feigned to have flown away to heaven, where it
became a conftellation. Hence
Pegasus, in aftronomy, the name of a conftellation
of the northern hemifphere, in form of a flying horfe.
See Astronomy, n° 206.
PEGU, a very confiderable kingdom of Afia, be¬
yond the Ganges. The country properly fo called is
but about 350 miles in length from north to fouth,
and as much in breadth from eaft to weft. It is bound¬
ed, on the north by the kingdoms of Arrakan and
Ava ; on the eaft, by the Upper and Lower Siam ;
on the fouth, by part of Siam and the fea ; and on
the weft, by the fea and part of Arrakan. Confidered
in a larger fenfe however, as augmented by the con-
quefts of its Barma kings, it extends as far north as
the province of Yunan in China, comprehending al-
moft all the farther peninfula of India.
The kingdom of Pegu is.faid to have been founded
about 1100 years ago. Its firft king was a feaman ;
concerning whom and his fucceffors we know nothing
till the difeovery of the Eaft Indies by the Portuguefe
in the beginning of the 16th century. In 1518 the
throne of Pegu was poffefled by-one Breflagukan,
with whom Antony Correa the Portuguefe ambaffador
folemnly concluded a peace in 1519. This monarch
was poflefied of a very large and rich empire, nine
kingdoms being in fubje&ion to him, whofe revenues
amounted to three millions of gold. We hear no far¬
ther account of his franfadions after the conclufion of
the treaty with the Portuguefe. In 1539 he was mur¬
dered on the following occafion : Among other prin¬
ces who were his tributaries was Para Mandera, king
of the Barmas. Thefe people inhabited the high lands
called Pangavirau, to the northward of the kingdom
of Pegu. Their prince, by one of the terms of his
vaffalage, was obliged <to furnifh the king of Pegu
with 30,000 Barmas, to labour in his mines and other
public works. As the king ufed frequently to go and
fee how his works went forward, and in thefe journeys
took along with him none but his women, the Barmas
obferving thefe vifits frequently repeated, formed a
defign of robbing the queen and all the concubines of
of their jewels; and purfuaht to this defign, the next
time the king vifited the works, they murdered him,
and having (tripped the ladies fled to their own coun-
Peerefs
Pegu.
PEG [ 5925 1 PEG
Pegu. By this enormity all Pegu was thrown ipto confu-
 fion : but, inftead of revenging the death of their king,
the people divided every where into fa&ions; fo that
Dacha Rupi, the lawful heir to the crown, found
himfelf unable to maintain his authority. Of thefe
commotions, the king of the Barmas taking the ad¬
vantage, not only fhook off the yoke, but formed a
defign of conquering the kingdom of Pegu itfelf.
With this view he invaded the country with an army
of more than a million of foot, and 5000 elephants;
befides a great fleet which he fent down the river Ava
towards Bagou, or Pegu, the capital of the empire;
while he himfelf marched thither by land. Juft at this
time Ferdinand de Mirales arrived at Pegu from Goa
with a large galleon richly laden on account of the
king of Portugal. As foon^as Dacha Rupi heard of
his coming, he fent to defire his affiftance againft the
enemy. This he obtained by great prefents and pro-
mifes : and Mirales, fetting out in a galliot, joined the
king’s (hips. Had the numbers been any thing near
an equality, the fuperior (kill of Mirales would un¬
doubtedly have gained the vi&ory : But the fleet of
the Barmas covered the whole river though as large
as the Ganges, while that of Dacha Rupi could fcarce
be obferved in comparifon with them. Mirales did
every thing that man could do, and even held out
alone after the natives had deferted him ; but at laft,
oppreffedand overwhelmed with numbers, he was killed,
with all his men.
Thus Para Mandara became mafter of all Pegu ;
after which he attacked the tributary kingdoms. In
1544 he befieged Martavan, the capital of a kingdom
of the fame name, then very great and flourifhing.
The land-forces which he brought againft it confided
of 700,000 men, while by fea he attacked it with a
fleet of 1700 fail; too of which were large galleys,
and in them 700 Portuguefe commanded by John
Cayero, who had the reputation of being a valiant and
experienced officer. The (lege, however, continued
feven months, during which time the Barmas loft
120,000 men ; but at laft the befieged king, finding
himfelf ftraitened for want of provifions, and unable to
vvithftand fo great a power, offered terms of capitula¬
tion. The befiegers would admit of no terms, upon
which the diftreffed king applied to the Portuguefe in
the fervice of his enemy; for by their affiftance he
doubted not to be able to drive away the Barmas.
Accordingly he fent one Seixas to Cayero, intreating
him to received himfelf, his family, and treafure, on
board the four (hips he had under his command ;
offering, on that condition, to give half his riches
to the king of Portugal, to become his vaffal, and
pay fuch tribute as (hould be agreed upon. Cayero
confulted the principal officers, and in their prefence
afked Seixas what he thought the treafure might a-
mount to. Seixas anfwered, that out of what he had
feen, for he had not feen all, two (hips might be
loaded with gold, and four or five with (ilver. This
propofal was too advantageous to be (lighted ; but
the reft of the officers envying the great fortune which
Cayero would'make, threatened to difcover the whole
to the king of Barma if he did not rejeft it. The
unhappy king of Martavan had now no other refource
but to fet fire to the city, make a fally, and die
honourably with the few men he had with him: but
even here he was difappointed ; for by the defertion Pegu,
of 4000 of his troops the enemy were apprifed of his
defign, and prevented it. Thus betrayed, he capi¬
tulated with the Barma king for his own life and the
lives of his wife and children, with leave to end his days
in retirement. All this was readily granted, but the
conqueror intended to perform no part of his promife.
The city was plundered and burnt, by which above
60,000 perfons periftied, while at lead an equal num¬
ber were carried into flavery. Six thoufand cannon
were found in the place ; 100,000 quintals of pepper,
and an equal quantity of other fpices. The day after
this deftru&ion, 21 gibbets were ere&ed on an hill
adjoining to the city; on which the queen, her children
and ladies, were executed, by hanging them up alive by
the feet: however, the queen expired with anguiffi be¬
fore (he fuffered fuch a cruel indignity. The king,
with 50 of his chief lords, was call into the fea, with
ftones about their necks. This monftrous cruelty
fo provoked the tyrant’s foldiers, that they mutined,
and he was in no fmall danger of fuffering for it:
however, he found means to pacify them; after which
he proceeded to befiege Prom, the capital of another
kingdom. Here he increafed his army to 900,000
men. The queen by whom it was governed offered
to fubmit to be his vaffal ; but nothing would fatisfy
the Barma monarch lefs than her furrender at difcre-
tion, and putting all her treafure into his hands. This
(he, who knew his perfidy, refufed to do ; on which
the city was fiercely affaulted, but greatly to the dif-
advantage of the Barmas, who loft near 100,000 men.
However, the city was at laft betrayed to him, when
Mandara behaved with his ufual cruelty. Two thoufand
children were (lain, and their bodies cut in pieces and
thrown to the elephants ; the queen was (tripped
naked, publicly whipped, and then tortured till (lie
died ; the young king was tied to her dead body, and
both together call into a river, as were alfo 300 other
people of quality.
While the tyrant was employed in fortifying the
city, he was informed, that the prince of Ava had
failed down the river Queytor with 400 rowing veffels
having30,000 foldiers on board; but that.hearingofthe
queen’s difafter, he (toped at Meletay a ftrong tortrefs
about 12 leagues north of Prom, where he waited to
be joined by his father the king of Ava with 80,000
men. On this news the Barma king fent his fofter-
brother Chaumigrem along the river-fide with 200,000
men, ,while he himfelf followed with 100,000 more.
The prince in this emergency burnt his barks, forming
a vanguard of the mariners; and, putting his fmall army
in the bed pofition he could, expefted the enemy.
A moft defperate engagement enfued,in which only 800
of the prince’s army were left, and 115,000 out of
200,000 Barmas who op^ofed him were killed. TheSoo
Avans retired into the fort : but Mandara coming
up foon after, and being enraged at the terrible ha-
vock made in his army, attacked the fortrefs moft
violently for feven days; at the end of which time, the'
800, finding themfelves unable to hold out any longer,
ruffled out in a dark and rainy night, in order to fell
their lives at as dear a rate as poffible. This laft effort
was fo extremely violent, that they broke through the
enemy’s troops in feveral places, and even preffed fo
hard on the king himfelf that he was forced to jump
into
PEG [ 5926 ] PEG
Pegn. into the river. However, they were at lafl: all cut ofF,
but not before they bad deftroyed 12,000 of their
enemies.
Mandara having thus become mailer of the fort,
commanded it to be immediately repaired; and failed
up the river to the port of Ava, about a league from
the capital, where he burnt between 2000 and 30O0
veflels, and loft in the interprife about 8000 men.
The city itfelf he did not think proper to invert, as it
had been newly fortified, was defended by a numerous
garrifon, and an army of 80,000 men was advancing
to its relief. The king alfo, apprehenfive of Man-
dara’s power, had implored the proteftion of the em¬
peror Siam; offering to become his tributary on con¬
dition that he would affift him with his forces in re¬
covering the city of Prom. To this the emperor
readily affented; which new’s greatly alarmed the
Barma monarch, fo that he difpatched ambaffadors to
the Kalaminham or fovereign of a large territory ad¬
jacent, requefting him to divert the emperor from his
purpofe. On the ambaffadors return from this court
it appeared that the treaty had already taken effedl ;
but as the feafon was not yet arrived for invading Ava,
Chaumigren the king's fofter-brother was fent with
150,000 men to reduce Sebadi or Sayadi the capital
of a fmall kingdom about 130 leagues north-eaft from
Pagu. The general, however, failed in his attempt;
and afterwards endeavouring to revenge himfelf on a
town in the neighbourhood, he was furprifed by the
enemy and put to flight.
In the mean time the empire of Siam fell into great
diftra&ions; the king together with the heir to the
crown were murdered by the queen, who had fallen in
love with an officer, whom fhe married after her hufband’s
death. However, both of them were foon after killed
at an entertainment; and the crown was given to a
natural brother of the late king, but a coward and a
tyrant. On this Mandara refolved to invade the coun¬
try ; and, his principal courtiers concurring in the
fcheme, he colleded an’army of 800,000 men, with no
fewer than 20,000 elephants. In this army were
1000 Portuguefe, commanded by one James Suarez,
who already had a penfion of 200,000 ducats a-year
from the king of Pegu, with the title of his brother,
and governor of the kingdom. With this formidable
army he fet out in April 1548. His firft atchievement
was the taking of a fortrefs on the borders of the ene¬
my’s country ; before which, being feveral times re-
pulfed, and having loft 3000 of his men,‘ he revenged
himfelf by putting all the women to the fword. He
next befieged the capital of itfelf; but though the fiege
w-as continued for five months, during which time the
moft violent attacks were made upon it, the affailants
were conftantly repulfed with great lofs. However, it
was ftill refolved to continue the fiege; and a mount of
earth was raifed, on which were placed 40 pieces of can¬
non ready to batter it anew, when, in Oftober, advice
was received of a rebellion having broke out in Pegu.
The perfon who headed the rebels on the prefent
occafion was Shoripam Shay, near akin to the former
monarch flain twelve years before. He w’as a reli¬
gious perfon, of great underftanding, and efteeme 1 a
faint. As he was a famous preacher, he made a fer-
mon, in which he fet forth the tyranny of the Barmas
in fuch a manner, that he was immediately taken out
of the pulpit and proclaimed king by the people, Pefu
who, as a token of fovereignty, gave him the title of 
Shemindoo. Tlte firft aft of fovereignty which he ex¬
erted was to cut in pieces 15,000 Barmas, and feize
on the treafure : and fo agreeable was this change of
government to all ranks of people, that in three weeks
time all the llrong-holds of Pegu fell into his hands.
On this news the king immediately raifed the fiege
in which he was engaged, and in 17 days got to Mar-
tavan; Here he was informed, that Shemindoo had
polled 500,000 men in different places, in order to
intercept his paffage ; at the fame time that he had
the mortification to find 50,000 of his bell troops de-
ferted. To prevent a greater defertion, after 14 days
flay, he departed from Martavan, and foon met She¬
mindoo at the head of 600,000 men. A defperate
engagement followed ; in which Shemindoo was en¬
tirely defeated, with the lofs of 300,000 men. Of
the Barma troops were flain 60,000; among whom
were 280 Portuguefe.
The morning after this viftory, the tyrant marched
to the city ; the inhabitants of vrhich furrendered, on
condition of having their lives and effefts fpared. The
kingdom being thus again brought under his fubjec-
tion, his next ftep was to punilh the principal perfons
concerned in the rebellion : their heads he cut off; and
confifcated their eftates, which amounted to no lefs
than ten millions of gold. Others fay, that he put
all without diftinftion to the fword, excepting only
12,000, who took flicker in James Suarez’s houfe ;
that alone affording an afylum from the general flaugh-
ter. The plunder was incredible, Suarez alone getting
three millions. All thefe cruelties, however, were in-
fufficient to fecure the allegiance of the tyrant’s fub-
jefts : for in lefs than three months news was brought
that the city of Martavan had revolted ; and that the
governor had not only declared for Shemindoo, but
murdered 2000 Barmas. Mandara then fummoned
all the lords of the kingdom to meet him with their
force, within 15 days, at a place called Mouchan, not
far from his capital, whither he himfelf went with
300 men, to wait their arrival. But in the mean
time he received intelligence that the ftiemin or gover¬
nor of Zatan, a city of fome confequence, had fub-
mitted to Shemindoo, and alfo lent him a large fum
of gold. The fhemin was immediately fent for in
order to be put to death : but he, fufpefting Manda-
ra’s defign, excufed himftlF by pretending ficknefs;
after which, having confulted with his friends, he drew
together about 600 men ; and having with thefe pri¬
vately advanced to the place where the king was, he
killed him, with the few attendants that were about
him at the time. The guards in the court being
alarmed with the noife, a fktrmifh enfued with the
fliemin’s men, in which about 800 were flain on both
fides, moft of them Barmas. The ftiemin then re¬
treated to a place called Ponte!; whither the people
of the country, hearing of the death of the king, who
was univerfaily hated, reforted to him. When he had
affembled about 5000 men, he returned to feek the
troops which the late king had with him ; and find¬
ing them difperfed in feveral p'aces, eafily killed them
all. With the Barmas were flain 80 out of 300 Por¬
tuguefe. The remainder furrendered, with Suarez
their leader; and were fpared, on condition bf their
remaining
PEG
PEG [ 5927 ]
Pfg«- remaining in the fervice of the fliemin.
" The fhemin now finding his forces daily increafe,
aflumed the title of king ; and, to render himfelf the
more popular, gave out, that he would exterminate
the Bartnas fo effe&ually, as not to leave one in all the
kingdom. It happened, however, that one of thofe
who were with the late king at the time he was mur¬
dered, efcaped the general flaughter ; and, fwimming
over the river, informed Chaumigrem of the king’s
death. He had with him 180,000 men, all of them
natives of Pegu, excepting 30,000 Barmas. He
knew very well, that if the natives had known that
the king was dead, he and all his Barmas would have
inffiantly been put to the fword. Pretending there¬
fore that be had received orders to put garrifons into
feveral places, Chaumigrem difpatched all the natives
into, different parts ; and thus got rid of thofe whom
he had fo much caufe to fear. As foon as they were
marched, he turned back upon the capital, and feized
the king’s treafure, together with all the arms and
ammunition. He then fet fire to the magazines, arfe-
nals, palace, fome of whofe apartments were cieled
with gold, and 2000 rowing veffels which were on the
river. Then, deftroying all the artillery, he fled with
the 30,000 Barmas to his own country, being purfued
in vain by the natives of Pegu.
Thus the Ihemin of Zatan was left in-quiet poffef-
fion of the kingdom ; but, by his repeated atls of
tyranny and cruelty, he fo difgufted his fubje&s, that
many fled to foreign countries, while others went over
to Shemindoo, who began now to gather ftrength
again. In the mean time, James Suarez, the Portu-
guefe whom we have often mentioned, loll his life by
attempting to ravilh a young woman of diftin&ion ;
the Ihemin being unable to protedl him, and obliged
to give him up to the mob, who ftoned him to death.
The Ihemin himfelf did 003 long fnrvive him ; for, be¬
ing grown intolerable by his oppreffions, moll of bis
followers abandoned him, and he was befieged in his
capital by Shemindoo with an army of 200,000 men,
and footi after flain in a fally : fo that Shemindoo now
feemed to be fully eftablilhed in the throne. But in
the mean time Chaumigrem, the fofter-brother to the
deceafed king, hearing that Pegu was very ill provi¬
ded with the means of defence, invaded the kingdom
with an army of 300,000 men. Shemindoo met him
with three times their number; but his men,, being all
natives of Pegu, were inferior in ftrength, no^with-
ftanding their numbers, to the enemy. The confe-
quence was, that Shemindoo was defeated with pro¬
digious flaughter, and Chaumigrem caufed himfelf to
be proclaimed king of Pegu. Shortly after, Shemin¬
doo himfelf was taken ; and, after being treated with
the utmoft of cruelty, was beheaded.
The hiftory of Chaumigrem is very imperfefl. How¬
ever, we know that he was a very great conqueror,
and not at all inferior in cruelty to his predeceflbrs.
He reduced the empire of Siam and Arrakan, and died
in 1583 ; being fucceeded by his fon namedPranjinoko,.
then about 50 years of age. When this prince alcended
the throne, the kingdom of Pegu was in its greateft
height of grandeur; but by his tyranny and obftinacy
he loft all that his father had gained. He died in 1599,
and after his death the kingdom of Pegu became fub-
jedl to Arrakan; nor have we any farther diftindt hi¬
ftory of it. Pegu.
The air of Pegn is very healthy, and prefently re-
covers fick ftrangers. The foil alfo is very rich and
fertile in corn, rice, fruit, and roots; being enrich¬
ed by the inundations of the river Pegu, which
arc almoft incredible, extending above 30 leagues be¬
yond its channel. It produces alfo good timber of fe¬
veral kinds. The country abounds with elephants, buf¬
faloes, goats, hogs, and other animals, particularly
game ; and deer is fo plenty in September and O&o-
ber, that one may be bought for three or four pence :
they are very fleftiy, but have no fat. There is ftore of
good poultry; the cocks are vaftly large, and the hens
very beautiful. As for fifti, there are many forts, and
well tafted. In Pegu are found mines, not only of gold,
iron, tin, and lead, or rather a kind of copper, or mix¬
ture of copper and lead, but alfo of rubies, diamonds,
and fapphires. The rubies are the bell in the world ;
but the diamonds are fmall, and only found in the craws
of poultry and pheafants. Befides, only one family
has the privilge of felling them; and none dare open the
ground to dig for them. The rubies are found in a
mountain in the province of Kablan, or Kapelan, be¬
tween the city of Pegu and the port of Sirian.
The inhabitants are of an olive, or rather a tawny
complexion. The women are branded by fome travel¬
lers, as having fhook off all modelly, on account of their
expofing fome parts of their bodies which ought to be
concealed from fight. Some alfo tell us, that the men
wear bells, which at a certain age, viz. 25 or 30, or,
according to others, when they are capable of making
ufe of women, are inferted on each fide the virile mem¬
ber between the Hein and the flefh, which is opened for
that purpofe, and healed in feven or eight days. The
Peguers may be ranked among the moft fuperftitious
of all mankind. They maintain and worlhip croco¬
diles ; and will drink nothing but the waters of the
ditches where thofe monftrous animals harbour. By
thus expofing themfelves to the manifeft hazard of their
lives, they have frequently the misfortune to be devour¬
ed. They have five principal feftivals in the year, call¬
ed fapani, which they celebrate with extraordinary
magnificence. In one of them the king and queen
make a pilgrimage about 12 leagues from the city, ri¬
ding on a triumphal car, fo richly adorned with jewels,
that it maybe faid without an hyperbole,.that they carry
about with them the value of a kingdom. This prince
is extremely rich; and has in the chapel of his palace,
idols of ineftimable value, fome of them being of maffy
gold and filver, and adorned with all forts of precious
ftones. The talapoins, or priefts of this country, have
no poffdfions; but fuch is the refpett paid them by the
people, that they are never known to want. They
preach to them every Monday, not to commit murder;
to take from no perfon any thing belonging to him; to
do no hurt; to give no offence; to avoid impurity and
fuperftition; but above all, not to worfhip the devil:
but thefe difcourfes have no effedl in the laft refpedl.
The people, attached to manicheifm, believe, that all
good comes from God, that the devil is the author of
all the evil that happens to men; and that therefore
they ought to worihip him, that he may not afftidl
them. This is a common notion among the Indian ido¬
laters.
The inhabitants of Pegu are accufed by fome authors
withi
Pegu.
PEG [ 5928 ] PEG
with being flovenly in their houfes, and nafty in their
'diet, on account of their feafoning their vi&uals with
lidol,a compofition made of ftinking fifh, reduced to a
confiftency like muftard, fo naufeous and offenfive, that
none but thernfelves can epdure the fmell of it. Balbi
fays, he could fooner bear the fcent of ftinking car¬
rion; and yet with this they feafon their rice, and other
foups, inftead of oil or butter. As they have no wheat
in this country, their bread is rice made into cakes.
Their common drink is water, or a liquor diftilled from
cccoat-nut water.
The men here, as in moft eaftern countries, buy their
wives, or pay their parents a dowry for them. They
have an odd cuftom ; which is to offer their daughters
to ftrangers, and hire them out for a time: fome fay
they hire out their wives in the fame manner. Thefe
marriages for a term are well regulated, and often prove
very beneficial to the occafional hufband. Moft of the
foreigners who trade hither, marry a wif^ for the time
of their ftay. In cafe of a feparation, the father is ob¬
liged to take care of the boys, and the mother of the
girls. We are told that no woman is looked upon the
worfe, but rather the better, for having had feveral Eu¬
ropean huibands: nay, we are told, that no perfon of
faftiion in Pegu, from the gentleman to the king, will
marry a maiden, till fome acquaintance or ftranger has
had the firft night’s lodging with her.
In Pegu, the inheritance of all land is in the king:
he is likewife the heir of all his fubjedls who die with¬
out ifi'ue; but in cafe they have children, two-thirds go
to them, and the reft to his majefty.
When a perfon falls fick, we are told that they ge¬
nerally make a vow to the devil, from whom they be¬
lieve all evil comes. Then a fcaffold is built, and vic¬
tuals are fpread on the top' of it to folace Old Nic, and
render him propitious. This feaft is accompanied with
lighted candles and mufic; and the whole is managed
by an undertaker called the devil’s father.
The commodities exported from this country are
gold, filver, rubies, mufti, benjamin, long-pe'pper, tin,
lead, copper; lakka, or gum-lac, whereof they make
hard wax; rice; rice-wine; and fome fugar-canes, of
which they would have plenty, but that the elephants
eat them. It may be obferved, that under the name
of rubies, the Peguers comprife topazes, fapphires, a-
methyfts, and other ftones; which they diftinguifti by
faying the blue, the violet, and the yellow rubies. The
true ruby is red, tranfparent, or fparkling, inclining
near the furface, to the violet of the amethyft. Cotton
cloths from Bengal and Coromandel, with fome ftriped
ft Iks, are beft for the Pegu market, and filver of any
fort will go off there ; for the king, in return for his
eight and a half per cent, duty on it, allows the mer¬
chants to melt it down, and put what copper alloy they
pleafe in it. They wear none of our European com¬
modities in Pegu but hats and ribbons. The gentry
will give extravagant prices for fine beaver hats, which
they wear without any cocks. They are no lefs fond
of ribbons flowered with gold and filver, which they
wear round their hats.
As to the religion of the Peguers, it is^ the fame at
bottom wjth that which prevails over the reft of India
and Tibet; only varies in drefs fomewhat in different
countries, according to the humour or intereft of the
priefts. They hold the exiftence of one fupreme God,
of whom they make no image; but they have many
inferior created gods, whole images are fet up in the
temples for the laity to worftiip. Not content with
thefe, we are told they worfhip the devil alfo. Many
are feen to run about the ftreets every morning, with
rice in one hand and a torch in the other, crying a-
loud, that they are going to give the devil his break-
faft, that he may not hurt them all the day. Befides
the manichean do&rine of two principles, one the au¬
thor of good, and the other of evil,; from whence their
worfhipping the devil has its rife, they believe an eter¬
nal fucceflion of worlds without creation. The Peguers
hold the doftrine of the Metempfychofis, or tranfmi-
gration of the human foul, which, after palling through
the bodies of various animals, lhall attain to the per-
fediion and felicity of their gods; which in effe<& is
no other than a ftate of annihilation. They have a
ftrong opinion of the fanftity of apes and crocodiles,
infomuch that they believe the perfons to be perfe&ly
happy that are devoured by them. Their temples are
of a conic form, and fome of them a quarter of a mile
round. They obferve a great many feftivals, fome of
which are cz\\e& fapan. The images of their inferior
gods are in a fitting pofture, with their legs acrofs, and
toes of equal length: their arms and hands very fmali
in proportion to their bodies; their faces longer than
human ; their ears long, and the lappets very thick.
The congregation bow to them when they come in and
when they go out; and that is all the worftiip which
they pay to them. The priefts of Pegu, called tala-
poins, are a fort of medicant friars. They obferve ce¬
libacy; and eat but once a-day; living in the woods,
in a fort of nefts or cages built on the tops of trees for
fear of the tygers. They preach frequently, lead very
innocent lives, and are very hofpitable and humane.
The king of Pegu’s revennes arife chiefly from the
rent of lands, of which he is the foie proprietor. An-
ofl er branch of it are the duties paid for the commo¬
dities imported or exported. In a word, he is judged
the richeft monarch in the world, next to the emperor
of China.
PEINE fort ft dure, (Lat./iswztf fortis et dura),
fignifies a fpecial punifhment inflicted on thofe who1, be¬
ing arraigned of felony, refufe to put themfelves on the
ordinarily trial, but ftubbornly ftand mute; it is vul¬
garly called preftng to death. See Arraignment.
PEIRCE (James), an eminent diffenting minifter,
was born at Wapping, in London, in the year 1674,
and was educated at Utrecht and Leyden ; after which
he fpent fome time at Oxford, in order to enjoy the
benefit of frequenting the Bodleian library. He then
for two years preached the Sunday-evening’s ledlure at
the meeting-houfe in Miles-Lane, London, and then
fettled at Cambridge. In 1713, he was removed to a
congregation at Exeter, where he continued till the
year 1718: when the Calvinifts among the diffenters
propofing a fubfcription to articles of faith to be fign-
ed by all the diffenting minifters in the kingdom, fe¬
veral articles were propofed to him and Mr John Hal-
let, another diffenting minifter at Exeter, in order to
their fubfcribing them, they both refufed, imagining
this proceeding of their diffenting brethren to be an
unworthy impofition on religious libarty and private
judgment; for which they were ejefted from their
congregation. Upon this, a new meeting was opened
Pegu
Peirce.
P E K [ 5929 ] PEL
Pekin, for them at Exeter, of which Mr Pierce continued mi-
nifter till his death, in 1726. He was a man of the
ftridteft virtue, exemplary piety, and great learning.
He wrote, 1. Exercitatio philofophica de Homazmeria
Anaxagorea.' 2. Thirteen pieces on the Controverfy
between the Church of England and the Diflenters.
3. Ten pieces on the Controverfy about the Eje&ment
at Exeter. 4. Six pieces on the Dodtrine of the Tri¬
nity. 5. A Paraphrafe and Notes on the Epiftles of
St Paul to the Coloffians, Philippians, and Hebrews.
6. An Effay in favour of giving the Eucbarift to Chil¬
dren., 7. Fourteen Sermons.
PEKIN, the capital city of the empire of China
in Alia, where the emperor generally refides. It is
an exaft fquare, and divided into two parts ; namely,
that which contains the emperor’s palace, which
is in the new city, or the Tartars city, becaufe
it is inhabited by Tartars ever fince they conquered
this empire; the other, called the Old City, is inha¬
bited by the CKinefe. The circuit of both thefe toge¬
ther is 52 Chinefe lys, each of which contains 240
geometrical paces. The gates of this city are high
and well arched, fupporting buildings of nine ftories
high ; the lowed of which is for the foldiers when they
come off guard. The gates are nine in number ; and
before each is an open fpace, which ferves for a parade.
The ftreets are as ftraight as a line, mod of which are
three miles in length, and about 120 feet wide, with
{hops on both fides; but the houfes are poorly built,
and have only a ground-floor. It is fuprifing to fee
what numbers of people there are in the dreets, and
not one woman among them; there is always a great
confufion, occafioned by the vad numbers of horfes,
• camels, mules, afles, waggons, carts, and chairs, with¬
out reckoning the feveral mobs which gather about
jugglers, ballad-fingers, and the like. Perfons ofdi-
fdnftion have always a horfeman, who goes before
them to clear the way. All the riches and mer-
phandifes of the empire are continually pouring into
this city. There are always hackney-horfes and chairs
in various parts, which dand ready to be hired for a
trifle; and the owners of them know every dreet and
houfe where any confiderable perfon lives. All the
great dreets are guarded by foldiers, who patrole night
and day with fwords by their fides, and whips in
their hands, to chadife thofe who make any didurbance,
or take them into cudody. The little dreets have
lattice-gates at their entrance into the great dreets,
which are ftiut up at nights, and guarded by foldiers,
who fuffer no aflemblies in the dreets at that time, and
examine all that pafs along. The emperor’s palace is
of vad extent, and furrounded with a brick wall, with
pavilions at each, corner, encompaffed by galleries
fupported jjy columns. But it would be endlefs to
give an account of the different apartments, with their
ornaments and furniture, as well as of the different
magazines, and rich commodities kept therein ; not
to mention the fupreme courts of judice, which are
fix in number, and are only to be controuled by the
emperor and the grand council. Thofe who have
computed the compafs of this city a different way, ob-
ferve, that it is 20 miles in circumference, and that
the number of inhabitants is at lead 2,000,000 ; that
the walls are fo high that they cover the town, and
are broad enough tor feveral horfemen to ride a bread;
Vol. VIII. 2
and there are flrong towers a bow-fhot diflant from Pelagians,
each other. The walls of the emperor’s palace, in- Pela£lt,s*
eluding that and the gardens, are about two miles in
length; and the archite&ure of the drudtures entirely
different from that of the Europeans, for they are co¬
vered with tiles of a fhining beautiful yellow. The
temples and the towers of this city are fo numerous,
that it is difficult to count them. The country a-
bout it is plain, but fandy, and not very fruitful; yet
provifions of all kinds are exceeding plentiful, they be¬
ing, as well as the merchandifes, brought from other
parts by means of canals cut from the rivers, and al¬
ways crowded with veffels of different fizes. An earth¬
quake which happened here in 1731 buried above
100,000 perfons inthe ruins of the houfes, which were
thrown down. E. Long. 116. 41. N. Lat. 39. 54.
PELAGIANS, a Chridian fedt who appeared a-
bout the fifth or end of the fourth century. They
maintained the following doftrines. i. That Adam
was by nature mortal, and whether he had finned or not,
would certainly have died. 2. That the confequences
of Adam’s fin were confined to his own perfon. 3. That
new-born infants are in the fame fituation with Adam
before the fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the
kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal
promifes with the gofpel. 5. That the general refur-
redtion of the dead does not follow in virtue of our
Saviour’s refurredtion. 6. That the grace of God is
given according to our merits. 7. That this grace is
not granted- for the performance of every moral adt;
the liberty of the will, and information in points of
duty, being fufficient, &c. The founder of this fedt
was
PELAGIUS, a native of Great Britain ; but whe¬
ther of England, Scotland, or Wales, is as uncertain as
it is immaterial. He was born towards the clofe of
the fourth centur.y, and educated in the monaftery of
Banchor, in Wales, of which he became a monk, and
afterwards abbot. In the early part of his life he
went over to France, and thence to Rome, where he
had the infolence to promulgate certain opinions fome-
what different from thofe of the infallible church.
His morals being irreproachable, he gained many dif-
cipleS; and the dreadful herefy made fo rapid a pro-
grefs, that, for the falvation of fouls, it became ne-
ceflary for the pope to exert his power. Pelagius, to
avoid the danger, in the year 409, .paffed over to
Sicily, attended by his friend and pupil Celeftius. In
4x1 they landed in Africa, continued fome time at
Hippo, and were prefent at the famous conference
between the Catholics and Donatifls which was held
at Carthage in 412. From thence they travelled to
Egypt ; and from Egypt, in 415, to Paleftine, where
they were gracioufly received by John bifhop of
Jerufalem. In the fame year, Pelagius was cited to
appear before a council of feventeen bifliops, held at
Diofpolis. They were fatisfied with his creed, and
abfolved him of herefy. The African bifhops, how¬
ever, being difpleafed with their proceedings, appealed
to the Roman pontiff: he firil approved, and after¬
wards condemned the opinions of IMagius, who, with
his pupil Celeftius, was publicly excommunicated; and
all the bifhops who refufed to fubferibe the condemna¬
tion of the Pelagian herefy were immediately deprived.
What became ot him after this period, is entirely un-
33 L known;
PEL [ 593® 1 PEL
Pelafgi known ; but it feems very probable that he retired to
jl ^anchor, and died abbot of that monaftery. He
e can' wrote. 1. Er.pofttionum in epiji. Paulinas lib. xiv.
2. Epijlola ad Demetriadem de virginitate. 3. Ex-
planationis fymboli ad Damafum. 4. EpiJloLx ad vidu-
am dua. 5. De libero arbitrio. Thefe and many
other fragments are fcattered among the works of St
Jerom. They are alfo collefled by Garnerius, and
publifhed in Append, op. Mercatoris, p. 373. Cave.
PELASGI. See Pelasgiotis.
PELASGIA, (Pliny); the ancient name of Lef-
los ; fo called from the Pelafgi,. its firft inhabitants,
(Diodorus Siculus). Alfo the ancient name of Pe/o-
ponnefus, from Pelafgius, a native of the country,
(Nicolaus Damafcenus, Ephorus).
PELASGICUM, (Paufanias, Pliny) ; the north
wall of Athens ; fo called from the builders, the Pe¬
lafgi. There was an execration pronounced on any
that fhould build houfes under this wall.; becaufe the
Pelafgi, while dwelling there, entered into a confpira-
ey againft the Athenians, (Thucydides).
PELASGIOTIS, a third part of Theffaly, (Stra¬
bo) ; fo called from a very ancient people, the Pelaf¬
gi, called Pelafgiot*, (Ptolemy) ; who formerly, to¬
gether with the jEolians, occupied Theflaly, and
thence that part was called Pelafgicum Argos ; befides
many other parts of Greece. Their name Pelafgi, or
Pelargi, denoting ftorks, was given them from their
wandering roving life, (Strabo). The poets extend
the appellation to Greeks in general. Pelafgus, the
epithet. Some of the inhabitants of Crete were called
Pelafgi, (Homer) ; who thus alfo calls the neigh¬
bouring people to the Cilicians in Troas. The Pe¬
lafgi were originally of Arcadia, (Hefiod) ; but JEf-
chylus makes Argos, near Mycenaae, their country.
The Pelafgiotis was fituate between Pieria and Mace¬
donia to the north and weft, Theflaliotis to the fouth,
and Magnefia to the eaft, (Strabo, Pliny).
PELE, (Stephanus) ; two towns of this name in
Theflaly ; the one fubjeft to Eurypylus, the other to
Achilles ; both extinft. Peleus the gentilitious name,
id.
PELETHRONIUM, (Nicander and Scholiaft) ;
a town of Theflaly, fituate in a flowery part of mount
Pelios; and hence the appellation throna, fignifying
flowers. Pelethronii, the people, (Virgil) ; the Lapi-
thx fo called, who firft broke herfes. Lucan fays
the Centaurs were natives of that place ; to whom Vir¬
gil afligns mount Othrys. Moft authors, however,
aferibe the breaking of horfes to the Centaurs. Some
make the Lapithse and Centaurs the fame; others a
different people ; allowed however to be both of Thef¬
faly. Their ftory is greatly involved in fable.
PELICAN, in ornithology. See Pelicanus.
Pelican, in chemiftry, is a glafs alembic con¬
fiding of one piece. It has a tubulated capital, from
which two oppofite and crooked beaks pafs out, and
enter again at the belly of the cucurbit. This veflel
has been contrived for a continued diftillation and co-
hobation, which chemifts call The volatile
parts of fubftances put into this vtfiel rife into the ca¬
pital, and are obliged to return through the crooked
beaks into the cucurbit; and this without interruption,
or luting and unluting the veflels.
AJthough the pelican feems to be a very convenient
inftrument, it is neverthelefs little ufed, and even
much negledted at prefent; either becaufe the modern
chemifts have not fo much patience as the ancient che-
mifts had for making long experiments; or becaufe
they find that two matreffes, the mouth of one of
which is inferted into the mouth of the other, produce
the fame effedft.
PELICANUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of anferes. The bill is ftrait, without
teeth, and crooked at the point; the face is naked,
and the feet are palmated. There are eight fpecies,
principally diftinguifhed by the lhape of their tails.
The moft remarkable are,
1. The carbo, or corvorant, fometimes exceeds feven
pounds in weight; the length three feet four; the
extent four feet two ; the bill dufley, five inches long,
deftitute of noftrils; the bafe of the lower mandible is
covered with a naked yellow (kin, that extends under
the chin, and forms a fort of pouch ; a loofe flein of
the fame colour reaches from the upper mandible round
the eyes and angles of the mouth ; the head and neck
are of a footy blacknefs; but under the chin of the
male the feathers are white : and the head in that fex
is adorned with a (hort loofe pendant creft ; in fome
the creft and hind-part of the head are ftreaked with
white. The coverts of the wings, the fcapulars, and
the back, are of a deep green, edged with black, and
glofled with blue ; the quill-feathers and tail dufky ;
the legs are fhort, ftrong, and black ; the middle claw
ferrated on the infide 5 the irides are of a light afti-
colour.
Thefe birds occupy the higheft parts of the cliffs
that impend over the fea: they make their nefts of
flicks, fea-tang, grafs, &c. and lay fix or feven white
eggs of an oblong form. In winter they difperfe a-
long the fhores, and vifit the frefh waters, where they
make great havoc among the fifti. They are remark¬
ably voracious, having a moft hidden digeftion, pro¬
moted by the infinite quantity of final! worms that fill
their inteftines. The corvorant has the rankeft and
moft difagreeable fmell of any bird, even when alive.
Its form is difagreeable ; its voice hoarfe and croaking,
and its qualities bafe. Thefe birds, however, have
been trained to fifh like falcons to fowl Whitelock
tells us, that he had a caft of them manned like hawks,
and which would come to hand. He took much plea-
fure in them; and relates, that the bed he had
was one prefented him by Mr Wood, matter of the
corvorants to Charles I. It is well known that the
Chinefe make great ufe of thefe birds, or a congene¬
rous fort, in fifhing ; and that not for amufement, but
profit.
2. The graculus, or fhag, called in the north of
England the crane, is much inferior in fize to the cor-
vorant: the length is 27 inches; the breadth three
feet fix; the weight three pounds three quarters. The
bill is four inches long, and more flender than that of
the preceding : the head is adorned with a creft two-
inches long, pointing backward ; the whole plumage
of the upper part of this bird is of a fine and very fhi-
ning green; the edge of the feathers a purplifh black ;
but the lower part of the back, the head, and neck,
wholly green; the belly is dulky ; the tail of a dufky
hue, tinged with green 5 the legs are black, and like
thofe of the corvorant.
Pelieanut.
Both.
Pelicamis.
PEL
Both thefe kinds agree in their manners, and breed
in the fame places ; and, what is very ftrange in web¬
bed-footed birds, will perch and build in trees : both
fwim with their head quite ereft, and are very diffi¬
cult to be fhot; for, like the grebes and divers, as
foon as they fee the flaih of the gun, they pop under
water, and never rife but at a confiderable diftance.
3. The baflanus, gannet, or folan goofe, weighs
feven pounds ; the length is three feet one inch ; the
breadth fix feet two inches. The bill is fix inches
long, ftrait almoft to the point, where it inclines
down; and the fides are irregularly jagged, that it
may hold its prey with more fecurity : about an inch
from the bafe of the upper mandible is a (harp procefs
pointing forward ; it has no noftrils; but in their place
a long furrow, that reaches almoft to the end of the
bill: the whole is of a dirty white, tinged with a(h-
colour. The tongue is very fmall, and placed low in
the mouth ; a naked (kin of a fine blue furrounds the
eyes, which are of a pale yellow, and are full of vi¬
vacity : this bird is remarkable for the quicknefs of
its fight. Martin tells us, that folan is derived from
an Irilh word expreffive of that quality.
From the corner of the mouth is a narrow (lip of
black bare (kin, that extends to the hind-part of the
head ; beneath the chin is another, that, like the pouch
of the Pelican, is dilatable, and of fize fufficient to
contain five or fix entire herrings ; which in the breed¬
ing feafon it carries at once to its mate or young.
The young birds, during the firft year, differ great¬
ly in colour from the old ones; being of a dufky hue,
fpeckled with numerous triangular white fpots; and
at that time referable in colours the fpeckled diver.
Each bird, if left undifturbed, would only lay one egg
in the year ; but if that be taken away, they will lay
another ; if that is alfo taken, then a third ; but never
more that feafon. Their egg is white, and rather lefs
than that of the common goofe ; the neft is large, and
formed of any thing the bird finds floating on the wa¬
ter, fuch as grafs, fea-plants, (havings, &c. Thefe
birds frequent the Ifle of Alifa, in the frith of Clyde;
the rocks adjacent to St Kilda ; the Stack of Soulif-
kery, near the Orkneys; the Skelig Ides, off the
coafts of Kerry, Ireland ; and the Bafs Ifle, in the
frith of Edinburgh : the multitudes that inhabit thefe
places are prodigious. Dr Harvey’s elegant account
of the latter will ferve to give fome idea of the num¬
bers of thefe, and of the other birds that annually mi¬
grate to that little fpot.
“ There is a fmall ifland, called by the Scotch Bafs
If and, not more than a mile in circumference ; the
furface is almoft wholly covered during the months of
May and June with nefts, eggs, and young birds ; fo
that it is fcarcely poffible to walk without treading on
them: and the flocks of birds in flight are fo prodi¬
gious, as to darken the air like clouds ; and their noife
is fuch, that you cannot without difficulty hear your
next neighbour’s voice. If you look down upon the
fea from the top of the precipice, you will fee it on
every fide covered with infinite numbers of birds of
different kinds, fwimmingand hunting for their prey :
if in failing round the ifland you furvey the hanging
cliffs, you may fee in every cragg or fiffure of the bro¬
ken rocks innumerable birds of various forts and fizes,
more than the ftars of heaven when viewed in a ferene
PEL
night: if from afar you fee the diflant flocks, either Pefifearms.
flying to or from the ifland, you would imagine them
to be a vaft fwarm of bees.”
Nor do the rocks of St Kilda feem to be lefs fre¬
quented by thefe birds ; for Martin affures us, that
the inhabitants of that fmall ifland confume annually
no lefs than 22,600 young birds of this fpecies, be-
fides an amazing quantity of their eggs, thefe being
their principal fupport throughout the year : they
preferve both eggs and fowls in pyramidal (lone-build¬
ings, covering them with turf-afhes to preferve them
from moifture. This is a dear-bought food, earned
at the hazard of their lives, either by climbing the
mod difficult and narrow paths, where (to appear¬
ance) they can barely cling, and that too at an amazing
height over the raging fea; orelfe, being lowered down
from above, they colleft their annual provifion, thus
hanging in midway air; placing their whole depend-
ance on the uncertain footing of one perfon, who
holds the rope by which they are fufpended at the
top of the precipice. The young birds are a favou¬
rite difh with the North Britons in general: during
the feafon, they are conftantly brought from the Bafs
Ifle to Edinburgh, fold at 20 d. a-piece, are roafted,
and ferved up a little before dinner as a whet.
The gannets are birds of paffage. Their firft ap¬
pearance in thofe iflands is in March ; their continu¬
ance there till Auguft or September, according as the
inhabitants take or leave their firft egg; but, in ge¬
neral, the time of breeding, and that of their depar¬
ture, feems to coincide with the arrival of the her¬
ring, and the migration of that fifli (which is their
principal food) out of thofe feas. It is probable that
thefe birds attend the herring and pilchard during
their whole circuit round the Britilh iflands ; the ap¬
pearance of the former being always efteemed by the
fifliermen as a fure prefage of the approach of the lat¬
ter. It migrates in queft of food as far fouth as the
mouth of the Tagus, being frequently feen off Lifbon
during the month of September, plunging for fardina;,
filh refembling, if not the fame with our pilchard.
In the month of Auguft Mr Pennant has obferved
in Cathnefs their northern migrations : he has feen
them paffing the whole day in flocks, from five to fif¬
teen in each : in calm weather they fly high ; in ftorms
they fly low and near the (hore; but never crofs over
the land, even when a bay with promontories inter¬
venes, but follow, at an equal diftance, the courfe of
the bay, and regularly double every cape. Many of
the parties made a fort of halt for the fake of fifhing:
they foared to a vaft height, then darting headlong into
the fea, made the water foam and fpring up with the
violence of their defeent; after which they purfued their
route. Our author inquired whether they ever were
obferved to return fouthward in the fpring, but was
anfwered in the negative; fo it appears that they an¬
nually encircle the whole ifland.
They are well known on moft of the coafts of Eng¬
land, but not by the name of the Solan goofe. In
Cornwal and in Ireland they are called gannets; by
the WeKh, gan. Mr Ray fuppofed the Cornifh gan¬
net to be a fpecies of large gull : a very excufeable
miftake ; for during his fix months refidence in Corn¬
wal, he never had an opportunity of feeing that bird,
except flying; and in the air it has the appearance of
33 L2 a
[ 5931 1
PEL [ 59J2 ] PEL
Pelicamis. a gull. On that fuppofition he gave our flcua the
the title of catarafta, a name borrowed from Ari-
ftotle, and \vhich admirably expreffes the rapid de-
fcent of this bird on its prey. Mr Moyle firft deteft-
ed this miftake ; and the Rev. Dr William Borlafe,
by prefenting us with a fine fpecimen of this bird,
confirms the opinion of Mr Moyle ; at the fame time
giving the following natural hiftory of the bird.
“ The gannet comes on the coafts of Cornwal in
the latter end of fnmmer, or beginning of autumn ;
hovering over the fhoals of pilchards that come down
to us through St George’s Channel from the northern
feas. The gannet feldom comes near the land, but is
conflant to its prey, a fure fign to the fifhermen that
the pilchards are on the coafts; and when the pil¬
chards retire, generally about the end of November,
the gannets are feen no more. The bird now fent
was killed at Chandour, near Mountfbay, Sept. 30.
1762, after a long ftruggle with a water-fpaniel, af-
fxfted by the boatmen ; for it was ftrong and pugna¬
cious. The perfon who took it obferved that it had
a tranfparent membrane under the eye-lid, with which
it covered at pleafure the whole eye, without obfcuring
the fight or fhutting the eye-lid ; a gracious provifion
for the fecurity of the eyes of fo weighty a creature,
whofe method of taking its prey is by darting head¬
long on it from a height of 150 feet or more into the
water. About four years ago, one of thefe birds fly¬
ing over Penzance, (a thing that rarely happens), and
feeing fome pilchards lie on a fir-plank, in a cellar
ufed for curing fifh, darted itfelf down with fuch vio¬
lence, that it (truck its bill quite through the board,
(about an inch and a quarter thick), and broke its
neck.”
Thefe birds are fometimes taken at fea by a decep¬
tion of the like kind. The fifhermen faften a pilchard
to a board, and leave it floating ; which inviting bait
decoys the unwary gannet to its own deftru&ion.
In the Catarafla of Juba may be found many cha-
ra&ers of this bird : he fays, that the bill is toothed ;
that its eyes are fiery ; and that its colour is white :
and in the very name is expreffed its furious defcent
on its prey. The reft of his accounts favour of fable.
—We are uncertain whether the gannet breeds in any
other parts of Europe befides our own iflands ; ex¬
cept (as Mr Ray fufpe&s, the fula, defcribed in Clu-
fius’s Exotics, which breeds in Ferroe Ifles) be the
fame bird.
4. The fula, or booby, is fomewhat lefs than a
goofe; the bafis of the bill yellow, and of bare feathers;
the eyes of a light-grey colour; the lower part of the
bill of a light brown. The colours of the body are
brown and white; but varied fo in different indivi¬
duals, that they cannot be defcribed by them. Their
wings are very long ; their legs and feet pale yellow,
fhaped like thofe of corvorants. They frequent the
Bahama iflands, where they breed all months in the
year, laying one, two, or three eggs on the bare
rock. While young, they are covered with a white
down, and continue fo till they are almoft ready to
fly. They feed on fifh like the reft of this genus;
but have a very troublefome enemy of the man of war
. bird, which lives on the fpoils obtained from other
fea-birds, particularly the booby. As foon as this
rapacious enemy perceives that the booby has taken a
fifh, he flies furioufly at him, upon which the former Pelicanus. J
dives to avoid the blow; but as he cannot fwallow his T
prey below water, he is foon obliged to come up again
with the fifh in his bill as before, when he fuffers a
new aflault; nor does his enemy ceafe to perfecute
him till he lets go the fifh, which the other immedi¬
ately carries off.
5. The great booby, by Linnaeus called pelicani
Balfani pujfus, frequents the rivers and fea-coafts of
Florida, purfuing and devouring fifties like others of
the genus. Mr Catefby informs us, that he has fe-
veral times found them difabled, and fometimes dead,
on the fhore; whence he thinks that they meet with
fharks or other voracious fifties, which deftroy them.
The bird is about the fize of a goofe ; the head and
neck remarkably prominent; the back of a brown
colour ; the belly dufky white; the feet black, and
fhaped like thofe of a corvorant; the head elegantly
fpotted with white ; the wings extend fix feet when
fpread. Both this fpecies and the laft have a joint in
the upper mandible of the bill, by which they can
raife it confiderably from the lower one without open¬
ing the mouth.
6. The onocrotalus, or pelican of Afia, Africa, and
America; though Linnaeus thinks that the pelican of
America may pofiibly be a diftinft variety. This crea¬
ture, in Africa, is much larger in the body than a
fwan, and fomewhat of the fame fhape and colour. Its plate
four toes are all webbed together; and its neck in fome CCXXXIV
meafure refembles that of a fwan: but that Angularity
in which it differs from all other birds is in the bill and
the great pouch underneath. This enormous bill is
15 inches from the point to.the opening of the mouth,
which is a good way back behind the eyes. At the
bafe the bill is fomewhat greenifh, but varies towards
the end, being of a reddifh blue. It is very thick in
the beginning, but tapers off to the end, where it hooks
downwards. The under-chap is ftill more extraordi¬
nary; for to the lower edges of it hang a bag, reach¬
ing the whole length of the bill to the neck, which is
faid to be capable of containing 15 quarts of water.
This bag the bird has a power of wrinkling up into
the hollow of the under-chap; but by opening the bill,
and putting one’s hand down into the bag, it may be
diftended at pleafure. The (kin of which it is formed
will then be feen of a bluifh afh-colour, with many
fibres and veins running over its furface. It is not co¬
vered with feathers, but a fhort downy fubftance as
fmooth and as foft as fatin, and is attached all along
the under edges of the chap, to be fixed backward to
the neck of the bird by proper ligaments, and reaches
near half way down. When this bag is empty it is not
feen; but when the bird has fifhed with fuccefs, it is
then incredible to what an extent it is often feen dila¬
ted. For the firft thing the pelican does in fifhing is
to fill up the bag; and then itfreturns to digeft its bur¬
den at leifure. When the bill is opened to its wideft
extent, a perfon may run his head into the bird’s
mouth, and conceal it in this monftrous pouch, thus
adapted for very Angular purpofes. Yet this is nothing
to what Ruyfch affures us, who avers that a man has
been feen to hide his whole leg, boot and all, in the
monftrous jaws of one of thefe animals. At firft
appearance this would feem impoffible, as the fides
of the under chap, from which the bag depends, are
not
Plate O'XXXIV.
PEL [ 5933 ] PEL
Pelicanus. not above an inch afunder when the bird’s bill is firft
 opened; but then they are capable of great reparation;
and it mull neceflarily be fo, as the bird preys upon
large fifties, and hides them by dozens in its pouch.
Tertre affirms, that it will hide as many fifti as will
ferve 60 hungry men for a meal.
The pelican was once alfo known in Europe, parti¬
cularly in Ruflia ; but it feems to have deferted our
coafts. This is the bird of which fo many fabulous
accounts have been propagated; fuch as its feeding its
young with its own blood, and its carrying a provifion
of water for them in its great refervoir in the defart.
But the abfurdity of the firft account anfwers itfelf;
and as for the latter, the pelican ufes its bag for very
different purpofes than that of filling it with water.
Its amazing pouch may be confidered as analogous
to the crop in other birds; with this difference, that as
theirs lies at the bottom of the gullet, fo this is placed
at the top. Thus, as pigeons and other birds mace¬
rate their food for their young in their crops, and then
fupply them ; fo the pelican fupplies its young by a
more ready contrivance, and macerates their food in its
bill, or ftores it for its own particular fuftenance.
The ancients were particularly fond of giving this
bird admirable qualities and parental affedtions: ftruck,
perhaps, with its extraordinary figure, they were wil¬
ling to fupply it with as extraordinary appetites; and
having found it with a large refervoir, they were plea-
fed with turning it to the moft tender and parental
ufes. But the truth is, the pelican is a very heavy,
fluggifh, voracious bird, and very ill fitted to take thofe
flights, or to make thofe cautious provifions for a di-
ftant time, which we have been told they do.
The pelican, fays Labat, has ftrong wings, furnifhed
with thick plumage of an afh-colour, as are the reft of
the feathers over the whole body. Its eyes are very
fmall, when compared to the fize of its head; there is
a fadnefs in its countenance, and its whole air is me¬
lancholy. It is as dull and reludlant in its motions as
the flamingo is fprightly and adlive. It is flow of flight;
and when it rifes to fly, performs it with difficulty and
labour. Nothing, as it would feem, but the fpur of
neceffity could make thefe birds change their fituation,
or induce them to afcend into the air: but they muft
either ftarve or fly.
They are torpid and inadlive to the laft degree, fo
that nothing can exceed their indolence but their glut¬
tony; it is only from the ftimulations of hunger that
they are excited to labour ; for otherwife they would
continue always in fixed repofe. When they have rai¬
led themfelves about 30 or 40 feet above the furface of
the fea, they turn their head with one eye downwards,
and continue to fly in that pofture. As foon as they
perceive a fifh fufficiently near the furface, they dart
down upon it with the fwiftnefs of an arrow, feize it
with unerring certainty, and (lore it up in their pouch.
They then rife again, though not without great labour,
and continue hovering and fifhing, with their head on
one fide as before.
This work they continue with great effort and indu-
ftry till their bag is full, and then they fly to land to
devour and digeft at leifure the fruits of their induftry.
This, however, it would appear, they are not long
performing; for towards night they have another hun¬
gry call; and they again reluflantly go to labour. At Pdicanus*
night, when their fifhing is over, and the toil of the ~
day crowned with fuccefs, thefe lazy birds retire a little
way from the fhore; and, though with the webbed feet
and clumfy figure of a goofe, they will be contented
to perch nowhere but upon trees among the light and
airy tenants of the foreft. There they take their re¬
pofe for the night; and often fpend a great part of the
day, except fuch times as they are fifliing, fitting in
difmal folemnity, and, as it would feem, half afleep.
Their attitude is with the head refting upon their great
bag, and that refting upon their breaft. There they
remain without motion, or once changing their fitua¬
tion, till the calls of hunger break their repofe, and till
they find it indifpenfibly neceflary to fill their maga¬
zine for a frefti meal. Thus their life is fpent between
fleeping and eating ; and our author adds, that they
are as foul as they are voracious, as they are every mo¬
ment voiding excrements in heaps as large as one’s fift.
The fame indolent habits feem to attend them even
in preparing for incubation, and defending their young
when excluded. The female makes no preparation
for her neft, nor feems to cboofe any place in pre¬
ference to lay in ; but drops her eggs on the bare
ground to the number of five or fix, and there conti¬
nues to hatch them. Attached to the place, without
any defire of defending her eggs or her young, (he
tamely fits and fuffers them to be taken from under
her. Now and then (he juft ventures to peck, or to
cry out when a perfon offers to beat her off.
She feeds her young with fifti macerated for fome
time in her bag; and when they cry flies off for a new
fupply. Labat tells us, that he took two of thefe
when very young, and tied them by the leg to a poll
ftuck into the ground, where he had the pleafure of
feeing the old one for feveral days come to feed them,
remaining with them the'greateft part of the day, and
fpending the night on the branch of a tree that hung
over them. By thefe means they were all three be¬
come fo familiar, that they fuffered themfelves to be
handled; and the young ones very kindly accepted
whatever fifti he offered them. Thefe they always
put firft into their bag, and then fwallowed at their
leifure.
It feems, however, that they are but difagreeable
and ufelefs domeftics ; their gluttony can fcarcely be
fatisfied ; their flefti fmells very rancid; and taftes a
thoufand times worfe than it fmells. The native A-
mericans kill vaft numbers; not to eat, for they are
not fit even for the banquet of a favage; but to con¬
vert their large bags into purfes and tobacco-pouches.
They beftow no fmall pains in drefling the fkin with
fait and afhes, rubbing it well with oil, and then
forming it to their purpofe. It thus becomes fo foft
and pliant, that the Spanifti women fometimes adorn
it with gold and embroidery to make work-bags of.
Yet, with all the feeming hebetude of this bird, it
is not entirely incapable of inftru&ion in a domeftic
ftate. Father Raymond affures us, that he has feen
one fo tame and well educated among the native A-
mericans, that it would go off in the morning at the
word of command, and return before night to its
matter, with its great paunch diftended w’ith plunder ;
a part of which the favages would make it difgorge,
PEL [ 5934 ] PEL
Pelion, and a part they would permit it to referve for itfelf.
Pella' “ The pelican,” as Faber relates, “ is not defti*
tnte of other qualifications. One of thofe which was
brought alive to the duke of Bavaria’s court, where it
lived 40 years, feemed to be poffefled of very uncom¬
mon fenfations. It was much delighted in the com¬
pany and converfation of men, and in mufic both vo¬
cal and inftrumental ; for it would willingly Hand,”
fays he, “ by thofe that fung or founded the trum¬
pet ; and ftretching out its head, and turning its ear
to the mufic, liftened very attentively to its harmony,
though its own voice was little pleafanter than the
braying of an afs.” Gefner tells us, that the em¬
peror Maximilian had a tame pelican which lived for
above 80 years, and that always attended his army on
their march. It was one of the largeft of the kind,
and had a daily allowance by the emperor’s orders.
As another proof of the great age to which the peli¬
can lives, Aldrovandus makes mention of one of thefe
birds that was kept feveral years at Mechlin, and was
verily believed to be 50 years old.—We often fee thefe
birds at our (hews about town.
PELION, (Diodorus Siculus, &c.) Pelios, mont
underftood, (Mela, Virgil, Horace, Seneca), a moun¬
tain of Theffaly near Offa, and hanging over the Sinus
Pelafgicus, or Pagaficus; its top covered with pines,
the fides with oaks, (Ovid). Said alfo to abound in
wild afh, (Val. Flaccus). From this mountain was
cut the fpear of Achilles, called pelt as ; which none
but himfelf could wield, (Homer). Dicearchus, Ari-
ftotle’s fcholar, found this mountain 1250 paces higher
than any other of Thefialy, (Pliny). Pe/m/, Cicero;
Peliacus, (Catullus), the epithet.
PELLA, (an. geog.) a townfituateon the confines of
Emathia, adiftridt ofMacedonia, (Ptolemy); and there¬
fore Herodotus allots it to Bottisea, a maritime diftriA
on the Sinus Thermaicus. It was the royal refidence,
fituate on an eminence, verging to the fouth-weft, en-
compaffed with unpaffable marfhes fummer and win¬
ter : in which, next the town, a citadel like an ifland
rifes, placed on a bank or dam, a prodigious work,
both fupporting the wall and fecuring it from any hurt
by means of the circumfluent water. At a diftance, it
feems clofe to the town, but is feparated from it by
the Ludias, running by the walls, and joined to it by
a bridge, (Livy); diftant from the fea 120 ftadia,
the Ludias being fo far navigable, (Strabo). Mela
calls the town Pelle, though moft Greek authors write
Pella. The birth-place of Philip, who enlarged it;
and afterwards of Alexander, (Strabo, Mela). Con¬
tinued to be the royal refidence down to Perfes, (Li¬
vy). Called Pella Colonia, (Pliny); Colonia Juliet
Augufta, (Coin). It afterwards came to decline, with
but few and mean inhabitants, (Lucian). It is now
called t« noaa7«r<a, the Little Palace, (Holftenius).
Pellceus, both the gentilitious name and the epithet,
(Lucian, Juvenal, Martial).—Another Pella, (Po¬
lybius, Pliny) ; a town of the Decapolis, on the other
fide the Jordan ; abounding in water, like its cogno-
roinal town in Macedonia ; built by the Macedonians,
(Strabo); by Seleucus, (Eufebius) ; anciently called
Butis, (Stephanus) ; Apamea, (Strabo); fituate 35
miles to the north-eaft of Gerafa, (Ptolemy). Thi¬
ther the Chriftians, juft before the fiege of Jerufalem
by Titus, were divinely admonilhed to fly, (Eufe¬
bius). It was the utmoft boundary of the Pertea, or Pelletier
Transjordan country, to the north, (Jofephus). II
PELLETIER (James), a doAor of phyfic, and Pelufium-
an eminent mathematician, was born in 1517. He
was an excellent Latin and French poet, a good ora¬
tor, phyfician, and grammarian. He wrote, Oeuvres
Poetiques, Comment air ss Latins fur Euclide, life.
PELLETS, in heraldry, thofe roundles that are
black ; called alfo ogreffes and gunflones, and by the
French torteaux de fable.
PELLICLE, among phyficians, denotes a thin
film or fragment of a membrane. Among chemifts it
fignifies a thin furface of cryftals uniformly fpread over
a faline liquor evaporated to a certain degree.
PELLISON, or Pellison Fontanier, (Paul),
one of the fineft geniufes of the 17th century, was the
fon of James Pellifon counfellor at Caftrcs. He was
born at Beziers in 1624, and educated in the Prote-
ftant religion. He ftudied with fuccefs the Latin,
Greek, French, Spanilh, and Italian tongues, and
applied himfelf to the reading the beft authors in thefc
languages ; after which he ftudied the law at Caftres
with reputation. In 1652 he purchafed the poll of
fecretary to the king; and, five years after, became
firft deputy to M. Fouquet. He fuffered by the dif-
grace of that minifter ; and in 1661 was confined in
the Baftile ; from whence he was not difeharged till
four years after. During his confinement he applied
himfelf to the ftudy of cont/overfy ; and in 1670 ab¬
jured the Proteftant religion. Lewis XIV. beftowed
upon him an annual penfipn of 2000 crowns ; and he
likewife enjoyed feveral polls. In 1676 he had the
abbey of Giment, and fome years after the priory of
St Orens at Auch. He died in 1693. principal
works are, 1. The Hiftory of the French Academy.
2. Refleftionson religious Difputes, &c. in 4 vols 12m0.
3. The Hiftory of Lewis XIV. 4. Hiftorical Letters
and Mifcellanies, in 3 vols i2mo.
PELOPONNESUS, (Dionyfius) ; a large penin-
fula, to the fouth of the reft of Greece ; called, as it
were, Pelopis nefus or infula, though properly not an
ifland, but a peninfula; yet wanting but little to be
one, viz. the ifthmus of Corinth, ending in a point
like the leaf of the Platane or plane-tree. Anciently
called Apia and Pelafgia; a peninfula fecond to no
other country for noblenefs ; fituate between two feas,
the Egean and Ionian, and refembling a platane-leaf,
on account of its angular recefles or bays, (Pliny,
Strabo, Mela). Strabo adds from Homer, that one
of its ancient names was Argos, with the epithet A-
chaicum, to diftinguilh it from Theflaly, called Pelaf-
gicum. Divided into fix parts ; namely, Argolis, La¬
conics, Meffenia, Elis, Achaia, and Arcadia, (Mela).
Now called the More a.
PELOPS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Tanta¬
lus king of Phrygia, went into Elis, where he mar¬
ried Hippodamia the daughter of OEnomaus king
of that country ; and became fo powerful, that all the
territory which lies beyond the Ifthmus, and compofes
a confiderable part of Greece, was called Peloponnefus,
that is, the ifland of Pelops, from his name, and the
word Niirof.
PELUSIUM, (anc. geogr.); a noble and ftrong
city of Egypt, without the Delta, diftant 20 ftadia
from the fea ; fituate amidft marfties ; and hence its
name
PEN [ 5935 ] PEN
Pelvis name and its ftrength. Called the ley or inlet of E-
1 gypU (Diodorus, Hirtius) ; which being taken, the
*>cn' rell of Egypt lay quite open and expofed to an enemy.
Called 5/>;, (Ezekiel). the epithet, (Vir-
fil, Diodorus). From its ruins arofe Damietta. E.
,ong. 320. N. Lat. 310.
PELVIS, in anatomy. See there, n° 38.—41.
PEMBROKE, (Mary Countefs of). See Her-
BERT.
PEMBROKESHIRE, a county of Wales, bound¬
ed on all fides by the Iriih fea, except on the eaft,
where it joins to Caermarthenlhire, and on the north-
eaft to Cardiganlhire. It lies the neareft to Ireland of
any county in Wales. Its length is 26 miles, its breadth
20, and its circumference 93 ; within which it contains
about 420,000 acres, 145 parifties, 7 hundreds, 1 city,
9 market-towns, 2 forefts, and about 26,000 inhabi¬
tants. This county lies in the diocefe of St David’s,
and fends three members to parliament, viz. one for the
Ihire, one for Haverfordweft, and one for the town of
Pembroke.
The air of Pembrokelhire, confidering its fituation,
is good; but it is in general better the farther from
the fea. As there are but few mountains, the foil is
generally fruitful, efpecially on the fea-coafts; nor are
its mountains altogether unprofitable, but produce
pafture fufficient to maintain great numbers of fheep
and goats. Its other commodities are corn, cattle,
pit-coal, marie, filh, and fowl. Among thefe laft are
falcons, called here peregrins- The inhabitants of this
county make a very pleaiant durable fire of culm, which
is the dull of coal made up into balls, with a third part
of mud. The county is well watered by the rivers
Clethy, Dougledye, Cledhew, and Teive; which
laft parts it from Cardiganfhire. There is a divifion
of the county ftyled Rhos in the Welfti, by which
is meant a large green plain. This is inhabited by
the defeendants of the Flemings, placed there by Hen¬
ry I. to curb the Wellh, who were never able to ex¬
pel them, though they often attempted it. On the
coafls of this county, as well as on thofe of Glamor-
ganfhire and the Severn Sea, is found the la£luca ma¬
rina of Cambden, being a marine plant or weed,
which, when drefled i-n a certain manner, is eaten by
the inhabitants, and called laver, or black butter.
PEN, a little inftrument, ufually formed of a quill,
ferving to write withal.
Pens are alfo fometimes made of filver, brafs, or
iron.
Dutch Pens, are made of quills that have pafied thro’
hot allies, to take off the groffer fat and moifture, and
render them more tranfparent.
Fountain Pen, is a pen made of filver, brafs, &c.
contrived to contain a confiderable quantity of ink,
and let it flow out by gentle degrees, fo as to fupply
the writer a long time without being under the necef-
fity of taking frelh ink.
The fountain-pen is compofed of feveral pieces, as
in Plate C.CXXXII. fig. 3. where the middle piece F
carries the pen, which is ferewed into the infide of a
little pipe, which again is foldered to another pipe of
the fame bignefs as the lid G; in which lid is folder¬
ed a male ferew, for ferewing on the cover,, as alfo for
flopping a little bole at the place, and hindering the
ink from paffing through it,. At the other end. of the
piece F is a little pipe, on the outfide of which the Per»
top-cover H may be ferewed. In the cover there goes H
a port-crayon, which Is to be ferewed into the laft- Penci •
mentioned pipe, in order to flop the end of the pipe,
into which the ink is to be poured by a funnel. To
ufe the-pen, the cover G mud be taken off, and
the pen a little ftiaken, to make the ink run more
freely.
Pen, or Penjlock. See Penstock.
PENANCE, a puniftiment, either voluntary or im-
pofed by authority, for the faults a perfon has com¬
mitted. Penance is one of the feven facraments of
the Romifh church. Befides fafting, alms, abftinence,
and the like, which are the general conditions of pe¬
nance, there are others of a more particular kind; as
the repeating a certain number of ave-marys, pater-
nofters, and credos, wearing a hair-lhirt, and giving
one’s felf a certain number of ftripes. In Italy and
Spain it is ufual to fee Chriftians almoft naked, loaded
with chains and a crofs, and ladling themfelves at
every ftep.
PENATES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of tute¬
lar deities, either of countries or particular houfes;
in which laft fenfe they differed in nothing from the
lares. See Lares.
The penates were properly the tutelar gods of the
Trojans, and were only adopted by the Romans, who
gave them the title of penates.
PENCIL, an inftrument ufed by painters for lay¬
ing on their colours. Pencils are of various kinds,
and made of various materials ; the larger forts are
made of boars briftles, the thick ends of which are
bound to a flick, bigger or lefs, according to the ufea,
they are defigned for: thefe, when large, are called
brujhes. The finer forts of pencils are made of camels,
badgers, and fquirrels hair, and of the down of
fwans; thefe are tied at the upper end with a piece
of ftrong thread, and inclofed in the barrel of a quill.
All good pencils, on being drawn between the lips,
come to a fine point.
Pencil, is alfo an inrtrument ufed in drawing,
writing, &c. made of long pieces oL black-lead,
or red-chalk, placed in a groove cut in a flip of ce¬
dar ; on which other pieces of cedar being glued, the
whole is planed round', and one of the ends being cut
to a point, it is fit for ufe.
Black-lead in fine powder, ftirred into melted ful-
phur, unites with it fo uniformly, and in fuch quanti¬
ty, in virtue perhaps of its abounding with fulphur,
that though the compound remains fluid enough to be
poured into moulds, it looks nearly like the coarfer
forts of black-lead itfelf. Probably the way which
prince Rupert is faid to have had, mentioned in the
third volume of Dr Birch’s Hiftory of the Royal So¬
ciety, of making black-lead run like a metal in a
mould, fo as to ferve for black-lead again, confid¬
ing in mixing with it fulphur or fulphureous bodies.
On this principle the German black-lead pencils are
faid to be made; and many of thofe which are hawk¬
ed about by certain perfons among us are prepared
in the fame manner : their melting or foftening, when
held in a candle, or applied to a red-hot iron, and.
yielding a bluilh flame, with a ftrong fmell like that
of burning brimftone, betrays their compofition ; for
black-lead itfelf yields no fmell or fume, and fuffers no*
PEN [ 5934 ] PEN
Pendant apparent alteration in that heat. Pencils made with
I! fuch additions are of a very bad kind ; they are hard,
Pendulum, brittle, and do not cad or make a mark freely either
on paper or wood, rather catting or fcratching them
than leaving a coloured (troke.
The tine Englilh pencils (which Vogel in his mine¬
ral fyftem, and feme other foreign writers, imagine to
be prepared alfo by melting the black-lead with fome
additional fubftances, and calling it into a mould) are
formed of black-lead alone, fawed into Hips, which
are fitted into a groove made in a piece of wood, and
another flip of wood glued over them : the fofteft
wood, as cedar, is made choice of, that the pencil
may be the eafier cut; and a part at one end, too
fliort to be conveniently ufed after the reft has been
worn and cut away, is left unfilled w-ith the black-lead,
that there may be no wafte of fo valuable a commo¬
dity. Thefe pencils are greatly preferable to the
others, though feldom fo perfedft as could be wilhed,
being accompanied with fome degree of the fame in-
conveniencies,and being very unequal in their quality,
on account of different forts of the mineral being frau¬
dulently joined together in one pencil, the fore-part
being commonly pretty good, and the reft of an infe¬
rior kind. Some, to avoid thefe imperfe&iona, take
the fiqer pieces of black-lead itfelf, which they faw
into flips, and fix for ufe in port-crayons: this is
doubtlefs the fureft way of obtaining black-lead cray¬
ons, whofe goodnefs can be depended on.
PENDANT, an ornament hanging at the ear, fre¬
quently compofed of diamonds, pearls, and other
jewels.
Pendants, in heraldry, parts hanging down from
the label, to the number of three, four, five, or fix
at moft, refembling the drops in the Doric freeze.
When they are more than three, they muft be fpecified
in blazoning.
Pendants of a Ship, are thofe ftreamers, or long
colours, which are fplit and divided into two parts,
ending in points, and hung at the head of mafts, Or at
the yard-arm ends.
PENDULOUS, a term applied to any thing that
bends or hangs downwards.
PENDULUM, in mechanics, denotes any heavy
body, fo fufpended as that it may vibrate or fwing,
backwards and forwards, about fome fixed point, by
the force of gravity.
The vibrations of a pendulum are called its ofcilla~
tions.
Plate A pendulum, therefore, is any body, B,- (fig. 2.
CCXXXII. no j.) fufpended upon, and moving about, a fixed
point,15 A, as a centre.
The nature of a pendulum confifta in the following
particulars: I. The times of the vibrations of a pen¬
dulum, in very fmall arches, are all equal. 2. The
velocity of the bob, in the lowed point, will be nearly
as the length of the chord of the areh which it de-
feribes in the defeent. 3. The times of vibration in
different pendulums, AB, AC, are as the fquare roots
of the times of their vibrations. 4. The time of one
vibration is to the time of the defeent, through half
the length of the pendulum, as the circumference of a
circle to its diameter. 5. Whence the length of a
pendulum, vibrating feconds, will be found 39.2
inches nearly; and that of au half-fecond pendulum
9.8 inches. 6. An uniform homogeneous body* BG, Pendulum,
\ihid. n°2.) as arod, ftaff, &c. which is one-third part
longer than a pendulum AD, will vibrate in the fame
time with it.
From thefe properties of the pendulum we may dif-
cern its ufe as an univerfal chronometer, or regulator
of time, as it is ufed in clocks, and fuch like machines.
By this inftrument alfo we can meafure the diftance of
a fhip, by meafuring the interval of time between the
fire and the found of the gun; alfo the diftance of a
cloud, by numbering the feconds or half-feconds be¬
tween the lightning and thunder. Thus, fuppofe
between the lightning and thunder, we number 10 fe¬
conds ; then, becaufe found paffes through 1142 feet
in one fecond, we have the diftance of the cloud equal
to 11420 feet. Again, the height of any room, or
other objeft, may be meafured by a pendulum vibra¬
ting from the top thereof. Thus, fuppofe a pendulum
from the height of a room vibrates once in three fe¬
conds ; then fay, as 1 is to the fquare of 3, viz. 9, fo
is 39.2 to 352.8 feet, the height required. Laftly,
By the pendulum we difeover the different force of gra¬
vity on diverfe parts of the earth’s furface; and thence
the true figure of the earth.
When pendulums were firft applied to clocks, they
were made very ftiort: and, the arches of the circle
being large, the time of vibration through different
arches could not in that cafe be equal; to effeft
which, the pendulum was contrived to vibrate in the
arch of a cycloid, by making it play between two
femi-cycloids, CB, CD, {ibid. n° 3.) whereby it de-
feribes the cycloid BE, AD; the property of which
curve is, that a body vibrating in it will deferibe all its
arches, great or fmall, in equal times.
In all that has been hitherto faid, the power of gra¬
vity has been fuppofed conftantly the fame. But if the
faid power varies, the lengths of pendulums muft vary
in the fame proportion, in order that they may vibrate
in equal times; for we have fliewn, that the ratio of
the times of vibration and defeent through half the
lengths is given, and confequently the times of vi¬
bration and defeent through the whole length is
given : But the times of vibration are fuppofed equal,
therefore the times of defeent through the lengths of
the pendulum are equal. But bodies defeending thro*
unequal fpaces, in equal times, are impelled by powers
that are as the fpaces deferibed, that is, the powers
of gravity are as the lengths of the pendulums.
The greateft inconvenience attending this moft ufe-
ful inftrument is, that it is conftantly liable to an alte¬
ration of its length, from the effe&s of heat and cold,
which very fenfibly expand and contract all metalline
bodies.
To remedy this inconvenience, the common method
is by applying the bob of the pendulum with a ferew ;
fo that it may be at any time made longer or fliorter,
according as the bob is ferewed downwards or upwards,
aud thereby the time of its vibrations kept always the
fame. Again, if a glafs or metalline tube, uniform
throughout, filled with quickfilver, and 58.8 inches
long, were applied to a clock, it would vibrate fe¬
conds for 39.2=4- of 58.8): and fuch a pendulum ad¬
mits of a twofold expanfion and contraftion, viz. one
of the metal and the other of the mercury ; and thefe
will be at the fame time contrary, and therefore will
cor-
PEN [ 5937 ] PEN
Pendulum. corre& each other. For by what we have (hewn, the
"metal will extend in length with heat, and fo the pen¬
dulum will vibrate (lower on that account. The mer¬
cury alfo will expand with heat; and fince by this ex¬
pansion it muft extend the length of the column up¬
ward, and confequently raife the centre of ofcillation;
fo that by this means its diftance from the point of
fufpenfion will be (hortened, and therefore the pendu¬
lum on this account will vibrate quicker : wherefore,
if the circumflances of the tube and mercury are (kil-
fuily adjulted, the time of the clock might by this
means, for a long courfe of time, continue the fame,
without any fenfible gain or lofs.
This is the invention of the late ingenious Mr
Graham, in the year 1721, who made a clock of this
fort, and compared it with one of the heft of the com¬
mon fort for three years together, and found the er¬
rors of the former but about part of the latter; of
which the reader may fee a farther account in Phil.
Tranf. n° 393. It is what is now called Mr Graham's
quickjilver pendulum.
In the 47th volume of the Phil. Tranf. Mr Short
gives us an account of other inventions to remedy the
fame inconvenience. Mr John Harrifon t>f Barrow,
in Lincolnfhire, famous far his invention of a clock to
find the difference of longitude at fea, without having
the lead knowledge of what Mr Graham had done be¬
fore him, made feveral experiments upon wires of dif¬
ferent metals, in order to find their different de¬
grees of expanfion and contra&ion. He thought, that
by a proper combination of wires of two different me¬
tals, differing confiderably in their expanfion and con¬
traction, he might be enabled to keep the centre of
ofoillation of a pendulum always at the fame diftance
from the point of fufpenfion. In confequence ofthefe
experiments, he made a pendulum confiding of one
fleel-wire, at the end of which is the bob or weight ;
and on each fide of this wire, four wires, alternately
brafs and fteel, fo difpofed and contrived as to raife
the pendulum by the fame quantity that it is lengthen¬
ed by heat, and to let down the pendulum in the fame
proportion as it is railed by cold.
Mr Harrifon, in his firft machine for meafuring
time at fea, likewife applied this combination of wires
of brafs and fteel, to prevent any alterations by heat
and cold. And in the two machines or clocks he has
fince made for the fame purpofe, a like method of
guarding againft the irregularities anting from this
caufe is ufed.
Mr Graham alfo made a pendulum confiding of
three bars, one of fteel between two of brafs; and the
fteel bar adted upon a lever, fo as to raife the pendu¬
lum, .when lengthened by heat, and to let it down,
when (hortened by cold ; but he found this clock liable
to fudden darts and jerks in its motion.
The ingenious Mr Ellicott, in the fame volume of
the Tranfadlions, defcribes a pendulum of his inven¬
tion, compofed of brafs and iron, with the method of
applying it, fo as to avoid the many jerks to which the
machine might be liable.
But befides the irregularities arifing from heat and
cold, pendulum-clocks are liable to others from fric¬
tion and foulnefs; to obviate which, Mr Harrifon has
feveral excellent contrivances, whereby his clocks are
Vot. VIII. 1
almoft entirely free from fridlion, and never need to be Penelope,
cleaned. I
PENELOPE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of
Icarus, married Ulyffes, by whom (he had Telema-
chus. During the abfence of Ulyffes, who was gone
to the fiege of Troy, and who (laid 20 years from
his dominions, feveral princes, charmed with Pene¬
lope’s beauty, told her that Ulyffes was dead, offered
to marry her, and prefled her to declare in their favour.
She promifed compliance on condition they would give
her time to fini(h a piece of tapeftry (he was weaving;
but at the fame time (he undid in the night what (he
had done in the day, and by this artifice eluded their
importunity till Ulyffes’s return.
PENESTICA, (Antonine), a town of the Hel-
vetii, fituated between the Lacus Laufonius and Salo-
durum ; called Petenifca by Peutinger. Thought now
to be Biel, (Cluverius) ; the capital of a fmall terri¬
tory in Swifferland.
PENEUS, (Strabo) ; a river running through
the middle of Theffaly, from weft to eaft, into the
Sinus Thermaicus, between Olympus and Offa, near
Tempe of Theffaly, rifing in mount Pindus, (Ovid,
Val. Flaccus).
PENETRATE, in Roman antiquity, properly
denoted the chapel, confecrated to the penates or houfe-
hold gods.
PENICILLUS, among furgeons, is ufed for a
tent to be put into wounds or ulcers.
PENINSULA, in geography, a portion or ex¬
tent of land joining to the continent by a narrow
neck or ifthmus, the reft being encompaffed with wa¬
ter. See Plate CXVI.
PENIS, in anatomy. See there, n° 371, o.
PENITENTS, an appellation given to certain fra¬
ternities of penitents diftinguilhed by the different
(hape and colour of their habits. Thefe are fecuiar
focieties, who have their rules, ftatutes, and churches,
and make public proceflions under their particular
croffes or banners. Of thefe there are more than a
hundred, the mod confiderable of which are as fol¬
lows : the white penitents, of which there are feveral
different forts at Rome, the moft ancient of which was
conftituted in 1264: the brethren of this fraternity
every year give portions to a certain number of young
girls, in order to their being married : their habit is a
kind of white fackcloth, and on the (boulder is a circle,
in the middle of which is a red and white crofs. Black
penitents, the moft confiderable of which are the bre¬
thren of mercy, inftituted in 1488, by fome Floren¬
tines, in order to affift criminals during their impri-
fonment, and at the time of their death : on the day
of execution, they walk in procefiion before them,
finging the feven penitential pfalms and the litanies ;
and after they are dead, they take them down from the
gibbet and bury them : their habit is black fackcloth.
There are others whofe bufinefs it is to bury fuch per-
fons as are found dead in the ftreets: thefe wear a
death’s head on one fide of their habit. There are al¬
fo blue, grey, red, green, and violet penitents ; all
which are remarkable for little elfe befides the different
colours of their habits.
Mabillon tells us, that at Turin there are a fet of pe¬
nitents kept in pay to walk through the ftreets in pro-
33 M cefliou,
PEN [ 5938
Penitential ceffion, and cut their (boulders with whips, &c.
p ^ PENITENTIAL, an ecclefiaftical book retained
enn' among the Romanifts; in which is prefcribed what re¬
lates to the impofition of penance and the reconcilia¬
tion of penitents. See Penance.
]
PEN
There are various penitentials, as the Roman peni¬
tential, that of the venerable Bede, that of pope Gre¬
gory III. See.
PENITENTIARY, in the ancient Chriftian
church,, a name given to certain prefbyters or priefts,
appointed in every church to receive the private con-
feffionsof the people, in order to facilitate public dif-
cipline, by acquainting them what fins were to be ex¬
piated by public penance, and to appoint private pe¬
nance for fuch private crimes as were not proper to be
publicly cenfured.
Penitentiary, at the court of Rome, is an office
in which are examined and delivered out the fecret
bulls, graces, or difpenfations relating to cafes of con-
fcience, confeffions, &c.
Penitentiary, is alfo an officer, in fome cathe¬
drals, veiled with power from the bifhop to abfolve, in
cafes referved to him. The pope has at prefent his
grand penitentiary, who is a cardinal, and the chief
of the other penitentiary priefts eftablilhed in the
church of Rome, who confult him in all difficult cafes.
He prefides in the penitentiary, difpatches difpenfa¬
tions, abfolutions, &c. and has under him a regent and
24 proftors, or advocates of the facred penitentiary.
PENN (Sir William), was born at Briftol in 1621,
and inclined from his youth to maritime affairs. He
was made captain at 21 years of age, rear-admiral of
Ireland at 23, vice-admiral of Ireland at 25, admiral
to the Streights at 29, vice-admiral of England at 31,
and general in the firft Dutch war at 32. Whence re¬
turning in 1655, he was chofen reprefentative for the
town of Weymouth ; and in 1660 was made commif-
fioner of the admiralty and navy, governor of the town
and fort of Kinfale, vice-admiral of Munfter, and a
member of that provincial council. In 1664 he was
chofen great captain-commander under the duke of Mr Penn pnbliftied a brief account of that province.
gentleman. About the year 1666, his father commit-• Penn,
ted to his care a confiderable eftate in Ireland. Being 
found in one of the Quakers meetings in Cork, he,
with many others, was thrown into prifon; but on his
writing to the earl of Orrery, was foon difeharged.
However, his father being infoimed he dill adntred to
his opinions, fent for him to England, and finding him
inflexible to all his arguments, turned him out of doors
a fecond time. About the year 1668, he became a
public preacher among the Quakers; and that year
was committed clofe prifoner to the Tower, where he
wrote feveral treatifes. Being difeharged after feven
months imprifonment, he went to Ireland, where he
alfo preached amongft the Quakers. Returning to
England, he was, in 1670, committed to Newgate for
preaching in Gracechurch-ftreet meeting-houfe, Lon¬
don ; but being tried at the feffions-houfe in the Old
Bailey, he was acquitted. In September the fame
year, his father died ; and being perfectly reconciled to
him, left him both his paternal bltffing and a plentiful
eftate. But his perfecutions were not yet at an end;
for, in 1671, he was committed to Newgate for preach¬
ing at a meeting in Wheeler-ftreet, London; and du¬
ring his imprifonment, which continued fix months, he
alfo wrote feveral treatifes. After his difeharge, he
went into Holland and Germany; and in the begin¬
ning of the year 1672, married and fettled with his fa¬
mily at Rickmanfworth in Hertfordfhire. The fame
year he publilhed feveral pieces; and particularly one
againft Reeve andMuggleton. In 1677, he again travel¬
led into Holland and Germany in order to propagate his
opinions; and had frequent converfations with the prin-
cefs Elizabeth, daughter to the queen of Bohemia, and
After 10 the the princefs Sophia, mother to king Geo. I.
In 1681, king Charles II. in confideration of the fer-
vices of Mr Penn’s father, and feveral debts due to him
from the crown at the time of his deceafe, granted Mr
Penn and his heirs the province lying on the weft fide
of the river Delaware in North America, which from
thence obtained the name of Penfylvania. Upon this
York, and diftingnifhed himfelf in an engagement a-
gainft the Dutch fleet; after which he took l^ave of
the fea, but continued in his other employments till
1669. He died in 1670.
Penn (William), an eminent writer among the Qua¬
kers, and the planter and legiflator of Penfylvania,
was the fon of the above Sir William Penn, and was
born at London in 1644. In 1660, he was entered a
gentleman commoner of Chrift-Church, in Oxford ;
but having before received an impreffion from the
preaching of one Thomas Loe a Quaker, withdrew
with fome other ftudents from the national worfhip,
and held private meetings, where they preached and
prayed amongft themfelves. This giving great offence
with the king’s patent ; and propofing an eafy pur-
chafe of lands, and good terms of fettlement for fuch
as were inclined to remove thither, many went over.
Thefe having made and improved their plantations to
good advantage, the governor, in order to fecure the
planters from the native Indians, appointed commif-
fioners to purchafe the land he had received from the
king of the native Indians, and concluded a peace with
them. The city of Philadelphia was planned and built;
and he himfelf drew up the fundamental conftitutions
of Penfylvania in 24 articles. In 1681, he was elec¬
ted a member of the Royal Society; and the next year
he embarked for Penfylvania, where he continued about
two years, and returned to England in Auguft 1684.
to the heads of the college, Mr Penn, though but 16 Upon the acceffion of king James to the throne, he
years of age, was fined for nonconformity; and conti- was taken into a great degree of favour with his Ma¬
nning his religious exercifes, was at length expelled his jefty, which expofed him to the imputation of being a
college. Upon his return home, he was, on the fame
account, treated with great feverity by his father, who
at laft turned him out of doors; but his refentment af¬
terwards abating, he fent him to France in company
with fome perfons of quality ; where he continued a
confiderable time, and returned not only well (killed in
Papift f but from which he fully vindicated himfelf.
However, upon the Revolution, he was examined be¬
fore the council, in 1688, and obliged to give fecurity
for his appearance on the firft day of next term, which
was afterwards continued. He was feveral times dif¬
eharged and examined; and at length warrants being
the French language, but a polite and accomplilhcd iffued out againft biro, he was obliged to conceal him¬
felf
PEN [ 5939 ] PEN
Penni ^ ^or tw0 or t^1ree years' Being at laft permitted to
 appear before the king and council, he reprefented his
innocence fo effe&ually that he was acquitted. In Au-
guft 1699, he, with his wife and family, embarked for
Penfylvania ; whence he returned in 1701, in order to
vindicate his proprietary right, which had been attack¬
ed during his abfence. Upon queen Anne’s accefiion
to the crown, he was in great favour with her, and was
often at court. But, in 1707, he was involved in a law-
fuit with the executors of a perfon who had been for¬
merly his Reward; and, though many thought him ag¬
grieved, the court of chancery did not think proper to
relieve him; upon which account he was obliged to live
within the rules of the Fleet for fevernl months, till the
matter in difpute was accommodated. He died in
1718. Mr Penn’s friendly and pacific manner of treat-
ing'the Indians produced in them an extraordinary love
for him and his people; fo that they have maintained
a perfeft amity with the EngKfh in Penfylyania ever
fince. He was the greateft bulwark of the Quakers ;
in whole defence he wrote numberlefs pieces. Befides
the above works, he wrote a great number of others;
the molt efteemed of which are, 1. His Primitive
Chriftianity revived. 2. His defence of a paper, in-
titled Gofpel Truths, againfi the Exceptions of the Bi-
Jbop of Cork. 3. His Perfuafive ‘to Moderation.
4. Hts Good Advice to the Church of England, Ro¬
man Catholic, and Proteftant diffenter. 5. The Sandy
Foundation fhaken. 6. No Crofs, no Crown. 7. The
great Cafe of Liberty of Confcience debated. 8. The
Chriftian Quaker and his Teftimony Rated and vindi¬
cated. 9. A Difcourfe of the general Rule of Faith
and Practice, and Judge of Controverfy. 10. Eng¬
land’s Prefent IntereR confidered. 11. An Addrefs
to ProteRants. 12. His Reflexions and Maxims.
13. FI is Advice to his Children. 14. Flis Rife and
Progrefs of the People called Quakers. 15. ATrea-
tife on Oaths. Molt of thefe have pafled feveral edi¬
tions, fome of them many. The letters between Wil¬
liam Penn and Dr Tillotfon, and William Penn and
William Popple, Efq; together with Penn’s letters to
the princefs Elizabeth of the Rhine and the coun-
tefs of Hornes, as alfo one to his wife on his going to
Penfylvania, are. inferted in his works, which were firft
colleXed and publilhed in 2 vols folio; and the parts
fince feleXed and abridged into 1 vol. folio, are very
much and defervedly admired for the good fenfe they
contain.
PENNI (Giovanni Francifco), born at Florence in
1488, was the difciple of Raphael, who obferving his
genius and integrity, intruRed his domeRic concerns
entirely to his management; by which means he got the
appellation of ii fatore, or the “ Reward,” which he
retained ever after. The genius of Penni was univer-
fal; but his greateR pleafure was in painting landfcapes
and buildings: he was an excellent defigner, and co¬
loured extremely well in oil, difiemper, and frefco.
He painted portraits in an exquifite Ryle, and had fuch
happy natural talents, that Raphael left him heir to his
fortune in partnerfliip with Julio Romano his fellow-
difciple. After Raphael’s death, Penni painted many
piXures at Rome, particularly in the palace of Chigi,
fo exaXly in the Ryle of his mafier, that they might
not undefervedly have been imputed to him: he finifli-
ed, in conjunXion with Julio and Pierino del Vaga, the
celebrated defigtis of the battles of ConRantine, and
others, which Raphael had left imperfeX; but differ- 1 enr11 ‘
ing with them about a copy of the transfiguration,
which the pope intended for the king of France, they
feparated. Penni w'ent to Naples; but the air of that
country difagreeing with his conRitution, he died foon
after in 1528. He had a brother called Lucca Penni,
who worked at Genoa and other parts of Italy in con¬
junXion with Pierino del Vaga, who married his fifltr;
he went thence to England, where he worked for
Henry VIII. and for feveral merchants; was employ¬
ed by Francis I. at FontainbRau ; but at laR quitted
the pencil, and devoted himfelf to engraving.
PENNY, or Peny, in commerce, an ancient Englifh
coin, which had formerly conliderable couife; but is
now generally dwindled into an imaginary money, or
money of account. Camden derives the word from
the Latin pecunia, “ money.”
The ancient Englifh penny, penig, or pening, was
the firR filver coin Rruck in England ; nay, and the
only one current among our Saxon anceRors: as is
agreed by Camden, Spelman, Dr Hicks, &c.
The penny was equal in weight to our three-pence;
five of them made one flrilling, or fciiling Saxon ; 30
a mark or mancufe, equal to our "js. 6d.
Till the time of king Edw. I. the penny was flruck
with a crofs, fo deeply indented in i-t that it might be
eafily broke, and parted, on occafion, into two parts,
thence called halfpennies; or into four, thence called
fourtkings, or farthings.—But that prince coined it
without indenture; in lieu of which, he firR Rruck
round half-pence and farthings.
He alfo reduced the weight of the penny to a fiand-
ard; ordering that it fliould weigh 32 grains of wheat,
taken out of the middle of the ear.—This penny was
called the pensiy ferling.—Twenty of thefe pence were
to weigh an ounce; whence the penny became a weight
as well as a coin. See Sterling and Penny-IVeight.
The penny flerling is now nigh difufed as a coin ;
and fcarce fubfiRs, but as a money of account, con¬
taining the 12th parth of a fliilling, or the 140th part
of a pound.
Penny, in ancient flatutes, &c. is ufed for all filver
money.
And hence the rward-penny, aver-penny, hundred-
penny, tithing-penny, and brothal-penny.
Penny- Weight, aTroy weight, containing 24 grains;
each grain weighing a grain of wheat gathered out of
the middle of the ear, well dried. The name took its
rife hence, that this was anciently the weight of one of
our ancient filver pennies. See Penny.
Twenty of thefe penny-weights make an ounce Troy.
PENRITH, an ancient town of the county of Cum¬
berland in England, feated under a hill called Penrith-
Fell, near the rivers Eimont and Lowther. It is a great
thoroughfare for travellers; but has little other trade
except tanning, and a fmall manufaXuve of checks.
Formerly it had a caflle, but it is now in ruins. In the
church-yard is a monument of great antiquity, confid¬
ing of two Rone-pillars 11 feet 6 inches high, and five
in circumference in the lower part, which is rounded;
the upper is fquare, and tapers to a point; in the fqnare
part is fome fret-work, and the relievo of a crofs; and
on the interior fide of one is the faint reprefentation of
fome animal. Both thefe Rones are mortifed at their
33 M 2 lower
PEN [ ' 5940 ] P E N
Penryn lower part into a round one: they are about 15 feet
i . afunder, and the fpace between them is inclofed on each
Penfilvama.fi twQ very. iarge but th;n femicircular (tones;
fo that there is left between pillar and pillar a walk of
two feet in breadth. Two of thefe lefiVr ftones are
plain, the others have certain figures, at prefent fcarce
intelligible. Not far from thtfe pillar’s is another call¬
ed iht giant’s thumb, five feet eight inches high, with
an expanded head, perforated on both fides; from the
middle the (lone rifes again into a leffer head, round¬
ed at top ; but no part has a tendency to the figure of
a crofs, being in no part mutilated. W. Long. 3.16.
N. Lat. 54. 35.
PENRYN, a town of Cornwal in England, feated
on a creek of Falmouth-haven. It confiltsof about 300
houfes, and the ftveets are broad and paved. It fends
two members to parliament. W. Long. 5. 35. N. Lat.
5°. 23.
PENSACOLA, a fettlement in North America,
fituated at the mouth of a river on the gulf of Mexico.
It was eftabliflied by the French, and ceded to Great
Britain in 1763; but has lately been taken by the Spa¬
niards. W. Long. 87. 20. N. Lat. 30. 22.
PENSILVANIA, one of the principal Britifh co¬
lonies in North America, had its name from the fa¬
mous Quaker William Penn, fon of Sir William, com¬
mander of the Englifh fleet in Oliver Cromwell’s time,
and in the beginning of Ch. II.’s reign, who obtained a
grant of it in the year 1679; is bounded on the eaft by
Delaware bay and river, and the Atlantic ocean ; on
the north by the country of the Iroquois, or five na¬
tions ; and on the fouth and weft by Maryland. Its
extent, from north to fouth, is about 200 miles ; but
its breadth varies greatly, from 15, and even lefs, to
near 200.
The air in Penfylvania is fweet and clear. The
fall, or autumn, begins about the 20th of Oflober,
and lads till the beginning of December, when the
winter fets in, which continues till March, and is
fometimes extremely cold and fevere ; but the air is
then generally dry and healthy. The river Dela¬
ware, though very broad, is often frozen over. From
March to June, that is, in the fpring, the weather is
more inconftant than in the other feafons. In the
months of July, Auguft, and September, the heats
would be almoft intolerable, if they were not mitiga¬
ted by frequent cool breezes. The wind, during the
fummer, is generally fouth-weft ; but in the winter
blows for the moft part from the north-weft, over the
fnowy frozen mountains and lakes of Canada, which
occafions the exceflive cold during that feafon.
As to the face of this country, towards the coaft,
like the adjacent colonies, it is flat, but rifes gradually
to the Apalachian mountains on the weft.
The chief rivers are three, Delaware, Safquahan-
na, and Skoolkil. The Delaware, rifing in the coun¬
try of the Iroquois, takes its courfe fouthward ; and
after dividing this province from that of New Jerfey,
falls into the Atlantic ocean between the promontories
or capes May and Henlopen, forming at its mouth a
large bay, called, from the river, Delaware Bay.
This river is navigable above 200 miles. The Saf-
quahanna rifes alio” in the country of the Iroquois,
and running fouth through the middle of the province,
falls into the bay of Chefapeake, being navigable a
great way for large (hips. The Skoolkil has its fource
in the fame country as the other two, and alfc'njpsPenjilvanlaT
fouth, alraoft parallel to them ; till at length turning^ 
to the eaftward, it falls into the Delaware at the city
of Philadelphia. It is navigable for boats above 100
miles. Thefe rivers, wish the numerous creeks and
harbours in Delaware bay, capable of containing the
larged fleets, are extremely favourable to the trade of
this province.
As to the foil, produce, and traffic of Penfylvania,
we refer the reader to what has been faid on thefe
heads under New-York and the Jerseys, which is
equally applicable to this province ; and if there is any
difference, it is on the fide of this province. They
have fome rice here, but no great quantities; and fome
tobacco, but it is not equal to that of Virginia. From
the premiums offered by the fociety of arts in London,
it appears that the foil and climate of this province are
looked upon as proper for the cultivation of fome ipe-
cies of vines. The trade carried on from hence and
the other colonies to the French and Dutch iflands
and Surinam, was greatly to the difadvantage of
Britain, and very deftrudiive to the fugar-colonies t
for they take molaffes, rum, and other fpirits, with
3 great many European goods, from thefe foreigners;
carrying them horfes, provifions, and lumber in re¬
turn, without which the French could not carry on
their fugar-manufa&ures to that advantage they do.
New-York, the Jerfeys, and Penfylvania, were dif-
Covered, with the reft of the continent of North Ame¬
rica, in the reign of Henry VII. by Sebaftian Cabot,
for the crown of England ; but Sir Walter Raleigh
was the firft adventurer that attempted to plant colo¬
nies on thefe fhores, in the reign of Queen Elifabeth ;
and, in honour of that princefs, gave all the eaftern
coaft of North America the name of Virginia. Mr
Hudfon, an Engliftrman, failing to that part of the
coaft which lies between Virginia and New England,
in the beginning of the reign of James I. and being
about to make a fettlement at the mouth of of Hudfon’®
river, the Dutch gave him a Cum of money to difpofe
of his intereft in this country to them. In the year
1608 they began to plant it ; and, by virtue of this
purchafe, laid claim to all thofe countries which are
now denominated New 2'ork, New Jerjey, and Pcn-
fylvania } but there remaining fome part of this coaft
which was not planted by the Hollanders, the Swedes
fent a fleet of (hips thither, and took poffeffion of it
for that crown; but the Dutch having a fuperior force
in the neighbourhood, compelled the Swedes to fub-
mit to their dominion, allowing them, however, to en¬
joy the plantations they had fettled. The Englifh not
admitting that either the Dutch or Swedes had any
right to ccuntries firft difcovered and planted by a
fubjed of England, and part of them at that time
poffeffed by the fubje&s of Great Britain, underchar¬
ter from Queen Elifabeth and king James I. king
Charles II. during the firft Dutch war in 1664, grant¬
ed the countries of New York, the Jerfeys, and Pen¬
fylvania, of which the Dutch had ufurped the poffef¬
fion, to his brother James Duke of York ; and Sir
Robert Carr being fent over with a fquadcon of men
of war and land-forces, and fummoning the Dutch
governor of the city of New Amfterdam, now New
York, to furrender, he thought fit to obey the fum-
mons, and yield that capital to the Englilh : the reft
of the places in the pofftffion of the Dutch and Swedes
fallowed
PEN [ 5941 ] PEN
peufHvania, followed his example ; and thefe countries were con-
j firmed to the EngHfh by. the Dutch at the next treaty
of peace between the two nations. The Duke of York
afterwards parcelled them out to under proprietor? ;
felling, in particular, to William Penn the elder, in
J683, the town of Newcaftle, alias Delaware, and a
diitri& of twelve miles round the fame ; to whom, his
heirs and afligns, by another deed of the fame date,
he made over all that tra£l of land from 1 2 miles footh
of Newcaftle to the Whore-hills, otherwife called Cape
Heulopen, now divided into the two counties of Kent
and Suflex, which, with Newcaftle diftridf, are com¬
monly known by the name of the Three Lower coun¬
ties upon Delaware River. All the reft of the un¬
der-proprietors, fome time after, furrendered their
charters to the crown ; whereby New York and the
Jerfeys became Royal governments; but Penn retained
that part of the country which had been fold him by
the Duke of York, together with what had been grant¬
ed to him before in 1680-1, which now conftitutes the
province of Penfylvania. As foon as Penn had got
his patent, he began to plant the country. Thofe
who went over from England were generally diflenters
and quakers, whofe religion is eftabliflied bylaw here,
but with a toleration of all other proteftant fe£fs. The
Dutch and Swedes, who were fettled here before Mr
Penn became'proprietor, choofing dill to refide in this
country, as they did in New York and the Jerfeys,
obtained the fame privileges as the reft of his maje-
fty’s fubjefts ; and their defeendents are now in a man¬
ner the fame people with the Englifti,fpeakingthcirlan-
guage, and being governed by their laws and cuftoms.
Mr Penn, however, not fatisfied with the title grant¬
ed him by king Charles II. and his brother, bought
the lands alfo of the Indians for a valuable confidera-
tion, or what they efteemed fuch, (though 20 miles
were purchafed, at firft, for lefs than an acre about Phi¬
ladelphia would pay now), paying them in cloth, tools,
and utenfils, to their entire fatisfatfUon ; for they had
not hands to cultivate the hundredth part of their lands,
and if they could have raifed a produd, there was no¬
body to buy: the purchafe, therefore, was all clear
gain to them ; and, by the coming of the Engliih,
their peltry trade became fo profitable, that they foon
found their condition much altered for the better; and
are now as well clothed and fed as the European pea-
fantry in many places.
Penfylvania is one of the moft flourifhing colo¬
nies in North America, having never had any quar¬
rel with the natives. Whenever they defire to ex¬
tend their fettlements, they purchafe new lands of the
fachems, never taking any by force ; but the Indians
now fet a very high price upon their lands, in compa¬
nion of what they did at firft, and will hardly part
with them at any rate. In an eftimateof the proprie¬
tary eftate of the province, publiftied above thirty
years ago, we find, that the proprietaries, who alone
can purchafe lands here from the natives, had bought
feven millions of acres for no more than 750!. Ster¬
ling, which the proprietaries afterwards fold at the rate
of 15 1. for every 100 acres. The Indian council at
Onandago, however, difapproved of their deputies
parting with fo much Lnd; and, in the year 1755,
obliged the proprietaries to re-convey great part of
the fame to the Indians..
A difpnte fubfifted a long time between the pro- Penfion,
prietaries of this province and Lord Baltimore, pro- PenfKxwy-
prietary of Maryland, about the right to certain lands; ~
which was at laft amicably adjufted, though greatly
in favour of the Penns.
About the year 1704 there happened fome altera¬
tion in the conflitution of the province. The efta-
bliftiment that took place, and fubfifted till the
prefent troubles broke out, confided of a governor,
council, and aflembly, each with much the fame
power and privileges as in the neighbouring colony
of New York. The lieutenant-governor and coun¬
cil were appointed by the proprietors Thomas and Ri¬
chard Penn, with his majefty’s approbation 5 but
if the laws enafted here were not repealed within fix
months after they had been prefented to the king for
his approbation or difallowance, they were not repeal-
able by the crown after that time.
Penfylvania is divided into feven counties ; four of
which are called the Upper, and three the Lower. Of
the upper, viz. Buckingham, Philadelphia, Chefter,
and Lancafter, the three firft are the lands included in
king Charles IPs grant, and defigned Renfylvania;
the lower, viz. thofe of Newcaftle, Kent, and Suflex,
were called Nova Belgia before the duke of York fold
them, as we obferved above, to Mr Penn. The up¬
per counties end at Marcus Hook, four miles below
Chefter Town, where the lower begin, and run along
the coaft near 100 miles. Each of thefe counties had
a ftieriff, with a quarterly and monthly ftffion, and af¬
fixes twice a-year.
PENSION, a fum of money paid annually for fer-
vices or confiderations already paft. The yearly pay¬
ment of each member to the houfes of the inns of courts
are likewife named pen/tons’, and the yearly aflembly
of the fociety of Gray’s Inn, to confult on the affairs
of the houfe, is alfo called apenfwn.
PENSIONARY, or Pensioner, a perfon who
has an appointment, or yearly fum, payable during
life, by way of acknowledgment, charged on the eftate
of a prince, company, or particular perfon.
Grand Pensionary, an appellation given to the firll
minifter of the States of Holland. The grand pen-
fionary is chairman in the aflemblies of the ftates of
that province : he propofes the matters to be confulted
on ; colle&s the votes; forms and pronounces the re-
folutions of the ftates ; opens letters ; confers with fo¬
reign minifters, &c. His bufinefs is alfo to infpeft
the finances, to maintain the authority of the ftates,
and to fee that the laws are obferved ; and he is per¬
petual deputy of the ftates-general of the United Pto-
vinces. His commifiion is, however, given him only for
five years; after which it is deliberated whether or no
it {hall be renewed ; but there is no inftance of its be¬
ing revoked ; therefore death only puts an end to the
fun&ions of this important minifter.
Pensionary, is alfo the firft minifter of the regen¬
cy of each city in Holland. His office is to give his
advice in affairs relating to the government, either of
the ftate in general, or of the city in particular; and
in affemblies of the ftates of the province, he is fpeak-
er in behalf of his city. The function, however, of
thefe penfionaries is not every where alike ; in fome
cities they only give their advice, and are never found
in affeniblies of the magiftrates, except when exprefsly
called
PEN [ 5942 ] PEN
Penfioner called thither : in others they attend conftantly ; and
II in others they make the propofitions on the part of
Pentagraphthe burgo-mafters, draw up their conclufions, &c.
They are called penjtonariet, becaufe they receive an
appointment or penfion.
PENSIONER, in general, denotes a perfon who
receives a penfion, yearly falary, or allowance. Hence,
The Band of Ge/z//e»/e«-FENisoNERs, the nobleft fort
of guard to the king’s perfon, confifts of 40 gentlemen,
who receive a yearly peniion of too 1.
This honourable baud was firft inflituted by king
Henry VIII. and their office is to attend the king’s
perfon, with their battle-axes, to and from his chapel-
royal, and to receive him in the prefence-chamber, or
coming out of his privy-lodgings : they,are alfo to
attend at all great folemnities, as coronations, St
George’s feaft, public audiences of embaffadors, at
the fovereign’s going to parliament, &c.
They are each obliged to keep three double horfes
and a fervant, and fo are properly a troop of horfe.
They wait half at a time quarterly } but on Chritt-
raas-day, Eafter-day, Whitfunday, &c. and on ex¬
traordinary oecafions, they are all obliged to give their
attendance. They have likewife the honour to carry
up the fovereign’s dinner on the coronation-day and
St George’s feaft ; at which times the king or queen
ufually confer the honour of knighthood on two fuch
gentlemen of the band as their captain prefents.
Their arms are gilt battle-axes; and their weapons,
on horfe-back, in time of war, are curaffiers-arms,
with fword and piftols. Their ftandard in time of
war is, argent, a crofs gules. Their captain is al¬
ways a nobleman, who has under him a lieutenant, a
ftandard-bearer, a clerk of the check, fecretary, pay-
mafter, and harbinger.
PENSTOCK, a fluice or flood-gate, ferving to
retain or let go at pleafure the water of a mill-pond,
or the like.
PENTACROSTIC, in poetry, a fet of verfes fo
diipofed, as that there are always five acroitics of the
fame name, in five divifions of each verfe. See A-
CROSTIC
PENTvEDROSTYLA, in natural hiftory, the
name of a genus of fpars. See Spar. The bodies of
this genus are fpars in form of Pentagonal columns,
terminated by pentangular pyramids at one end, and
regularly affixed at the other to fome folid body.
PENTAGON, in geometry, a figure of five fides
and five angles. See Geometry.
In fortification, pentagon denotes a fort with five
baftions.
PEN PAGRAPH, an inftrument defigned for
drawing figures in what proportion you pleafe, with¬
out any (kill in the art.
It confifts of four brafs or wooden rulers, two of
them from 15 to 18 inches long, and the other two
half that length. At the ends and middle of the lonp-
rulers, as alfo at the ends of the ftiorter, are holes,
upon the exadt fixing of which the perfeftion of the
inllmment chiefly depends. Thofe in the middle of
the long rulers are to be at the fame diftance from thofe
at the ends of the long ones, and thofe of the fhort
ones fo as to form a parallelogram. It is fitted toge¬
ther by a large pillars, having at one end a ferew and
out, whereby the long rulers are joined, and at the
other a little knot for the inftrument to Aide on : h is Pentagraph
a rivet with a ferew and nut, wherewith each (hort ll
ruler is fattened to the middle of each long one; c is PentaP°l|S-
a pillar, one end whereof being hollowed into a ferew, Plate
has a nut fitted to it: at the other end is a worm to£CXXXI^
ferew into the table when the inftrument is to be"®' J‘
ufed ; it joins the ends of the two thort rulers: is a
pen or pencil ferewed into a little pillar : £ is a brafs
point moderately blunt, ferewed likewife into a little
pillar.
life of the Pentagraph. 1. To copy a defign in the
fame fcale as the original. Screw the tworm c into the
table ; lay a paper under the pencilV now placed at f,
and the defign under the point e now placed at g ; then
conducing the point over the feveral lines of the de¬
fign, the pencil f will draw the fame on the paper.
2. If the defign is to be reduced into a half, &c. the
worm mud be placed at- the end of the long ruler d,
and the paper and pencil in the middle. In this fitua-
tion condud the brafs point as before, and the pencil
will draw its copy in the proportion required, the
pencil here moving through half the length that the
point does. On the contrary, if the defign is to be
enlarged one half, the brafs point, with the defign,
muft be placed in the middle at r, the pencil and pa¬
per at the end of the long ruler, and the worm at the
other.
2. To enlarge and reduce in other proportions, there
are holes drilled at equal diftances on each ruler;
namely, all along the fhort ones, and half-way up the
long ones, for placing of the brafs point, pencil, and
worm, in a right line therein ; that is, if the piece
carrying the point be put in the third hole, the two
other pieces muft be put in its third hole. If then the
point and delign be placed at any hole of the ffiort
ruler, which forms the angle therewith, the copy will
be lefs than half the original. On the contrary, if it
be placed at one of the holes of that fliort ruler which
is parallel to the long ruler, the copy will be greater
than half the original. Few of thefe inftruments will
do any thing but ftraight lines, and many of them not
even thofe.
PENTAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of
verfe, coufifting of five feet, or metres, whence the
name. The two firft feet may be either dadtyls or
fpondees at pleafure ; the third is always a fpondee ;
and the two laft anapeftes: fuch is the following verfe
of Ovid.
1 , 2 3 , 4- 5
Carmini\hus vi\vet tennpus in o\mne meis.
A pentameter verfe fubjoined to an hexameter, con-
ftitutes what is called elegiac. See Elegiac,
PENTANDRIA, (from ™r£, «< five,” and «*»f,
“ a man or hulband”) ; the name of the fifth clafs in
Linnasus’s fexual method, confiding of plants which
have hermaphrodite flowers, with five ftamina or male
organs. See Botany, p. T296.
PENTAPOLIS, (Wifdom x.) the five cities of
the plain in Paleftine, all deftroyed by fire from hea¬
ven, except Zoar.
Pentapolis, (Ptolemy); a diftridl of Cyrenaica
fituate on the Mediterranean; denominated from its
five cities; namely, Berenice, Arftnoe, Ptolemais, Gy¬
rene, and Apollonia.
Pentapolis of the Philifines, (Jofephus); taking
name
PEP [ 5943 ] PEP
Pentapolis name from five principal cities, Gaza, Gath, Afca-
H. Ion, Azotus, and Ekron.
Fepin‘ Pentapolis, (Herodotus); five cities of Doris, a
diftrift of the Hither Afia; namely, Camirus, Cni¬
dus, Cos, Jalyfus, and Lindus, (Scholiaft on Theo¬
critus).
PENTAPETALOUS, an appellation given to
flowers, which confift of five petals or leaves.
PENTAPETES, in botany, a genus of the decan-
dria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies known in the gar¬
dens of this country, viz. the phcenicia, with halbert-
pointed, fpear-fhaped, fawed leaves. It is an annual
plant, a native of India, and rifes to the height of
two or three feet; adorned with fine fcarlet flowers,
confifting of one petal cut into five fegments. In the
centre of the flower arifes a (hort thick column, to
which adhere 15 fltort ftamina. It is a tender plant,
and mull be brought up in the hot-houfe,
PENTATEUCH, an appellation given to the firft
five books of the Old Teftament, viz. Genefis, Exo¬
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
PENTATHLON, in antiquity, a general name
for the five exercifes performed at the Grecian games,
viz. wreftling, boxing, leaping, running, and play¬
ing at the difcus.
PENTECOST, a folemn fellival of the Jews; fo
called becaufe it was celebrated on the 50th day after
the 16th of the month Nifan, which was the fecund day
of the paflbver. See Passover.
The feaft of Pentecoft was inllituted in memory of
the law’s being given on the 50th day after the If-
raelites came out of Egypt. It was on the feaft of
Pentecoft that the HolyGhoft miraculoufly defcended
on the apoftles. See Whitsunday.
PENTHESILEA, queen of the Amazons, fuc-
ceeded Orythia, and gave proofs of her courage at
the fiege of Troy, where (he was killed by Achilles.
Pliny fays that (lie invented the battle-ax.
PENULTIMA, or Penultimate Syllable, in
grammar, denotes the laft fyllable but one of a word ;
and hence the antipenultimate fyllable is the laft but
two, or that immediately before the penultima.
PENUMBRA, in aftronomy, a partial fhade ob-
ferved between the perfect fhadow and the full light in
an eclipfe. It arifes from the magnitude of the fun’s
body; for-were he only a luminous point, the lhadow
would be all perfect ; but, by reafon of the diameter
of the fun, it happens, that a place which is not illu¬
minated by the whole body of the fun, does yet re¬
ceive rays from a part thereof.
PEPIN de Heristal, or Le Gros, mayor of the
palace under Clovis III. Childebert, and Dagobert.
The power of thefe mayors in France was fo great,
that they left the fovereign only the empty title, and
in the end feized on the throne itfelf.
Pepin le Brief, or le Petit, grandfon to Pepin le
Gros, and firft king of the fecond race of French mo-
narchs, was mayor of the palace to Childeric III. a
weak prince : he contrived to confine him and his fon
Thierri in different monafteries; and then, with the
affiftance of Pope Stephen III. he ufurped the fove¬
reign power. He died in 768, aged 54.
PEPPER, Piper, in natural hiftory, an aromatic
berry of a hot dry quality, chiefly ufed in feafon-
ing. We have three kinds of pepper at prefent ufed Pepper,
in the (hops, the black, the white, and the long pepper. 1,era*
Black pepper is the fruit of the piper, and is~
brought from the Dutch fettlements in the Eaft In¬
dies. See Piper.
The common white pepper is factitious, being pre¬
pared from the black in the following manner: they
fteep this in fea-water, expofed to the heat of the fun
for feveral days, till the rind or outer bark loofens;
they then take it out, and, when it is half dry, rub it
till the rind falls off; then they dry the white fruit, and
the remains of the rind blow away like chaff. A great
deal of the heat of the pepper is taken off by thispro-
cefs, fo that the white kind is more fit for many pur-
pofes than the black. However, there is a fort of na¬
tive white pepper produced on a fpecies of the fame
plant; which is much better than the fa&itious, and
indeed little inferior to the black.
The long pepper is a dried fruit, of an inch or an
inch and an half in length, and about the thicknefs of
a large goofe-quill: it is of a brownifh grey colour,
cylindrical in figure, and faid to be produced on a
plant of the fame genus.
Pepper is principally ufed by us in food, to affift dt-
geftion ; but the people in the Eaft-Indies efteem it
as a ftomachic, and drink a ftrong infufion of it in wa¬
ter by way of giving them an appetite : they have al-
fo a way of making a fiery fpirit of fermented frefli
pepper, with water which they ufe for the fame pur-
pofes. They have alfo a way of preferving the com¬
mon and long pepper in vinegar, and eating them af¬
terwards at meals.
Jamaica Pepper, or Pimento. See Pimento.
Pepper-7W/«#. See Mentha.
Pep per-/Firmer, a liquor prepared in the following
manner, for microfcopical obfervations : put common
black pepper, grofsly powdered, into an open vefiel fo
as to cover the bottom of it half an inch thick, and"
put to it rain or river-water, till it covers it an inch ;
fhake or ftir the whole well together at the firft mix¬
ing, but never difturb it afterwards: let the veflel be
expofed to the air uncovered ; and in a few days there
will be ften a pellicle or thin Ikin fwimmidg on the
furface of the liquor, looking of feveral colours.
This is a congeries of multitudes of fmall animals ;
and being examined by the microfcope, will be feen
all in motion : the animals, at firft fight, are fo fmall
as not to be diftinguifliable, unlefs to thegreateft mag¬
nifiers ; but they grow daily till they arrive at their
full fize. Their numbers are alfo continually increa-
fing, till the whole furface of the liquor is full of them,
to a confiderable depth. When difturbed, they will
fometimes all dart down to the bottom ; but they foon
after come up to the furface again. The Ikin appears
fooneft in warm weather, and the animals grow the
quickeft ; but in the fevereft cold it will fucceed, un¬
lefs the water freezes.
About the quantity of a pin’s head of this fcum,
taken up on the nib of a new pen, or the tip of a hair-
pencil, is to be laid on a plate of clear glafs; and if
applied firft to the third magnifier, then to the fe¬
cond, and finally to the firft, will (hew the different
animalcules it contains, of feveral kinds and (hapes as
well as fizes.
FER.A, one of the fuburbs of Conftantinople,
where
PER [
PerambuU- where ambafiadors and Chriftians ufually refide.
tor> Constantinople.
Ferca* PERAMBULATOR, in furveying, an inftrument
for meafuring diilances, called alfo pedometer, <voay-
•wifer, and furveying ’wheel.
Plate CCI. It confifts of a wheel AA, two feet feven inches
lt‘ and ‘a half in diameter ; confequently half a pole, or
eight feet three inches in circumference. On one end
of the axis is a nut, three quarters of an inch in dia¬
meter, and divided into eight teeth; which, upon mo¬
ving the wheel round, fall into the eight teeth of an¬
other nut c, fixed on one end of an iron-rod and
thus turn the rod once round in the time the wheel
makes one revolution. This rod, lying along a groove
in the fide of the carriage of the inftrument, under the
doted line, has at its other end a fquare hole, into
which is fitted the end & of a fmall cylinder P. This
cylinder is difpofed under the dial-plate of a move¬
ment, at the end of the carriage B, in fuch a manner
- • to be moveable about its axis: its end a is cut into
a perpetual fere
5944 ] PER
See fides being of a deep green, marked with five broad
black bars pointing downwards ; the belly is white, “
tinged with red ; the ventral fins of a fine fcarlet; the
anal fins and tail of the fame colour, but rather paler.
In a lake called Llyn Raithlyn, in Merionethftiire in
Wales, is a very fingular variety of this fifli: the back
part is quite hunched, and the lower part of the back¬
bone next the tail ftrangely diftorted: in colour and
other refpeffs it refembles the common perch, which
are as numerous in this lake as the deformed fifh.
They are not peculiar to this water; for Linnaeus takes
notice of them in a lake at Fahlun in his country. It
is faid that they are alfo met with in the Thames neac
Marlow.
The perch was much efteemed as food by the Ro¬
mans, nor is it lefs admired at prefent as a firm and
delicate fifh; and the Dutch are particularly fond of it
when made into a difh called ’water-fouehy. It is a
gregarious fifh, and loves deep holes and gentle ftreams;
exceedingly voracious, and an eager biter: if the
which falling into the 32 teeth of angler meets with a fhoal of them, he is fure of taking
a wheel perpendicular thereto, upon driving the inftru¬
ment forward, that wheel makes a revolution each 16th
pole. On the axis of this wheel is a pinion with fix
teeth, which, falling into the teeth of another wheel
every one.—It is a common notion that the pike will
not attack this fifb, on account of the fpiny fins which
the perch eredts on its approach. This may be true
of large fifh ; but it is well known that fmall perches
of 60 teeth, carries it round every 160th pole, or half are the moft tempting bait which can be laid for
a mile.
This laft wheel, carrying a hand or index round
with it over the divifions of a dial-plate, whofe outer
limb is divided into 160 parts, correfponding to the
160 poles, points out the number of poles palled over.
Again, on the axis of this laft wheel is a pinion, con¬
taining 20 teeth, which falling into the teeth of a third
wheel which hath 40 teeth, drives it once round in 320
poles, or a mile. Orr the axis of this wheel is a pinion of
12 teeth, which, falling into the teeth of a fourth
wheel having 72 teeth, drives it once round in 12
miles.
This fourth wheel, carrying another index over the
the pike. The perch is very tenacious of life, and
has been known to furvive a journey of 60 miles in
dry ftraw. It feldom grows to a large fize, though
Mr Pennant mentions one that weighed nine pounds ;
but this, he tells us, is very uncommon.
2. The labrax, orbaffe, is a very voracious, ftrong,
and a&ive fifh. Ovid calls them rapidi lupi, a name
continued to them by after-writers ; and they are faid
to grow to the weight of fifteen pounds. The irides
are filvery ; the mouth large; the teeth are fituated in
the jaws, and are very fmall: in the roof of the
mouth is a triangular rough fpace, and juft at the
gullet are two others of a roundifh form. The feales
inner limb of the dial-plate, divided into 12 for miles, are of a middling fize, are very thick fet, and ad-
and each mile fubdivided into halves, quarters, and fur¬
longs, ferves to regifter the revolutions of the other
hand, and to keep account of the half miles and miles
palled over as far as 12 miles.
The ufe of this inftrument is obvious from its con-
ftru&ion. Its proper office is in the furveying of roads
arid large diftances, where a great deal of expedition,
and not much accuracy, is required. It is evident, that
driving it along and obferving the hands, has the fame
effed as dragging the chain and taking account of
the chains and links.
Its advantages are its hardinefs and expedition; its
contrivance is fuch, that it may be fitted to the wheel
of a coach, in which ftate it performs its office, and
meafures the road without any trouble at all.
PERCA, the Perch; a genus of fillies belonging
to the order of thoracici. The head is furnilhed with
fcaly and ferrated opercula ; there are feven rays in
the membrane of the gills ; and the fins on the back
are prickly. There are 38 fpecies, principally diftin-
guifhed by peculiarities in the back-fin. The moft
remarkable are,
1. The fluviatilis, or common perch, hath a deep
body, very rough feales, and the back much arched.
The colours are beautiful; the back and part of the
here clofely. The body is formed fomewhat like that
of a falmon. The colour of the back is dulky, tinged
with blue. The belly white. In young filh the fpace
above the fide line is marked with fmall black fpots.—
It is efteemed a very delicate filh.
3. The perca marina, or fea-perch, is about a foot
long: the head large and deformed; eyes great;
teeth fmall and numerous. On the head and covers of
the gills are ftrong fpines. The colour red, with a
black fpot on the covers of the gills, and fome tranf-
verfe dulky lines on the fides. It is a filh held in fome
efteem at the table.
4. The cernua, or ruffe, is found in feveral of the
Englilh ftresms: it is gregarious, affembling in large
Ihoals, and keeping in the deepeft part of the water. It
is of a much more llender form than the.perch, and
feldom exceeds fix inches in length. The teeth are
very fraall, and difpofed in rows. It has only one
dorfal fin, extending along the greateft part of the
back: the firft rays, like thofe of the perch, are
ftrong, lharp, and fpiny ; the others foft. The body
is covered with rough compact feales. The back and
fides are of a dirty green, the laft inclining to yellow,
but both fpotted wdth black. The dorfal fin is ipotted
with black; the tail marked with tranfverfe bars.
5. The
PER { 594 c 1 PER
Perception, 5. The nilotica, or perch of the Nile, is taken about
Pegeptive. Cairo. The flefh has a fweet and exquifite flavour,
and is not hard, but very white. It is one of the beft
fifhes of the Nile; and as it is of the largeft fize in
Egypt, it adorns a table if brought upon it entire and
well'fried.
PERCEPTION, in logic, the firft and moft fimple
aft of the mind, whereby it perceives, or is confcious
of its ideas. See Logic, Part I. and Metaphysics,
36—39- 77-
PERCEPTIVE faculty of the human nund.-~Q.on-
cerning this there have been very great controverfies.
Every one knows that there are fenfations arifing in
our minds; but the queftion is what it is that per¬
ceives them, whether it is a man as a compound being
of foul and body, or whether the living percipient is
not a mind, or fpirit alone, without a body, or elfe a
quality only, refulting from the conftruftion of a body
without any diftinft or feparate fpirit annexed thereto.
Thefe are difficulties probably never to be demon-
ftrated, and we muft at laft be content with a probable
proof only.
Man is fo wonderfully made, that he feems to affign
J a place to every one of his fenfations, and yet reafon
and experience tell him, that in truth they cannot ex-
ift, or be, where he is apt too haftily to judge, or
fuppofe them to be ; for as nothing can aft where it
is not, fo the perceptive power of man cannot poffibly
perceive any thing without or beyond himfelf. It is
generally agreed, that the fecondary qualities of body
(as they are called) do not exift external to the man,
but only the primary ones; though Dr Berkeley at¬
tempted to ihew that they both exift together, and
that vvhere-ever the colour was, there like wife was the
extenfion. If this could be fatisfaftorily made to ap¬
pear, the doftor's fyftem would ftand good for the
non-exiftence of every thing but fpirit and ideas; but
it cannot, and to confine the argument to one fenfe
alone, to wit, fight ; that man perceives colour we
are fure of, and therefore it muft be within him, or he
would aft where he was not. Now if he perceived
extenfion, that muft likewife be within him too, but
then he could perceive no extenfion larger than him¬
felf :—but as neither extenfion nor colour have any
place affigned them in the body, furely it is not the
body, or any conformation thereof, that perceives.
We may then fuppofe that it is fomething elfe, which
is joined with the body that is the percipient, which
let us name mind or foul; this mind ihould feem to
be one fimple uncompounded being, otherwifeit could
not be confciou.s that fucceffive perceptions were the
affeftions of the fame thing.
Colour, though haftily judged to be without the
mind, Berkeley and Malbranche have fufficiently fhew-
ed not to be fo; and that extenfion.is fo, feems aifo
true; becaufe it perceives none of its fenfations-ex¬
tended, but only affigns or fixes a place for them, thefe
of colour in particular, external to the man, although
in faft they may not be without him; and this place
is only determined by an operation of the mind, fug-
gefting or fuppofing diftance, from an experimental
obftruftion to the motion of fome members of the
body by which the touch is affefted as well as the fight,
and fo both the tangible and vifible objeft concluded,
though too precipitately, to be in one and the fame
Vot. VIII. z
place where the obftruftion is likewife judged to be, Perceptive,
and hence it obtained the fuppofition or fuggeftion of '
diftance ; and as we have no fenfations to which we
do not afcribe fome diftance or place, there muft be
place or fpace exifting, or it could 'not be fuppofed.
And therefore as nothing is perceived or fuggefted
but what is fuppofed in fome place, fo nothing can
exift hut what conftitutes fpace, or is in it, and muft
have fome extenfion.
But then the mind of man furely cannot be extend¬
ed beyond his body, though it often fuppofes an ex¬
tenfion far beyond ; and if the extenfion imagined
was in the mind, and not a mere operation thereof,
by way of fuppofition, it could not guefs fo mueh
amifs about the extenfion of objefts which has not
been familiar to the other organs of fenfe, as we of¬
ten find it does; for it feems to be a vulgar error to
entertain a notion of the mind’s judging of any di¬
ftance or magnitudes from any piftures conjeftured to
be in the fund of the eye, or in itfelf: in the former
cafe, if there be any pifture in the bottom of the eye,
it would judge every objeft in an inverfe pofition to
the body, which is contrary to experience ; neither
docs the mind judge of any magnitude according to
any fuch piftures, but of the real external magni¬
tudes ; and feldom errs much, unltfs the objefts be
very remote.—If the bulk of objefts were judged of
by the pifturcs in the eye, a flea or mite muft judge
every objeft very fmall to what a man does, becaufe
the pifture will be diminiftied nearly as the eye is
lefs: indeed thefe infefts may fee diftinftly fmaller
things than man, becaufe the objefts may be brought
nearer their fmall eyes, without throwing the focus of
the rays beyond the retina, as the fame diftance of
objeft v'ould do in a larger eye, and prevent diftinft
vifion ; and it is highly probable, that thefe fmall in¬
fefts cannot fee objefts at a great diftance, unlefs they
are much larger than what a man can fee at the like
diftance; but then what they do fee they judge to be
of the fame bignefs that a man does; and fo muit
every creature, let its eyes be of what dimenfion or
number you pleafe. It is a vague notion opticians
have, who imagine that one, like a microfcope lens,
will magnify the pifture on the retina, whereas juft;
the contrary takes place ; for when the eye is ufed
alone, without fuch a lens, the (hortet focus of the
eye forms the pifture, and the longer is at the ob¬
jeft ; but when a lens is ufed by way of a microfcope,
the objeft is in the ftiorter, and the pifture at the
longer focus, juft contrary to the method of common
vifion.
So, again, if the mind was confcious of a pifture
in the eye, it would perceive as many objefts the crea¬
ture had eyes; whereas it judges of no more, let the
number of eyes be as they will, than it does by the
help of any other of the fenfes.
From all which we may conclude, that figure, ex¬
tenfion, and motion, are not perceptible objefts ; but
that fenfations alone are fuch, the former being only
imagined, by an operation of the mind, to exift ex¬
ternal to it ; and that if they did not fo exift, the
mind could not imagine any extenfion, figure, and
motion ; for there never is found any of them percei¬
vable by it, nor any figure or motion attending a
fimple fenfatioii. Indeed it is too commonly thought,
33 N that
PER [ 5946 1 PER
Perch that there is a fhape perceived with Colour, or a Co-
t1 loured fh^pe ; but no objeft appears of one Ample co-
r>~rfei^' lour to a fixed eye, but every part of the obj.eft exhi¬
bits a different degree of colour; and thefe degrees
feparate fenfations, to which,the mind afcribes a place,
though, in faft, the colour is not in the place fo jud¬
ged of, hut fomething elfe that gives refinance to the
a&ions of the mind on the body ; and from hence it
fuppofes there mull be forriething exifting there which
jrives rife to the colour perceived by it.—It is impof-
lible the mind fhould perceive the images of things
within itfelf, unlefs it was equally extended with the
things themfelves ; and if not, how can it be thought
that an ideal world can exifi within the mind, as fome
hilofophers have conje<£fured ? Surely it cannot be ;
ut it mull be only imagination that .direfts as to the
external exiftence of real things. We cannot properly
be faid to imagine what does not or has not really ex-
jfted; for let a blind man try if he can imagine co¬
lour, or a deaf man found, and he will find himfelf
at a lofs- . Father Malbranche indeed tells us,, that a
man may have an idea of a golden mountain that ne¬
ver exifted ; and a man may recolledi the figure of a
mountain which he has formerly imagined, and re¬
member the colour of gold which he lately had a per¬
ception of, and fuppofe it poffible they may be con-
ne&ed, and call this operation of his mind an idea if
he pleafes ; but, after all his efforts, if he ftiould hap¬
pen to think of a mountain as large as Shooter’s hill,
lie will hardly allow it to be contained in his mind.
PERCH, in land-meafuring, a rod or pole of 164
foot in length, of which 40 in length and 4 in breadth
make an acre of ground. Cromp. Jurifd. 222. But, by
the cuftoms of feveral counties, there is a difference
in this meafure. In Staffordlhire it is 24 foot ; and
in the foreft of Sherwood 25 foot; the foot being
there 18 inches long ; and in Herefprdlhire a perch
of ditching is 21 feet, the perch of walling 165 feet,
and a pole of denfhiered ground is 12 feet, &c. Skene.
PERCHE, a territory of Orleannois in Fiance,
,35 miles long, and 30 broad; bounded on the north
by Normandy ; on the fouth, by Maine and Dunois;
on the eaft, by Beauce ; and on the weft, by Maine
It takes its name from a foreft, and is pretty fertile,.
The inhabitants carry on a pretty good trade; and
the principal town is Bcllefme.
PERCOLATION, the fame with Filtration.
See Chemistry, n° 69.
PERCUSSION, in mechanics, the impreflion a
body makes in falling or linking upon another; or
the ftiock of two bodies in motion.
PERDIX. See Tetrao.
PEREASLAW, a ftrong populous town of Po¬
land, in the palatinate of Kiovia, fituated on the river
Tribeci; in E. Long. 32. 44. N. Lat. 49. 46.
PERENNIALS, or Perennial Flowers, in bo¬
tany, a term applied to.thofe plants whofe roots will
abide many years, whether they retain their leaves in
winter or not. Thofe which retain their leaves are
called evergreens i but fuch as call their leaves are na¬
med deciduous, or perditols.
PERFECT, fom.ething to which nothing is want¬
ing, or that has all the requifites of its nature and
kind.
Perfect CWmr, in Music. See Cadence.
Perfect -in grammar. See Preterite. Perfect
PERFECTION, the ftate or quality of a thing 1
PERFECT. _ Pergamum.
Perfe&ion is divided, according to Chauvinus, into
phyfical, moral, and metaphyfical.
Phpjical or natural perfe&ion, is that whereby a
thing has all its powers and faculties, and thofe too
in full vigour ; and all its parts both principal and fe-
condary, and thofe in their due proportion, conftitu-
tion, &c., in which fenfe man is faid to be perftft
when he has a found mind in a found body. This
perfeftion is*by the fchools frequently termed nupytTiw,
becaufe a thing is enabled thereby to perform all its
operations.
Moral perfe&ion is an eminent degree of virtue or
moral goodnefsj to which men arrive by repeated a<5ls
of piety, beneficence, &c. This is ufually fubdivided
into abfolute or inherent, which is atlually in him to
whom we attribute it ; in imputative, which exifts in
fome other, and not in him it is attributed to.
Metaphyfical, tranfcendental, or effential perfeclion,
is the polftftion of all the effential attributes, or of all
the parts neceffary to the integrity of a fubftance ;
or it is that whereby a thing has or is provided of
every thing belonging to its nature. This is either
abfolute, where all imperfeAion is excluded, fuch is
the perfection of God ; or fecundum quid, and in its
kind.
PERFORANS Manus.
Perforans Pedis. £ See Anatomy,
PERFORATUS Manus. C of the Mufcles.
Perforatus Pedis. J
PERFUME, denotes either the volatile effluvia
from any body affe&ing the organ of fmelling, or the
fubftance emitting thofe effluvia; in which laft fenfe
the word is moft commonly ufed. The generality of
perfumes are made up of muflc, ambergris, civet, rofe
and cedar woods, orange-flowers, jeffamines, jonquils,
tuberofes, and other odoriferous flowers. Thofe drugs
commonly called aromatics, fuch as ftorax, frankin-
cenfe, benzoin, cloves, mace, &c. enter the compofl-
tion of a perfume ; fome are alfo coropofed of aroma¬
tic herbs or leaves, as lavender, marjoram, fage, thyme,,
hyffop, &c.
Perfurnes; were anciently very much in ufe ; but,
fince people are become fenfible of the harm they do
to the head, they are generally difufed among us;
however, they are Hill common in Spain and Italy.
PERGAMA, (Virgil), the citadel of Troy; which,
becaufe of its extraordinary height, gave name to all
high buildings, (Servius). Others fay the walls of
Troy were called Pergama.
PERGAMUM, (Pliny) ; called alfo Pergamea,
(Virgil) ; Pergamia, (Plutarch) ; a town of Crete,
built by Agamemnon in memory of his vi&ory, (Vel¬
leius). Here was the burying-place of Lycurgus,
(Ariftoxenus, quoted by Plutarch). It was fituate
near Cydonia, (Servius) ; to what point not faid :
but Scylax helps him out, who places the Dadiynnean
temple of Diana, which flood near Cydonia, (Strabo),
to the north of the territory of Pergamia.—Another
Pergamum, (Pliny, Strabo) ; a town of Myfia, fi¬
tuate on the Caicus, which runs by it. It was the
royal refidtnce of Eumenes, and of the kings of the
Attali, (Livy). There an aneient temple of ^Efcu-
PER [ 5947 ] PER
Pergamus. lapfus flood ; an afylum, (Tacitus). The ornament
~ of Pergamum was the royal library, vying with that
of Alexandria in Egypt; the kings of Pergamnm and
Egypt rivaling each other in this refpedt, (Pliny).
Strabo afcribes this rivalry to Eumenes. Plutarch
reckons up 2,00,0.00 rolumes in the library at Perga¬
mum. Here the membrane? pergamena, whence the
name parchment, were invented for the ufe of books,
(Varro, quoted by Pliny). The country of Galen,
and of Oribafius. chief phyfician to Julian the Apor
{late, (Eunapius), called by fome the ape of Galen,
Here P. Scipip died, (Cicero). Attains fon of Eu^
raenes dying without iffue, bequeathed bis kingdom
to the Roman people, who reduced it to a province,
(Strabo). the epithet, (Martial). Here
was one of the nine cpnventus juridici, or affemblies of
the Afia Romana, called Pergamenus, and the ninth
in order, (Pliny) ; which he alfo calls jurifliftio Per¬
gamena.
PERGAMUS, an ancient kingdom of Afia, form¬
ed out of the ruins of the empire of Alexander the
Great It commenced about the year 283. The firft
fovereign was one Philetaerus, an eunuch, by birth a
Paphlagonian, of a mean defeent, and in his youth a
menial fervant to Antigonus one of Alexander’s cap¬
tains. He afterwards ferved Lyfimachus king of Ma-
cedon and Thrace, who appointed him keeper of his
treafures lodged in Pergamus. While he held this
employment, having fallen under the difpleafure of
Arfinoe wife to Lyfimachus, (he found means to make
a cpiarrel between him and his matter ; upon which
Philetaerus feized on the cattle of Pergamus, together
with the treafures entrufted to his care, amounting to
,90,000 talents. At firll he offered his fervice, toge¬
ther with his treafure, to Seleucus king of Syria :
but both Seleucus and Lyfimachus dying foon after,
he kept pofleflion of the town and treafure alfo till his
death ; which happened 20 years after his revolt from
Lyfimachus.
Philetaerus left the city of Pergamns to his brother,
or, according to fome, to his brother’s fon Eumenes
I.; and he,, laying hold of the opportunity offered
by the diffenfions amdng the Seleucidae, pofleffed him-
felf of many ftrong-holds in the province of Afia;
and having hired a body of Galatians, defeated Antio-
chus, as he was returning from a vitlory gained over
his brother Sdtucus Callinicus. By this vidlory he
obtained poffeflion of the greater part of Afia : how¬
ever, he did not long enjoy his acquifitions ; for he
died next year of immoderate drinking, a vice to
which he was greatly addifted.
Eumenes was fucceeded by Attains I. nephew of
Philetaerus, and the firft who took upon him the title
of king of Pergamus. He defeated the Gauls, who
were defirous of fettling in his territory ; and, accor¬
ding to Livy, was the firft of the Afiatic princes who
refufed to pay a contribution to thefe barbarians.
When Seleucus Ceraunus was engaged in other wars, he
invaded his territories, and conquered all the provinces
on this fide of Mount Taurus ; but was foon driven
out of his new acquifitions by Seleucus and his grand¬
father Achseus, who entering into an alliance againft
him, deprived him of all his newly acquired territo¬
ries, and even befieged him in bis capital. Upon this
Attains invited to his affittance the Gauls who had
fettled in Thrace; and with their help not only obli- Pergamus.
.ged the enemy to raife the fiege of Pergamus, but
quickly recovered all the provinces he had loft. Af¬
ter this he invaded Ionia and the neighbouring pro¬
vinces, where feveral cities voluntarily fubmitted to
him. The Teians, Colophonians, with the inhabi¬
tants of Egea and Lemnos, fent deputies declaring
themfelves ready to acknowledge him for their fove¬
reign ; the Carfenes, on the other fide the river Ly¬
cos, opened their gates to him, having firft. expelled
the governor fet over them by Achaeus. From thence
he advanced to Apia, and encamping on the banks of
the riyer Megithus, received homage from the neigh¬
bouring nations. But here the Gauls, being fright¬
ened' by an eclipfe of the moon, refufed to proceed
farther; which obliged Attalus to return to the Hel-
lefppnt, where he allowed his allies to fettle, giving
them a large and fruitful territory, and promifing that
he would always aflift and protedl them to the utmofl
of his power.
Attalus having thus fettled his affairs with equal
honour and advantage to himfelf, entered into an alli¬
ance with Rome, and afterwards joined them in their
war againft Philip king of Macedon. Here he had
the command of the Rhodian fleet; with which he
not only drove the Macedonians quite out of the feas,
but having landed his men, he, in conjundlion with
the Athenians, invaded Macedon, and obliged Philip
to raife the fieg.e of Athens, which he had greatly di-
ftreffed; for which fervices the Athenians not only
heaped on him all the favours they could, but called
one of their tribes by his name ; an honour they had
never beftowed on any foreigner before.
Attalus, not contented with all he had yet done
againft Philip, attempted to form a general confede¬
racy of the Greeks againft him. But while he was
haranguing the Boeotians to this purpofe, and exhort¬
ing them with great vehemence to enter into an alli¬
ance with the Romans againft their common enemy,
he fell down fpeechlefs. However, became to him¬
felf again, and defired to be carried by fea from
Thebes to Pergan\us, where he died foon after his ar¬
rival, in the yzd year of his age and 43d of his reign.
This prince was a man of great generofity, and
fuch an enthufiaft in learning and learned men, that
he caufed a grammarian, named Daphidast to be
thrown into the fea from the top of a high rock, be-
caufe he fpoke difrefpe£lful!y of Homer.
Attalus was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Eumenes II.
He was exceedingly attached to the Romans, infomuch
that he refufed the daughter of Antiochus the Great in
marriage, left he fnould thus have been led into a dif¬
ference with that people. He alfo gave notice to the
Roman fenate of the tranfadions of Ariarathes kingpf
Cappadocia, who was making great preparations both
by fea and land. Nor did Eumenes ttop here; for
when he faw the war about to break out between An¬
tiochus and .the Romans, he fent his brother Attalus
to Rome to give information of the proceedings of
Antiochus. The fenate heaped honours both on Eu¬
menes and his brother; and in the war which followed,
gave the command of their fleet to the king of Perga¬
mus in conjunftion with C. Livius Salinator. The
vi£lory gained on this occafion was in a great meafure
owing to Eumenes, who boarded fome of the enemy’s
33 N 2 Ihips
PER [ 5948 ] PER
Pergimus. ftjfpg In’perfon, and during the whole aftion behaved
"with uncommon bravery. Some time afterwards £u-
menes, entering the territories cf Antiochus with a
body of 5000 men, ravaged all the country about
Thyatira, and returned with an immenfe booty. But
in the mean time Antiochus invading Pergamus in his
turn, ravaged the whole country, and even laid fiege
to the capital. Attalus, the king’s brother held out
with ah handful of men till the Achaeans, who were
in alliance with Eumenes, fent 1000 foot and 100
horfe to his afiiftancc. As this fmall body of auxili¬
aries were all chofen men, and commanded by an ex¬
perienced officer, they behaved with fuch bravery that
the Syrians were obliged to raife the fiege. At the
battle of Magnefia, too, Eumenes behaved with the
greateft bravery ; not only fuftaining the firft attack
of the enemy’s elephants, but driving them back a-
gain on their own troops, which put the ranks in dif-
order, and gave the Romans an opportunity of giving
them a total defeat by attacking them opportunely
with their horfe. In confequence of this defeat, An¬
tiochus was obliged to conclude a peace with the Ro-
mans'on fuch terms as they pleafed to prefcribe; one of
which was, that he (hould pay Eumenes 400 talents,
and a quantity of corn, in recompence for the damage
lie had done him.
Eumenes now thought of obtaining fome reward
from the Romans equivalent to the fervices he had
done them. Having gone to Rome, he told the fe-
nate, that he was come to begofthem that the Greek
cities which had belonged to Antiochus before the
commencement of the late war, might now be added
to his dominions; but his demand was warmly oppofed
by the ambaffadors from Rhodes, as well as by depu¬
ties from all the Greek cities in Afia. The fenate,
however, after hearing both parties, decided the mat¬
ter in favour of Eumenes, adding to his dominions all
the countries on this fide of Mount Taurus which be¬
longed to Antiochus ; the other provinces lying be¬
tween that mountain and the river Masander, excepting
Lycia and Caria, were beftowed on the Rhodians.
All the cities, which had paid tribute to Attalus, were
ordered to pay the fame to Eumenes; but fuch as had
been tributary to Antiochus were declared free.
Soon after this Eumenes was engaged in a war with
Prufias king of Bithynia, who made war upon him
by the advice of Hannibal the celebrated Carthaginian
general. But Eumenes, being affifted by the Romans,
defeated Prufias in an engagement by fea, and another
by land; which fo dilheartened him, that he was ready
to accept of peace on any terms. However, before
the treaty was concluded, Hannibal found means to
draw Philip of Macedon into the confederacy, who
fent Philocles, an old and experienced officer, with a
confiderable body of troops to join Prufias. Hereup¬
on Eumenes fent his brother Attalus to Rome with a
golden crown, worth 15,00© talents, to complain of
Prufias for making war on the allies of the Roman
people without any provocation. The fenate accepted
the prefent, and promifed to adjuft every thing to the"
fatisfadlion of their friend Eumenes, whom they look¬
ed upon to be the moft fieady ally they had in Afia.
Butin the mean time Prufias, having ventured another
fea-fight, by a contrivance of Hannibal’s, gained a
complete vidory. The Carthaginian commander ad-
vifed him to fill a great many earthen Veflels with va- Pergamns-
nous kinds of ferpents and other poifonous reptiles,
and in the heat of the fight to throw them into the
enemies fhips fo as to break the pots and let the fer¬
pents loofe. All the foldiers and feamen were com¬
manded to attack the fhip in which Eumenes was,
and only to defend themfelves as well as they could a-
gainll the reft ; and that they might be in no danger
of miftaking the fhip, an herald was fent before the
engagement with a letter to the king. As foon as the
two fleets drew near, all the fhips of Prufias, Angling
out that of Eumenes, difeharged fuch a quantity of
ferpents into it, that neither foldiers nor failors could
do their duty, but were forced to fiy to the fhore,
left they fhould fall into the enemy’s hands. The
other fhips, after a faint refiftance, followed the king’*
example, and were all driven afhore with great {laugh¬
ter ; the foldiers being no lefs annoyed by the flings
of the ferpents, than by the weapons of the enemy.
The greateft part of the (hips of Eumenes were burnt,
feveral taken, and the others fo much (battered, that
they became quite unferviceable. The fame year
Prufias gained two remarkable vi&ories over Eumenes
by land, both of which were entirely owing to ftrata-
gems of Hannibal. But, while matters were thus
going on to the difadvantage of Eumenes, the Ro¬
mans interfered, and by their deputies not only put
an end to the differences between the two kings, but
prevailed on Prufias to betray Hannibal; upon which
he poifoned himfelf, as hath been related under the
article Hannibal.
Eumenes, being thus freed from fuch a dangerous
enemy, engaged in a new war with the kings of Cap¬
padocia andPontus, in which alfohe proved viftorious.
His friendlhip for the Romans he carried to fuch a
degree of enthufiafm, that he went in perfon to Rome
tb inform them of the machinations of Perfes king of
Macedon. He had before quarrelled with the Rhodi¬
ans, who fent ambafladors to Rome to complain of
him. But as the ambafladors happened to arrive
while the king himfelf was prefent in the city, the
Rhodian ambafladors could not obtain any hearing,
and Eumenes was difmifTed with new marks of favour.
This journey, however, had almoft proved fat 1 to
him ; for, on his return, as he was going to perform
a facrifice at Delphi, two aflaffins, fent by Perfes,
rolled down two great ft ones upon him as he entered
the ftraits of the mountains. With one he was dan*-
geroufly wounded on the head, and with the other on
the (boulder. He fell with the blows from a deep
place, and thus received many other bruifes ; fo that
he was carried on board his (hip when it could not
well be known whether he was dead or alive. His
people, however, foon finding that he was (till alive,
conveyed him to Corinth, and from Corinth to iEgina,
having caufed their veflels to be carried over the
Ifthmus.
Eumenes remained at ^Egina till his wounds were
cured, which was done with fuch fecrecy, that a re¬
port of his death was fpread all over Afia, and even
believed at Rome ; nay, his brother Attalus was fo
convinced of the truth of this report, that he not only
affumed the government, but even married Stratonice
the wife of Eumenes. But in a fhort time Eumenes
convinced them both of his being alive, by returning
to
PER [ 5949 ] PER
jtPergamus. to his kingdom. On the receipt of this news Attains
refigned the fovereignty in great hafte, and went to
meet his brother; carring an halberd, as one of his
guards. Eumenes received both him and the queen
with great tendernefs, nor did he ever fay any thing
which might tend to make them uneafy ; only it is faid
he whifpered in his brother’s ear when hefirft fawhim,
“ Be in no hafte to marry my wife again till you are
fure that I am dead.”
The king being now more than ever exafperated
againft Perfes, joined the Romans in their waragainft
Perfes; but during the courfe of it he fuddenly cooled
in his affeftion towards thofe allies whom he had hi¬
therto ferved with fo much zeal, and that to fuch a de¬
gree, that he admitted ambaffadors from Perfes, and
offered to (land neuter if he would pay him xooo ta¬
lents, and for 1500, to influence the Romans to grant
him a fafe and honourable peace. But thefe negocia-
tions were broke off without effeft, by reafon of the
diftruft which the two kings had of one another. Eu¬
menes could not truft Perfes unlefs, he paid him the
money beforehand ; while, on the other hand, Perfes
did not care to part with the money before Eumenes
had performed what he promifed ; neither could he be
induced to pay the fum in queftion, though the king
of Pergamus offered to give hoftages for the perform¬
ance of his promife. What the reafon of fuch a fud-
den change in the difpofition of Eumenes was, is no¬
where told”; however, the faft is certain. The nego-
ciations abovementioned were concealed from the Ro¬
mans as long as poffible ; however, they foon came to
he known, after which the republic began to enter¬
tain no fmall jealoufy of their old friend, and therefore
heaped favours on his brother Attains, without taking
any notice of the king himfelf. Eumenes had fent him
to Rome to congratulate the fenate on the happy iffue
of the war with Perfes, not thinking that his pra&ices
had been difcovered. However, the fenate, without
taking any notice of their difaffeftion to Eumenes at
firft, entertained Attalus with the greateft magnifi¬
cence ; then feveral of the fenators who vifited him
proceeded to acquaint him with their fufpicions of the
king, and defired Attalus to treat with them in his
own name, affuring him, that the kingdom of Perga¬
mus would be granted him, if he demanded it, by the
fenate. Thefe fpeeches had at firft fome effe& ; but
Attalus, being of an honeft difpofition, and aflifted by
the advice of a phyfician called Stratiui, a man of
great probity, refolved not to comply with their de¬
fire. When he was admitted to the fenate, therefore,
he firft; congratulated them on the happy iffue of the
Macedonian war, then modeftly recounted his own fer-
vices; and laftly, acquainted them with the motive of
his journey ; intreating them to fend ambaffadors to
the Gauls, who by their authority might fecure his
brother from any danger of their hoftilities ; and he
requefted them alfo, that the two cities of iEnus and
Maronea might be beftowed on himfelf. The fenate,
imagining that Attalus defigned to choofe fome other
day to fue for his brother’s kingdom, not only grant¬
ed all his requefts, but fent him richer and more mag¬
nificent prcfents than they had ever done before. Up¬
on this Attalus immediately fet out on his return to
Pergamus ; which fo provoked the fenators, that they
declared the cities free which they had gromifed to
Attalus; thus renderingineffedlual their promife which Perga
they were afliamed openly to revoke ; and as for the
Gauls, who were on all occafions ready to invade the
kingdom of Pergamus, they fent ambaffadors to them,
with inftruftions to behave in fuch a manner as would
rather tend to encourage them in their defign thandif-
fuade them from it.
Eumenes, being alarmed at thofe proceedings, re¬
folved to go in perfon to Rome, in order to juftify
himfelf. But the fenate, having already condemned
him in their own minds, refolved not to hear his vin¬
dication. For this reafon, as foon as they heard of
his defign, they made an aft that no king ftiould be
permitted to enter the gates of Rome. Eumenes, how¬
ever, who knew nothing of this adt, fet forward on
his journey, and landed at Brundufium; but, no
fooner did th« Roman fenate get intelligence of his
arrival there, than they fent a quaeftor acquainting
him with the decree of the fenate ; and telling him at
the fame time, that if he had any bufinefs to tranfadt
with the fenate, he was appointed to hear it and tranf-
mit it to them ; but if not, that the king muft leave
Italy without delay. To this Eumenes replied, that
he had no bufinefs of any confequence to tranfadt, and
that he did not ftand in need of any of their afliftance;
and without faying a word more, went on board his
fhip, and returned to Pergamus.
On his return home, the Gauls, being encouraged
by the cold reception which he had met with at Rome,
invaded his territories, but were repulfed with great
lofs by the king, who afterwards invaded the domi¬
nions of Prufias, and poffeffed himfelf of feveral ci¬
ties. This produced new complaints at Rome ; and
Eumenes was accufed, not only by the ambaffadors of
Prufias, but alfo by thofe of the Gauls and many ci¬
ties in AGa, of keeping a fecret correfpondencc with
Perfes king of Macedon. This laft charge was con¬
firmed by fome letters which the Romans themfelves
had intercepted ; fo that Eumenes found it impofiible
to keep up his credit any longer at Rome, though he
fent his brothers Athenaeus and Attalus thither to in¬
tercede for him. The fenators, in (hort, had concei¬
ved the mod implacable hatred againft him, and feem-
ed abfolutely bent on his deftrudtion, when he died, in
the 39th year of his reign, leaving his kingdom and
his wife to his brother Attalus. He left one fon, but
he was an infant, and incapable of governing the king¬
dom ; for which reafon Eumenes cliofe rather to give
the prefent poffeffion of the crown to his brother, re-
ferving the fucceffion to his fon, than to endanger the
whole by committing the management of affairs to his
fon’s tutors.
Attalus, in the beginning of his reign, found himfelf
greatly diftreffed by Prufias king of Bithynia, who not
only overthrew him in a pitched battle, but advanced
to the very walls of Pergamus, ravaging the country
as he marched along ; and at laft reduced the royal
city itfelf. The king, however, faved himfelf by a
timely flight, and difpatched ambaffadors to Rome,
complaining of the bad ufage of Prufias. The latter
endeavoured to defend himfelf, and to throw theblaipe
on Attalus. But, after a proper inquiry was made in¬
to the matter, Prufias was found to be entirely in the
wrong ; in confequence of which, he was at laft obli¬
ged to conclude a peace with his adverfaryon the fol¬
lowing
PER [ S9S.o ] PER
=Pergamu». lowing terms, i. That he fhould immediately deli-
ver Up tQ ^tta|U3 20 {},;p3 wjth decks. 2. That he
fhould pay 500 talents to Attains within the fpace of
20 years. 3. That he fhonld pay 100 talents to fome
of the other Afiatic nations by way of reparation for
the damages th^y had fuftained from him. And,
4. Both parties fhould be content with what they had
before the beginning of the war.
Some time after this, Prufias having made an unna¬
tural attempt on the life of his fon Nicomedes, the lat¬
ter rebelled, and, with the affillanceof Attalus, drove
his father from the throne, and, as is faid, even mur¬
dered him in the temple of Jupiter. The Romans took
no notice of thefe tranfaftions, but (hewed the fame
kindnefs to Attalus as formerly. The laft enterprife
in which we find Attalus engaged, was againlt An-
drifeus the pretended fo" of Pcrfes king of Macedon,
where he afiifted the Romans; after which he gave
himfelf up entirely toeafc and luxury, committing hate
affairs entirely to his minifters; and thus continued to
his death, which happened in the Sad year of his age,
about 138 B. C.
Attalus II. was fuccedeed by Attalus III. the fon
of Eumenes • for the late king, confidering that he
only held the crown as a truft. for his nephew, parted
by his own children in order to give to it him, tho’ he
appears to have been by no means worthy of it. He
is faid to have been deprived of his fenfes thro’ the vio¬
lence of his grief for his mother’s death ; and indeed,
throughout his whole reign, he behaved more like a
madman than any thing elfe. Many of his fubjefts of
the higheft quality were cut off with their wives and
-children, upon the moft groundlefs fufpicions ; and for
thefe executions he made ufe of mercenaries hired out
from among the moft barbarous nations. Thus he
proceeded till he had cut off all the beft men in the
kingdom; after which he fell into a deep melancholy,
imagining that the ghofts of thofe whom he had mur¬
dered were perpetually haunting him. On this he (hut
himfelf up in his palace, put on a mean apparel, let his
hair and beard grow, and fequeftered himfelf from all
mankind. At laft he withdrew from the palace, and
retired into a garden, wdiich be cultivated with his own
hands, and filled with all forts of poifonous herbs.
Thefe he ufed to mix with wholefome pulfe, and fend
packets of them to fuch as he fufpe&ed. At laft, be¬
ing weary of this a m ufe men t, and living in folitude,
becaufe nobody durft approach him, he took it in his
head to follow the trade of a founder, and make a
brazen monument. But, while he laboured at melt¬
ing and cafting the brafs, the heat of the fun and fur¬
nace threw him into a fever, which in feven days put
an end to his tyranny, after he had fat on the throne
five years.
On the death ef the king, a will was found, by
which he left the Roman people heirs of all his goods;
upon which they feized on the kingdom, and reduced
it to a province of their empire by the name of s4/ia
Proper. But Ariftonicus, a fon of Eumenes by an E-
phefian courtefan, reckoning himfelf the lawful heir
to the crown, could by no means be fatisfied with this
xrfurpation of the Romans, and therefore affembled a
confiderable army to maintain his pretenfions. The
people in general, having been accuftomed to a mo¬
narchy, dreaded a republican form of government; in
confequence of which, they afiifted Ariftonicus, and Pergamm.
foon put him in a condition to reduce the whole king- " ~“
dom. The news, however, were foon carried to
Rome, and Licinius Craffus, the pontifex maximus,
was fent into the eaft, with orders to inforce obedience
to the king’s will. Hiftorians take no notice of any
forces which were fent along with this commander;
whence it is fuppofed, that he depended on afllitance
from the Afiatics, who were in alliance with Rome, or
from the Egyptians. But when he came thither, he
found both the Syrians and Egyptians fo reduced, that
he could not expetft any afliftance from them. How¬
ever, he was foon fupplied with troops in plenty by the
kings of Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Pappla-
genia; but managed matters fo ill, that he was entire¬
ly defeated and taken prifoner. Thofe who took him
defigned to carry him to Ariftonicus; but he, not able
to endure the difgrace, would have laid violent hands
on himfelf if he had not been difarmed. However,
being allowed to keep a rod for managing the horfe
on which he fat, he ftruck a Thracian foldier who flood
near him fo violently with it, that he beat out one of
his eyes ; upon which the other drew his fword, and
run him thro’ on the fpot. His head was brought to
Ariftonicus, who expofed it to public view; but the
body was honourably buried.
Ariftonicus had no great time to enjoy the fruits of
his victory. Indeed he behaved very improperly after
it ; for, inilead of preparing to oppofe the next army,
which he might have been affured the Romans would
fend againft him, he fpent his time in feaftingand re¬
velling. But he was foon roufed out of his lethargy
by Perpenna the new conful, who having affembled
with incredible expedition the troops of the allies,
came unexpeftedly upon him, obliged him to venture
an engagement at a difadvantage, and entirely defeat¬
ed him. Ariftonicus fled to a city called Stratonice;
but was fo clofely purfued by the conqueror, that the
garrifon, having no method of fupplying themfelves
with provifions, delivered up their leader, as well as a
philofopher named Blofius, who had been the compa¬
nion and counfellor of Ariftonicus. The philofopher
behaved with great refolution after being taken, and
openly defended his fiding with Ariftonicus, becaufe
he thought his caufe juft. He exhorted the latter to
prevent the difgrace and mifery of captivity by a vo¬
luntary death ; but Ariftonicus, looking upon death
as a greater mifery than any captivity, fuffered himfelf
to be treated as his conquerors pleafed.
In the mean time, a new conful, named Manhis A-
quilius, being arrived from Rome, fent a moft haugh¬
ty meffage to Perpenna, requiring him immediately to
deliver up Ariftonicus as a captive belonging to his
triumph when the war ftiould be ended. With this
demand Perpenna refufed to comply, and his refufal
had almoft produced a civil war. However, this was
prevented by the death of Perpenna, which happened
foon after the difpute commenced. The Pcrgame-
menians, notwithftanding the defeat and captivity of
their leader, ftill held out with fuch obftinacy, that A-
quilius was obliged to befiege, and take by forc£ al¬
moft every city in the kingdom. In doing this, he
took a very effedtual, though exceeding cruel method.
Moft of the cities in the kingdom had no other water
than what was brought from a confiderable diftance in
aqueduds.
PER [ 5951 ] P .E R
Feriai)der aquedafls. Thefe Aquilius did rot demolifh,. but
II -poifoned the water, which produced the greateft ab-
horrence of him throughout all the eaft. At la!t,
11 ’ .however, the whole country being reduced, Aquilius
triumphed, the unhappy Ariftonicus was led in chains
before his chariot, and probably ended his miferable
life in a dungeon. The country remained fubjeft to
the Romans while their empire lafted, but is now in
the hands of the Turks. The city is half ruined, and
is known by the name of Pergamus. It is inhabited by
about 3000 Turks, and a few families of poor Chri-
Ilians. E- Long. 27. 2.7. N- Lat. .30. 3.
PERIANDER, tyrant of Corinth and Corcyra,
was reckoned among the feven wife men of Greece ;
though he might rather have been reckoned among
the moll wicked men, fince he changed the govern¬
ment of his country, deprived his countrymen of their
liberty, nfurped the fovereignty, and committed the
mod (hocking crimes. In the beginning of his reign
he behaved with mildnefs ; but after his having fent
to the tyrant of Syracufe to confult him on the fafeft
method of government, he abandoned himfelf to cruel¬
ty. The latter, having heard Periander’s envoys, took
them into a field, and, inftead of anfwering them,
pulled up before them the ears of corn which exceed¬
ed the reft in height. Periander, on being told of
this aftion, underftood what was meant by it. He
firft feeured htmfelf by a good guard, and then put
the moft powerful Corinthians to death. He aban¬
doned himfelf to the moft enormous crimes; commit¬
ted inceft with his mother, kicked to death his wife
Melifla, daughter of Procles king of Epidaurus, not-
withftanding her being with child; and was fo enraged
at Lycophron, his fecond fon, for lamenting his mo¬
ther’s death, that he banifhed him into the ifland of
Corcyra. Yet he pafled for one of the greateft poli¬
ticians of his time; and Heraclides tells us, that he
forbad voluptuoufnefs; that he impofed no taxes, con¬
tenting himfelf with the cuftom arifing from the fal«
and the import and export of commodities ; that,tho’
wicked himfelf, he hated the wicked, and caufed all
pimps to be drowned ; laftly, that he eftablifhed a fe-
nate, and fettled the expence of its members. He died
585 B C.
PERIAGOGE, in rhetoric, is ufed where many
things are accumulated into one period which might
have been divided into feveral.
PERIANTHIUM, (from “ round,” and
“ the flower,”) the flower-cup properly fo call¬
ed, the moft common fpecies of calix, placed imme¬
diately under the flower, which is contained in it as in
a cup. See Botany, p. 1296.
PERICARDIUM, in anatomy, a membranous
bag filled with water, which contains the heart in man
and many other animals. It is formed by a dupli-
cature of the mediaftinum, or membrane which di¬
vides the thorax into two unequal parts. See Ana¬
tomy, n°382, 305,386.
PERICARPIUM, (from *fPi, “ round,” and
Y.af7t<Srt “ fruit,”) the feed-vefiel; an entrail of the
plant big with feeds, which it difcharges when ripe.
The feed-feflel is in fadl the developed feed-bud, and
may very properly be compared to the fecundated
ovary in animals ; for it does not exift till after the
fertilizing of the feeds by the male-duft, and th^con-
fequent fall of the flower. All plants, however, are Pciichorus
not furnifhed with a feed-vtflcl; in fuch as are dtpri- perjj*eter
ved of it, the receptacle or calix performs its functions  1,
by inclofing the feeds, as in a matrix, and accompa¬
nying them to perfedt maturity.
PERICHORUS, in antiquity, a name given by
the Greeks to their profane games dr combats, that
is, to fuch as were not confecrated to any of the
gods.
PERICLES, was one of the greateft men that
ever flourifhed in Greece. He was educated with all
imaginable care; and befide other mafters, he had for
his tutors Zeno, Eleates, and Anaxagoras. Pie learn¬
ed from the laft of thefe to fear the gods without fu-
perftition, and to account for an eclipfe from a natu¬
ral caufei Many were nnjuft enough to fufpedl him
of atheifm, becaufe he had perfedUy ftudied the doc?
trine of that philofopher. He was a man of undoubt¬
ed courage ; and of fuch extraordinary eloquence, fup-
ported and improved by knowledge, that he gained al-
moft as great an authority under a republican govern¬
ment as if he had been a monarch ; but yet he could
not efcape the fatirical ftrokes of the comic poets. His
diflblutenefs with the women was one of the vices with
which he was chiefly charged. He died the third
year of the Peloponnefian war, after long ficknefs,
which had weakened his underftanding. Afpafia, Pe¬
ricles’s favourite, was a learned woman of Miletus: fhe
taught Socrates rhetoric and politics. As Pericles
cared not much for his wife, he willingly gave her Aip
to another, and married Afpafia, whom he paffionater
ly loved.
PERICRANIUM, in anatomy, a thick folid coat
or membrane, covering the outfide of the cranium or
Ikull. See Anatomy, n° 4.
PERIGEE, in aftronomy, that point of the fun
or moon’s orbit wherein they are at the leaft diftance
from the earth, in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to
apogee.
PERIGRAPHE, a word ufually underftood to
exprefs a carelefs or inaccurate delineation of any
thing; but in Vefalius it is ufed to exprefs the white
lines or impreffions that appear on the mufculus reftus
of the abdomen.
PERIGEUX, an ancient epifcopal town of
France, capital of the province of Perigo'rd, feated on
the river Ifle, in E. Long. 0. 33. N. Lat. 45. 18. It
is remarkable for the ruins of the temple of Venus, and
an amphitheatre.
PERIGORD, a province of France, which makes
part of Guienne, bounded on the north by Angou-
mois, and a part of Marche, and on the eaft by Quer-
cyandLimofin ; on the fouth, by Agenois and Baza-
dois; and on the weft, by Bourledois, Angoumois, and
a part of Saintonge. It is about 83 miles in length,,
and 60 in breadth. It abounds in iron mines, and
the air is pure and healthy. Perigeux is the capital
town.
PERIHELIUM, in aftronomy, that part of a pla¬
net or comet’s orbit wherein it is in its leaft diftance
from the fun, in which fenfe it ftands in oppofition to
aphelium.
PERIMETER, in geometry, the bounds or limits
of any figure or body. The perimeters of furfacesor
figures are liaesthofe of bodies are furfaces. In cir^
‘ culae-
PER [ 5952 ] PER
Perirmim cular figures, inftead of perimeter, we fay circumfe-
„ A. rence, or periphery.
—cnQ.-‘ PERINiEUM, or Perineum, in anatomy, the
fpace between the anus and the parts of genera¬
tion, divided into two equal lateral divisions by a
very diftinft line, which is longer in males than in fe¬
males.
PERINKSKIOLD (John), a learned Swedifli wri¬
ter, born at Stregnefia in Sudermania, in 1954, ftu-
died under his father, who was profeffor of eloquence
and poetry, and afterwards became well fkiiled in the
antiquities of the North. He was made profeflbr at
Upfal, fecretary antiquary of the king of Sweden, and
counfellor of the chancery of antiquities. He died in
1720. His principal works are : 1. A hiftory of the
kings of Norway. 2. A hiftory of the kings of the
North. 3. An edition of John Meflenius on the kings
of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, in 14 vols folio,
See. All Peringfkiold's works are excellent, and high¬
ly efteemed.
PERIOD, in aftronomy, the time taken up by a
ftar or planet in making a revolution round the fun ;
or the duration of its courfe till it return to the fame
part of its orbit.
The periodical times of the planets round the fun
are as follow:
The period of feconds. min. hrs. days.
Mercury - - 87 23 15 53
Venus - - 224 16 49 24
The earth - - 365 6 9 14
Mars - - - 686 23 27 30
Jupiter - - 4332 12 20 25
Saturn - - 1°759 6 36 26
There is a wonderful harmony between the diftances
of the planets from the fun, and their periods round
him ; the great law whereof is, that the fquares of
the periodical times of the primary planet, are to each
other as the cubes of their diftances from the fun :
and likewife, the fquares of the periodical times of the
fecondaries of any planet are to each other as the
cubes of their diftances from that primary. This har¬
mony among the planets is one of the greateft confir¬
mations of the Copernican hypothefis. See Astro¬
nomy, n° 132.
For the periods of the moon, fee Astronomy,
n° 223.
The periods of feveral comets are now pretty well
■afeertained. See Astronomy, n° 46 et feq.
Period, in chronology, denotes a revolution of a
certain number of years, or a feries of years, whereby,
in different nations, and on different occafions, time is
roeafured ; fuch are the following.
Calippic Period, a fyftem of feventy-fix years. See
•Calippic.
D-ionyfian Period, or Viftorian Period, a fyftem of
, £32 lunae-folar and Julian years ; which being elapfed,
the .chara&ers of the moon fall again upon the fame
day and feria, and revolve in the fame order, accor¬
ding to the opinion of the ancients.
This period is otherwife called the great pafchdl
cycle, becaufe the Chriftian church firft ufed it to find
the true time of the pafeha or eafter. The fum of thefe
years arife by multiplying together the cycles of the
fun and moon. See Astronomy, n° 308.
Hipparchus's Period, a fyftem of 304 years, both
lunar and folar ; which being elapfed, Hipparchus
thought that the reckoning by the lunar motion would
coincide again with the folar mealures. This period
comprehends 3760 lunar months, or 111,039 days;
the fum of which arifes from the multiplication of the
Calippic period by 4, fubtradling unity from the pro-
dudl.
Julian Period. See Julian.
Period, in grammar, denotes a fmall compafs of
difc'ourfe, containing a perfect fentence, and diftii)-
guiftied at the end by a point, or full ftop, thus (.);
and in members or divifions marked by commas, co¬
lons, &c.
Period, in oratory, See there, n° 44.
PERIODIC, or Periodical, fomething that ter¬
minates and comprehends a period ; fuch is a periodic
month; being the fpace of time wherein the moon
difpatches her period.
PERIOECI, xipioix-t, in geography, fuch inhabi¬
tants of the earth as have the fame latitudes, but op-
pofite longitudes, or live under the fame parallel and
the fame meridian, but in different femicircles of that
meridian, or in oppofite points of the parallel. Thefe
have the fame common feafons throughout the year,
and the fame phenomena of the heavenly bodies; but
when it is noonday with the one it is midnight with
the other, there being twelve hours hi an eaft and
weft direftion. Thefe are found on the globe by the
hour-index, or by turning the globe half round, that
is, 180 degrees either way.
PERIOSTEUM, or Periostium, in anatomy, a
nervous vafcular membrane, endued with a very quick
fenfe, immediately furrounding, in every part, both
the internal and external furfaces ofall the bones in the
body, excepting only fo much of the teeth as ftand
above the gums, and the peculiar places on the bones,
in which the mufcles are inferted. It is hence divided
into the external and internal periofteum ; and where
it externally furrounds the bones of the fkull, it is ge¬
nerally called the pericranium. See Anatomy, n°4.
PERIPATETIC philosophy, that fyftem taught
and eftablifhed by Ariftotle, and maintained by his
followers the Peripatetics, called alfo the Arijlotelians.
See the next article.
PERIPATUS, (anc. geog.) the place where Ari¬
ftotle taught; a part of the Lyceum, a gymnafium at
Athens, fitnate on the banks of the Iliffus. The rea-
fon of the appellation is, that Ariftotle walked as he
taught, (Cicero, Diogenes Laertius). Peripatetici
the name of the feft or followers of Ariftotle.
PERIPETIA, in the drama, that part of a trage¬
dy wherein the a<ftion is turned, the plot unravelled,
and the whole concludes. See Catastrophe.
PERIPHERY, in geometry, the circumference of
a circle, ellipfis, or any other regular curvilinear fi¬
gure.
PERIPLOCA, Virginian filk, a genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are four fpecies, all of them natives of warm
climates. They are perennial fhrubby plants with
turning branches, rifing from three to 40 feet high,
adorned with white and purple flowers. The feeds
are inclofed in capfules filled with a foft down. Two
of the fpecies, viz, the Grasca and Africana, will live
in the open air in this country, and are propagated by
layers;
Period.
n
Periploca.
PER [ 59J3 1 PER
Perifci! layers ; but the others are tender, fo require to be
I kept in a ftove.
erJ‘lry^ PERISCII, in geography, the inhabitants of either
frigid zone, between the polar circles and the poles,
where the fun, when in the fummer figns, moves only
round about them, without fetting ; and confequentiy
their fhadows in the fame day turn to all the points of
the horizon.
PERISTALTIC, a vermicular fpontaneous mo¬
tion of the inteftines, performed by the contraction of
the circular and longitudinal fibres of which the flelhy
coats of the inteftines are compofed ; by means where¬
of the chyle is driven into the orifices of the laCteal
veins, and the faeces are protruded towards the anus.
PERISTYLE,, in ancient architecture, a building
encompafied with a row of columns on the infide.
PERITONAEUM, in anatomy, is a thin, fmooth,
and lubricous membrane, invefting the whole internal
furface of the abdomen, and containing molt of the
vifcera of that part as it were in a bag. See Anato¬
my, n° 350.
PERITROCHIUM, in mechanics, denotes a
wheel, or circle, concentric with the bafe of a cylin¬
der, and moveable together with it about its axis.
See Mechanics.
PERJURY, in law, is defined by Sir Edward
Coke to be a crime committed when a lawful oath is
adminiftered, in fome judicial proceeding, to a perfon
who fwears wilfully, abfolutely, and falfely, in a mat¬
ter material to the iffue or point in queftion. Thelaw
takes no notice of any perjury but fueh as is commit¬
ted in fome court of juftice having power to admini-
fter an oath; or before fome magiftrate or proper of¬
ficer inverted with a fimilar authority, in fome pro¬
ceedings relative to a civil fuit or a criminal profecuc
tion : for it efteems all other oaths unneceflary at leaft,
and therefore will not punifil the breach of them. For
which reafon it is much to be queftioned, how far any
magiftrate is juftifiable in taking a voluntary affidavit
in any extrajudicial matter, as is now too frequent up¬
on every petty occafion ; fince it is more than poffible
that, by fuch idle oaths, a man may frequently, info-
ro confcientia, incur the guilt, and at the fame time
evade the temporal penalties of perjury. The perjury
muft alfo be corrupt, (that is, committed malo ammo),
wilful, pofitive, and abfolute ; not upon furprife, or
the like: it alfo muft be in fome point material to the
queftion in difpute ; for if it only be in fome trifling
collateral circnmftance, to which no regard is paid, it
is no more penal than in the voluntary extrajudicial
oaths before-mentioned. Subornation of perjury is the
offence of procuring another to take fuch a falfe oath,
as conftitutes perjury in the principal. The puniffi-
ment of perjury and fubornation, at common law, has
been various. It was anciently death ; afterwards ba-
nifhment, or cutting out the tongue ; then, forfeiture
of goods ; and now it is fine and imprifonment, and
never more to be capable of bearing teftimony. But
the ftatute 5 Elif. c. 9. (if the offender be profccuted
thereon) inflids the penalty of perpetual infamy, and
a fine of4ol. on the fuborner; and in default of pay¬
ment, imprifonment for fix months, and to ftand with
both ears nailed to the pillory. Perjury itfelf is there¬
by puniftied with fix months imprifonment, perpetual
Vox.. VIII. t
infamy, and a fine of 201. or to have both ears nailed Perjury
to the pillory. But the profecution is ufually carried H
on for the offence at common law ; efpecially as, to
the penalties before inflided, the ftatute 2 Geo. II. L.
c. 25. fuperadds a power for the court to order the of¬
fender to be fent to the houfe ofcorredion for a term
not exceeding feven years, or to be tranfported for the
fame period ; and makes it felony, without benefit of
clergy, to return or efcape within the time. It has
fometimes been wifhed, that perjury, at leaft upon ca¬
pital accufations, whereby another’s life has been or
might have been deftroyed, was alfo rendered capital,
upon a principle of retaliation ; as it is univerfally by
the laws of France. And certainly the odioufnefs of
the crime pleads ftrongly in behalf of the French law.
But it is to be confidered, that there they admit wit-
neffes to be heard only on the fide of the profecution,
and ufe the rack to extort a confeffion from the accu-
fcd. In fuch a conftitution, therefore, it is neceffary
to throw the dread of capital punifhment into the other
fcale, in order to keep in awe the witneffes for the
crown ; on whom alone the prifoner’s fate depends :
fo naturally does one cruel law beget another. But
corporal and pecuniary puniffiments, exile and perpe¬
tual infamy, are more fuited to the genius of the Eng-
lifh law ; where the fad is openly difcuffed between
witneffes on both fides, and the evidence for the crown
may be contradided and difproved by thofe of the pri-
foner. Where indeed the death of an innocent perfon
has adually been the confequence of fuch wilful per¬
jury, it falls within the guilt of deliberate murder,
and deferves an equal punifhment; which our ancient
law in fad infiided. But the mere attempt to deftroy
life by other means not being capital, there is no rea¬
fon that an attempt by perjury fhould ; much lefs that
this crime fhould, in all judicial cafes, bepunifhed with
death. For to multiply capital punilhments leffens
their effed, when applied to crimes of the deepefl dye;
and, deteftable as perjury is, it is not by any means
to be compared with fome other offences, for which
only death can be inflided; and therefore it feems al¬
ready (except perhaps in the inftance of deliberate
murder by perjury) very properly punifhed by cur
prefent law ; which has adopted the opinion of Cice¬
ro, derived from thelaw of thetwel-e tables, Perjur'd
pcenar divir.a, exitiinn ; humana, dedccus*
PER1PNEUMONY, an inflammation of the
lungs. See Medicine, n° 289, 290. and Farriery,
f 5-
PERIZONIUS (James), a very learned and la¬
borious writer, was born at Dam in 1651. He be¬
came profeffor of hiftory and eloquence at the univer-
fity of Franeker, when, by his merit and learning, he
made that univerfity flourifh. However, in 1693,
went to Leyden, where he was made profeffor of hi¬
ftory, eloquence, and the Greek tongue ; in which
employment he continued till his death, which hap¬
pened in 1715. He wrote many Differtations, and
other learned and curious works, particularly Origi/ics
Babylonica et Mgyptiacec, 2 vols 8vo, &c.
PERMEABLE, a term applied to bodies of fo
loofe a texture as to let fomething pafs through them.
PERMUTATION, in commerce, the fame with
bartering. In the canon-law, permutation denotes
33 O the
PER [ 5954 ] PER
Permfki the E&ual exchange of one benefice for another.
.11 PERMSKI, or Permia, a town of the Ruffian
I erpignan, empjre> an(j capJta] 0f a province of the fame name,
feated on the river Kama between the Dwina and the
Oby; E. Long. 55. 50. N. Lat. 70. 26. The pro¬
vince is bounded on the north by the Samoiedes, on
the weft by Zirania and Ulatka, and on the eaft by
Siberia.
PERNAMBUCO, a province of Brafil in South
America, bounded on the north by Tamera, on the
eaft by the ocean ; on the fouth by Seregippa, and
on the weft by Tapuyers. It is about 200 miles in
length, and 150 in breadth. The Dutch became ma¬
ilers of it in 1630, but the Portuguefe foon retook it
from them. It produces a great quantity of fugar,
and the bed Brafil wood.
PERNIO, a kibe, or chilbain, is a little ulcer, oc-
cafioned by cold in the hands, feet, heels, nofe, and
lips. It will come on when warm parts are too fud-
tlenly cxpofed to cold, or when parts from being too
cold are fuddenly expofed to a confiderable warmth ;
and has always a tendency to gangrene, in which it
frequently terminates. It moft commonly attacks
children of a fanguine habit and delicate conftitution ;
and may be prevented or removed by fuch remedies as
invigorate the fyftem, and are capable of removing
any tendency to gangrene in the conftitution. See Me¬
dicine, n° 281.
PERONvEQS, in anatomy, is an epithet applied
to fome of the mufeles of the perone or fibula. See
A nato mv, Table of the mufcles.
PERORATION, in rhetoric, the epilogue or
laft part of an oration, wherein what the orator had
infilled on through his whole difcotirfe is urged a-
frelh with greater vehemence and paffion. The per¬
oration conlifts of two parts. 1. Recapitulation;
wherein the fubftance of what was diffufed throughout
the whole fpeech is colltdled briefly and curforily, and
fummed up with new force and weight. 2. The mo¬
ving the pafiions; which is fo peculiar to the perora¬
tion, that, the mailers of the art call this part fedes af
feftuum. The paffions to be railed are various, ac¬
cording to the various kinds of oration. In a pane¬
gyric, love, admiration, emulation, joy, he. In an
invective, hatred,, contempt, &c. In a deliberation,
hope, confidence, or fear. The qualities required in
the peroration are, that it be very vehement and paf-
fionate, and that it be fhort; becaufe, as Cicero ob-
ferves, tears foon dry up.
PERONNE, a ftrong town of France, in Picardy,
capital of Santerre. It is faid never to have been ta¬
ken, though often befieged. It is feated on the river
Somme, in E. Long. 3. 1. N. Lat. 44. 50.
PERPENDICULAR, in geometry, a line falling
directly on another line, fo as to make equal angles on
each fide. See Geometry.
PERPETUAL, fomething that endures always, or
lafts for ever.
Perpetual Motion. See Movement.
PERPIGNAN, a confiderable town of Roufillon
in France, with a ftrong citadel, an univerfity, and a
bilhqp’s fee. It is feated on the river Tet; over which
there is an handfome bridge, partly in a plain, and
partly on a hill, E. Long. o. 43. N, Lat. 45. 18.
PERQUISITE, in a general fenfe, fqmething Pcrquifxte.
gained by a place over and above the fettled wages. per5on
Perquisite, in law, is any thing gotten by a man’s
own induftry, or purchafed with his money ; in con-
tradiftindlion to what defeends to him from his father
or other anceftor.
PERRAULT (Claude), the fon of an advocate in
parliament, was born at Paris in 1613; and was bred
a phyfician, though he never praftifed but among his
relations, friends, and the poor. He difeovered early
a particular tafte for the fciences and fine arts; of
which he acquired a confummate knowledge without
the affiftance of a mafter : he excelled in archite£lure,
painting, fculpture, mathematics, phyfics, and all
thofe arts that relate to defigning and mechanics.
The entrance into the Louvre, which was defignedby
him, is, according to the judgment of Voltaire, one
of the moft auguft monuments of archite&ure in the
world. M. Colbert put him upon tranfiating Vitruvius
into French ; which he performed, and publiftied it
in 1673, folio, with figures from bis own drawings;
which are faid to have been more exaclly finilhed than
the plates themfelves. When the academy of fciences
was eftablilhed, he was one of its firll members, and
was chiefly depended on for mechanics and natural phi-
lofophy. His works are, Memoirs pour fervir a 1'Hi-
Jloire naturelle des Hnimaux, (oWo, 1676, with figures;
Ejfais de Phi/ique, 4 vois i2mo, 1688 ; Recueil de
plufieurs machines de nouvelle invention, 410, 1700, &c.
He died in 1G88.
Perrault (Charles), the brother of Claude, was
born at Paris in 1626, with as great a genius for
arts, and a greater for letters, than his brother. Col¬
bert chofe him firft clerk of the buildings, of which
he was fuperintendant, and afterward made him comp¬
troller general of the finances under him. He was one
of the firft members of the academy of the belles lettres
and inferiptions, and was received into the French a-
cademy in 1671. His poem. La Point are, printed
in 1668, was univerfally admired : that intitled La
fteele de Louis le Grand, in which he exalted the mo¬
dern authors above the ancient, was a prelude to a war
with ail the learned. After he had difengaoed him-
felf from this conteft, he applied himfelf to draw up .
elogies of feveral great men of the 17th century, with
tlreir portraits, of which he hascolledled 102. There
are other efteemed works of Perrault.—Belides thefe
• there were two other brothers, Peter and Nicholast
who made themfelves known in the literary world.
PERRON (James Davy Du), a cardinal diftin-
guiflred by his abilities and learning, was born in the
canton of Bern in 1556. He was educated by Julian
Davy, his father, a very learned Calvinift, who taught
him Latin and the mathematics ; after which, he by
himfelf became acquainted with the Greek and He¬
brew, philofophy, and the poets. Philip Defportes,
abbot of Tyron, made him known to Henry III. king
of France, who conceived a great efteem for him.
Some time after, Du Perron abjured Calvinifm, and
afterwards embraced the ecclefiaftical fun&ion ; and ha-
ving given great proofs of his wit and learning, he was
chofen to.pronounce the funeral oration of Mary queen
of Scots. After the murder of Henry III. he retired
to the houfe of Cardinal de Bourbon, and took great
pains
PER [ 5955 ] PER
Ptrrot pains in bringing back the Proteftants to the church
* . of Rome. Among others, he gained over Henry
Perfecution gpondanus, afterwards bifhop of Parhiers. He alfo
chiefly contributed to engage Henry IV. to change
his religion ; and that prince fent him to negotiate his
reconciliation to the holy fee, in which he fucceeded.
Du Perron was confecrated bifhop of Evereaux while
he refided at Rome. On his return to France, he
wrote, preached, and difputed againft the reformed;
particularly againft Du Pleffis Mornay, with whom
he had a public conference in the prefence of the king &t
Fontainbleau. He was made cardinal in 1604, by pope
Clement VIII. at the folicitation of Henry IV. who
afterwards nominated him to the archbifhopric of Sens.
The king at length fent him to Rome with Cardinal
Joyeufe, in order to terminate the difputes which had
arifen between Paul V. and the Venetians. It is faid
that this pope had fuch an high opinion of the addrefs
of the cardinal Du Perron, that he ufedtofay, “ Let
us pray to God to infpire the cardinal Du Perron, for
he will perfuade us to do whatever he pleafes.” After
the death of Henry IV. he retired into the country,
where he put the laft hand to his works ; and, fetting
up a printing-houfe, corre&ed every fheet himfelf.
He died at Paris in 1618. His works were colledled
after his death ; and publilhed at Paris in 3 vols
folio.
PERROT (Nicholas), Sieur d’Ablancourt, one of
the firft geniufes of his age, was born at Chalons in
1606. After ftudying philofophy about three years,
he was fent to Paris to follow the law. At eighteen
years of age he was admitted advocate of parliament,
and frequented the bar; but he foon conceived a dif-
tafte for it, and therefore difcontinued his pra&ice.
This difpleafed an uncle, but whole favour he recovered
by quitting the Proteftant religion. He could not,
however, be prevailed upon to take orders in the
Romifh church ; and fome years after, he had a de¬
tire to return to the religion he had abjured. But,
that he might not do any thing rafhly, he refolved to
ftudy philefophy and divinity. For that purpofe
he chofe for his matter Mr Stuart a Scotfman and
Lutheran, a man of great learning. Almoft three
years he fpent in the moft affiduous ftudy ; and then
fet out from Paris to Champagne, where he abjured
the Roman Catholic, and once more embraced the
Proteftant religion. In 1637 he was admitted a
member of the French academy ; a little after which,
he undertook a tranflation of Tacitus. Whilft he was
engaged in that laborious talk, he retired to his fmall
eftate of Ablaneourt, and lived there till his death, in
1664. He was a man of fine underftanding, of great
piety and integrity, and of univerfal learning. Mo-
reri has given a catalogue of his works, the greateft
part of which confift of tranllations, which feemed ra¬
ther originals.
PERRY, a drink made from pears, in the fame
manner as cyder is from apples. See Cyder.
PERSECUTION, is any pain or affliftion which
a perfon defignedly inflidfts upon another ; and, in a
more reftrained fenfe, the fufferings of Chriftians on
account of their religion.
Hiftorians ufually reckon ten general perfecutions,
the firft of which was under the emperor Nero, 31
years after our Lord’s afcenfion; when that emperor
having fet fire to the city of Rome, threw the odiunt Peifepolis.
of that execrable aftion on the Chriftians, who under"
that pretence were wrapped up in the Heins of wild
beads, and worried and devoured by dogs; others
were crucified, and others burnt alive. The fecond
was under Domitian, in the year 95. In this perfe-
cution St John the apoftle was fent to the ille of Pat-
mos*, in order to be employed in digging in the mines.
The third began in the third year of Trajan, in the
year 100, and was carried on with great violence for
feveral years. Iftie fourth was unden Antoninus the
philofopher, when the Chriftians were banilhed from
their houfes, forbidden to fiiew their heads, reproach¬
ed, beaten, hurried from place to place, plundered,
imprifoned, and Honed. The fifth began in the year
197, under the emperor Severus. The fixth began
with the reign of the emperor Maximinus in 235.
The feventh, which was the moft dreadful perfecutiou
that had ever been known in the church, began in '
the year 250, in the reign of the emperor Decius,
when the Chriftians were in all places driven from
their habitations, ftripped of their eftates, tormented
with racks, &c. The eighth began in the year 257,
in the fourth year of the reign of the emperor Valerian.
The ninth was under the emperor Aurelian, A. D.
274 ; but this was very inconfiderabl:: and the tenth
began in the 19th year of Dioclefian, A. D. 303. In
this dreadful perfecution, whichlafted ten years, houfes
filled with Chriftians were fet on fire, and whole droves
were tied together with ropes and thrown into the
fea.
PERSEPOLIS, formerly the capital of Perfia,
fituated in N. Lat. 30. 30. E. Long. 84° ; now in
ruins, but remarkable for the moft magnificent re¬
mains of a palace or temple that are to be found
throughout the world.—This city ftood in one of the
fineft plains in Perfia, bring 18 or 19 leagues in length,
and in fome places two, in fome four, and in others
fix leagues in breadth. It is watered by the great
river Araxes, now Bendemir, and by a multitude of
rivulets befides. Within the compafs of this plain,
there are between 1000 pnd 1500 villages, without
reckoning thofe in the mountains, all adorned with
pleafant gardens, and planted with lhady trees. The
entrance of this plain on the weft fide has received as
much grandeur from nature, as the city it covers could
do from induftry or art. It confifts of a range of
mountains fteep and high, four leagues in length, and
about two miles broad, forming two flat banks, with
a rifing terrace in the middle, the fummit of which is
perfedlly plain and even, all of native rock. In this
there are fuch openings, and the terraces are fo fine and
fo even, that one would be tempted to think the whole
the work of art, if the great extent, and prodigious
elevation thereof, did not convince one that it is a
wonder too great for aught but nature to produce.
Undoubtedly thefe banks were the very place where
the advanced guards from Perfepolis took poll, and
from which Alexander found it fo difficult to diflodge
them. One cannot from hence defcry the ruins of
the city, becaufe the banks are too high to be over¬
looked ; but one can perceive on every fide the ruins
of walls and of edifices, which heretofore adorned the
range of mountains of which we are fpeaking. On
the weft and on the north, this city is defended in the
33 O 2 like
PER [ 5956 ] PER
Yerfeve- like manner: fo that, confidering the height and
ranee evennefs of thefe banks, one may fafely fay, with a
Perfia. ^ate «ngenious traveller, that there is not in the world
4   a place fo fortified by nature. The ancient palace of
the kings of Perfia, called by the inhabitants Chiltninar,
i. e. forty columns, is fituated at the foot of the
mountain ; the walls of this ftately building are Hill
Handing on three fides : but as a particular account of
the noble remains of antiquity to be met with there
would exceed our limits, we muft refer the reader to
Sir John Chardin’s travels, or the fifth volume of the
Univerfal Hiftory, where a full defeription of them is
given.
PERSEVERANCE, in theology, a Chriftian vir¬
tue, by which we are enabled to perfiil in the way of
falvation to the end.
The final perfevetance of the faints is a do&rine
much controverted between the Arminians and Calvi-
nifis ; the latter of whom maintain that it is impof-
fible for grace to be loft, and confequently make per-
feverance to the end a neceffary confequence thereof;
while the others imagine, that the moft confirmed be¬
lievers are never out of a poffibility of falling.
PERSEUS, the moft ancient of all the Greek he¬
roes, founded the city of Mycenae, of which he be¬
came afterwards king, and where he and his pofterity
reigned for 100 years. He flouriftied, according to
molt chronologifts, 1348 B. C. but, according to Sir
Ifaac Newton, only 1028.
Perseus, in aftronomy. See there, n° 206.
PERSIA, a moft ancient and celebrated empire of
Afia, extending in length from the mouth of the river
Araxes to that of the river Indus, about 1840 of our
miles, and in breadth from the river Oxus to the Per-
fian gulph, about 1080 of the fame miles. It is
bounded on the north by the Cafpian Sea, the river
Oxus, and mount Caucafus; on the eaft, by the river
Indus and the dominions of the Great Mogul; on
the fouth, by the Perfian gulph and the Indian
ocean; and on the weft, by the dominions of the Grand
Signior.
Different The "soft ancient name of this country was that of
names of Elam, or, as fome write it, JElam, from Elam the fon
the coun- of Shem, from whom its firft inhabitants are defeend-
fT- ed. Herodotus calls its inhabitants Cephenes; and in
very ancient times the people are faid to have called
themfelves Artcei, and the country where they dwelt
Artxa. In the books of Daniel, Efdras, &c. it is
called by the names of Pars, Pharas, or Ears,
whence the modern name of Perjia ; but whence thofe
names have been derived, is now uncertain.
That Perfia was originally peopled by Elam the fon
of Shem is univerfally allowed; but before the time of
Cyrus we know little or nothing of their hiftory. This
prince is celebrated both by facred and profane hifto-
2 rians ; but the latter are at no fmall variance concern-
AfC<i?Uh-S *1'3 b‘rth and accefilon to the throne. According
of Cyrus? t0 Herodotus, Aftyages, the laft king of the Medes,
being warned in a dream, that the fon who was to be
born of his daughter Mandane, fhould one day be lord
of Afia, refolved to marry her, not to a Mede, but to
a Perfian. Accordingly, he chofe for her huiband one
Cambyfes, a man of a peaceable difpofitipn, and of no
very high ftation. However, about a year after they
were married, Aftyages was frightened bv another
dream, which made him refolve to difpatch.the infant Perfia.
as foon as it fhould be born. Hereupon the king fent “
for his daughter, and put her under confinement,
where fhe was foom after delivered of a fon. The in¬
fant was committed to the care of one Harpagus, with
ftridt orders to deftroy it in what manner he thought
proper. But he, having acquainted his wife with
the command he had received, by her advice gave
it to a fhepherd, ddiring him to let it perifh by expo-
fing it. But the Ihepherd, out of compaffion, expo-
fed a ftill-born child which his wife happened to be
then delivered of, and brought up the fon of Man¬
dane as his own, giving him the name of Cyrus.
When the young prince had attained the age of ten
years, as he was one day at play with other children
of the fame age, he was chofen king by his companions;
and having, in virtue of that dignity, divided them in¬
to feveral orders and clalfes, the fon of Artembares, a
lord of eminent dignity among the Medes, refufed to
obey his orders ; whereupon Cyrus caufed him to be
feized, and whipped very feverely. The boy ran cry¬
ing to his father ; and he immediately haftened to the
king’s palace, loudly complaining of the affront his fon
had received from the fon of a flave, and intreating
Aftyages to revenge, by fome exemplary punifhment,
the indignity offered to him and his family. Aftyages,
commanding both the herdfman and his fon to be
brought before him, allied the latter, how lie, who was
the fon of fo mean a man, had dared to abufe the fon
of one of the chief lords of the kingdom ? Cyrus re¬
plied, that he had done no more than he had a right
to do ; for the boys of the neighbourhood having cho¬
fen him king, becaufe they thought him molt worthy
of that dignity, and performed what he, veiled with
that charader, had commanded, the fon of Artam-
bares alone had flighted his orders, and for his difobe-
dience had fuffered the punilhment he deferred. In
the courfe of this converfation Aftyages happening to
recolleft, that his grandfon, whom he had ordered to
be deftroyed, would have been about the fame age with
Cyrus, began to queftion the Ihepherd concerning his
fnppofed fon, and at laft obtained from him a confef-
fion of the whole truth.
Allyages having now difeovered Cyrus to be his
randfon, fent for Harpagus, who alfo confelfed that
e had not feen Mandane’s fon deftroyed, but had
given him to the Ihepherd ; at which Aftyages was fo
much incenfed, that, having invited Harpagus to an
entertainment, he caufed him to be ferved with the flelh
of his own fon. When he had done, the king allied
him whether he liked his victuals; and Harpagus an-
fwering, that he had never tailed any thing more de¬
licious, the officers appointed for that purpofe brought
in a balket, containing the head, hands, and feet of
his fon, defiring him to uncover the balket, and take
what he liked heft. He did as they defired, and be¬
held the mangled remains of his only child without be¬
traying the leaft concern, fo great was the command
which he had over his palfions. The king then alked
him, whether he knew with what kind of meat he had
been entertained. Harpagus replied, that he knew
very well, and was always pleafed with what his fove-
reign thought fit to ordain ; and having thus replied,
with a furprifing temper, he colleded the mangled parts
of his innocent Ion, end went home.
Aftyages
PER L 5957 1 PER
Perlia. Aflyages having thus vented his rage on Harpagus,
 began next to confult what he ihould do with Cyrus.
The magi, however, eafed him of his fears with re¬
gard to him, by affuring him,- that as the boy had
been once chofen king by his companions, the dream
had been already verified, and that Cyrus never would
reign in any other fenfe. The king, being well pleafed
with this anfwer, called Cyrus, and, owning how much
he had been wanting in the affetfion which he ought
to have had towards him, defired him to prepare fora
journey into Perfia, where he would find his father
and mother in circumftances very different from thofe
of the poor fhepherd and his wife with whom he had
hitherto lived. Cyrus, on his arrival at his father’s
houfe, was received with the greateft joy. When he
grew up, he foon became popular on account of his
extraordinary parts; till at laft his friendfhip was
courted by Harpagus, who had never forgot the cruel
treatment he received from Aftyages. By his means
a confpiracy was formed againft Aftyages; who being
overthrown in two fucceffive engagements, was taken
prifoner and confined for life.
The account given by Xenophon of the rife of Cy¬
rus is much more confonant to fcripture; for he tells
us, that Babylon was conquered by the united forces of
the Medes and Perfians. According to him, Cyrus'
was the fon of Cambyfes king of the Medes, and Man-
dane the daughter of Aftyages king of Perfia. He
was born a year after his uncle Cyaxares, the brother
of Mandane. He lived till the age of twelve with his
parents in Perfia, being educated after the manner of
the country, and inured to fatigues and military exer-
cifes. At this age he was taken to the court of A-
flyages, where he refided four years; when the revolt
of the Medes and Perfians from the Babylonians hap¬
pened, and which ended in the deftrudfion of the Ba-
bylonifh empire, as related under the article Babylon.
While Cyrus was employed in the Babylonifh war,
3 before he attacked the metropolis itfelf, he reduced all
Hjs war the nations of Alia Minor. The moft formidable of
with the tjiej-e were Lydians, whofe king Crcefus aflem-
y 13 ’ bled a very numerous army, compofed of all the other
nations in that part of Afia, as well as of Egyptians,
Greeks, and Thracians. Cyrus being informed of
thefe vaft preparations, augmented his forces to
196,000 men, and with them advanced againft the
enemy, who w'ere aflembled near the river Padlolus.
After long marches, he came up with them at Thym-
bra, not far from Sardis the capital of Lydia. Be-
fides the horfe and foot, which amounted to 196,000,
as already obferved, Cyrus had 300 chariots armed
w ith fey thes, each chariot drawn by four horfes abreaft,
covered with trappings that were proof againft all forts
of miffive weapons : he had likewife a great number
of chariots of a larger fize, upon each of which was
placed a tower about 18 or 20 feet high, and in each
tower were lodged 20 archers. Thefe towers were
drawn by 16 oxen yoked abreaft. There was more¬
over a confiderable number of camels, each mounted
by two Arabian archers, the one looking towards the
head,, and the other towards the hinder part of the
camel. The army of Crcefus confifted of 420,000 men.
The Egyptians, who alone were 120,000 in number,
being the main ftrength of the army, were placed in
the ceotrc. Both armies were drawn up in an im*
menfe plain, which gave room for the extending of the Perfia.
wings on either fide ; and the defign of Crcefus, upon ”
which alone he founded his hopes of vi&ory, was to
furround and hem in the enemy’s army. 4
When the two armies were in fight of each other,The battle
Crcefus, obferving how much his front exceeded that®f
of Cyrus, made the centre halt, but commanded the bra'
two wings to advance, with a defign to inclofe the
Perfian army, and begin the attack on both fides at
once. When the two detached bodies of the Lydian
forces were fufficiently extended, Croefus gave the fig-
nal to the main body, which marched up to the front
of the Perfian army, while the two wings attacked
them in flank ; fo that Cyrus’s army was hemmed in
on all fides, and, as Xenophon exprefies it, was in-
clofed like a final] fquare drawn within a great one.
This motion, however, did not at all alarm the Per¬
fian commander; but, giving his troops the fignal to
face about, he attacked in flank thofe forces that were
going to fall upon his rear, fo vigoroufly, that he put
them into great diforder. At the fame time a fqua-
dron of camels was made to advance againft the ene¬
my’s other wing, which confifted moftly of cavalry.
The horfes w-ere fo frightened at the approach of thefe
animals, that moft of them threw their riders and trod
them under foot; which occafioned great confufion.
Then Artagefes, an officer of great valour and expe¬
rience, at the head of a fmall body of horfe, charged
them fo brilkly, that they could never afterwards rally;
and at the fame time the chariots, armed with feythes,
being driven in among them, they were entirely rout¬
ed. Both the enemy’s wings being thus put to flight,
Cyrus commanded his chief favourite Abradates to
full upon the centre with the large chariots above-
mentioned. The firft ranks, confifting moftly of Ly¬
dians, not being able to (land fo violent a charge, im¬
mediately gave way ; but the Egyptians, being cove-r¬
ed with their bucklers, and marching fo clofe that the
chariots had not room to penetrate their ranks, 3 great
flaughter of the Perfians enfued. Abradates himfelf
was killed, his chariot overturned, and the greatelt
part of his men were cut in pieces. Upon his death, the
Egyptians, advancing boldly, obliged the Perfian in¬
fantry to give way, and drove them back quite to their
engines. There they met with a new fhower of darts
and javelins from their machines; and at the fame
time the Ptrfian rear advancing fword in hand, obli¬
ged their fpearmen and archers to return to the charge.
In the mean time Cyrus, having put to flight both the
horfe and foot on the left of the Egyptians, pufhed on
to the centre, where he had the misfortune to find his-
Perfians again giving ground and judging that the
only way to flop the Egyptians, who were purfuing
them, would be to attack them in the rear, he did fo ;
and at the fame time the Perfian cavalry coming up to
his afliftance, the fight was renewed with great flaugh-
tcr on both fides. Cyrus himfelf was in great danger;
for his horfe being killed under him, he fell among the
midft of his enemies: but the Perfians, alarmed at the
danger of their general, threw themfelves headlong on
theiropponents, refeued him, and made a terrible flaugh¬
ter; till at laft Cyrus, admiring the valour of the Egyp¬
tians, offered them honourable conditions; letting them
know at the fame time, that all their allies had abandon¬
ed them. They accepted the terms offered them ; and
having;
PER [ 5958 ] PER
Perlia. having agreed with Cyrus that they fliould not be ob¬
liged to carry arms againft Crcefus, they engaged in
the fervice of the conqueror, and continued faithful to
5 him ever after.
Sardis q'he next morning Cyrus advanced towards Sardis,
the^l’ /in<lan^ Croefus marched out to oppofe him at the head of
empirg 0. the Lydians only; for his allies had all abandoned
venhrown. him. Their ftrength confided moftly in cavalry : which
Cyrus being well apprifed of, he ordered his camels to
advance ; by whom the horfes were fo frightened, that
they became quite ungovernable. However, the Ly¬
dians difmounted, and for fome time made a vigorous
refiftance on foot; but were at laft driven into the ci¬
ty, which was taken two days after : and thus the Ly-
c dian empire was totally deftroyed.
Reduces After the conqueft of Sardis, Cyrus turned his arms
Babylon, againft Babylon itfelf, which he reduced in the manner
related under that article. Havingfettled the civil govern-
mentof the conquered kingdoms, Cyrus took a review of
all his forces, which he found to conlift of 600,000 foot,
120,000 horfe, and 2000 chariots armed with feythes.
With thefe he extended his dominion all over the nations
to the confines of Ethiopia, and to the Red Sea ; after
which he continued to reign peaceably over his vaft
7 empire till his death, which happened about 529 be-
His death, fore Chrift. According to Xenophon, he died a natu¬
ral death ; but others tell us, tha£, having engaged in
a war with the Scythians, he was by them overthrown
and cut in pieces with his whole army, amounting to
200,000 men. But this is very improbable, feeing all
authors agree, th&t the tomb of Cyrus was extant at
Pafargada in Perfia in the time of Alexander the Great;
which it could not have been, if his body had remain¬
ed in the poffeffion of the Scythians, as thefe authors
aflert.
In the time of Cyrus, the Perfian empire extended
from the river Indus to the Egean fea. On the north
it was bounded by the Euxine and Cafpian feas, and
on the fouth by Ethiopia and Arabia. That monarch
kept his refidence for the feven cold months at Baby¬
lon, by reafon of the warmth of that climate ; three
months in the fpring he fpent at Stifa, and two at Ec-
batan during the heat of fummer. On his death-bed
he appointed his fon Cambyfes to fucceed him in the
empire ; and to his other fon, Smerdis, he gave feve-
ral confiderable governments. The new monarch im¬
mediately fet about the conqueft of Egypt; which he
accomplished in the manner related in the hiftory of
g that country.
Cambyfes Haying reduced Egypt, Cambyfes next refolved to
conquers turn his arms againft the Carthaginians, Hammonians,
Egypt- and Ethiopians. But he was obliged to drop the firft
of thefe enterprizes, becaufe the 'Phoenicians refufed
to fupply him with ftiips againft the Carthaginians,
who were a Phoenician colony. However, he fent
ambafladors into Ethiopia with a defign to get intelli¬
gence of the. ftate and ftrength of the country. But
the Ethiopian monarch, being well apprifed of the
errand on which they came, treated them with great
contempt. In return for the prefents fent him by
Cambyfes, he fent his own bow ; and advifed the Per-
fians to make war upon the Ethiopians when they could
bend fuch a ftrong bow as eafily as he did, and to
thank the gods that the Ethiopians had no ambition to
extend their dominions beyond their own country.
Cambyfes was no fooner informed of this anfwer by Perfia.
his ambaffadors, than he flew into a violent palfion; ~ ~"
and ordered his army immediately to begin their march, His unfuc-
without confidering that they were neither furnilhedcefsful ex- !
with provifions nor any other neceflary. When £ J
arrived at Thebps in Upper Egypt, he detached anJ ;
50,000 men, with orders to deftroy the temple of Ju-theHam-
piter Ammon: but all thefe perilhed in the defart ;monians. /i
not a Angle perfou arriving either at the oracle, or
returning to Thebes. The reft of the army:, led by
Cambyfes bimfelf, experienced incredible hardlhips ;
for, not being provided with any necefiaries, they had
not marched a fifth part of the way when they were
obliged to kill and eat their beafts of burthen. When
thefe failed, the fotdiers fed on grafs and roots, as
long as any could be found; and at laft were reduced
to the dreadful neceffity of eating one another; every
tenth man, on whom the lot fell, being condemned to
ferve as food for his companions. The king, however,
obftinately perfifted in his defign; till, being apprehen-
five of the danger he himfelf was in, he retreated
to Thebes, after having loft the greateft part of his
army. 10 \
Cambyfes was a man of a very cruel and fufpicious murders |
temper, of which he gave many inftances; and thehls br9thei>|
following proved indireftly the caufe of his death.—
We have already obferved that the king of Ethiopia
fent his bow in return for the prefents brought to him
by the ambafladors of Cambyfes. The only man in
the Perfian army who could bend this bow was Smer¬
dis the king’s brother ; and this inftance of his per-
fonal ftrength fo alarmed the tyrant, that, without any
crime alleged, he caufed him to be murdered. This
gave occafion to one Smerdis, a magi, who greatly re-
fembled the other Smerdis in looks, to affume the
name of the deceafed prince, and to raife a rebellion
againft Carnbyfcs who was generally hated for his
cruelty ; and this he could the more eafily do, as the
chief management of affairs had been committed to
this Smerdis during the king’s abfence. Cambyfes, on
receiving the news of this revolt, immediately ordered
his army to march, in order to fupprefs it; but as he
was mounting his horfe, his fword, flipping out of its
fcabbard, wounded him in the thigh. On this acci¬
dent, he allied the name of the city where he was;
and being told that it was Ecbatan, he faid in the
prefence of all his attendans, “ Fate has decreed, that
Cambyfes the fon of Cyrus {hall die in this place.”
For, having confulted the oracle of Butus, which was
very famous in that country, he was told that he
Ihould die at Ecbatan. This he had always underftood
of Ecbatan in Media, and had therefore refolved to . f
avoid it. Being now, however, convinced that his
end approached, he affembkd the chief Perfian lords
who ferved in the army, and having told them that his
brother was certainly dead, he exhorted them never to
fubmit to the impoftor, or fuffer the fovereignty
again to pafs from the Pcrfians to the Medes, to which
nation Smerdis belonged, but to ufe their utmoft
endeavours to place one of their own blood on the
throne.
As the king’s wound mortified, he lived but a fcwHis ”atju 3
days after this ; but the affembly fuppofing that he ' ;
had fpoken only out of hatred to his brother, quietly
fubmitted to the impoftor, who was thus for a time
efta-
PER [ 5959 ] PER
Perfia. eftablifhed on the throne. Indeed, from his condudl
~ ' during the fhort time which he enjoyed the kingdom,
. ^he appears to have been not at all undeferving of a
Smerdis thecfown> He began with granting, to all his fubje&s an
magi. exemption from taxes and military fervice forthreeyears,
and treated all of them in the moft beneficent manner.
To fecure himfelf on the throne the more effe&ually,
he married Atoffa the daughter of Cyrus; thinking,
that, in cafe of a difcovery, he might hold the em¬
pire by her title. She had before been married to her
brother Cambyfes, on a decifion of the magi that a
king of Perjia might do as he pleafed; and by virtue of
13 this decifion Smerdis alfo married her as her brother.
His irr.po- The extreme caution of Smerdis, however, promoted
vered tl^CC* lhe ^^cove,T ^IS inapofture. He had married all
his predeceffor’s wives, among whom was one Phedy-
ma, the daughter of Otanes a Perfian nobleman of the
firft rank. Otanes, who fufpecled that the king was
not Smerdis th,e fon of‘Cyrus, fent a trufty mefl'enger
to his daughter, defiring to know whether he was fo or
not; but Phedyma, having never feen this Smerdis,
could not give any anfwer. Her father then defired
her to inquire at AtofiTa, who could not but know her
own brother. However, he was again difappointed ;
for Pbedyma acquainted him that all the kings wives
were lodged in diftindt and feparate appartments,
without being allowed to fee each other. This greatly
increafed the fufpicions of Otanes; upon which he fent
his daughter a third meffage, defiring her, the next time
fhefhould be admitted to the king’s bed, to taketan op¬
portunity of feeling whether he had ears or not: for Cy¬
rus had formerly caufedthe ears of Smerdis the magi to
be cut off for fome crime of which he had been guilty ;
fo that, if the Icing had ears, fhe might then be aflured
that he was Smerdis the fon of Cyrus.^ The event
,4 {hewed that the fufpicions of Otanes were juft ; and
Phedyma having acquainted her father that the king had
i Tacy form-no ears, a confpiracy was immediately formed againft
hhn8'ill,ft him. While the confpirators were debating about the
> ’ proper means of carrying their defignsinto execution,
!* ' Darius the fon of Hyftafpes happening to arrive at
Sufa where his father was governor, they all agreed to
make him privy to their defign. He told them, at
their fir ft meeting, that he thought nobody in theem-
pire but himfelf had known that Smerdis the fon of
Cyrus was dead, and the throne ufurped by a magi ;
that he had come with a defign to kill the ufurper,
without imparting his defign to any one, that the
glory of fuch an aftion might be entirely his own.
But fince others were apprifed of the impofture, he
infilled that the ufurper fhould be difpatched without
delay. Otanes, on the other hand, was for putting
off the enterprife till fome better opportunity offered ;
but Darius protefted, that if they did not make the
attempt that very day, he would prevent any one from
accufltig him, by difclofing the whole matter to the
magi himfelf.
In the mean time, Smerdis and his brother^had by
great promifes prevailed on Prenafpes (the executioner
of the true Smerdis) to bind himfelf by an oath not to
difeover the fraud they had putgm the Perfians, and
even to make a public fpeech, declaring that the pre-
fent king of Perfia was really the fon of Cyrus. At the
time appointed, he began his difeourfe with the ge¬
nealogy of Cyrus, putting his hearers in mind of the
great favours the nation had received from thatprlnee. ■ Perfia.
After having extolled Cyrus and his family, to the  
great aftbnilhment of all prefent, he confefied the
whole tranfa&ion with regard to the death of Smer¬
dis ; telling the people, that the apprehenfions of the
danger he mull inevitably run by publilhing the im¬
pofture had conftrained him to conceal it fo long; but
now, not being able any longer to a£t fuch a difhonour-
able part, he acknowledged that he had been compel¬
led by Cambyfes to put his brother to death with his
own hand, and that the perfon who poffeffed the throne
was Smerdis the Magi. He then begged pardon of
the gods and men for the crime he had committed; and
fulminating many imprecations againft the Perfians if
they failed to recover the fovereignty, he threw him¬
felf headlong from the top of the tower ori which he
flood, and died on the fpot. ls
In the mean time the confpirators, who were ad- He is Kill-
vancing towards the palace, were informed of what had c<b
happened; and Otanes was again for deferring the ex¬
ecution of their enterprife : but Darius infilling upon
the danger of delay, they proceeded boldly to the pa¬
lace ; and being admitted by the guards, who did not
fufpedl them, they killed both the ufurper and his bro-
ther; after which, they expofed their heads to the
people, and declared the whole impofture. The Per¬
fians at this were fo enraged, that they fell on the
whole fedt, and killed every one of the magi they could
meet with ; and had not the fiaughterfceen (lopped by
night, not one of the order would have been left alive.
The day on which this flaughter happened was after¬
wards celebrated by the Perfians with the greateft fo-
lemnity, and called by the name of Magopkonia, or
the /laughter-of the Magi. On that fdlival the magi
dtirft not appear abroad, but were obliged to (hut
themfelves up in their houfes. Sraerdis the magi
reigned only eight months.
When the tumult was a little fubfided, the confpi¬
rators, who were feven in number, met together in-
order to eledt a new king, or to determine what form
of government they fhould next introduce. Otanes
was for a republic : but being over-ruled by the reft,.,
he declared, that as he was determined not to be
a king, neither would he be ruled by one ; and
therefore infilled that he and his family fhou'd ever af¬
terwards remain free from fubjection to the royal power.
This was not only granted, but it was further agreed
by the other fix, that whoever was chofen fhould every
year prefent Otanes with a Median veil, a mark of
great dillindtion among the Perfians, becaufe he had
been the chief author ot the'enterprife. They further
agreed to meet at a certain place next morning at fun-
rife on horfeback, and that he whofe horfe'firft neigh- lg
ed fhould be king* This being overheard by Oebores, Darius Hy*
who had the care of Darius’s horfes, he led a mare fhfpes cho.-
over-night to the place, and brought his mailer’s horfe
to herv The next morning, the horfe remembering
the place, immediately neighed for the mare ;. and the
five lords difmounting, adored Darius as their king.
Darius Hyllafpes was eledled king of Perfia in the
year 5,22 B. C. Immediately after his acceffion, he
promoted the other fix confpirators to the firft employ¬
ments in the kingdom, married the two daughters of
Cyrus, Atoffa and Artyftona, Parmys the daughter of
the-true Smerdisj and Pheclyma the daughter of Q-.
taneSj,
Tcrfit.
Revolt of
the Babylo
PER [ 5960 ] PER
tanes. who had detedled the magi. He then divided After the redu&ion of Babylon, Darius undertook Perfii.
the whole empire into 20 fatrapies or governments, and
appointed a governor over each divifion, ordering them
to pay him an annual tribute. The inhabitants of
-Colchis, with fome others, were enjoined only to
make annual prefents, and the Arabians to furnilh
every year fuch a quantity of frankincenfe as equalled
the weight of 1000 talents. Thus Darius received
the yearly tribute of 14,560 Eubasic talents, upwards
260,000 pounds Sterling.
Under Darius, the building of the temple of Jeru-
falem, which had been obftrudted by Cambyfes and
Smerdis, went on fuccefsfully, and the Jewifh ftate
was entirely redored. The mod remarkable of Da¬
rius’s other tranfa&ions were his expeditions againft
Babylon; againft Scythia, India, and Greece. The
expedition againft Babylon took place in the 517
-B. C. when that people, unable to bear the oppreffion
of the Perfians, and likewife difeontented becaufe the
feat of government was removed from their city to
Sufa in Perfia, took the opportunity of the troubles
which happened in the reigns of Cambyfes and Smer¬
dis, to (lore their city with all kinds of provifions fuf-
ficient to ferve them for many years; after which they
broke out into an open rebellion, and this quickly
brought upon them Darius with all his forces. The
Babylonians perceiving themfelves (hut up by fo nu¬
merous an army, turned all their thoughts towards
the fupporting of a long fiege, which they imagined
would tire out the king’s troops. To prevent thecon-
fumption of their provifions, they took the mod bar¬
barous and cruel refolution that ever was put in exe¬
cution by any nation. They agreed among them-
Tclves to get rid of all unneceffary mouths; and there¬
fore, gathering together all the old men, women,
and children, they ftrangledthem without diftin&ion;
every one being allowed only to keep the wife he liked
Left, -and a maid-fervant to do the work of the houfe.
The fiege continued for a year and eight months; nor
was there any likelihood of its being ended, when Zo-
pyrus, one of Darius’s chief commanders, put him in
poffcflion of it by the following ftratagem. He cut
off his nofe and ears, and having mangled his body
with ftripes in a molt cruel manner, he fled to the Ba¬
bylonians thus disfigured, pretending that he had been
fo treated by Darius, for advifing him to raife the fiege.
Being intruded wirh the command of fome forces, he
cut off feveral parties of the Perfian army, whom Da¬
rius thus facrificed in order to raife the chara&cr of Zo-
pyrus the higher among the Babylonians. In this
manner he fo much eftabliflted his credit, that at lad
be w'as made commander in chief qf all the Babylo-
niftt forces, and the guard of the city committed en¬
tirely to his care ; and no fooner was this done, than
he delivered it up to Darius, who, to prevent their re¬
belling a fecoud time, beat down the walls of that me¬
tropolis to the height of 50 cubits. Three thoufand of
the mod aftive in the rebellion were impaled ; the reft;
pardoned. As they had deftroyed mod of their wo¬
men, the neighbouring nations were commanded to
furniftt them with wives, and 50,000 women were fent
to that city, by which means it was prevented from
being depopulated. Zopyrus was rewarded with the
higheft honours, and had the whole revenues of Baby¬
lon beftowed on him for life.
a Scythian expedition, direfted againft thofe nations ^
which lie between the Danube and the Tanais. His *nfuc.
pretext for this war was, to revenge the calamities Cefsful ex-
which tbefe nations had brought upon Afia about i20pedition
years before, when they invaded and fubdued Media; aSa'"ft
keeping it in fubje&ion for the fpace of 38 years, as^1 lanf'
we have related under that article. In this expedition
he was attended with an army of 700,000 men. With
thefe he marched to the Thracian Bofphorus; which
having paffed on a bridge of boats, he reduced all
Thrace. From Thrace he advanced to the Dapube,
where he had appointed his fleet to meet him. This
river he paffed on another bridge of boats, and entered
Scythia. His enemies, howeves, were too wife to op-
pofe fuch a formidable power in the open field ; and
therefore retired before him, wafting the country as
they went along, till at laft the king, fenfible of the
danger he was in, refolved to give over the enterprife
and return home. In order to do fo with fafety, he
lighted a great number of fires in the night-time, and
decamped ; leaving behind him the old men and the
fick, who fell into the hands of their enemies. The
Scythians perceiving that Darius was gone, detached
a confiderable body to the bridge over the Danube;
and as they were well acquainted with the roads, they
got thither before the Perfians. The Scythians had
fent expreffes before-hand to perfuade the lonians,
whom Darius had left to guard the bridge, to break
it down and retire to their own country; and this they
prefled the more earneftly, that as the time preferibed
by Darius was now expired, they were at liberty to
return home, without breaking their word or being
wanting in their duty. Miltiades, prince of the Cher-
fonefus of Thrace, was for embracing fo favourable an
opportunity of cutting off Darius’s retreat, and (ba¬
king off the Perfian yoke at once: all the other com¬
manders agreed with him, except Hyftiasus prince of
Miletus ; who reprefented to the Ionian chiefs, that
their power was connected with that of Darius, fince
it was under his protedlion that each of them was lord
in his own city; and that the cities of Ionia would not
fail to depofe them and recover their liberty, if the
Perfian power ftiould fink or decline. This fpeech
made a deep impreflion on the reft, and it was at laft
determined that they (hould wait for Darius; and in
order to deceive the Scythians, they began to break
down the bridge, but advifed them to return back and
defeat Darius. They did fo, but miffed him; and he
having thus fafely efcaped fo great a danger, imme¬
diately repaffed the Bofphorus, and took up his winter-
quarters at Sardis, leaving Megabyzus, one of his
chief generals, to complete the conqueft of Thrace. 19
The king having fufficiently refrefhed his troops, He con-
who had fuffered extremely in the Scythian expedition, nliers In*
began to think of extending his dominions eaftward ; ia'
and, in order to facilitate his defign, refolved in the
firft place to difeover thofe countries. With this
view, becaufed a fleet to be built and equipped at Caf-
patyrus, a city on the river Indus. The command of
this fleet he gave to one Scylax, a Grecian of Cary-
andia a city of Caria, who was well verfed in maritime
affairs. Him he ordered to fail down the current, and
make the bed difeoveries he could of the countries ly¬
ing on either fide of the river, till he arrived at the
fouthem
PER [ 5961 ] PER
F Perfia. fouthern ocean ; from whence he was to fteer his
w— *-courfe weftward, and that way return to Perfia. Scy-
]ax, having exaflly obferved his inftruftions, and fail¬
ed down the river Indus, entered the Red Sea by the
flraits of Babelmandel, and on the 30th month from
his firft fetting out, landed at the fame place from
whence Necho king of Egypt formerly fent out the
Phoenicians who circumnavigated Africa. From hence
Scylax returned to Sufa, where he gave a full account
of his difcoveries ; upon which Darius, marching into
India at the head of a powerful army, reduced that
large country, and made it a province of the Perfian
empire, drawing from thence an annual tribute of 360
talents of gold.
jo Soon after the expedition of Darius againft India,
Revolt of happened the revolt of the lonians, which gave occa-
dielomans, plon t0 ^ eXpe(j;t;on ;nto Greece; an account of which
is given under the articles Attica, Greece, Spar¬
ta, &c. The ill fuccefs which attended him here,
however, was fo far from making him drop the enter-
prife, that it only made him the more intent on re¬
ducing the Grecians; and herefolved to head his army
in perfon, having attributed his former bad fuccefs to
the inexperience of his generals. But while he was
employed in making the neceffary preparations for
this purpofe, he received intelligence that the Egyp¬
tians had revolted, fo that he was obliged to make
preparations for reducing them alfo ; and before this
could be done, the king died, after having reigned 36
years, leaving the throne to his fon Xerxes.
ji This prince afcended the throne of Perfia in the
Expedi- year 485 B. C. ; and his firft enterprife was to reduce
Xerxefa ^ * which he effeftually did, bringing
gairdtE1- t^,ern *nt0 3 worfe ftate °f flavery than they ever had
gyptand experienced before. After this he refolved on an ex-
Greece. pedition into Greece, the unfortunate event of which
is related under the article Attica. By his misfor¬
tunes in the Grecian expedition, he became at laft
fo difpirited, that he thenceforth abandoned all
thoughts of war and conquefts ; but growing tyran¬
nical, and opprefiing his fubje&s, he was murdered in
his bed, in the year 464 B. C. the 21ft of his reign ;
and was fucceeded by his third fon Artaxerxes, fur-
named Longimanus on account of the great length of
his arms.
This prince is named Ahafuerus in fcripture, and is
Xerxes fuc-*he fame who married Efther, and during the whole
ceeded by of his reign (hewed the greateft kindnefs to the Jewifh
Artaxerxes nation. In the beginning of his reign he was oppo-
I.ongima- j-£(j ^ pjyftafpes the fecond fon of Xerxes, whom,
however, he overcame, though not without confider-
able difficulty. After this he applied himfelf to the
fettlement of the affairs of government, and reforming
many abufes which had crept in ; and then, being
fully eftablifhed on the throne, he appointed feafts
and rejoicings to be made for 180 days in the city of
Sufa ; at one of which he refolved to divorce his queen
for difobedience ; and afterwards married Efther, as
we find it recorded in the facred writings.
In the fifth year of the reign of Artaxerxes the
Egyptians revolted anew, and, being affifted by the
Athenians, held out for fix years; but were again ob¬
liged to fubmit, and continued in fubje&ion during
the whole of his reign. Nothing elfe remarkable
happened during the life of Artaxerxes Longimanus,
Vql. VIII. 1
who died in the 41ft year of his reign ; and was fuc- Perf, .
ceeded by Xerxes II. the only fon he had by his-* Tj
queen, though by his concubines he had 17. Xerxes Xerxes II.
having drunk immoderately at an entertainment im¬
mediately after his acceffion, retired to a chamber, in
order to refrefh himfclf with deep ; but here he was
murdered by Sogdianus, the fon of Artaxerxes by one
of his concubines, after he had reigned 45 days.
Sogdianus was fcarce feated on the throne when
he put to death Bagorazus, the moft faithful of allSo^ la‘UIS’
his father’s eunuchs; by which, and the murder of
his fovereign, he became generally odious. Upon
this, fenfible of the dangerous fituation in which he
was, he fent for one of his brothers named Ochus,
whom he fufpeded, with a defign to murder him the
moment he arrived. Ochus, however, underftanding qcjiu^
his defign, put off, by feveral pretences, his coming,
till he had drawn together a powerful army, with
which he advanced to the confines of Perfia. Here
he openly declared, that his defign was to revenge his
brother’s death ; which brought over to him many of
the nobility and governors of provinces, by whom he
was immediately proclaimed king. Sogdianns, feeing
himfelf thus deferted, contrary to the advice of all
his friends, came to an accommodation with Ochus;
who no fooner had him in his power than he caufed
him to be fuffocated among aflies; n puniftiment in¬
vented on purpofe for him.
Ochus being firmly fettled on the throne by the
death of Sogdianus, changed his name to Darius; and
is by hiftorians commonly called Darius Nothus, or
the Bajlard. But Arfites, another of the brothers,
feeing in what manner Sogdianus had got the better
of Xerxes, and been afterwards driven out by Ochus,
began to entertain thoughts of treating him in the
fame manner. He was not, however, fo fuccefsful ;
for, being defeated in an engagement, he furrendered
himfelf in hopes of mercy, but was immediately put
to death by fuffocation in alhes. Several other per-
fons were executed : but thefe feverities did not pro¬
cure him the repofe which he expe&ed ; for his whole
reign was difturbed with violent commotions in various
parts of the empire. One of the moft dangerous was
raifed by Pifuthna governor of Lydia; but he being
deferted by his Greek mercenaries, was at laft over*
come, and put to death : however, his fon Amorgas
continued to infeft the maritime provinces of Afia Minor
for two years ; till he alfo was taken prifoner by Tiffa-
phernes, the new governor of Lydia, who put him to
death. Other infurreflions quickly followed this: but
the greateft misfortune which befel Darius during the
whole courfe of his reign was the revolt of the Egyp¬
tians, who could not be reduced. Before his death,
he inverted Cyrus his youngeft fon with the fupreme
government of all the provinces of Afia Minor. This
was done through the perfuafions of his mother Pary-
fatis, who had an abfolute fway over her hulband ;
and (he procured.this command for him, that he might
thereby be enabled to contend for the kingdom after
his father’s death. She even infilled that the king
(hould declare him heir to the crown before he died;
but this he could not by any means be induced to do.
He died in the year 405 B. C. and was fucceeded by iS
his fon Artaxerxes, by the Greeks furnamtd Mnemoriy
on account of bis extraordinary memory.
33 r
The
PER [ 5962 ] PER
Perfia. The mod remarkable tranfa&ion which happened
" ^ during the reign of tiiis prince was the revolt of his
Revolt of brother Cyrus. This young prince had been raifed
Cyrus the f0 great power through the intereft of his mother,
younger. on puj-p^fe that he might revolt, as we have already
feen. He began with gaining over the cities under
the government of Tiflaphernes ; which quickly pro¬
duced a war with that governor. Cyrus then began
to affemble troops, which he pretended were defigned
only againft Tiflaphernes. As he had given great af-
fitlance to the Lacedaemonians in their wars againft
the Athenians, he now in return demanded afiiftance
from them : which requeft they very readily complied
with, ordering their fleet immediately to join him,
and to obey in every thing the commands of Tamos
his admiral. At laft Cyrus, having colle&ed an ar¬
my of 13,000 Greek mercenaries and 100,000 regu¬
lar troops of other nations, fet out from Sardis, di-
refting his march towards Upper Afia ; the army be¬
ing entirely ignorant of the expedition on which they
were going. When they arrived at Tarfus, the Greeks,
fufpefting that they were marching againft the king,
refufed to proceed any further ; but Cyrus having
gained them over with prefents and promifes, they
foon went on with fatisfa&ion. Having arrived at
28 Cunaxa in the province of Babylon, Cyrus found his
Battle of brother , with 900,000 men ready to engage him.
Cunaxa. Whereupon, leaping out of his chariot, he command¬
ed his troops to Hand to their arms and fall into their
ranks ; which was done with great expedition, no
time being allowed the foldiers to refrefh themfelves.
Clcarchus, the commander of the Pelopponnefian
troops, advifed Cyrus not to charge in perfon, but to
remain in the rear of the Greek battalions; but this
advice he rejefted with indignation, faying, that he
fhould thus render himfelf unworthy of the crown for
which he was fighting. As the king’s army drew
near, the Greeks fell upon them with fuch fury, that
they routed the wing oppofite to them almoft at the
jfirft onfet ;-upon which Cyrus was with loud (hoots
proclaimed king by thofe who ftood next to him.
But he, in the mean time, perceiving that Artaxerxes
was wheeling about to attack him in flank, advanced
againft him with 600 chofen horfe, killed Artagefes
captain of the king’s guards with his own hand, and
put the whole body to flight. In this encounter, dif-
covering his brother, he fpurred on his horfe, and,
coming up to him, engaged him with great fury ;
which in fome degree turned the battle into a Angle
combat. Cyrus killed his brother’s horfe, and wound¬
ed himfelf on the ground ; but he immediately mount¬
ed another horfe, when Cyrus attacked him again,
gave him a fecond wound, and had already lifted up
his hand to give him a third, when the guards, per¬
ceiving the danger in which their king w^s, difcar-
ged their arrows at once againlt his antagonist, who
at the fame time throwing himfelf headlong upon his
brother, was pierced through by h:s javelin. He fell
dead upon the fpot; and all the chief lords of his
court, rcfolving not to furvive him, were flain in the
fame place.
In the mean time, the Greeks having defeated the
enemy’s left wing commanded by Tiflaphernes, and
the king’s right wing having put to fi ght Cyrus’s left,
both parties, being ignorant of what had palled elfe-
where, imagined that they had gained the vi&ory. Perfia.
But Tiflaphernes acquainting the king that his men "*~
had been put to flight by the Greeks, he immediately
rallied his troops in order to attack them. The
Greeks, under the command of Clearchus, eafily re-
pulfed them, and purfued them them to the foot of
the neighbouring hills. As night was drawing near,
they halted at the foot of the hill, much furprifed that
neither Cyrus himfelf, nor any meflenger from him,
had appeared ; for as yet they knew nothing of his
death and the defeat of the reft of the army. They
determined therefore to return to their camp, which
they did accordingly; but found there that the great-
eft part of their baggage had been plundered, and all
their provifions taken, which obliged them to pafs the
night in the camp without any fort of refrefhment.
The next morning, as they were (till expefting to hear
from Cyrus, they received the news of his death, and
the defeat of that part of the army. Whereupon they
fent deputies to Ariasus, who was commander in chief
of all the other forces of Cyrus, offering him, as
conquerors, the crown of Perfia. Ariaeus rejected the
offer, and acquainting them that he intended to fet
out early in the morning on his return to Ionia, ad¬
vifed them to join him in the night. They followed a?
his dlredlions, and, under the conduA of Clearchus, Retrf*t of ' !
began their march, arriving at his camp about mid- faJ'JcjKdjs 4
night, whence they fet out on their return to Greece. i
They were at a vaft diftance from their own country,
in the very heart of the Perfian empire, furrounded by
a vi&orious and numerous army, and had no way to
return again but by forcing their way through an im-
menfe track of the enemy’s country. But their valour
and refolution mattered all thefe difficulties; and, in
fpite of a powerful army, which purfued and harraffed
them all the way, they made good their retreat for
2325 miles through the provinces belonging to the
enemy, and got fafe to the Greek cities on the Euxine
fea. This retreat, (the longed that ever was made
through an enemy’s country) was conduded at firft by
Clearchus ; but he being cut off through the treachery
of Tiffapherues, Xenophon was cboien in his room,
who at laft brought his men fafe into Greece: but for
a full account of that famous retreat, fee the article
Xenophon.
The war with Cyrus was fcarce ended, when ano*
ther broke out with the Lacedaemonians, on the follow- theL^a*-
ing account. Tiffaphernes bang appointed to fucceed monians.
Cyrus in all his power, to which was added all which
he himfelf pofleffed formerly, began to opprefs the
Greek cities in Alia in a moil; cruel manner. On this
they fent amba-fladors to Sparta, defiring the afiiftance
of that powerful republic. The Spartans having end¬
ed their long war with the Athenians, willingly laid
hold of the prefent opportunity of breaking again with
the Perlians, and therefore fent againft them an army
under the command of Thimbro, who, being lirength-
ened by the forces which returned under Xenophon,
took the field agauift Tiffaphernes. But Thimbro be¬
ing foon recalled upon fome compl .ints, Dcrcr llidas,
a brave officer and experienced engineer, was appoint¬
ed to fucceed him; and he carried on the war to much
more advantage than his predecefibr. On his arrival
in Afia, finding that Tiflaphernes w.ts at variance with
another governor named PharnabazuS) he concluded a
truce
PER [ 5963 1 PER
Ferfia. truce with the former, and marching againft Pharna-
_ bazus, drove him quite out of ^Eolia, and took feveral
cities in other parts. The latter, however, imme¬
diately repaired to the Perfian court, where he made
loud complaints againft Tiflaphernes, but gave the
king a moft falutary advice, which was to equip a pow¬
erful fleet, and give the command of it to Conon the
Athenian, the belt fea-officer of his time, by which
means he would obftruft the pafiage of further recruits
from Greece; and thus foon put an end to the power
of the Lacedaemonians in Afia. This advice being
approved of, the king ordered 500 talents for the
equipment of a fleet, with directions to give Conon the
command of it.
In the mean time, Darcyllidas, with all his valour
and (kill, fuffered himfelf to be drawn into fuch a dif-
advantageous fuuation, that he muft inevitably have
been deftroyed with his whole army, had it not been
through the cowardice of Tiflaphernes, who, having
expeiienced the Grecian valour at the battle of Cu-
naxa, could not by any means be induced to attack
them. The Lacedaemonians, however, having heard
that the Perfian monarch was fitting out a great fleet
againft them, refolved to pulh on the war as vigorouf-
ly as pofiible ; and for this purpofe fent over Agefi-
laus one of their kings, and a moft experienced com¬
mander, into Afia. This expedition was carried on with
fuch fecrecy, that Agefilaus arrived at Ephefus before
the Perfians had the lead notice of his defigns. Here
he took the field with 10,000 foot and 4000 horfe,
and falling upon the enemy while they were totally
unprepared, carried every thing before him. Tiffa-
phernes deceived him into a truce till he had leifure to
aflemble his forces, but gained little by his treachery;
for Agefilaus deceived him in his turn, and, whileTif-
faphernes marched his troops into Caria, the Greeks
invaded and plundered Phrygia.
Early in the fpring, Agefilaus gave out that his de-
fign was to invade Lydia ; but Tiflaphernes, who re¬
membered the laft year’s ftratagem, now taking it for
granted that Agefilaus would really invade Caria,
made his troops again march to the defence of that
province. But Agefilaus now led his army into Ly¬
dia as he had given out, and approached Sardis; upon
which Tiffaphernes recalled his forces from their for¬
mer rout, with a defign to relieve the place. But Ca¬
ria being a very mountainous country, and unfit for
horfe, he had marched thither only with the foot, and
left the horfe behind on the borders of that province.
Whence, on their marching back to the relief of Sar¬
dis, the horfe being fomedays march before the foot,
Agefilaus took the advantage of fo favourable an op¬
portunity, and fell upon them before the foct could
come to their affiftance. The Perfians were routed at
the very firft onfet; after which Agefilaus over-ran the
whole country, enriching both himfelf and his army
with the fpoils of the conquered Perfians.
By this continued ill fortune Artaxerxes was fo
much provoked againft Tiffaphernes, that he foon af¬
ter caufed him to be put to death.
On the death of Tiflaphernes, Tithrauftes, who was
appointed to fucceed him, fent largeprefents to Age
filaus, in hopes of perfuading him to abandon hiscon-
quefts; but finding that commander was not by any
means to be induced to relinquilh the war, he ftnt Ti-
mocrates of Rhodes into Greece, with large fums of Perfia,
money to corrupt the leading men in the cities, and re- ^ ~
kindle a war againft the Lacedaemonians. This ftra-Agefibus
tagem produced the intended effect; for the cities 0f°bllged t°
Thebes, Argos, Corinth, and others, entering intolcavc A
a confederacy, obliged them to recall Agefilaus to the
defence of his own country.
After the departure of Agefilaus, which happened
in the year 354 B. C. the Lacedaemonian power re¬
ceived a fevere blow at Cnidos, where their fleet was
entirely defeated by that of Artaxerxes under Conon,
50 of their (hips being taken in the engagement; after 3t
which, Conon and Pharnabazus being mafters of the Lacedsems.
fea, failed round the iflands and coafts of Afia, taking n!ans de'
the cities there which had been reduced by the Lace-feate<*’
dsemonians. Saftos and Abydos only held out, andre-
fifted the utmoft efforts of the enemy, tho’ they had
been befieged both by fea and land.
Next year, Conon having affembled a powerful
fleet, again took Pharnabazus on board, and reduced
the ifiand of Melos, from whence he made a defeent
on the coafts of Lyconia, pillaging all the maritime
provinces, and loading his fleet with an immenfe booty.
After this, Conon obtained leave qf him to repair to
Athens with 80 (hips and 50 talents, in ordet to re¬
build the walls of that city ; having firft convinced
Pharnabazus, that nothing could more effeftually con¬
tribute to the weakening of the power of Sparta than
putting Athens again in a condition to rival it*
power. He no fooner arrived at Piraeus the port of
Athens, but hd began to work ; which, as he had a
great number of hands, and was feconded by the zeal
of all thofc that were well inclined to the Athenians,
was foon completed, and the city not only reftored to
its former fplendour, but rendered more formidable than
ever. The Lacedaemonians were now reduced to the
neceffity of accepting fuch terms of peace as they Are obliged
could procure. The terms were, that all the Greekto
cities in Afia fliould be fubjetft to the king of Perfia, P'aCp w“h
as alfo the iflands of Cyprus and Clazomena ; that the 6 Cr ial's
iflands of Scyros, Lemnos, and Imbros, fhould be re¬
ftored to the Athenians, and all the cities of Greece,
whether fmall or great, fliould be declared free ; and
by the fame treaty Artaxerxes engaged to join thofe
who accepted the terms he propofed, and to afliil them
to the utmoft of his power againft fuch as ftiould rejeft
them.
Artaxerxes, being now difengaged from the Gre-
cian war, turned his arms againft Evagoras king ofCyprusrc-
Cyprus. This man was defeended from the ancient Juced.
kings of Salamine, the capital city of the ifland of
Cyprus. His anceftors had held that city for many
ages in quality of fovereigns; but were at laft driven
out by the Pcriians, who, making themfelves mafters
of the whole ifland, reduced it to a Perfian province.
Evagoras, however, being a man of an enterpriling
genius, foon became weary of living in lubjt&ion to a
foreign power, drove out the Perfian governor, and
recovered his paternal kingdom. Artaxvrxcs attemp¬
ted to drive him out of it; but, being diverted by the
Greek war, was obliged to put off the tnterprife.
However, Conon, by means.of Cteiias chief phyfician
to Artaxerxes, got all differences accommodated, and
Artaxerxes promifed not to moleft him in the pofftffion
of his fmall kingdom. Bet Evagoras foon becoming
33 P 2 dif-
PER [ 5964 ] PER
Perfia. difcontented with fuch a narrow pofleflion, gradually
reduced under his fubjedtion almotl the whole of the
ifland. Some, however, there were who held out
againft him, and thefe immediately applied to Ar-
taxerxes for affillance ; and he, as foon as the war with
Greece was at an end, bent all his force againft Eva-
goras, intending to drive him quite out of the ifland.
The Athenians, however, notwithftanding the favours
lately conferred upon them by the king of Ptrlia,
could not forbear afiifting their old ally in fuch a dread¬
ful emergency. Accordingly, they fent him ten men
of war under the command of Philocrates ; but the
Lacedaemonian fleet, commanded by Talentias brother
to Ageftlaus, falling in with them near the ifle of
Rhodes, furrounded them fo that not one (hip could
efcape. The Athenians, determined to affift Evago-
ras at all events, fent Chabrias with another fleet and
a confiderable body of land-forces; and with the af-
lidance of thefe he quickly reduced the whole ifland.
But in a (hort time, the Athenians being obliged, in
confequence of the treaty concluded with the Perfians,
to recall Chabrias, Artaxerxes attacked the ifland with
an army of 300,000 men, and a fleet of 300 (hips. E-
vagoras applied to the Egyptians, Libyans, Arabians,
Tyrians, and other nations, from whom he received
fupplies both of men and money ; fitting out a fleet
with which he ventured an engagement with that of
Artaxerxes. But being defeated, and obliged to (hut
himfelf up in Salamine, he was clofely belieged by
fea and land. Here at laft he was obliged to capitu¬
late, and abandon to the Perfians the whole of the
ifland except Salainine, which he held as a king tribu¬
tary to Artaxerxes.
The Cyprian war being ended, Artaxerxes turned
Unfuccefs- his arms againft the Cadufians, whofe country lay be-
fulexpedi- tween the Euxine and Cafpian Seas. But thefe na-
*ainft^he t'ons were t0° W£h accuftomed to war to be overcome
Cadufians the Perfians; and therefore the king was obliged to
and Egyp- abandon the projeft, after having loft a great number
lians. of his troops and all the horfes which he took out with
him. In his Egyptian expedition, which happened
immediately after the Cadufian war, he was attended
with little better fuccefs ; which, however, was owing
to the bad conduct of his general Pharnabazus. This
commander being entrufted with the management of
the Egyptian war, fent an ambaffador to Athens, com¬
plaining that Chabrias had engaged in the fcrvice of
an enemy of the king of Perfia, with whom the ftate
of Athens was in alliance, and threatening the repub¬
lic with his mafter’s refentment if proper fatisfaCtion
was not'given: at the fame time he demanded Iphi-
crates, another Athenian, and the beft general of his
time, to command the Greek mercenaries in the Per-
fian fervice. This the Athenians complied with; and
Jphicrates having muftered his troops, fo exercifed
them in all the arts of war, that they became after¬
wards very famous among the Greeks under the name
of Iphicrateftan foldiert. Indeed he had fufiieient time
to inftruCl them; for the Perfians were fo flow in their
preparations, that two whole years elapfed before
they were ready to take the field. At the fame time
Artaxerxes, that he might draw the more mercenaries
out of Greece, fent ambafladors to the different dates
m it, declaring it to be his will and pleafure that they
fhouldJive at peace with each other, on the terms of
the treaty lately concluded: which declaration was rs- Perfiai,
ceived with pleafure by all the ftates except Thebes, ^
who afpired at the fovereignty of Greece; and accord¬
ingly refufed to conform to it. All things, however,
at laft being ready for the expedition, the troops were
muftered at the 'city then called Ace, and fince Ptole-
mais ; where they were found to confift of zoo,coo
Perfians under the command of Pharnabazus, and
20,000 Greeks led by Iphicrates. The fleet confifted
of 300 galleys, befides a vaft number of other veffeis
which followed with provifions. The fleet and army
began to move at the fame time; and that they might
ad in concert, they feparated as little as poflible. It
was propofed, that the war fliould begin with the fiege
of Pc-luiium ; but -Nedanebis, the revolted king of
Egypt, -had provided fo well for the defence of the
place, that it was thought expedient to drop the en-
terprife, and make a defeent at one of the mouths of
the Nile. In this they fucceeded ; for the Egyptians
not expedingthem at that place, had not taken fuch
care to fortify it as at Pelufium. The fortrefs of
confequence was ealily taken, and all the Egyptians
in it put to the fword. After this, Iphicrates was for
embarking the troops without lofs of time, and at¬
tacking Memphis the capital of Egypt. Had this opi¬
nion been followed before the Egyptians recovered
from the coufternation into which they were thrown,
it is highly probable that the whole country might
have been reduced at once; but Pharnabazus would
undertake nothing before the reft of the forces were
come up. Iphicrates then, in the utmoft vexation at
lofing fo favourable an opportunity, preffed Pharnabazus
to allow him to attack the place with the Greek merce¬
naries only ; but he refufed this alfo, from a mean jea-
loufy of the honour which Tphicrates might acquire ;
and in the mean time the Egyptians recovered fufficient
courage to put themfelves in fuch a poftureof defence
that they could not be attacked with any probability
of fuccefs ; and at the fame time the Nile overflowing
as ufual, obliged them to return to Phcehice. The
expedition was again undertaken 12 years after, but
without fiiccefs.
The laft years of the reign of Artaxerxes were great¬
ly dilturbed by diflenfions in his family; which at laft
broke his heart, and he died in the 94th year of his
age, and 46th of his reign. He was lucceeded by one 3$
of his fons named Ochus, who behaved with fuch cruel- Ochus fuc-
ty, that almoft one half of his dominions revolted as cee<*s Arta*
foon as he came to the throne. But, by reafon of thexerxes*
diffenfions of the rebels among themfelves, all of them
were reduced, one after another; and among the reft,
the Sidonians, finding themfelves betrayed, burnt them¬
felves to the number of 40,000, together with their
wives and children.
Ochus, having quelled all the infurgents, imme- 37
diately fet himfelf about reducing Egypt, and for this Redl:ces
purpofe procured a reinforcement of other 10,000sypt’
mercenaries from Greece. On his march, he loft a
great number of his men drowned in the lake Serbonis,
which lies between Phoenice and Egypt, extending
about 30 miles in length. When the fouth wind
blows, the whole furface of this lake is covered with
land, in fuch a manner that no one can dillinguilh it
from the firm land. Several parties of Ochus’s army
were loft in. it for want of proper guides; and it is faid
PEN [ 5965 ] PEN
that whole armies have fometimes perirtied in the fame momeiit conquered by Alexander the Great. The Perfla.
place. When he arrived in Egypt, he detached three particulars of that h'erbe’s conqudts are related under ^
bodies to invade the country in different parts; each the article Macedon ; we {hall therefore here only Perfh con-
being commanded by a Perfian and a Greek general, take notice of the fate of Darius himfelf, with whichclUerec*
The firll was led by Lachares the Theban, and Ro- the Perfian empire concluded for many ages. After
faces governor of Lydia and Ionia ; the fecond by the battle of Arbela, which was decifive in favour of
Nicoftratus the Theban and Ariftazanes; the third Alexander, the latter took and plundered Perfepolis,
by Mentor the Rhodian and Bagoas an eunuch. The from whence he marched into Media, in order to pur-
main body of the army he kept with himfelf, and en- fue Darius, who had fled to Ecbatan the capital of that
camped near Peiufium, with a defign to watch the province. This unhappy prince had ftill an army of
events of the war there. The event was fuccefsful, as 30,000 foot, among whom were 4000 Greeks, who
we have related under the article Egypt; and Ochus continued faithful to the laft. Betides, thefe he had
having reduced the whole country, difmantled their 4000 {lingers, and 3000 horfe, molt of them Baflrians,
ftrong-holds, plundered the temples, and returned to and commanded by Befius governor of Baftria.—
Babylon loaded -with booty. When Darius heard that Alexander was marched to
The king, having ended this war with fuch fuccefs, Ecbatan, he retired into BatSria, with a defign to
conferred very high rewards on his mercenaries and raife another army ; but foon after, changing his
others who had diftinguiflied themfelves. To Mentor mind, he determined to venture a battle with the forces
the Rhodian he gave 100 talents, and other prefents he ftill had left. On this BefluS governor of Bac-
to a great value; appointing him alfo governor of all tria, and Nsbarzanes a Perfian lord of great diftinc-
the coafts of Afia, and committing to his care the tion, formed a confpiracy againft him, propofing to
whole management of the war which he was ftill carry- feize his perfon, and, if Alexander purfued them, to
ing on againft fome provinces that had revolted in the gain his friendfhip and prote&ion by betraying their
beginning of his reign; and all thefe either by ftrata- mafter into his hands; but if they efcaped, their de¬
gems, or by force, he at laft reduced; reftoring the fign was to murder him and ufurp the crown. The
king’s authority in all thefe places.—Ochus then, finding troops were eafily gained over, by reprefenting to
himfelf free from all troubles, gave his attention to them the defperate fituation of Dafius’s affairs ; but
nothing but his pleafures, leaving the adminiftration Darius himfelf, though informed of their proceed-
of affairs entirely to Bagoas the eunuch, and to Men- ings, and folicited to truft his perfon among the
tor. Thefe two agreed to fhare the power between Greeks, refufed to give credit to the report, or follow 4t
them ; in confequence of which the former had the pro- fueh a falutary counfel. The cdnfequence of this was, Darius fei-
vinces of Upper Afia, and the latter all the reft. Ba- that he was in a few days feized by the traitors ; who,zed by his
goas, being by birth an Egyptian, had a great zeal out of refpeft to the royal dignity, bound him vvith?wn fulj*
for the religion of his country, and endeavoured, on golden chains, and fhutting him up in a covered cart,je s‘
the conqueft of Egypt, to influewce the king in fa- fled with him towards Ba&ria. The cart was covered
vour of the Egyptian ceremonies; but, in fpite of all with {kins, and ftrangers appointed to drive it, with-
his endeavours, Ochus not only refufed to comply, but out knowing who the prifoner was. Bt flus was pro-
killed the facred bull, the emblem of the Egyptian god claimed commander in chief in the room of Darius by
Apis, plundered the temples, and carried away their the Baflrian horfe; but Artabazus and his fons, with
facred records. This Bagoas fuppofed to be the high- the forces they commanded, and the Greeks, under
eft guilt which a human creature could commit; and the command of one Patron, retired from the body of
therefore poifoned his mafter and benefacior in the the army under Beffus, and" marched over the moun-
lr 21ft year of his reign. Nor did his revenge ftop here; tains towards Parthiene. In the mean time Alexander
for he kept the king’s body, caufing another to be bu- arriving at Ecbatan, was informed that Darius had left
ried in its ftead; and becaufe the king had caufed his the place five days before. He then difpatched orders
attendants eat the flefti of Apis, Bagoas cut his body to Clitus, who had fallen fick at Sufa, to repair, as
in pieces, and gave it fo mangled to be devoured by foon as he recovered, to Ecbatan, and from thence to
cats, making handles for fwords of his bones. He follow him into Parthia with the cavalry and 6000
then placed Arfes the youngeft of the deceafed king’s Macedonians who were left in Ecbatan. Alexander
fons on the throne, that he might the more eafily pre- himfelf with the reft of the army purfued Darius; and
ferve the whole power to himftlf. the 11th day arrived at Rhages, having marched in
Arfes did not long enjoy even the ftiadow of power that fpace of time 3300 furlongs. Molt of thofe who
which Bagoas allowed him, being murdered in the accompanied him died through the fatigue of fo long
fecond year of his reign by that treacherous eunuch, a march ; infomuch that, on his arrival at Rhages,
who now conferred the crown on Darius Codomannus* he could fcarce mutter 60 horfemen. Finding that he
a diftant relation of the royal family. Neither did he could not come up with Darius, who had already
incline to let him enjoy the crown much longer than paffed the Cafpian {traits, he ftaid five days at Rhages,
bis predeceffor; for, finding that he could not fuffer in order to refrefti his army and fettle the affairs of
himfelf to be guided by him in all things, the trea- Media. From thence he marched into Parthia, and
). cherous Bagoas brought him a poifonous potion; but encamped at a fmall diftance from the Cafpian (traits,
• Darius got rid of him by his own artifice, caufing him which he paffed the next day without oppofition. He
to drink the poifon which he brought. This eftablifli- had fcarce entered Parthia, when he was informed
ed Darius in the throne as far as fecurity from internal that Beffus and Nabarzanes had confpired'againft Da-
enemies could do fo ; but In a very little time his do- rius, and defigned to feize him. Hereupon, leaving
minions were invaded, and, we may fay, the fame the main body of the army behind with Craterus, he
advaa-
PER [ 5966 ] PER
Perfia. advanced with a (mall troop of horfe lightly armed; and
' having marched day and night without ever halting,
except for a few hours, he came on the third day to a
village where Beflus with his Ba&rians had encamped
the day before. Here he underftood that Darius had
been feized by the traitors; that Beffus had caufed
him to be (hut up in a clofe*cart, which he had fent
before, that he might be the more fure of his perfon ;
and that the whole army except Anabazus and the
Greeks, who had taken another rout, obeyed Btffus.
Alexander therefore taking with him a fmall body of
light-armed horfe, for the others could not poflibly
proceed further, at lad came in fight of the barbari¬
ans, who were marching in great confufion. His un-
expetSed appearance fttuck them, though far fuperior
in number, with fuch terror, that they immediately be¬
took themfelves to flight; and becaufe Darius refufed
to follow them, Beffus and thofe who were about him
difcharged their darts at the unfortunate prince, leaving
him wallowing in his blood. After this they all fled
different ways, and were purfued with great (laughter
d«r«dmUr" ^ ^ie Macedonians. In the mean time the horfes
c * that drew the cart in which Darius was, (lopping of
their own accord, for the drivers had been killed by
Beffus, near a village about four furlongs from the
highway. Thither Polyftratus a Macedonian, being
preffed with third in the purfuit of the enemy, was
dire&ed by the inhabitants to a fountain to refrelh
himfclf, not far from the place where they dopped.
As he was tilling his helmet with water he heard
the groans of a dying man; and looking round him,
difeovered a cart with a team of. horfts, unable to
move by reafon of the many wounds they had re¬
ceived. When he drew near he perce ved Darius
lying in the cart, and very near his end, having feveral
darts.(licking in his body. However, he had drength
enough left to call for fome water, which Poly-
dratus readily brought him. Darius, after drinking,
turned to the Macedonian, and with a faint voice told
him, that, in the deplorable date to which he was
reduced, it was no fmall comfort to him that his lad
words would not be lod : he then charged him to re¬
turn his hearty thanks to Alexander for the kindnefs
he had (hewn to his wife and family, and to acquaint
him, that, with his lad breath, he befought the gods
to profper him in all his undertakings, and make him
foie monarch of the univerfe. He added, that it did
not fo much concern him as Alexander to purfue and
bring to condign punifliment thofe traitors who had
treated their lawful fovereign with fuch cruelty, that
being the common caufe of all crowned heads. Then,
taking Polydratus by the hand, “ Give Alexander
your hand, fays he, as I give you mine, and carry
him, in my name, the only pledge I am able to give,
in this condition, of my gra’itude and affeftion.”
Having uttered thefe words, he expired in the arms of
Polydratus. Alexander coming up a few minutes
after, bewailed his death, and caufed his body to be in¬
terred with the highed honours. The traitor Btffus
43 being at lad reduced to extreme difficulties, was de-
His mur- livered up by his own men naked and bound into the
adhed PU" han^30^ t*16 Macedonians ; on which Alexander gave
him up toOxathresthe brother of Durius, to fuffer what
punifhment he (hould think proper. Plutarch tells us
that he was executed in the following manner: Several
trees being by main force bent down to the ground, Perfia. i
and one of the traitor’s limbs tied to each of them, the ’
trees, as they were fuffered to return to their natural
pofition, flew back with fuch violence, that each car¬
ried with it the limb that was tied to it.
Thus ended the empire of Perfia, 209 years after it 44 j
had been founded by Cyrus. After the death of A- tj1jVpatt° 1
lexander the Perfian dominions became fubjeft to Se-thians.
leucus Nicator, and continued fubjedt to him for 62
years, when the Parrhians revolted, and conquered the
greateft part of them. To the Parthians they conti¬
nued fubjedf for 475 years; when the fovereignty was
again reftbVed to thePerfians,as related under the article
Parthia.
The reflorer of the Perfian monarchy was Artax- 4s
erxes, or Artaxares, who was not only a private per- PyrOan em;
fon, but of fpurious birth. However, he poffeffed
great abilities, by which means he executed his anibi- res. i
tious projedls. He was no fooner feated on the throne
than he took the pompous title of king of kings, anti
formed a defign of redoring the empire to its ancient
glory. He therefore gave notice to the Roman gover¬
nors of ihe provinces bordering on his dominions, that
he had a juft right, as the fuccelfor of Cyrus, to all
the Defier Afia; which he therefore commanded them
immediately to quit, as well as the provinces on the
frontiers of the ancient Parthian kingdom, which were
already his. The confequence of this was a war with
Alexander Severus the Roman emperor. Concerning
the event of this war there are very different accounts.
It is certain, however, that, on account of his exploits
againfl Artaxares, Alexander took the titles of Par-
thicus and Perfcus; though, it would feem, with no
great reafon, as the Perfian monarch loft none of his
dominions, and his fucccflbrs were equally ready with
himfelf to invade the Roman territories.
Artaxares dying after a reign of 12 or 15 years, 46
was fucceeded by his fon Sapores; a prince of great Succeeded I
abilities both of body and mind, but fierce, haughty,
untraftable, and cruel. He was no fooner feated onvalemnthi
the throne than he began a new war with the Romans. Roman eir.«
In the beginning he was unfuccefsful; being obliged, peror pri- -j
by the young emperor Gordian, to withdraw from the foner*
Roman dominions, and was even invaded in his turn;
but, in a (hort time, Gordian being murdered by Philip,
the new emperor made peace with him upon terms very
advantageous to the Perfians. He was no fooner gone
than Sapor renewed his incurfions, and made fuch a-
larming progrefs, that the emperor Valerian, at the age
of 70, marched againft him in perfon with a numerous
army. An engagement enfued, in which the Romans
were defeated and Valerian taken prifoner. Sapor
purfued his advantages with fuch infolence of cruelty,
that the people of the provinces took arms, firft under
Calliftus a Roman general, and then under Odenatus
prince of Palmyrene. Thus they not only proie&ed
themfelves from the infults of the Perfians, but even
gained many great vi&ories over them, and drove Sa¬
por with difgrace into his own dominions. In his march
he is faid to have made ufe of the bodies of hie unfor¬
tunate prifoners to fill up the hollow roads, and to fa¬
cilitate the paffage of his carriages over fuch rivers as
lay in his way. On his return to Perfia, he was foli-
cited by the kings of the Cadufians, Armenians, Bac-
trians, and other nations, to fet Valerian at liberty;
but
I
PER [ 5967 ] PER
Perfu. but to no purpofe. On the contrary, he ufed him the
47 worfe; treated him daily with indignities, fet his foot
ind treats upon his neck when he mounted his horfe, and, as is
imcruelly. afl}rme(] by fome, flayed dm alive after fome years con¬
finement; and caufed his fltin to be tanned, which he
kept as a monument of his vi&ory over the Romans.
This extreme infolence and cruelty was followed by an
uninterrupted courfe of misfortune. Odenatus defeat¬
ed him in every engagement, and even feemed ready to
overthrow his empire ; and after him Aurelian took
ample vengeance for the captivity of Valerian. Sapor
died in the year of Chrift 273, after having reigned 31
years; and was fucceeded by his fon Hormifdas, and
he by Varanes I. Concerning both thefe princes we
know nothing more than that the former reigned a
year and ten days, and the latter three years; after
which he left the crown to Varanes II. who feems to
have been fo much awed by the power of the Romans,
that he durft undertake nothing. The reft of the Per-
fian hiftory, to the overthrow of the empire by the Sa¬
racens, affords nothing but an account of their conti¬
nued invafions of the Roman empire, which more pro¬
perly belongs to the hiftory of Rome • and to which
therefore we refer. The laft of the Perfian monarchs
43 of the line of Artaxares, was Ifdigertes, or Jezdegerd,
The Perfian as he is called by the Arabian and Perfian hiltorians,
empire o wh.0 was cotemporary with Omar the fecond caliph af-
bylheTsa” ter Mahomet. He was fcarce feated on the throne,
racens. when he found himfelf attacked by a powerful army of
Saracens under the command of one Sad, who invaded
the country through Chaldea. The Perfian general
took all imaginable pains to harrafs the Arabs pn their
march; and having an army fuperior to them in num¬
bers, employed them continually in fkirmifties; which
were fometimes favourable to him, and fometimes other-
wife. But Sad, perceiving that this lingering war
would deftroy his army, determined to haften forward,
and force the enemy to a general engagement. The
Perfians declined this for a long time; but at length,
finding a convenient plain where all their forces might
a£i, they drew up in older of battle, and refolved to
wait for the Arabs. Sad having difpofed his men in
the belt order he could, attacked the Perfians with the
utmoft fury. The battle tailed three days and three
nights; the Perfians retiring continually from one poft
to another, till at laft they were entirely defeated; afrd
thus the capital city, and the greateft part of the do¬
minions of Perfia, fell into the hands of the Arabs. The
conquerors feized the treafures of the kings; which
were fo vaft, that, according to a Mahometan tradition,
their prophet gave the Saracen army a miraculous view
of thofe treafures before the engagement, in order to
encourage them to fight
After the lofs of this battle, Jezdegerd retired into
Choraffctn, where he maintained himfelf as king, ha
ving under his fubjeftion two other provinces, named
Kerman and Segejian- Bui after he had reigned in this
limited manner for 19 years, one of the governors of
the few towns he had left betrayed it, and called in
the Turks. This place was called Merou, feated on
the river Gihon or Odus. J. zde'gerd immediately
marched againft the rebels and their allies. The Per¬
fians—were defeated; and the unfortunate monarch,
having with much difficulty reached the river, found
there a little boat, and a fiftierman to whom it belong¬
ed. The king offered him a bracelet of precious ftones; Perfi*.
but the fellow, equally brutal and ftupid, told him that
his fare was five farthings, and that he would neither
take more nor lefs. While they difputed, a party of
the rebel horfe came up, and knowing Jezgederd, kill¬
ed him in the year 652.
Jezdegerd left behind him a fon named Firouz, and
a daughter named Dara. The latter efpoufed Bofte-
nay, whom the rabbinical writers have dignified with
the title of the head of the captivity, and who, in faft,
was the prince of the Jews fettled in Chaldea. As for
Firouz, he ftill preferved a little principality; and when
he died, left a daughter named Mah Afrid, who mar¬
ried Walid the fon of the caliph Abdalmalek, by
whom (he had a fon named Yezid, who became caliph,
and confequently fovereign of Pcrlia; and fo far was this
prince from thinking himfelf above claiming the title
derived from his mother, that he conftantly ftyled him¬
felf the fon of Khofrou king of Perfia, the defendant of
the caliph Maroan, and among •whofe ancefors on the fide
of the mother ’were the Roman emperor and the khacan.
Perfia continued to be fubjedt to the Arabs till the 4S>
decline of the Saracen empire, when it was feized by State of
various ufurpers, till the timeof Jenghiz Khan, whocon- Perfia under
quered it as well as almoft all the reft of Afia. After
his death, which happened in the year 1227, Perfia,
together with the neighbouring countries, were gover¬
ned by officers appointed by his fucceffors, who reign¬
ed at Kserakorom, in the eaftern parts of Tartary, till
the year 1253, when it became once more the feat of a
mighty empire under Hulaku the Mogul, who in 1256
abolifhed the caliphat, by taking the city of Bagdad, as
related under that article. After thexleath of Hulaku,
his fon Abaka fucceeded to his extenfive dominions ;
and his firft care was to fhut up all the avenues of his
empire againft theoiher princes of the race of Jenghiz
Khan, who reigned in different parts of Tartary. His
precautions, however, were of little avail; for, in the
very beginning of his reign, he was invaded by Bar¬
kan Khan, of the race of Jagatay the fun of Jenghiz
Khan, from Great Bukharis, with an army of 300,000
men. Abaka was but indifferently prepared to oppofe
fuch a formidable power; but, happily for him, his
antagonift died before the armies came to an engage¬
ment, upon which the invaders difperfed and returned
to Tartary. In the year 1264, Armenia and Anatolia
were ravaged by theMamlucks from Egypt, but were
obliged to fly from Abaka ; who thus feemed to be
eltablilhed in the poffeffiun of an empire almoft as ex-
tenlive as that of the ancient Perfian kings. His tran¬
quillity, however, was of fhort duration; for, in 1268,
his dominions were invaded by Borak Khan, a prince
likewife of the race of Jagatay, with an army of
100,000 men. He quickly reduced the province of
Choraffan, where he met with little oppolition, and,
in 1269, advanced as far as Aderbijan, where Abaka
had the bulk of his forces. A bloody battle enfued;
in which Abaka was victorious, and Borak obl ged to
fly into Tartary, with the lots of all his baggage and
great part of his army. Abaka died in 1282, after a
reign of 17 years, not without fufpicion of being poi-
loned; and was fucceeded by his brodicr Ahmed Khan.
He was the firft of the family of Jenghiz Khan who
embraced Mahometanifm ; but neither he nor his fuc¬
ceffors appear to have been in the leaft verfed in the
arts
PER [ 596S ] PER
Peifo. arts oFgovernment; for the Perfian hiftory, from this
—period, becomes only an account of infurreftions, mur¬
ders, rebellions, and poifonings, till the year 1335,
when it fplit all to pieces, and was poflefled by a great
S° number of petty princes; all of whom were at perpe-
Under Ta- jua] war each other till the time of Timur Beg,
JhisVuccef-' or Tamerlane, who once more reduced them all under
fors, one jurifdidtion.
After the death of Tamerlane, Perfia continued to
be governed by his fon Shah Rukh, a wife and valiant
prince; but, immediately after his death, fell into the
fame confufton as before; being held by a great num¬
ber of petty tyrants, till the beginning of the 16th cen-
5, tury, when it was conquered by Shah Ifmael Safi,
Conquered or Sefi ; of whofe family we have the following ac-
by Ifmael COunt. His father was Sheykh Hayder or Haydr,
0 ' the fon of Soltan Juneyd, the fon of Sheykh Ibrahim,
the fon of Sheykh Ali, the fon of Sheykh Mufa, the
fon of Sheykh Sefi, who was the 13th in a diredt line
from AH the fon-in-law of the prophet Mahomet,
When Tamerlane returned from the defeat of Bajazet
the Turkilh fultan, he carried with him a great num¬
ber of captives out of Karamania and Anatolia, all of
whom he intended to put to death on fome remarkable
occalion; and with this refolution he entered Ardebil,
or Ardevil, a city of Aderbijan, about 25 miles to the
eaft of Taurus, where he continued for fome days. At
this time lived in that city the Sheykh Safi or Sefi
abovementioned, reputed by the inhabitants to be a
faint; and, as fuch, much reverenced by them. The
fame of Safi’s fanftity fo much moved Tamerlane, that
he paid him frequent vifits; and, when he was about
to depart, promifed to grant whatever favour he fhould
afk. Sheykh Safi, who had been informed of Tamer¬
lane’s defign to put the captives to death, requefted of
the conqueror that he would fpare the lives of thofe
unfortunate men. Tamerlane, defirous of obliging
him, not only granted this requeft, but delivered them
up to him to be difpofed of as he thought fit; upon
which the Sheykh furnifhed them with deaths and o-
ther neceffaries as well as he could, and fent them home
to their refpedtive countries. This generous aftion
proved very beneficial to the family ; for the people
were fo much affe&ed with fuch an extraordinary in-
ftance of virtue, that they repaired in great numbers to
Safi, bringing with them confiderable prefents ; and
this fo frequently, that few days paffed in which he was
not vifited by many. Thus the defeendants of the
Sheykh made a confpicuous figure till the year 1486,
when they were all deftroyed by the Turkmans except
Ifmael, who fled to Ghilan, where he lived under the
protection of the king of that country; after which he
became confpicuous on the following ocqafion.
There was at that time, among the Mahometans,
a vaft number of people difperfed over Afia ; and
among thefe a particular party who followed that of
Haydr the father of Ifmael, which Sheyk Safi, one
of his anceftors, had brought into great reputation.
Ifmael, who had affumed the furname of Soft, or Sage,
finding that Perfia was all in confufion, and hearing
that there was a great number of the Hayderian feCt
in Karamania, removed thither. There he colleded
7006 of his party, all devoted to the intereft of his
family; and while he was yet only 14 years of age,
conquered Shirwan. After this he purfued his con-
quefts; and as his antagonifts never united to oppofe Perfia.
him, bad conquered the greateft part of Perfia, and re-'
duced the city of Bagdad by the year 1510. How¬
ever, his conquefts on the well fide were foon Hopped
by the Turks; for, in 1511, he received a great defeat
from Salem I. who took Tauris; and would probably
have cruflied the empire of Ifmael in its infancy, had
he not thought theconqueft of Egypt more important
than that of Perfia. After his defeat by Selim, If¬
mael never undertook any thing of confequence. He
died in 1523, leaving the crown to hiseldelt fonTah-
mafp I.
The new Shah was a man of very limited abilities,
and was therefore invaded by the Turks almoft. inftant-
ly on his acceffion to the throne. However, they were
obliged to retreat by an inundation, which overflowed
their camp, and which frightened them with its red
colour, probably arifing from the nature of the foil
over which it palled. Thamafp, however, reduced
Georgia to a province of the Perfian empire ; that
country being in his time divided among a number of
petty princes, who, by reafon of their divifions, were
able to make little oppofition. 51 |
The reigns of the fucceeding princes afford nothing Reign of |
remarkable till the time of Shah Abbas I. furnamed ^eal^eba^a! |jj
the Great. He afeended the throne in the year 1584; rea •
and his firft care was to recover from the Turks and
Tartars the large provinces they had feized which for¬
merly belonged to the Perfian empire. He began with
declaring war againft the latter, who had feized the
fined part of Choralfan. Accordingly, having raifed
a powerful army, he entered that province, where he
was met by Abdallah Khan the chief of the Ulbeck
Tartars. The two armies lay in fight of each other
for fix months ; but at length Abbas attacked and de¬
feated his enemies, forcing them, for that time, to
abandon Choraflan. Here he continued for three years;
and on his leaving that place, fixed the feat of govern¬
ment at Ifpahan, where it has continued ever fince.
His next expedition was againft the Turks. Under-
ftanding that the garrifon of Tauris were in no expec¬
tation of an enemy, he formed a defign of furprifing
the place ; and, having privately alfembled a few for¬
ces, he marched with fuch celerity, that he reached a
pafs called Shibli, very near Tauris, in fix days, tho’
it is ufually 18 or 20 days journey for the caravans.
Here the Turks had polled a few foldiers, rather for
the purpofe of collefting the cuftoms on fuch commo¬
dities as were brought that way, than of defending the
pafs againft an enemy. Before they came in fight of
this pafs, Abbas and fome of his officers left the reft
of the army, and rode brilkly up to the turnpike.
Here the fecretary of the cuilom-hpufe, taking them
for merchants, demanded the ufual duties. Abbas re¬
plied, that the perfon who had the purfe was behind,
but at the fame time ordered fome money to be given
him. But while the fecretary was counting it, he was
fuddenly ftabbed by the Shah’s order; and the officers
who were with him fuddenly falling upon the few fol,-
diers who were there, obliged them to fubmit; after
which he entered the pafs with his army. The go¬
vernor of Tauris marched out with all the troops he
could colleft on fo Ihort a warning ; but being inferior
to the Perfians, he was utterly defeated, andjumfelf
taken prifoner j after which the city was obliged to
fubmit,
PER [ 5969 ] PER
Perfia. fubmit, as alfo a number of places in the neighbour-
 hood. One city only, called Orumi, being very
ftrongly fituated, refilled all the efforts of Abbas; but
was at laft taken by the afliftance of the Curds, whom
he gained over by promifing to fhare the plunder of
the place with them. But inllead of this, he formed a
defign to cut them all off at once ; fearing that they
might at another time do the Turks a fervice of the
fame nature that they had done to him juft now. For
this reafon he invited their chiefs to dine with him;
and having brought them to a tent, the entrance to
which had feveral turnings; and on the infide were
ftationed two executioners, who cut off the heads of the
guefts as foon as they entered.
After this Shah Abbas confiderably enlarged his do¬
minions, and repelled two dangerous invafions of the
Turks. He attempted alfo to promote commerce, and
civilife his fubje&s; but ftained all his great adtions
by his abominable cruelties, which he pradtifed on every
one who gave him the lead caufe of offence; nay, fre¬
quently without any caufe at all. He took the Ifle of
Ormus from the Portuguefe, who had kept it fince
1507, by the afliftance of fome Englifh fhips in 1622;
and died fix years after, aged 70.
The princes who fucceeded Shah Abbas the Great,
were remarkable only for their cruelties and debauch¬
eries, which occafioned a revolution in 1716, when
the Shah Huffeyn was dethroned by the Afghans, a
people inhabiting the country between Perfia and In¬
dia ; who being oppreffed by the minifters, revolted
under the condudt of one Mereweis. The princes of
S3 the Afghan race continued to enjoy the fovereignty
Khoulf °f ^or no inore t^ian ^ years, when Afhraff the reigning
Khan. Shah was dethroned by one of his officers. On this
Tahamafp, otherwife called Prince Thamas, the only
furvivor of the family of Abbas, affembling an army,
invited into his fervice Nadir Khan, who had obtain¬
ed great reputation for his valour and conduct. He
was the fon of a Perfian nobleman, on the frontiers of
Ufbeck Tartary ; and his uncle, who was his guar¬
dian, keeping him out of pofl'effion of the caftle and
eftate, which was his inheritance, he took to robbing
the caravans ; and, having increafed his followers to
upwards of 500 men, became the terror of that part
of the country, and efpecially of his uncle, who had
feized his eftate. His uncle therefore refolved to make
his peace with him, and with that view invited him to
the caftle, where he entertained him in a fplendid man¬
ner ; but Nadir Khan ordered his throat to be cut
next night, and alibis people to be turned out of the
caftle. No fooner had Nadir Khan got the command
of the Perfian army, than he attacked and defeated the
ufurper Efriff, put him to death, and recovered all the
places the Turks and Ruffians had made themfelves
maftersof during the rebellion ; and then prince Tha¬
mas feemed to beeftablifhed on the throne: but Nadir
Khan, to whom Thamas had given the name of Tha~
mas Kouli Khan, that is, the Slave of Thamas, think¬
ing his fervices not fufficiently rewarded, and pretend¬
ing that the king had a defign againft his life, or at
leaft to fet him afide, confpired againft his fovereign,
and put him to death, as is fuppofed: after which, he
ufurped the throne, ftyling himfelf Shah Nadir, or
Kina Nadir.
He afterwards laid fiege to Candahor, of which a
Vou VIII. 2
fon of Mereweis had poffeffed himfelf. While he lay Perfia.
at this fiege, the court of the Great Mogul being di- 
ftrafted with fa&ions, one of the parties invited Shah
Nadir to come to their affiftance, and betrayed the Mo¬
gul into his hands. He thereupon marched to Delhi,
the capital of India, and fummoned all the.viceroys
and governors of provinces to attend him, and bring
with them all the treafures they could raife, and thofe
that did not bring as much as he expedled, he tortured
and put to death. Having thus amaffed the greateft
treafure that ever prince was mafter of, he returned to
Perfia, giving the Mogul his liberty, on condition of
his refigning the provinces on the weft fide of the In¬
dus to the crown of Perfia. He afterwards made a
conqueft of Ufbeck Tartary, and plundered Bochara the
capital city. Then he marched againft the Dagiftan
Tartars; but loft great part of his army in their moun¬
tains, without fighting. He defeated the Turks in
feveral engagements; but laying fiege to Bagdad, was
twice compelled to raife the fiege. He proceeded to
change the religion of Perfia to that of Omar, hanged
up the chief priefts, put his own fon to death, and was
guilty of fuch cruelty, that he was at length aff-lfina-
ted by his own relations, anno 1747. A conteft up¬
on this enfued between thefe relations for the crown;
which continued for feveral years, and made Perfia a
dreadful fcene of confuiion, bloodfhed, and devaftation:
but at laft fortune declared in favour of Kerim Khan,
who was crowned in the month of Odober 1763, at
Tauris. J4
As to the air and climate of this country, confider-Airand
ing the great extent thereof, it cannot but be very dif-climate
ferent, according to the fituation of its feveral parts ; r“a*
fome being frozen with cold, whilft others are burnt
with heat at the fame time of the year. The air,
wherever it is cold, is dry ; but, where it is extremely
hot, it is fometimes moift. All along the coall of the
Perfian Gulph, from weft to eaft, to the very mouth
of the river Indus, the heat for four months is fo ex-
Ceffive, that even thofe who are born in the country,
unable to bear it, are forced to quit their houfes, and
retire to the mountains; fo that fuch as travel in thefe
parts, at that feafon, find none in the villages but
wretched poor creatures, left there to watch the effedts
of the rich, at the expence of their own health. The
extreme heat of the air, as it is infupportable, fo it
makes it prodigioufly unwholefome; ftrangers fre¬
quently falling fick there, and feldom efcaping. The
eaftern provinces of Perfia, from the river Indus to the
borders of Tartary, are fubjedl to great heats, though
not quite fo unwholefome as on th« "oafts of the In¬
dian Ocean and the Perfian Gulph ^ \>ut >n l^e nor*
them provinces, on the coaft of the c.inAn Sea, the
heat is full as great, and, though att^UCi with moi-
fture, as unwholefome as on the coaft tic^e mention¬
ed. From Oflober to May, there is no Country in the
world more pleafant than this; but the people carry
indelible marks of the malign influence of their fum-
mers, looking all of them of a faint yellow, and ha¬
ving neither ftrength nor fpirits; though, about the end
of April, they abandon their houfes, and retire to the
mountains, which are 25 or 30 leagues from the fea.
But this moiftnefs in the air is only in thefe parts : the
reft of Perfia enjoys a dry air, the Iky being perfedlly
ferene, and hardly fo much as a cloud feen to fly there-
33 Q in*
PER [ 5970 ] PER
Perfia. In. Though it feldom rains, it does not follow that the
—   heat adraits of no mitigation; for in the night, not-
withftanding there is not a cloud to be feen, and the
iky is fo clear, that the ftars alone afford a light
fufficient to travel by, a bri/k wind fprings up, which
lads until within an hour of the morning, and gives
fnch a coolnefs to the air, that a man can difpenfe
with a tolerable warm garment. The feafons in gene¬
ral, and particularly in the middle of this kingdom,
happen thus: the winter, beginning in November, and
lading until March, is very (harp and rude, attended
with frod and fnow; which lad defcends in great flakes
on the mountains, but never in the plains. There are
mountains, three days journey to the wed of Spauhawn,
or Ifpahan, on which the fnow lies for eight months
in the year. From the month of March to that of
May there are brifk winds; from May to September
the air is ferene and dry, refrefhed by pleafant gales,
which blow in the night, at evening and morning ;
and in September and November the wind blows as
in the fpring. The great drinefs of the air exemps
Perfia from thunder and earthquakes. In the fpring,
indeed, there fometimes falls hail; and, as the harveft
is then pretty far advanced, it does a great deal of
mifchief. The rainbow is feldom feen in this country,
becaufe there rife not vapours fufficient to form it; but
in the night there are feen rays of light (hooting thro’
the firmament, and followed as it were by a train of
fmoke. The winds, however brifk, feldom fwell into
ftorms or tempeds ; but, on the other hand, they are
fometimes poifonous and infectious on the'fhore of the
Gulph, as all travellers agree. Mr Tavernier fays, that
at Gombroon people often find themfelves druck by a
fouth wind, in fuch a manner that they cry, “ I burn:”
and immediately fall down dead. M. le Brun tells us,
that he was affured while he was there, that the wea¬
ther was fometimes fo exceffively fultry as to melt the
feals of letters. At this time the people go in their
fhirts, and are continually fprinkled with cold water;
and fome even lie feveral hours naked in the water. A-
mong the inconveniencies confequent from this malign
difpofition of the air, one of the mod terrible is the
engendering, in the arms and legs, a kind of long
fmall worms, which cannot be extrafted without great
danger of breaking them; upon which a mortification
JS enfues.
Soil. The foil of Perfia is in general dony, fandy, bar¬
ren, and every where fo dry, that, if it be not water¬
ed, it produces nothing, not even grafs; but, where
they can turn the water into their plains and valleys,
it is not unfruitful. There is a great difference in
point of fertility^ in the different provinces of the em¬
pire; and t.H." c >f Media, Iberia, Hyrcania, and Bac-
tria, are now^n a great meafure, what they were for¬
merly, andj'nrpafs mod of the others in their produc¬
tions. All along the Perfian Gulph, the foil is dill
more barren, cattle lefs plenty, and every thing in a
S(J worfe condition than any where elfe.
Produce, Though there is fcarce a province in Perfia which
&c. does not produce wine, yet the wine of fome provinces
is much more edeemed than that of others; but Schi-
ras wine is univerfally allowed to be the very bed in
Perfia: infomuch, that it is a common proverb there,
That to live happily one mud eat the bread of Yezd,
and drink the wine of Schiras.
The grain mod common in Perfia is wheat; which Perfia.
is wonderfully fair and clean. As for barley, rice, and
millet, they only make bread of them in fome places,
as in Courdedan, when their wheat-bread is exhauded
before the return of harved. They do not cultivate in
this country either oats or rye; except where the Ar¬
menians are fettled, who make great ufe of the latter
in Lent. Rice is the univerfal aliment of all fo^ts of
people in Perfia ; for this reafon they are extremely
careful in its cultivation ; for, after they have fown it
in the fame manner as other grain, they in three months
time tranfplant it, root by root, into fields, which are
well watered, otherwife it would never attain that per-
fedfioft in which we find it there; fince it is fofter,
fooner boiled, and more delicious, than the fame grain
in any other part of the world. _ Perhaps its tade is,
in fome meafure, heightened by a praflice they make
ufe of to give it a gloffy whitenefs, viz. by cleanfing
it, after it is beaten out of the hufks, with a mixture of
flour and fait. Corn ripens exceedingly in this coun¬
try ; fo that in fome parts they have a threefold crop
in the year. The Perfian bread is generally very thin,
white, and good; and commonly cheap enough.
Metals of all forts have been found in Perfia. Since
the reign of Shah Abbas the Great, iron, copper, and
lead, have been very common; but there are no gold
or filver mines open at prefent; though, as Perfia is a
very mountainous country, fuch might very probably
be found, if pains were taken to fearch them out.
There are filver mines in Kirman and Mazanderan,
and one not far from Spauhawn; but they cannot be
worked for want of wood. Minerals are alfo found in
Perfia in abundance; efpecially fulphur, faltpetre, fait,
and alum. Nothing is more common in this country
than to meet with plains, fometimes xo leagues in
length, covered entirely with fait, and others with ful¬
phur or alum. In fome places fait is dug out of mines,
and even ufed in building houfes. Marble, free-done,
and flate, are found in great plenty about Hamniadan.
The marble is of four colours, viz. white, black, red
and black, and white and black. Perfia yields two
forts of petroleum, or napthe; namely, black and
white. In the neighbourhood of Tauris they find
azure; but it is not fo good as that brought from Tar¬
tary. Among the mod valuable produdlions of Perfia,
are the precious dones called turquoifes, of which there
are feveral rocks or mines.
The horfes of Perfia are the mod beautiful of the
Ead, though they are not fo much edeemed as thofe
of Arabia; fo great, however, is the demand for them,
that the fined ones will fetch from 90I. to 4501. der-
ling. They are higher than the Engiifh faddle-horfes;
dreight before, with a fmall head, legs wonderfully
flender, and finely proportioned ; they are mighty
gentle, good travellers, very light and fprightly, and
do good fervice till they are 18 or 20 years old. The
great numbers of them fold into Turkey and the Indies,
though none can be carried out of the kingdom with¬
out fpecial licence from the king, is what makes them
fo dear. Next to horfes, we may reckon mules, which
are much edeemed here, and are very fine: and next
to thefe we may judly place affes, of which they have
in this country two forts; the fird bred in Perfia, heavy
and.dolti(h, as afles in other countries are; the other
originally of an Arabian breed, the mod docile and
ufefui
Perfia.
PER [ 5971 ] PER
ufeful creature of its kind in the world. They areufed
wholly for the faddle; being remarkable for their eafy
manner of going, and are very fure-footed, carrying
their heads lofty, and moving gracefully. Some of
them are valued at 20I. fterling. The mules here are
alfo Very fine ; they pace well, never fall, and are fel-
dom tired. The higheft price of a mule is about 451.
fterling. Camels are alfo numerous in Perfia, and very
ferviceable : they call them kechty-krouch-kokion, t. e,
the “ fhips of the land becaufe the inland trade is
carried on by them, as the foreign is by fhips. Of thefe
camels there are two forts, the northern and fouthern:
the latter, which is much the fmaller, but fwifter, will
carry a load of about 70b weight, and trot as fall as
a horfe will gallop ; the other will travel with a load
of 1200 or 1300 weight: both are profitable to their
matters, as coding little-or nothing to keep. They
travel without halter or reins; grazing on the road
from time to time, notwithftanding their load. They
are managed entirely by the voice; thofe who direft
them making ufe of a kind of fong, and the camel mo¬
ving brilker, or at its ordinary pace, as they keep a
quicker or flower time. The camels (Tied their hair fo
clean in the fpring, that they look like fcalded fwine;
but then they are pitched over, to keep the flies from
ftinging them. The camels hair is the moft profitable
fleece of all the tame beafts: fine fluffs are made of it;
and in Europe, hats, with a mixture of a little bea¬
ver.
As beef is little eaten in Perfia, their oxen are ge*
nerally employed in ploughing, and other forts of la¬
bour. Hogs are nowhere bred in Perfia, if we except
a province or two on the borders of the Cafpian Sea.
Sheep and deer are very common throughout all Perfia.
Of wild beafts, the number i$*uot great in that coun¬
try, becaufe there are few forefts; but where there are
any, as in Hyrcania, now called Tahrijlan, abundance
of lions, bears, tigers, leopards, porcupines, wild
boars, and wolves, are to be found; but the laft are not
fo numerous as any of the other fpecies.
There are but few infe&s in this country; which
maybe afcribed to the drinefsof the climate. In fome
provinces, however, there is an infinite number of lo-
cufts or grafhoppers, which fly about in Inch clouds
as to darken the air. In certain parts of the Perfian
dominions they have large black fcorpions, fo veno¬
mous, that fuch as are flung by them die in a few
hours. In others, they have lizards, frightfully ugly,
which are an ell long, and as thick as a large toad,
their fkins being as hard and tough as that of the fea-
dog: they are faid to attack and kill men fometimes;
but that may be doubted. The fouthern provinces are
infefted with gnats; fome with long legs, like thofe we
call midges; and fome white, and as fmall as fleas,
-which make no buzzing, but fling fuddenly, and fo
fmartly, that the fling is like the prick of a needle.
Among the reptiles is a long fquare worm, called by
the inhabirants bazar-pey, i. e. “ thoufand-feet,” be¬
caufe its whole body is covered with feet: it runs pro*
digioufly fall; and its bite is dangerous, and even mor¬
tal, if it gets into the ear.
There are in Perfia all the feveral forts of fowls
which we have in Europe, but not in fuch great plenty;
excepting, however, wild and tame pigeons, of which
vsft numbers are kept all over the kingdom, chiefly on
account of their dung; which is the beft manure for Peifia.
melons. It is a great diverfion among the lower fort ”
of people in town and country to catch pigeons, tho*
it be forbidden : for this purpofe they have pigeons fo
taught, that flying in one flock, they furround fuch
wild ones as they find in the field, and bring them back
with them to their mafters. The partridges of this
country are the largeft and fineft in the world, being
generally of the fize of our fowls. Geefe, ducks, cranes,
herons, and many other forts of water fowl, are common
here; as are likewife nightingales, which are heard all
the year, but chiefly in the fpring; martlets, which learn
whatever words are taught them ; and a bird called
noura, which chatters inceffantly, and repeats what¬
ever it hears. Of birds of a larger fize, the moft re¬
markable is the pelican, by the Perfians called tacab,
i. e. “ water-catrier;” and alfo mife, i. e. “ fheep;”
becaufe it is as large as one of thole animals *. There * See T?di-
are in Perfia various birds of prey. Some of their fal- cams,
cons are the largeft and fineft in the world: the people
take great pains to teach them to fly at game; the
JPerfian lords being great lovers of falconry, and the
king ha ving generally 800 of thefe fort of birds, each of
which has a pCrfon to attend it.
There is perhaps no country in the world which, ge- Mountains,
nerally fpeaking, is more mountainous than Perfia ; rivers, and
but many of them yield neither fprings nor metals, ^as'
and but few of them are fttaded with trees. It is true,
fome of the chief of them are fituated on the frontiers,
and ferve as a kind of natural ramparts, or bulwarks,
to this vaft empire. Among the latter are the moun*
tains of Caucafus and Ararat, fometimes called the
mountains of Daghejian; which fill all the fpaoe between
the Euxine and Cafpian Seas: thofe called Taurus, and
the feveral branches thereof, run through Perfia from
Natolia to India, and fill all the middle of the coun-
try-
As to rivers, except the Araxes, which rifes in the
mountains of Armenia, and falls into the Kur or Cy¬
rus before it reaches the Cafpian Sea, there is not one
navigable ftream in this country. The Oxus divides
Perfia on the north-eaft, from Uibeck Tartary. The
Indus alfo may now be reckoned among the rivers of
Perfia, as the provinces lying to the weft of that river
are now in poflefiion of that crown : this river is faid
to run a courfe of more than 1000 miles, and overflows
all the low grounds in April, May, and June.
The feas on the fouth of Perfia are, the Gulph of
Perfia or Baflbra, the Gulph of Ormus, and the Indian
Ocean. The only fea on the north is the Cafpian, or
Hyrcanian fea; which is more properly a lake, having
no communication with any other fea. Thefe feas, to¬
gether with the lakes and rivers, fupply Perfia with
plenty of filh. The Cafpian fea contains very fine fiih
on one fide; and the Perfian Gulph on the other, is
believed to have more fifti than any other fea in the
world. On the coafts of this gulph is taken a fort of
fifti, for which they have no particular name: its flefti
is of a red colour, very delicious, and fome of them
weigh 200 or 300 pounds. The river-fifli are chiefly
barbels; but far from being good. Thofe of the lakes
are carps and Iliads. In the river at Spauhawn are a
great number of crabs, which crawl up the trees, and
live night and day under the leaves, whence they are
taken ; and are eileemed very delicious food.
33 Q^2 Thc
Perfia.
PER
The Englifti, and other nations, trade with the
ja Perfians feveral ways, particularly by the Gulph of
Trade. Ormus at Gombroon, and by the way of Turkey. A
trade alfo was not many years fince opened by the
Englifh with Perfia through Ruflia and the Cafpian
Sea ; but that is now difcontinued, having been prohi¬
bited by the court of Rullia, who were apprehenfive
that the Engliih would teach the Perfians to build
Ihips, and difpute the navigation of the Cafpian Sea
with them. The principal commodities and manufac¬
tures of Perfia are, raw and wrought filks, mohair,
camblets, carpets, leather; for which, and fome others,
the European merchants exchange chiefly woollen ma-
nufadlures; but the trade is carried on altogether in
European fhipping, the Perfians having fcarce any
fhips of their own, and the Ruffians the foie naviga¬
tion of the Cafpian Sea. There is not a richer or more
profitable trade in the world, than that which is carried
on between Gombroon and Surat in the Eaft Indies ;
and the Englifli Eatl India company frequently let out
their fliips to tranfport the merchandife of the Banians
and Armenians from Perfia to India. The civil wars
which defolated this country, and put a flop to all
trade, after the death of Shah Nadir, feem to have
been over feveral years, Kerim Khan, one of the com¬
petitors, having gained fuch a fuperiority in the year
1763 over his rivals, that he was crowned king; fince
which time peace and tranquillity feem to have taken
place of anarchy and confufion. The Shah, or fove-
reign of Perfia, is the chief merchant; and he ufually
employs his Armenian fubje&s to traffic for him in
every part of the world. The king’s agents muft have
the refufal of all merchandife, before his fubjefls are
permitted to trade. It is computed that Perfia pro¬
duces yearly upwards of 22,000 bales of filk, chiefly
in the provinces of Ghilan and Mazanderan, each bale
weighing 263 pounds. Vaft quantities of Perfian filk
nfed to be imported into Europe, efpecially by the
Dutch, Englifh, and Ruffians, before the civil wars
began. The goods exported from Perfia to India are,
tobacco, all forts of fruits, pickled and preferved, e-
fpecially dates, marmalade, wines, diftilled waters,
borfes, Perlian feathers, and Turkey leather of all forts
and colours, a great quantity whereof is alfo export¬
ed to Mufcovy and other European countries. The
exports to Turkey are, tobacco, galls, thread, goats
hair, fluffs, mats, box-work, and many other things.
As there are no pods in the eafi, and trading bycom-
miffion, with the ufe of bills of exchange, is little
known, traffic muft proceed in a very aukward heavy
S9 manner, in comparifon of that of Europe.
Money. The moft current money of Perfia are the abaflees,
v/orth about is. 4d. Sterling, they are of the fineft
filver. An abaflee is worth two mahmoudes; a mah-
moude, two fhahees; and a fliahee, ten Angle or five
double cafbeghes : thefe laft pieces are of brafs, the
others of filver ; for gold is not current in trade. The
fliahees are not very common ; but mahmoudes and
cafbeghes are current every where. Horfes, camels,
Tioufes, &c. are generally fold by the toman, which is
an imaginary coin, worth 200 fhahees, or 50 abaffees;
and they ufually reckon their eftates that way. Such a
Co one, they fay, is worth fo many tomans, as we fay
ove n- pounds in England.
tiK* Perfia is an abfolute naonarchy, the lives and eftates
PER
of the people being entirely at the difpofal of their Perfia,!
prince. The king has no council eftablifhed, but is  
advifed by fuch minifters as are moft in favour; and
the refolutions taken among the women of the haram
frequently defeat the beft laid defigns. The crown is
hereditary, excluding only the females. The fons of
a daughter are allowed to inherit. The laws of Perfia
exclude the blind from the throne; which is the reafon
that the reigning prince ufually orders the eyes of all
the males of the royal family, of whom he has any
jealoufy, to be put out. The king has generally a
great many wives, which it would be death for any
one, befides the eunuchs, who have the fuperinten-
dance of them, to look at, or even fee by accident;
wherefore, when he travels, notice is given to all men
to quit the road, nay their very houfes, and to retire
to a great diftance.
The prime minifter is called attemaet doulet, which
fignifies the dire&or of the empire, and alfo vzz/razm,
or the great fupporter of the empire ; as he alone al-
moft fuftains the whole weight of the adminiftration.
This minifter’s chief ftudy is to pleafe his mailer, to fe-
cure to himfelf an afcendant over his mind, and to avoid
whatever may give him any uneafinefs or umbrage.
With this view, he never fails to flatter him, to extol
him above all the princes upon earth, and to throw a
thick veil over every thing that might help to open his
eyes, or difcover to him the weaknefs of the ftate. He
even takes particular care to keep the king in utter
ignorance, to hide from him, or at leaft to foften, all
unwelcome news; and, above all, to exalt immoderate¬
ly every the leaft advantage he obtains over his ene¬
mies. As he takes thefe methods, which indeed are
and muft be taken, more or lefs, by the minifters of
every defpotic prince, to fecnre the favour and confi¬
dence of his mailer ; fo the inferior officers and go¬
vernors of provinces are obliged to employ all the
means in their power to fecure the prime minifters,
they depending no lefs upon him than he does upon
the king. There is a gradation of defpotifm and (la-
very, down from the prime minifter to the lowed re¬
tainer to the court, or dependent on the government.
Children are fometimes, in Perfia, required by the
king to cut off the ears and nofe, and even to cut the
throats, of their parents; and thefe orders cannot be
obje&ed to, without endangering their own lives. In¬
deed, their bafenefs and mercenarinefs are fuch, that
they will perpetrate fuch atrocious deeds without the
leaft fcruple or difficulty, when they have a promife
or expe&ation of poffdfing their polls. The prime mi¬
nifters, notwithftanding the precarious footing on
which they (land, in effedt of their abilities or good
fortune, fometimes continue in their employments du¬
ring life, or, if removed, are only banifhed to fome
city, where they are allowed to fpend the remainder
of their days in a private ftation.
Next to the prime minifter are the na-dir, or grand¬
ma fter of the houfehold ; the mehter, or groom of the
chambers, who is always a white eunuch ; the mir-
akbor-baffie, or mafter of the horfe ; the mir-fhikar-
balhe, or great huntfman and falconer; the divan-
beggi, or chief juftice, to whom there lies an appeal
from the deroga, or the lieutenant of police, in every
town ; the vacka-nuviez, or recorder of events, or firft
fecretary of ftate j the muflau-ffie-elmenaleck, or ma-
t S972 1
p E R it 5973 ] PER
Perfo-1 Her of the accounts and finances of the kingdom; the
' numes-humbaflies, or the king’s chief phyficians; the
fhickada-fibafhe, or infpe&or of the palace, and re¬
gulator of rank at court; and the khans, or governors
of provinces, under whom are other governors, called
foltans, appointed alfo by the king.
The chief minifters, in fpirituals, are the zedder, or
grand-pontiff, anfwering to the mufti among the
Turks; under him are the (heik-el, felom, and cadi,
who decide in all matters of religion, and make all
contra&s, teftaments, and other public deeds, being
appointed by the king in all the principal towns; and
next to thefe are the pichnamas, or directors of the
prayers; and the moullahs, or dodfors of the law.
There is no nobility in Perfia, or any refpedt {hewn
to a man on account of his family, except to thofe
who are of the blood of their great prophet or pa¬
triarchs; but every man is efteemed according to the
poft he pofTeffes; and when he is difmiffed he lofes
his honour, and he is no longer diftinguiflied from the
vulgar.
With refpedi to to the forces of Perfia, their two
bodies, called the Kortjhies and Goulans, that ferve on
horfeback, are well kept and paid, and may amount,
the former to about 22,000, and the latter to about
18,000. The kortfhies are defcended from an ancient
but foreign race ; and the goulans are either Georgian
renegadoes or fiaves, or the children of (laves of all na¬
tions. The infantry, called Tangtchies, are picked
out from among the moft robuft and vigorous of the
peafants, and compofe a body of 40,000 or 50,000-
The Perfians have few fortified towns, and had no
(hips of war till Kouli Khan built a royal navy, and
among them had a man of war of 80 guns; but fince
the death of that ufurper, we hear no more of their
fleet.
The arms of the king of Perfia are a lion couchant,
looking at the fun as he rifes over his back. His ufual
title is Shah or Pat/kaw, the “ difpofer of kingdoms.”
They add alfo to the king’s titles thofe offultan, and
chan ox cham, which is the title of the Tartar fovereigns.
To adfs of ftate the Perfian monarch does not fubfcribe
his name ; but the grant runs in this manner, viz.
Phis aci, or edici, is given by him ’whom the univerfe
obeys.
As to the manners of the ancient Perfians, we know
little of them ; excepting that they were exceedingly
voluptuous and effeminate. After the conqueft of the
empire by Alexander, the Greek difeipline and mar¬
tial fpirit being in part communicated to them, they
became much more formidable; and hence the Par-
thians were found to be a match, not only for the Syro-
Macedonian princes, but even for the Romans. Of
their manners we know little or nothing, but that to
their valour and military {kill they joined in a furpri-
fing degree all the luxury and diffipation of the ancient
Perfians.
The modern Perfians, like the Turks, plundering
all the adjacent nations for beauties to breed by, are
men of a good ftature, fhape, and completion ; but
the Gaures, or ancient Perfians, are homely, ill-{haped,
and clumfy, with a rough fkin, and olive completions.
In fome provinces, not only the completions but the
conftitutions of the inhabitants, fuffer greatly by the
extreme heat and unwholefomenefs of the air. The
Perfian women, too, are generally handfome and well-
{haped, but much inferior to thofe of Georgia and Cir- ll
caffia. The men wear large turbans on their heads, er“M-
fome of them very rich, interwoven with gold and fil-
ver; a veft, girt with a faflr; and over it a loofe gar¬
ment, fometbing fliorter; with fandals, or flippers, on
their feet. When they ride, which they do every day,
if it be but to a houfe in the fame town, they wear
pliant boots of yellow leather; the furniture of their
horfes is extremely rich, and the ftirrups generally of
filver: whether on horfeback or on foot, they wear a
broad fword and a dagger in their fafli. The drefs of
the w'omen does not differ much from that of the men;
only their veils are longer, and they wear ftiffened caps
on their heads, and their hairdowm.
Their ufual drink is water and flierbet, as in other
Mahometan countries, wine being prohibited; but the
officers and foldiers frequently break through thefe re-
ftraints, and drink wine, which is made by the Arme¬
nians and Gaures in Schiras and other Perfian pro¬
vinces; and none of them make any fcruple of intoxi¬
cating themfelves with opium, of which any of them
will eat as much as would poifon half a dozen Chri<
ftians.
The Perfians excel more in poetry than any other
fort of literature ; and aflrologers are now in as great
reputation in Perfia as the magi were formerly. Their
books are all manuferipts, the art of printing having not
yet been introduced among them; they excel indeed
in writing, and have eight different hands. They write
from the right hand to the left, as the Arabs do. In
their ffiort-hand, they ufe the letters of the alphabet;
and the fame letters, differently pointed, will have 20
different fignifications. In (hort, the Perfians are born
with as good natural parts as any people in the Eaft,
but make a bad ufe of them ; being great differablers,
cheats, liars, and flatterers, and having a ftrong pro-
penfity to voluptuoufnefs, luxury, idlenefs, and indo¬
lence; vices, indeed, to which the Afiatics in general
are much addidled.
PERSIAN Wheel. See Hydrostatics.
PERSICA, the Peach, is by Linnaeus referred
to the fame clafs and genus with amygdalus; how¬
ever, as they are fo commonly reckoned to be differ¬
ent genera, we have thought proper to diftinguifli
them. There are a great variety of peach-trees plant¬
ed in the gardens, fome of which are preferved only
for the beauty of their flowers, but molt of them for
the fake of the fruit. Of thofe remarkable for the
beauty of their flowers the principal are, 1. The vul¬
garis, or common peach-tree, with double flowers,
which is a very great ornament in gardens, producing
very large double flowers of a beautiful red or purple
colour, and grows to a confiderable fize. 2. The hu-
milis, or dwarf-almond. 3. The africana, or double¬
flowering dwarf-almond. Thefe two reach not above
the height of three or four feet, though their flowers
are of equal beauty with the former.
Of the peach-trees cultivated for the fake of their
fruit there are a great number, to deferibe which par¬
ticularly would exceed the proper bounds of this ar¬
ticle. They are raifed from the ftones of the fruit,
which fliould be planted in autumn on a bed of light
dry earth, about three inches deep and four inches
afunder. In the winter the beds Ihould be covered
with
597+ P E R S P
Perficana, with mulch to proteft them from the froft. In this
Perfius. jjjgy. f}j0Uij remaJn for a year ; when they are to
be taken up and planted in a nurfery, where they are
to remain one or two years; after which they muft be
removed to the places where they are to continue.
PERSICANA, in botany. See Polygonum.
PERSIUS (Flaccus Aulus), a Latin poet in the
reign of Nero, celebrated for his fatires. He was
born, according to fome, at Volterra in Tufcany ;
and according to others, at Tigulia, in the gulf Della
Specia, in the year 34. He was educated till 12
years old at Vaherro; and afterwards continued his
ftudies at Rome under Palasmon the grammarian, Vir-
ginius the rhetorician, and Cornutus the Stoic philo-
fopher, who contracted a friendfhip for him. Perfius
confulted that illuftrious friend in the compofition of
his verfes. Lucian alfo ftudied with him under Cor¬
nutus ; and appeared fo charmed with his verfes, that
he was inceffantly breaking out into acclamations at
the beautiful pafiagesin his fatires : an example rarely
feen in poets of equal rank. He was a fteady friend,
a good fon, an affeCtionate brother and parent. He
was chafte, meek, and modeft: which fhews hovy
wrong it is to judge of a man’s morals by his wri¬
tings; for the fatires of Perfius are not only licen¬
tious, but (harp and full of bitternefs. Pie wrote
but feldom ; and it was fome time before he applied
hirrtfelf regularly to it.
Perfius was of a weak conftitution, and troubled
with a bad ftomach ; of which he died in the 30th
year of his age. Six of his fatires remain ; in their
judgments of which the critics have been much divi¬
ded, excepting as to their obfcurity, Perfius. being
indeed the moft obfcure of all the Latin poets. As
a poet, he is certainly inferior to Horace and Juve¬
nal ; and all the labours of Ifaac Cafaubon,. who has
written a moft learned and elaborate commentary upon
him, cannot make him equal to either of them as a
fatirift, though in virtue and learning he exceeded
them both. He was a profe(fed imitator of Horace;
yet had little of Horace’s wit, eafe, and talent at ri¬
dicule. His ftyle is grand, figurative, poetical, and
fuitable to the dignity of the Stoic philofophy: and
hence he (hines moft in recommending virtue and inte¬
grity : here it is that fatire becomes him. He was
too grave to court the mufes with fuccefs: but he had
a great foul, fufceptible of noble fentiments, which
give a grace but to indifferent poetry. His cotem-
ponries thought highly of him. Quintilian allows,
that Perfius, although he wrote but one book of fa¬
tires, acquired a great deal of true glory, Multuni et
E C T I V E.
vera gloria quainvis wo libra Perjhu vieruit: and P«rfoa
Martial fays much the fame thing, Sabins in iibro me- „ .
moratur Perfius uno, &C.
PERSON, an individual fubftance of a rational  —.
intelligent nature. Thus we fay, an amba(fador re-
prefents the perfon of his prince ; and that, in law,
the father and fon are reputed the fame perfon..
Person, in grammar, a term applied to fuch nouns
or pronouns as, being either prefixed or underftood,
are the nominatives in all inflexions of a verb ; or it
is the agent or patient in all finite or perfonal verbs.
See Grammar.
PERSONAL, any thing that concerns, or is re-
ftrained to, the perfon: thus it is a maxim in ethics,
that all faults are perfonal.
Personal ARiont in law, is an aXion levied di-
reXly and folely againft the perfon ; in oppofition to
a real or mixed aXion. See Action.
Personal Goods, or Chattels, in law, fignifies any
moveable- thing belonging to a perfon, whether alive
or dead. See Chattels.
Personal Verb, in grammar, a verb conjugated in
all the three perfons : thus called in oppofition to an
imperfonal verb, or that which has the third perfon
only.
PERSONALITY, in thefchools, that which con-
ftitutes an individual a diftinX perfon.
PESONATiE, the name of the 40th order in
Linnseus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, confiding
of a number of plants whofe flowers are furniftied
with an irregular gaping or grinning petal, which, in
figure, fomewhat refembles the fnout of an animal.
The bulk of the genera of this natural order arrange
themfelves under the clafs and order didynamia an-
giofpermia of the Sexual Method.
The reft, although they cannot enter into the arti¬
ficial clafs juft mentioned, for want of the clafiic cha-
raXer, the inequality of the (lamina; yet, in a na¬
tural method, which admits of greater latitude, may
be arranged with thofe plants, which they refemble in
their habit and general appearance, and particularly
in the circumftance expreffed in that title.
PERSONIFYING, or Personalizing, the gi¬
ving an inanimate being the figure, fentiments, and
language of a perfon.
Perfonifying is eflential to poetry, efpecially to the
epopceia : the poets have therefore perfonified all the
paffions, and even reprefented them as deities; as,
the goddefs Perfuafion, the god Sleep ; the Furies,
Envy, Difcord ; and Fame, Fortune, ViXory, Sin,
Death, &c.
PERSPECTIVE.
PERSPECTIVE teaches how to reprefent objeXs
on a plane fuperficies, fuch as they would appear
at a certain diftance and height, upon a tranfparent
plane perpendicular to the horizon, placed between
the objeXs and the eye.
It was in the 16th century that Perfpeftive was re¬
vived, or rather re-invented. It owes its birth to paint¬
ing, and particularly to that branch of it which was em¬
ployed in the decorations of the theatre, where land-
fcapes were properly introduced, and which would
have looked unnatural and horrid if the fize of the
objeXs had not been pretty nearly proportioned to
their diftance from the eye. We learn from Vitru¬
vius, that Agatharchus, inftruXed by iEfchylus, was
the firft who wrote upon this fubjeX ; and that after¬
wards the principles of this art were more diftinXly
taught by Democritus and Anaxagoras, the difciples
of Agatharchus. Of the theory of this art, as de-
fcribtd by them, we know nothing ; fince none of
their writings have efcaped the general wreck that
was
Pin re ccxxm.
PERSPECTIVE.
rfpeftive. was made of ancient literature in the dark ages of
Europe. However, the revival of painting in Italy
was accompanied with a revival of this art.
The firft perfon who attempted to lay down the
rules of perfpeftivc was Pietro del Borgo, an Italian.
He fuppofed objefts to be placed beyond a tranfpa-
rent tablet, and endeavoured to trace the images which
rays of light, emitted from them, would make upon
it. But we do not know what fuccefs he had in this
attempt, becaufe the book which he wrote upon this
fubjeft is not now extant. It is, however, very much
commended by the famous Egnazio Dante ; and, up¬
on the principles of Borgo, Albert Durer conftrudted
a machine, by which he could trace the perfpe£tive
appearance of obje&s.
Balthazar Peruffi ftudied the writings of Borgo, and
endeavoured to make them more intelligible. To him
we owe the difcovery of points of diftance, to which
all lines that make an angle of 45 degrees with the
ground-line are drawn. A little time after, Guido
Ulbaldi, another Italian, found that all the lines that
are parallel to one another, if they be inclined to the
ground-line, converge to fome point in the horinzontal
line ; and that through this point alfo, a line drawn
from the eye, parallel to them, will pafs. Thefe prin¬
ciples put together enabled him to make out a pretty
complete theory of perfpeftive.
Great improvements were made in the rules of per-
fpe&ive.by fubfequent geometricians; particularly by
profeffor Gravefende, and ftill more by Dr Brook Tay¬
lor, whofe principles are, in a great meafure new, and
far more general than any before him.
Plate In order to underftand this fubjeft, a general know-
CCXXXVI ledge of the principles of Optics is abfolutely necef-
fary. The foundation of perfpe&ive may be under¬
flood, by fuppofing the pentagon ABDEF (fig. 1.)
were to be reprefented by the rules of perfpe&ive
on the tranfparent plane VP, placed perpendicularly
,00 the horizontal plane HR; dotted lines are imagi¬
ned to pafs from the eye C to each point of the pen¬
tagon, as CA, CB, CD, &c. which are fuppofed, in
their pafiage through the plane, PV to leave their
traces or veftigia in the points a, b, d, See. on the
plane, and thereby to delineate the pentagon ab def;
which, as it ftrikes the eye by the fame rays that the
original pentagon ABDEF does, will be a true per-
fpeftive reprefentation of it.
The bufinefs of perfpeftive, therefore, is to lay down
geometrical rules for finding the points a, b, d, e, f
upon the plane ; and hence alfo we have a mechani¬
cal method of delineating any objeft very accurately.
Perfpe&ive is either employed in reprefenting the
ichnographies or ground-plots ofobje&s: or the feeno-
graphies, or reprefentations of the objefts themfelves.
But before we give any examples of either, it will
be proper to explain fome technical terms in regard to
perfpe&ive in general : and firft, the horizonul line
is that fuppofed to be drawn parallel to the horizon
through the eye of the fpe&ator ; or rather it is a line
which feparates the heaven from the earth, and which
Kmitsthe fight. Thus, A, B, {ibid. fig. 2.) are two
pillars below the horizontal line CD, by reafon the line
is elevated above them ; in fig. 3. they are faid to be
equal with it, and in fig. 4. raifed above it. Thus,
•5765
according to the different points in view, the obje&s Perfpeflive.
will be either higher or lower than the horizontal line. "
The point of fight A {ibid. fig. 5.) is that which makes
the centrical ray on the horizontal line ab : or, it is
the point where ail the other vifual rays, DD, unite.
The points of diftance C, C, are points fet off in the
horizontal line at equal diftances on each fide of the
point of fight A ; and in the fame figure BB repre-
fents the bafe line, or fundamental line: EE is the
abridgment of the fquare ; of which D, D, are the
fides ; F, F, the diagonal lines, which go to the
points of diftance C, C. Accidental points are thofe
whei;e the objects end : thefe may be caft negligently;
btcaufe neither drawn to the point or fight, nor to
thofe of diftance, but meeting each other in the hori¬
zontal line. For example, two pieces of fquare tim¬
ber Gaud H {ibid. fig. 6.) make the points 1,1,1,1,
on the horizontal line : but go not to the point of
fight K, nor to the points of diftance C, C ; thefe ac¬
cidental points ferve likewife for cafements, doors,
windows, tables, chairs, &c. The point of direft.
view, or of the front, is when we have the objeft
dire&ly before ns; in which cafe it ftiews only the fore-
fide; and, if below the horizon, a little of the top;
but nothing of the fides, unlefs the objeft be poly-
gonous.
Thus the plane ABCD, {ibid. fig. 7.) is all in front;
and if it were raifed we ftiould not fee any thing of
the fides AB or CD, but only the front AD: the rea-
fon is, that the point of view E being diredlly oppo-
fite thereto, caufes a diminution on each fide; which,
however, is only to be underftood where an elevation
is the objeft ; for if it be a plan, it ftiews the whole,
as ABCD.
The point of oblique view, is when we fee an ob-
jeft afide of us, and as it were aflant, or with the cor¬
ner of the eye : the eye, however, being all the while
oppofite to the point of fight; in which cafe, we fee
the objeft laterally, and it prefents to us two fides or
faces.
For inftance, if the point of fight be in F, {ibid.
fig. 8.) the objeft GHIK will appear athwart, and
ftiew two faces GKandGH ; in which cafe it will be
a fide point.
We (hall now give fome examples, by which it will
appear, that the whole pra&ice of perfpt&ive is built
upon the foundation already laid down. Thus, to find
the perfpe&ive appearance of a triangle ABC {ibid
fig. 9.) between the eye and the triangle draw the
line DE, which is called the fundamental line; from
2 draw 2 V, reprefenting the perpendicular ditlance
of the eye above the fundamental line, be it what it
will; and through V draw, at right angles to 2 V,
HK parallel to DE: then will the plane DHKE re-
puefent the tranfparent plane on which the perfpec-
tive reprefentation is to be made. Next, to find the
perfpedive points of the angles of the uiangle, let
fall perpendiculars A 1, C 2, B 3. from the angles
to the fundamental DE : fet off thefe perpendiculars
upon the fundamental oppofite to the point of diftance
K, to B, A, C; from 1, 2, 3, draw lines to the
principal point V ; and from the points A, B, and C,
on the fundamental line, draw the right lines AK,
BK, CK, to the point of diftance K; which is fo call¬
ed, becaufe the fpe&ator ought to be fo far removed
ftfim
PERSPECTIVE.
5976
Perfpeftive. from the figure or painting, as it is diftant from the
'■ principal point V. The points a, b, and c, where the
vifual lines V 1, V 2, V 3, interfedt the lines of di-
ftance AK, BK, CK, will be the angular points of
the angle a be, the true reprefentation of ABC.
To draw a Square Pavement in Perfpetlive,
Pbte Suppose your piece of pavement to confift of 64
CXXXVI. pjeces 0f marble, each a foot fquare. Your firft bufi-
2 10, nefs is, to draw an ichnographical plan or ground-plot
of it, which is thus performed. Having made an ex-
a£t fquare of the fize you intend your plan, divide the
bafe and horizon into eight equal parts; and from
every divifion in the bafe to its oppofite point in the
horizon, rule perpendicular lines: then divide the fides
into the fame number, ruling parallel lines acrofs from
point to point: fo will your pavement be divided into
64 fquare feet; becaufe the eight feet in length, mul¬
tiplied by the fame in breadth, give the number of
fquare feet or pieces of marble contained in the whole:
then rule diagonals from corner to corner ; and thus
will your ground-plot appear as in fig 10.
Pig. 11. Now, to lay this in perfpe&ive, draw another fquare
to your intended fize, and divide the bafe line AB in¬
to eight equal parts, as before ; then fix your point
of fight C in the middle of the horizon DE, and from
the fame point rule lines to every divifion in the bafe
AB ; after which, rule diagonal lines from D to B,
and from E to A, anfwerable to thofe in the ground-
plot, and your fquare will be reduced to the triangle
ABC ; then from the point F, where the diagonal
DB interfe&s the line AC, to the oppofite interfec-
tion G, where the diagonal EA croffes the line CB,
rule a parallel lihet which is the abridgment of the
fquare. Then, through the points where the diagonals
crofs the reft of the lines which - go from the bafe to
the point of fight, rule parallel lines, and your fquare
pavement will be laid in perfpe£live, as in fig. 11.
Pig. ia. To diminijh a Square viewed by the Angle D, fig- 12.
Having deferibed the plane ABCD, draw a line to
touch or raife the angle B, and falling perpendicularly
on BD.
This being continued as a bafe line, lay your ruler
on the fide of the fquare AD and DC, and where the
ruler cuts the terreftrial line make the points H, I.
Then from H and B draw lines to the point of di-
flance P, and from I draw a line to the other point of
diftance G ; and in the interfe&ion of thofe lines, make
points, which will give you the fquare KLMB.
To do without the plan : fet off the diameter each
way from the middle point B, as to H and I. But
in either cafe no line is to be drawn to the point of
fight O.
To diminijh a Circle. See fig. 13.
Draw a fquare ABCD about it, and from the angles
AD and CB draw diagonals, dividing the circle into
eight parts, and through the points where they cut it
OO, draw lines from the bafe line perpendicular to
DEF.
Then draw two diagonals Qjl, SP, interfering
each other at right angles in the centre G.
Having thus difpofed the plan, draw lines from ail
the perpendiculars to the point of fight H ; and where Perfpeffiw
they are interfefted by the diagonals AK and BI, ^ •
make points ; the two laft of which, M, N, give the
fquare, which is to be divided into four by diagonals,
interfering each other in the point P.
In the laft place, from the extremes of this crofs,
draw curve lines through the faid points, which will
give the form of the circle in perfpettive.
Of the Meafures upon the Cafe in Perfpeftive.
By the bafe line alone any depth may be given, and
in any place at pleafure, without the ufe of fquares;
which is a very expeditious way.
As, for example, fuppofe the bafe line BS (fig. t.) Plate ■
the point of view A, and the points of diftance DE ; ccxxxvij
if now you would make a plan of a cube BC, draw
two occult or dotted lines from the extremes BC to
the point of fight: then, to give the breadth, take the
fame meafure BC, and fet it off on the lerreftrial line
CF, and from F draw a line to the point of diftance
D ; and where this line interfe&s the firft ray C in
the point G, will be the diminution of the plan of the
cube BHGC.
If you would have an objeft farther towards the
middle, take the breadth and the diftance of the bafe
line, as IK ; and to have the depth, fet it as you
would have it on the fame bafe as LM, and its width
both on LM. Then from L and M draw occult lines
to the point of diftance D, and from the points NO,
where thofe lines interfeft the ray K, draw parallels
to the terreftrial line, and you will have the fquare
QPON.
After the fame manner you may fet off the other
fide of the fquare which Ihould be on the bafe, as
BHGC is here transferred to V. The points M and
T, which are only two feet from the point S, afford
a very narrow figure in X, as being very near.
Of the Bafe Line, and a fingle Point of Difance.
Since the depths and widths may be had by the
means of this bafe line, there is no need of any further
trouble in making of fquares ; as fhall be (hewn in this
example.
Suppofe a row of trees or columns is to be made on
each fide ; on the bafe line lay down the place, and the
diftance between them, with their breadth or diame¬
ters, as ABCDEFG : then laying a ruler from the pig. j, '
point of diftance O to each of the points ABCDEFG, i
the interfedtions it makes on the vifual ray AH will
be the bounds of the obje&s defired.
To fet them off on the other fide upon the ray GH,
fet one foot of the compaffes upon the point of the
eye H, and with the other ftrike an arch ; the point
wherein this cuts the ray GH, will be the correfpond-
ing bound.
Thus M will be the fame with N, and fo of the
reft ; through which drawing parallels, you will have
the breadths.
And as for the length, you may make it at plea¬
fure : fetting it off from A, as for inftance to P, and
then from P drawing a line to H ; and where this cuts
the other parallels, will be formed the plan required ;
which you may make either round or fquare.
To
Tlate CCXXXYTT
5977
P E R S P
To find the Height and Proportion of any Objetts, as they
appear above the Horizon on a fuppofed Plane.
cofxxvn rule your horizontal line NO, and fix your
fig. f ' point of fight, as at M ; then mark the place of your
nearett pillar, by making a dot for the bafe or bottom,
as at A ; and another for the fummit or top, as at B:
rule a line from A to the point of fight M, and ano¬
ther from B to M, and thefe two Hues will give the
height of any number of pillars. As for example :
Suppofe you would have a pillar at C, fix your dot for
the bafe, and rule from thence a parallel line to meet
the diagonal AM at D : then rule the perpendicular
DE to the diagonal BM : which perpendicular is the
height of your figure required at C. Or, if you
would place pillars at F and I, obferve the fame me¬
thod, ruling the parallels FG and IK, and the per¬
pendiculars GH and KL will give their heights at the
.diftances required.
To find the diameter or thicknefs of pillars at any
particular dillances, you are alfo to be guided by that
neareft the bafe. For inftance : Suppofe your neareft
pillar AB to be ten feet high, and one foot in diame¬
ter : divide it from top to bottom into ten equal parts,
and fet off one of them upon the bafe of the pillar;
then rule a line from the point.of fight M t» the dia¬
meter P, and you will have the thicknefs of all your
pillars on their refpedtive parallels or bafes.
The fame Rule exemplified in ObjeRs below the Horizon.
Fig. 4 y°u vvould know the heights of a number of fi¬
gures below the horizon, rule your horizontal line
QJl, and fix your point of fight, as at P : then place
your neareft figure, or mark the dots for the head and
feet, by the points A and B, which anfwers the fame
purpofe ; and rule from thefe dots to the point of fight
the lines AP and BP : and if you would find the
height of a figure to be drawn at c, rule from thence
the parallel cd to the diagonal BP, and the perpen¬
dicular de will give the height required. The fame
directions will (hew the height of a figure at any di-
ftance you have a mind to place it, as ?Xfi i, and m, by
ruling the parallels iky and mn ; and from each of
- thefe their refpedtive perpendiculars^, i/, and n o ;
which perpendiculars will fliew the heights of the fi¬
gures at f i, and m.
To draw a Direft View.
5 To illuftrate this example, fuppofe you were to
draw the infide of a church, as reprefented in this
figure : Firft take your ftation at the point A, in the
centre of the bafe line BC : from which you have a
a front view of the whole body of the church, with
all the pillars, &c. on each fide : then fix your horizon
on any height you think proper, as at DE : bifed it
by the perpendicular EA : and where thefe two lines
inte'rfedt, is the point of fight F. This perpendicular
will pafs through the centres of all the arches in the
dome or cupola: which centres may be found by any
three given points. Next divide your bafe line into
any given number of feet ; and the vifual lines, ruled
from thefe divifions to the point of fight, will reduce
all your objedls to their juft proportion, byfetting off
their height upon a perpendicular railed at their re-
fpediive diftances. The bafe, in the example here
' Vot. VIII. 2
£ C T I V E.
given, is divided into twelve equal parts of five feet
each; from which (fuppofing your front column to be
35 feet high) take feven divifions from the bafe line of
your drawing, and fet them off upon the perpendicu¬
lar GH; then (fuppofing this column to be five feet
thick at the bafe) fet off one of thefe divifions upon
the parallel IK, which is the breadth required. So
that, by proportioning this fcale to any diftance by
the foregoing diredlions, you may not only find the
dimenfions of all your columns, but alfo of every di-
ftinft part of them, as well as of all the doors, win¬
dows, and other objects that occur. For inftance:
Having found the height and breadth of your firft or
neareft column G, draw from the top and bottom of
the faid column to the point of fight the lines HF and
KF; after which, rule the line IF from the bafe of
the column to the point of fight, and you have the
height and breadth of all the reft of the columns, as
has been already (hewn in fig. 3.
By ruling lines from the points a, b> c, d, See. to the
point of fight, you will fee that ail the fummits and
bafes of your columns, doors, windows, &c. muft tend
immediately to that point; and by lines drawn from the
points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. on each fide, to the correfpon-
dent points on the oppofite fide, may be feen all the
parts of your building lying upon the fame parallel.
To draw an Oblique View.
First draw your horizontal line i^B; then, if your fig-
favourite objeft be on the right hand, as at C, place
yourfelf on the left hand upon the bafe line, as at D;
then from that ftation ereft a perpendicular DE, which
will pafs thro’ the horizon at the point of fight F: to
which rule the diagonals GF and HF, which will (hew
the roof and bafe of your principal building C, and
will alfo, as before direfted, ferve as a ftandard for all
the reft.
Obferve alfo, either in direft or oblique views, whe¬
ther the profpeft before you make a curve ; for if it
does, you muft be careful to make the fame curve in
your drawing.
To draw a Perfpeftive View, wherein are accidental
Points.
Rule your horizontal line ab, and on one part of it Flg- 7-
fix your point of fight, as at c; from which rule the
diagonals cd and ce on the one fide, and cf and cq on
the other; which will (hew the roofs and bafes of all
the houfes in the ftreet dire&ly facing you, (fuppo¬
fing yourfelf placed at A in the centre of the bafe line):
Then fix your accidental points g and h upon the ho¬
rizontal line, and rule from them to the angles ik and
lmt (where ftreets on each fide take a different direc¬
tion, towards the accidental points g and /;), and the
lines and gk give the roofs and bufesof all the build¬
ings on one fide, as lb and mb do on the other.
Accidental points feldom intervene where the di¬
ftance is fmall, as in noblemens feats, groves, canals,
&c. which may be drawn by the ftfidt rules of per-
fpe&ive; but where the profpedt is extenfive and va¬
ried, including mountains, bridges, caftles, rivers, pre¬
cipices, woods, cities, &c. It will require fuch an infi¬
nite number of accidental points, that it will be better
to do them as nature (hall, di&ate, and your ripened
judgment approve.
33 R To
5978
PERSPEGTIVE.
To find the Centre for
the Roof of a Houfe, i
lique View.
>2 01-
Plate Suppose from the point of fight A, the vifual lines
c cxxxvii. AB and AC be drawn, BC being one perpendicular
% 8- given, and DE the other, rule the diagonals from D
to C, and from E to E, and the perpendicular EG,
railed through the point of their interfeftion, will fhew
the true centre of the roof, as will appear by ruling
the lines GE and GC.
For want of being acquainted with this neceflary
rule, many who have been well verfed in other parts of
perfpe&ive, have fpoiled the look of their pifture, by
drawing the roofs of their houfes out of their true per¬
pendicular.
We (hall conclude by giving a few pra&ical rules,
i. Let every line, which in the objeft, or geometrical
figure, is ftraight, perpendicular, or parallel to its bafe,
be fo alfo in its fcenographic delineation. 2. Let the
lines, which in the object return at right angles from
the fore-right fide, be drawn fcenographically from the
vifual point. 3. Let all ftraight lines, which in the
object return from the fore-right fide, run in a fceno¬
graphic figure into the horizontal line. 4. Let the ob-
jed you intend to delineate, Handing on your right-
hand, be placed alfo on the right-hand of the vifual
point; and that on the left-hand, on the left-hand of
the fame point; and that which is juft before, in the
middleofit. 5. Let thofe lines which are (in the ob-
jed) equidiftant to the returning line be drawn in the
fcenographic figure, from that point found in the ho¬
rizon. 6. In fctting off the altitude of columns, pe-
deftals, and the like, meafure the height from the bafe
line upwards, in the front or fore-right fide; and a vi¬
fual ray down that point in the front ftiall limit the al¬
titude of the column or pillar, all the way behind the
fore-right fide, or orthographic appearance, even to the
vifual point. This rule you muft ohferve in all figures,
as well where there is a front or fore-right fide, as
where there is none. 7. In delineating ovals, circles,
arches, croffes, fpirals, and crofs-arches, or any other
figure in the roof of any room, firft draw ichnogra-
phically, and fo with perpendiculars from the molt emi¬
nent points thereof, carry it up into the ceiling; from
which feveral points, carry on the figure. 8. The
centre in any fcenographic regular figure is found by
drawing lines from oppofite angles; for the point where
the diagonals crofs is the centre. 9. A ground plane
of fquares is alike, both above and below the horizon¬
tal line ; only the more it is diftant above or beneath
the horizon, the fquares will be fo much the larger or
wider. 10. In drawing a perfpedive figure, where
many lines come together, you may, for the direding
of your eye, draw the diagonals in red; the vifual lines
in black; the perpendiculars in green, or other differ¬
ent colour, from that which you intend the figure (hall
be of. xi. Having confidered the height, diftance,
and pofition of the figure, and drawn it accordingly,
with the fide or angle againft the bafe ; raife perpen¬
diculars from the feveral angles, or defigned points, from
the figure of the bafe, and transfer the length of each
perpendicular, from the place where it touches the bafe,
to the bafe on the fide oppofite to the point of diftance;
h> will the diatnetrals drawn to the perpendiculara in
the bafe, by interfedion with the diagonals, drawn to
the feveral transferred diftances, give the angles of the
figures, and fo lines drawn from point to point will
circumfcribe the fcenographic figure. 12. If in a land-
fcape there be any Handing waters, as rivers, ponds,
and the like, place the horizontal line level with the
fartheft fight or appearance of it. 13. If there be any
houfe, or the like, in the pi&ure, confider their pofi¬
tion, that you may find from what point in the hori¬
zontal lines to draw the front and tides thereof. 14. In
defcribing things at a great diftance, obferve the pro¬
portion, both in magnitude and diftance, in draught,
which appears from the objeft to the eye. 15. In co¬
louring and (hadowing of every thing, you muft do the
fame in your pi&ure, which you obferve with your eye,
efpecially in objeOs lying near; but, according as the
diftance grows greater and greater, fo the colours muft
be fainter and fainter, till at lad they lofe themfelves
in a darkilh fky-colour. 16. The catoptrics are bed
feen in a common looking-glafs, or other poliftied mat¬
ter; where, if the glafs be exactly flat, the objeft is
exaflly like its original; but, if the glafs be not flat,
the refemblance alters from the original ; and, that
more or lefs, according as the glafs differs from an ex-
a6l plane. 17. In drawing catoptric figures, the fCir-
face of the glafs is to be confidered, upon which you
mean to have the refle&ion; for which you muft make
a particular ichnographical draught, or proje&ion ;
which on the glafs muft appear to be a plane full of
fquares, on which projedlion transfer what fhall be
drawn on a plane, divided into the fame number of like
fquares ; where though the draught may appear very
confufed, yet the refleftion of it on the glafs will be
very regular, proportional, and regularly compofed.
18. The dioptric, or broken beam, may be feen in a
tube through a cryftal or glafs, which hath its furface
cut into many others, whereby the rays of the objedt
are broken. For to the flat of the cryftal, or water,
the rays run ftraight ; but then they break and make
an angle, which alfo by the refradted beams is made
and continued on the other fide of the fame flat.
19. When thefe faces dn a cryftal are returned towards
a plane placed directly before it, they feparate them¬
felves at a good dirtance on the plane ; becaufe they
are all djredted to various far diftant places of the fame.
See Optics.
Of the Anamorphofs, or Reformat ion of Difiorted
Images.
By this means pidtures that are fo milhapen, as to
exhibit no regular appearance of any thing to the na¬
ked eye, fnall, when viewed by refledtion, prefect a
regular and Jxeautiful image. The inventor of this in¬
genious device is not known. Simon Stevinus, who
was the firft that wrote upon it, does not inform us .
from whom he learned it. The principles of it are laid
down by S. Vauzelard in his Perfpeftive Conique et Cy-
lindrique; and Gafpar Schott profeffes to copy Marius
Bettinus in his defcription of this piece of artificial
magic.
It will be fufficient for our purpofe to copy one of
the fimpleft figures of this writer, as by this means the
myftery of this art will be fufficiently unfolded. Up¬
on the cylinder of paper, or pafteboard, ABCD, Plate
draw whatever is intended to be exhibited, as the let- ccxxxvm,
ters *•
5979
PERSPECTIVE.
ters IHS. Then with a needle make perforations a-
long the whole out-line; and placing a candle, G, be¬
hind this cylinder, mark upon the ground-plane the
fhadow of them, which will be diftorted more or lefs,
according to the pofition of the candle or the plane,
&c. This being done, let the pi&ure be an exa£t copy
of this diftorted image, let a metallic fpeculum be fub-
ftituted in the place of the cylinder, and let the eye of
the fpe&ator have, the fame pofition before the cylin¬
der that the candle had behind it. Then looking upon
the fpeculum, he will fee the diftorted image reftored
to its proper ftiape. The reformation of the image,
he fays, will not eafily be made exadt in this method,
but it will be fufficiently fo to anfwer the purpofe.
Other methods, more exaft and geometrical than
this, were found out afterwards: fo that thefe piftures
could be drawn by certain rules, without the ufe of a
Candle. Schott quotes one of thefe methods from Bet-
tinus, another from Herigonins, and another from Kir-
cher, which may be feen in his Magia, vol. i. p. 162,
&c. He all'o gives an account of the methods of re¬
forming pictures by fpeculums of conical, and other fi¬
gures.
Inftead of copying any of thefe methods from Schott
or Bettinus, we (hall prefent our readers with that
which Dr Smith hath given us in his Optics, vol. i.
p. 250, as, no doubt, the beft, and from which any
perfon may eafily make a drawing of this kind. The
fame defcription anfwers to two mirrors, one of which,
fig. 34. is convex, and the other, fig. 35. is concave.
In order to paint upon a plane a deformed copy
ABCDEKIHGF of an original pifture, which {hall
appear regular, when feen from a given point O, ele¬
vated above the plane, by rays reflefted from a polilh-
ed cylinder, placed upon the circle Inp, equal to its
given bafe; from the point R, which muft be fuppo*
fed to lie perpendicularly under O, the place of the eye,
draw two lines Ra Re; which fhall either touch the
bafe of the cylinder, or elfe cut off two fmall equal
fegments from the fides of it, according as the copy
is intended to be more or lefs deformed. Then, ta¬
king the eye, raifed above R, to the given height RO,
fomewhat greater than that of the cylinder, for a lumi¬
nous point, defcribe the ftiadow «e/{y (of a fquare
a ex z, fig. 36, or parallelogram Handing upright up-
P E R
Perfpiration Perspective G/a/s, or Graphical Perfpettive, in
II optics. See there, p. 5584.
 ert PERSPIRATION, in medicine, the evacuation
of the juices of the body through the pores of the
Ikin. Perfpiration is diftinguilhed into fenfible and
infenfible; and here fenfible perfpiration is the fame
with fweating, and infenfible perfpiration that which
efcapes the notice of the fenfes; and this laft is the
idea affixed to the word perfpiration when ufed alone.
PERSPICUITY, properly fignifies the property
which any thing has of being eafily feen through ;
hence is generally applied to fuch writings or difcour-
fes as are eafily underftood.
Perspicuity, in compofition. See Oratory, u°
42.
PERTH, a county of Scotland, including Men-
teith, Braidalbin, Athol, Stratherne, part of Gowrie,
on its bafe ae, and containing the pi&ure required)
any where behind the arch Inp. Let the lines drawn
from R to the extremities and divifiohs of the bafe a,
l, c, d, e, cut the remoteft part of the fhadow in the
points^ g, h, i, k, and the arch of the bafe in /, mt
n, 0, p; from which points draw the lines /AF,
7/1 BG, «CH, oDI, />EK, as if they were rays of
light that came from a focus R, and were reflefled
from the bafe Inp; fo that each couple, as / A, /R,
produced, may cut off equal fegments from the circle.
Laftly, transfer the lines laf, mbg. See. and all
their parts, in the fame order, upon the refpeclive
lines/ AF, zvBG,&c. and having drawn regular curves,
by eftimation, through the points A, B, C, D, E,
through F, G, H, I, K, and through every inter¬
mediate order of points; the figure ACEKHF, fo
divided, will be the deformed copy of the fquare,
drawn and divided upon the original pi&ure, and
will appear fimilar to it, when feen in the polilhed cy¬
linder, placed upon the bafe Inp, by the eye in its
given place O.
The practical methods of drawing thefe images feem
to have been carried to the greateft perfedtion by J.
Leopold, who, in the Ada Lipfienfia, for the year
1712, has deferibed two machines, one for the images
to be viewed with a cylindrical, and the other with a
conical, mirror. The perfon poffeffed df this inftru-
ment has nothing to do but to take any print he pleafes,
and while he goes over the out-lines of it with one
pen, another traces the anamorphofis.
By methods of this kind, groves of trees may be
cut, fo as to reprefent the appearance of men, horfes,
and other objeds from fome one point of view, which
are not at all difcernible in any other. This might ea¬
fily be effeded by one perfon placing himfelf in any
particular fituation, and giving diredions to other
perfons what trees to lop, and in what manner. In
the fame method it has been contrived, that buildings,
of circular and other forms, and alfo whole groupes
of buildings, confiding of walls at different diftances,
and with different pofitions to one another, fhould be
painted fo as to exhibit the exad reprefentation of
particular objeds, which could only be perceived in
one fituation. Bettinus has illuftrated this method by
drawings in his dpiaria.
PER
and Perth Proper; is bounded by Badenoch and perti,;
Lochaber on the north and north-weft ; by Marr on    ■—
the north-eaft; by Argyle and Lennox on the weft and
fouth-weft; having Clackmannanfhire, part of Stirling-
fhire, and the Forth to the fouth; the Ihires of Kin-
rofs and Fife to the fouth-eaft, and Angus to the eaft.
It extends above 70 miles in length, and near 60 at
its greateft breadth, exhibiting a variety of Highlands
and Lowlands; mountains, hills, dales, and ftraths,
, diverfified with palture-grounds, corn-fields, and mea¬
dows; rivers, lakes, forefts, woods, plantations, in-
clofures, towns, villages, and a great number of ele¬
gant feats, beautifully fituated, belonging to noble¬
men and gentlemen. The chief rivers of Pcrthfhire
are the Tay, the Keith, and the lerne, belides a
great number of fnbordinate ftreams. The Tay, which
is the largeft river in Scotland, derives its fourcc from
33 R 2 the
PER [ 5980 ] PER
Perth, the mountains of Braidalbin, and fpreads itfelf into a
  —lake, called Loch Tayy 15 miles in length and fix in
breadth; then, after a winding courfe of 40 miles,
during which it is fwelled by many brooks and rivu¬
lets, it ends in the Frith of Tay, a broad navigable
inlet, which opens to the fea, not far from the bay
of St Andrews. The river Keith is famous for its
falmon-fifhery, and its fteep cataradt, near the Blair
of Drummond, the noife of which is fo loud as to
deafen thofe who approach it. The river lerne raifes
from Loch-ierne, a lake feven miles long, in the
mountainous country of Stratherne: this river, after
a courfe of 34 miles from call to weft, during which it
receives many ftreams and rivulets, falls into the Tay,
at Abernethy.
Free-ftone, lead, iron, and copper ores, with fome
lapis calaminaris, are found in different places of
Perthfhire. The foil, being generally rich and well
manured, produces excellent wheat, and all kinds of
grain. The hilly country abounds with pafture for
the black cattle, horfes, (heep, goats, and deer. The
heaths, woods, and forefts, are ftored with variety
of game; the rivers teem with falmon and trout; the
gardens and orchards are ftored with all kinds of
herbs, roots, apples, pears, cherries, plums, and
almoft every fpecies of fruit found in South Bri¬
tain^ The houfes and attire, even of the commonalty,
are neat and decent ; and every peafant can produce a
good quantity of linen, and great (lore of blankets,
made in his own family. Indeed, this is the cafe*
through all the Lowlands of Scotland. Flax is reared
by every hufbandman ; and being dreffed at home,
is fpun by the females of his family irito thread for
linen ; this is woven by country weavers, of whom
there is a great number through all the Low Country,
and afterwards bleached or whitened by the good-wife
and her fervants; fo that the whole is made fit for ufe
at a very fmallexpence. They likewife wafti, card, fpin,
and weave their wool into tartan for plaids, kerfies, and
coarfe ruffet-cloth, for common wearing, befides great
part of it which is knit into caps, (lockings, and mitts.
Plaids, made of the fined worded, are worn either
plain or variegated, as veils, by women of the lower,
and even of the middle rank ; nay, fome years ago,
ladies of faftiion wore filken plaids with an undrefs:
this is a loofe piece of drapery, gathered about the
bead, (boulders, and waift, on which it is eroded, fo
as to leave the hands at liberty, and produces a very
good effed to the eye of the fpedator. The Low-
landers of Perthftiire are civilized, hofpitable, and
induftrious: the commerce of the country confifts
chiefly in corn, linen, and black cattle: there are,
moreover, fome merchants who trade to foreign coun¬
tries.—For an account of the different divifions of this
county above mentioned, fee the articles as they occur
in the order of the alphabet.
Perth Proper, ftretching 20 miles in length, and,
at fome places, 15 in breadth, is bounded on the
north-eaft, by the Carfe of Gowrie; on the eaft, by
Angus; on the weft, by Stratherne; on the north, by
Athol; and on the fonth, by the Frith of Tay. This
is likewife a fruitful country, populous, and well culti¬
vated, abounding with gentlemen who poffefs opulent
eftates; with farmers who underftand agriculture; and
with manufacturers win? turn their ioduftry to great
account. North-eaftward from Perth to Brechin, lies Perth,
the vale of Strathmore, one of the mod fertile diftrids
in Scotland, which gives the title of Earl to the noble
family of Lyon.
Perth, the capital of the county of that name, is
an agreeable, populous town, fituated 20 miles with¬
in land, on the fouth bank of the river Tay. It was
otherwife called St JohnJlon's, from a church dedica¬
ted to St John, as the patron of the place. It is a
royal borough, fecond in dignity to the metropolis,
the feat of a large prefbytery, and gave the title of
Earl to the family of Drummond, which is now for¬
feited. Perth, in the reign of Edward I. of England,
was poffeffed by the Englifh, who fecured it with for¬
tifications: bur, after an obftinate refiftance, they
were expelled by Robert Bruce. In the year 1715,
the rebels-made it a place of arms, and retired to it,
after the battle of Dumblaine ; but they were in a
little time diflodged by the duke of Argyle, and re¬
treated northwards with the pretender. The town is
populous and handfome ; the ftreets are well paved,
and tolerably clean at all times; and the houfes, tho*
not (lately, make a very decent appearance. Here is
a large church, an old palace that belonged to the
earls of Gpwrie, but now devolved to the crown ; a
(lately town-houfe, feveral other public edifices, and
houfes belonging to gentlemen. A monaftery of Car-
thufians was here eftabliftted by king James I. of
Scotland, who loft his life on the very fpot, by the
treachery of Athol and his accomplices. The town
was anciently provided with a (lone-bridge over the
river, which an inundation fwept away; but a new and
very fine one has lately been built.
This town has but one pariftt, which has two
churches, befides meetings for feparatifts, who are
very numerous. One church, which belonged to a
monaftery, is very ancient: not a veftige of the laft
is now to be feen; for the difciples of Knox made a
a general defolation of every edifice that had given
(belter to the worfluppers of the church of Rome : it
being one of his maxims, to pull down the nefls, and
then the rooks would fly away.
The flourilhing (late of Perth is owing to two ac¬
cidents: the firit, that of numbers of Cromwell’s
wounded officers and foldiers choofing to refide here,
after he left the kingdom, who introduced a fpirit of
induftry among the people : the other caufe was the
long continuance of the earl of Mar’s army here in
1715, which occafioned vaft fums of money being
fpent in the place. But this town, as well as all Scot¬
land, dates its profperity from the year 1745; the
government of this part of Great Britain having never
been fettled till a little after that time.
The trade of Perth is confiderable. It exports an¬
nually 150,000!. worth of linen, from 24,000 to
30,000 bolls of wheat and barley to London and Edin¬
burgh, and about the fame in cured falmon. That
fi(h is taken there in vaft abundance ; 3000 have been
caught in one morning, weighing, one with another,
16 pounds ; the whole capture, 48,000 pounds. The
filhery begins at St Andrew’s day, and ends Auguft
26th, old ftyle. The rents of the fifheries amount to
3000I. per annum. Smelts come up this river in May
and June.
There has been in thefe parts a very great fifttery
of
PER [ 5981 ] PER
Pertinax of pearl, got out of the frefh-water'tMufcles. From
I the year 1761 to 1764, io,oool. worth were fent to
eru' London, and fold for los. to 11. 16s. per ounce.
Mr Pennant was told that a pearl has beeft taken thel-e
that weighed 33 grains. But this filhery is at prefent
exhaufted, from the avarice of the undertakers : it once
extended as far as Loch-Tay.
PERTINAX, an illuftrious Roman, raifed him-
felf by his valour and merit to the confular dignity ;
and upon the death of Commodus, was ele&ed empe¬
ror by the praetorian band in 193. Though he owed
his elevation to thefe foldiers, his firft care was to re-
prefs their infolence, and to oblige them to obferve
ftrift difcipline ; upon which they revolted, and in the
tumult one of the private men affaffinated this renown¬
ed hero, who was the father of his people, after a
reign of 87 days.
PERTINENT of lands, in Scots law. See Law,
N° cxlvii. 6.
PERU, a country of South America, bounded on
the north by Popayan, on the weft by the South Sea,
and on the call by the vaft ridge of mountains called
the Andes; and extending 1500 miles in length from
north to fouth, though only 125 in breadth from eaft
to weft, between the Andes and the fea ; though in
other places it is much broader, and, according to
t fome, not lefs than 300 miles.
How difco- This country was difcovered by the Spaniards; and
•v. red by the the firft intelligence they had of it was on the follow-
Spaniards. jng occafion. Nunez de Balboa having been raifed to
the government of the fmall colony at Santa Maria in
Darien by the fnffrages of his companions, was very
defirous of having that authority confirmed by the
court of Spain. For this purpofe he endeavoured to
recommend himfelf to the Spanifti miniftry by fome
important fervice ; that is, by extorting from the In¬
dians as much gold and filver as he could. He there¬
fore made frequent inroads into the adjacent country,
fubdued feveral of the caciques or, petty princes, and
collefted a confiderable quantity of gold. In one of
thefe expeditions, the Spaniards contended fo violently
about the divifion of fome gold which they had taken,
that they were on the point of coming to blows with
one another. A young, cacique who was prefent,
aftoniflied at fuch contention about a thing of which
he knew not the ufe, tumbled the gold out of the ba¬
lance with indignation, and turning to the Spaniards,
told them, that fince they valued gold fo very highly,
he would conduft them to a country where the mod
common utenfils were made of that metal. The Spa¬
niards eagerly catched at this hint; and upon further
queftioning the cacique, were informed, that at the
diftance of fix days journey, towards the fouth, from
the place where they were at that time, they fhould
difcover another ocean, near which this defirable coun¬
try was fituated ; but if they intended to attack that
powerful ftate, they muft affemble a much greater
number of forces than had hitherto appeared on the
continent.
Balboa was tranfported at the news. He imme¬
diately concluded, that the ocean mentioned by the
cacique was that which Columbus had fo long fought
for in vain, and that the rich territory defcribed to
him muft be part of the Eaft Indies. He was there¬
fore impatient till he Ihould arrive at that happy coun¬
try, in comparifon with the difcovery of which all for- Peru.
mer exploits almoft vanifhed into- nothing. In order   
therefore to procure a force fufficient to enfure fuccefs
in his enterprife, he firft fecured the friendlhip of the
neighbouring caciques, and then difpatched fome of
his officers to Hifpaniola, with a large quantity of
gold as a proof of his paft fuccefs, and an e.arneft of
what he expefted. • By this means he fecured the
friendfhip of the governor, and procured a confider¬
able reinforcement. But though he now imagined
himfelf fufficiently ftrong to attempt the difcovery, *
there were ftill prodigious difficulties to be furmounted. Difficulties
The ifthmus of Darien, though not above 60 miles intliey ha<] to
breadth, has a chain of lofty mountains runningovercome*
through its whole extent. Being fituated between two
vaft oceans, the Atlantic and Pacific, the climate is
exceffively moift, infomuch that it rains for two-thirds
of the year. In confequence of this the valleys are
marffiy, and fo frequently overflowed, that the inha¬
bitants find it neceflary in fome places to build their
houfes upon trees, in order to be elevated at fome di¬
ftance from the damp foil, and the odious reptiles en¬
gendered in the waters. There are alfo many large
rivers very difficult to be crofled ; and as the country
at that time was only inhabited by a few wandering
favages, the enterprife of Balboa is looked upon as
the moft difficult that had been undertaken by any
Spaniffi adventurer.
On this arduous talk Balboa fet out on the ift day
of September 1513, about the .time that the periodical
rains begin to abate. He had only 190 Spaniards
along with him ; but all of them were hardy veterans,
inured to the climate of America, and very much at¬
tached to their leader. A thoufand Indians attended
in order to carry their provifions and other neceflaries;
and they had along with them fome of thofe fierce dogs
fo terrible to the natives of America.
Balboa proceeded by fea, and without difficulty, to
the territories of a cacique whofe friendihip he had
gained ; but as foon as he began to advance into the
interior parts of the country, he met with all the dif¬
ficulties above Mentioned. Some of the caciques alfo,
at his approach, fled with all their people to the moun¬
tains, carrying off or deftroying whatever could af¬
ford fubfiftence to an army. Others colle&ed their
force in order to oppofe him : however Balboa conti¬
nued unmoved in fpite of all difficulties; and at laft,
after a moft painful journey of 25 days, he arrived at
the South Sea; when, with the moft extravagant3aij,0‘a
tranfports of joy, he went into it up to the middle, gets a fight
and took poffeffion of the ocean in his mafter’s name, oft!ie South
vowing to defend it againft all the enemies of Spain. Sea*
That part of the South Sea which Balboa now
difcovered, he called iht'Gulf of St Michael; which
name it ftill retains, and is fituated to the eaft of Pa¬
nama. From fome of the neighbouring caciques he
extorted provifions and gold by force ; others fent him
prefents voluntarily ; and he had the fatisfadlion to
hear, that the adjacent coafts abounded with pearl-
oyfters. The inhabitants were alfo unanimous in de¬
claring, that there was to the fouthward a very rich
and populous country, where the people had tame
animals, which they endeavoured to defcribe to him,
meaning the Peruvian fheep. But however impatient
he might be to vifit this empire, he confidered it as
highly
PER [ 5982 ] PER
Peru, highly improper to venture thither with a handful of
men exhaufted by labour and difeafe. He therefore
led back his followers to Santa Maria, in order to re-
frelh them after their fatigues; and from thence he
fent an account to the court of Spain of the important
difcovery he had made, demanding a reinforcement of
4 xooo men, in order to conquer the country he had
He is depri- newly difcovered. But here his hopes were all blafted
ved of his at onCe. The king indeed determined to profecute
command; ^ jifcovery, but refufed to continue Balboa in his
government, appointing Pedrarias Davila to fuperfede
him, and giving him the command of 15 ftout veflels,
with 1200 foldiers, to enfure his fuccefs.
Balboa, though much mortified by his difgrace,
fubmitted to the king’s pleafure without repining. It
was not long, however, before he met with an addi¬
tional misfortune ; the new governor tried him for
fome pretended irregularities committed before his ar¬
rival, and fined him of almoft all he was worth. In
the mean time the Spaniards, paying no regard to the
treaties concluded by Balboa with the Indians, plun¬
dered and deftroyed all indiferiminately, infomuch
that the whole country, from the gulph of Darien to
the lake Nicaragua, was defolated. The new comers
had alfo arrived at the moil unlucky time of the year,
namely, about the middle of the wet feafon, when the
exceffive rains produced the moft violent and fatal dif-
eafes. To this was joined an extreme fcarcity of pro-
vifions 5 fo that in the fpace of a month above 600
Spaniards periihed in the utmoft mifery.
Balboa failed not to fend violent remonftrances to
Spain againft the condudl of the new governor; and
he, on the other hand, accufed his antagonift of ha¬
ving deceived the king by falfe accounts of the coun¬
try, and magnifying his own exploits beyond meafure.
At laft the king, fenfible of his error in fuperfeding
Balboa, appointed him adelantado, or lieutenant-go¬
vernor of the countries on the South Sea, with very
extenfive privileges and authority ; enjoining Pedrarias
to fupport him in all his enterprifes, and to confult
with him in every thing which he himfelf undertook.
It was impoffible, however, to extinguiih the envy of
Pedrarias; and therefore, though a reconciliation
s took place in appearance, even fo far, that Pedrarias
And'put to agreed to give his daughter in marriage to Balboa, yet
death. he foon after had him condemned and executed on
pretence of difloyalty, and an intention to revolt from
the king.
On the death of Balboa, the thoughts of conquer¬
ing Peru were for a time laid afide ; however it (till
remained an objeft of defire to all the Spanilh adven¬
turers in America. Accordingly feveral armaments
were fitted out with a defign to explore and take
pdffeffion of the countries to the eaft of Panama ; but,
either through the difficulties which attended the un¬
dertaking itfelf, or the bad condudl of the adventu¬
rers, all of them proved unfuccefsful, until at laft it be¬
came a general opinion, that Balboa’s fcheme had been
6 entirely vifionary.
A new ex- Still, however, there were three perfons fettled at
pediiion fet Panama, on whom the common opinion made fo little
on foot. impreffion, that they determined to go in queft of this
country, looked upon to be chimerical by the genera¬
lity of their neighbours. Their names were Frhncifco
Fizarro, Diego de dlmagro, and Hernando Lu^ue. Pi-
zarro and Almagro were foldiers of fortune, and Luque Peru,
was an ecclefiaftic, who a£led both as prieft and fchool-
mailer at Panama. Their confederacy was authorifed
by Pedrarias governor of Panama ; and each engaged
to employ his whole fortune in the adventure. Pi-
zarro, being the leaft wealthy of the three, engaged
to take upon himfelf the greateft ftiare of the fatigue
and danger, and to command in perfon the armament
which was to go firft upon the difcovery. Almagro
offered to condudl the fupplies of provifions and rein¬
forcements of troops which might be neceffary ; and
Luque was to remain at Panama, in order to nego¬
tiate with the governor, and to fuperintend whatever
was carrying on for the general intereft. y
In 1524, Pizarro fet fail from Panama with a fingle Meets with
veffel of fmall burthen, and 112 men; and fo little was bad fuccefs
he or his countrymen at that time acquainted with the at fir^'
climate of America, that the moft improper feafon of
the whole year was chofen for his departure; the pe¬
riodical winds, which were then fet in, being diredlly
oppofite to the courfe which he propofed to fteer. The
confequence of this was, that after beating about for
70 days, with much danger and fatigue, he had ad¬
vanced fcarce as far to the fouth-eaft as a fldlful navi¬
gator will now make in three days. He touched at
feveral places of Terra Firma ; but finding that coun¬
try exceedingly inhofpitable and unhealthy, he was
obliged to retire to Chuchama, oppofite to the Pearl
Iflands, where he hoped to receive fome reinforcements
from Panama. Here he was found by Almagro, who
had fet out in queft of him with a reinforcement of 70
men, and had fuffered diftreffes very much refembling
thofe of Pizarro himfelf. In particular, he had loft
an eye in a combat with the Indians. However, he
had advanced as far as the river of St Juan in the pro¬
vince of Popayan, where the country (hewing a better
afpeft, and the inhabitants more friendly, our projec¬
tors again began to indulge themfelves in hopes, and
determined by no means in' abandon their fcheme.
Almagro returned to Panama, in hopes of recruit¬
ing their fhattered troops. But the bad accounts of
the fervice gave his countrymen fuch an unfavourable
idea of it, that Almagro could levy no more than 80
men, and thefe with great difficulty. Slender as this
reinforcement was, however, the adventurers did not
hefitate at renewing their enterprife. The difafters
and difappointments they met with in ’this new
attempt, were fcarce inferior to thofe they had alrea¬
dy experienced, when part of the armament at laft
reached the bay of St Matthew on the coaft of Quito,
and landed at Tacamez, to the fouth of the River of
Emeralds, where they met with a more fertile and
champaign country than any they had yet feen; the
natives alfo were more civilized) and clothed in gar¬
ments of cotton or woolen (tuff, adorned with trinkets
of gold and filver. But notwithftanding thefe favour¬
able appearances, Pizarro did not think fit to attack
fuch a powerful empire with an handful of foldiers al¬
ready exhaufted ; and therefore retired to a fmall ifland
called Gallo, with part of the troops ; from whence he
difpatched Almagro to Panama, in hopes of obtain¬
ing a reinforcement.
The reception which Almagro met with was by no
means agreeable. Some of the adventurers had in¬
formed their friends of the many dangers and Ioffes
which
PER
PER t 5983 1
Pern, which they had fuftained ; which not only diiheartened
people from engaging in the fervice, but weighed fo
much with Pedro de los Rios, the fucceffor of Pedra-
rias, that he prohibited the raifing of new recruits,
and even difpatched a veffel to bring home Pizarroand
his companions from the ifland of Gallo. Almagro
and Luque, though much mortified with this difap-
pointment, privately advifed Pizarro not to relinquilh
an enterprife on which they had built all their hopes.
He therefore pofitively refufed to obey the orders of
the governor, and employed all his addrefs in per-
fuading his men not to abandon him. But the cala¬
mities to which they h-.d been expofed had fuch an ef-
8 fe£l upon them, that when he drew a line upon the
bandoned" w't^ his fword, telling fuch as wifhed to return
by all his that they might pafs over it, only 13 had refolution
menbuti3. to remain with him.
Pizarro with his little troop now fixed their refi-
dence on the ifland of Gorgona, which they confidered
as a fafer retreat than Gallo, as being farther removed
from the coall and unhahabited, fo that they might
with the greater fecurity wait for fupplies. Here,
they continued five months in the moll unwholefome
climate imaginable, and at laft had come to a refo¬
lution of committing themfelvs to fea on a float, when
a veffel arrived from Panama to their relief. This was
the effeft of the continued folicitations of Almagro
and Luque; who, though they could not prevail upon
the governor to favour the undertaking, had fucceeded
fo far as to induce him to fend a fmall veffel to the
relief of Pizarro and his unfortunate aflbciates. How¬
ever, the more effedually to (hew his difapprobation
of Pizarro’s fcheme, the governor refufed to allow one
land man to go on board of the fhip which he fent.—
The hopes of the adventurers, however, were now again
9 revived, and Pizarro eafily induced them to refume
Goes bb their fcheme. Inftead of returning to Panama, there¬
with his fore, they failed to the fouth-eaft, and in 20 days
aUadven1 a^tCr ^ difcovery of Gorgona they difcovered the coalt
tures. " Having touched at fome places of lefs note,
they at length arrived at Tumbez, remarkable for its
{lately temple, and a palace of the Incas, or fove-
reigns of the country. Here, they found that what
had been told them concerning the riches of the coun¬
try was true ; not only ornaments and facred veflels
being made of gold and filver, but even fuch as were
for common ufe. Yet to attempt the conqueft of this
opulent empire with their {lender force, would have
been madnefs; they contented themfelves therefore
with viewing it, procuring two of the beads of bur¬
then called Llamas, to which they gave the name of
(heep, fome veflels of gold and filver, and two young
men, whom they propofed to inftruft in the Caftilian
language. With thefe Fizarro arrived at Panama in
the year 1527, near three years after he had fet out
from that place in his expedition.
Hiftory of '^'^e empire of Peru thus difcovered, is faid to have
the Incas of been originally poflefled by independent tribes, juftly
Peru. reckoned among the moll favage even in America; living
more like wild beads than men. For feverai ages they
lived in this manner, when fuddenly there appeared on
the banks of a lake called Titiaca, a man and woman
of majeftic form, and cloathed in decent garments.
They declared themfelves to be the children of the fun,
lent by their beneficent parent to inftruft and reclaim
mankind. P4nu
The names of thefe two extraordinary perfonages *
were Manco Capac and Mama Ocollo. At their
perfualion, feverai of the difperfed favages united, and,
receiving their commands as heavenly injundions, fol¬
lowed them to Cuzco, where they fettled, and began
to lay the foundations of a city. Manco Capac in-
ftrudled the men in agriculture, and other ufeful arts;
while Mama Ocollo taught the women to fpin and
weave ; after which Manco turned his attention to¬
wards the introducing of proper laws.and regulations
into his new Hate.
Thus, according to the Indian tradition, was found¬
ed the empire of the Incas, or lords of Peru. At firft
its extent was final], the territory of Manco Capac
reaching not above eight leagues from Cuzco his capi¬
tal. Within thefe narrow limits, however, he exer-
cifed the moft perfedt defpotifm, and the fame was
maintained by his fucceflbrs, all of whom were not
only obeyed as monarchs, but reverenced as deities.
Their blood was held to be facred, and, by prohibi
ting intermarriages with the people, was never conta¬
minated by mixing with that of any other race. The
family, thus feparated from the reft of the nation, was
diftinguiftied by peculiarities in drefs and ornaments,
which it was unlawful for others to affume. Among
the Peruvians, however, it is faid, that this high de¬
gree of veneration was made ufe of by the monarchs
only to promote the good of their fubjefts. If we may
believe the accounts given by their countrymen, the Pe¬
ruvian monarchs extended their empire not with a view
to increafe their own power and wealth, but from a
defire of diffufing the bleffings of civilization, and
the knowledge of the arts which they poflefled, among
the barbarous people whom they reduced, and, during
a fuccdfion of-12 monarchs, not one deviated from this
charafter.
When the Spaniards firft-vifited this country, they progreff of
found it agitated by a civil war. Huana Capac, the the spa-
12th monarch from the founder of the ftate, was feat- wards fad¬
ed on the throne; who is reprefented as a prince no a
lefs confpicuous for his abilities in war, than for his anlong tt,c.
pacific virtues. By him the kingdom of Quito wasnatives.
fubdued, which almoft doubled the extent of the do¬
minions and power of the Peruvian empire. Notwith-
ftanding the ancient and fundamental law againft pol¬
luting the blood of the Inca with any foreign alliance,
Huana married the daughter of the conquered mo¬
narch, by whom he had a fon named Atabualpa, com¬
monly written Atabalipa, to whom, at his death in
1529, he left the kingdom of Quito, beftowing the
reft of his dominions upon Huafcar his eldeft fon by a
mother of the royal race. This produced a civil war,
in which Atabalipa proved vi&or-ious, and afterwards
attempted to fecure himfelf on the throne by putting
to death all the defeendants of Mingo Capac, ftyled
the children of the Sun, whom he could feize either by
force or ftratagem ; however, from a political motive,,
he fpared the life of his rival Huafcar, who had the
misfortune to be taken prifoner in an engagement,
that, by iffuing out orders in his name, he might more
eafily eftabhfh his own authority, and cover the ille¬
gality of his birth.
This conteft had fo much engaged the attention of
the Peruvians, that they never once attempted to-
check
Peru.
PER [ 5984 ] PER
check the progrefs of the Spaniards. It was fome
“time, however, before Pizarro was informed of this
conteft, fo much in his favour. The firft intelligence
which he received of it was a meflage from Huafcar,
afleing his affillance againft Atabalipa, whom he fe-
prefented as a rebel and an ufurper. Pizarro per¬
ceived the importance of the intelligence, and there¬
fore determined to pulh forward, while inteftine dif-
cord put it out of the power of the Peruvians to at¬
tack him with their whole force. Being obliged to di¬
vide his troops, in order to leave a garrifon in St Mi¬
chael, which might ferve for a place, of retreat in
cafe of a difafter, he began his march with only 62
horfemen and 102 foot foldiers, 20 of whom were
armed with crofs-bows, and only three with mufkets.
Pie diredled his courfe towards Caxamalca, a fmall
town at the diftance of T2 days march from St Mi¬
chael, where Atabalipa was encamped with a confi-
derable body of troops. Before he had proceeded far,
an officer difpatched by the Inca met him with a va¬
luable prefent from that prince, accompanied with a
proffer of his alliance, and his affurances of a friendly
reception at Caxamalca. Pizarro, according to the
ufual artifice of his countrymen in America, pretend¬
ed to come as the ambaffador of a very powerful mo¬
narch, and declared that he was now advancing with
intention to offer Atabalipa his aid againft thofe ene¬
mies who difputed his title to the throne.
As the objedh of the Spaniards in entering their
country was altogether incomprehenfible to the Peru¬
vians, they had formed various conjeff ures concerning
it, without being able to decide whether they ffiould
cor.fider their new guefts as beings of a fuperior nature,
who had vifited them from fome beneficent motive, or
as formidable avengers of their crimes, and enemies to
their repofe and liberty. The continual profeffions of
the Spaniards, that they came to enlighten them with
the knowledge of truth, and lead them in the way of
happinefs, favoured the former opinion ; the outrages
which they committed, their ttapacioufnefs and cruel¬
ty, were awful confirmations of the latter. While in
' this ftate of uncertainty, Pizalro’s declaration of his
pacific intentions fo far removed all the Inca’s fears,
that he determined to give him a friendly reception.
In confequence of this refolution, the Spaniards were
allowed to march in tranquillity acrofs the fandy defart
between St Michael and Motupe, where the moft
feeble effort of an enemy, added to the unavoidable
diftreffes which they fuffered in palling through that
comfortlefs region, muft have proved fatal to them.
From Motupe they advanced towards the mountains
which encompafs the low country of Peru, and pafs-
ed through a defile fo narrow and inacceffible, that a
few men might have defended it againft a numerous ar¬
my. But here likewife, from the fame inconfiderate
credulity of the Inca, the Spaniards met with no op-
pofition, and took quiet pofl'effion of a fort erefted for
the. fecurity of that important ftation. As they now
approached near to Caxamalca, Atabalipa renewed
his profeffions of friendlhip; and, as an evidence of
his fincerity, fent them prefents of greater value than
the former.
On entering Caxamalca, Pizarro took poffeffion of
a large court, on one fide of which was a houfe which
the Spanilh hiftorians call a palace of the Inca, and on
the other a temple of the fun, the whole furrounded Peru,
with a ftrong rampart or wall of earth. When he had
ported his troops in this advantageous ftation, he dif¬
patched Hernando Soto, and his brother Ferdinand,
to the camp of Atabalipa, which was about a league
diftant from the town. He inftrufted them to confirm
the declaration which he had formerly made of his pa¬
cific difpofition, and to defire an interview with the
Inca, that he might explain more fully the intention
of the Spaniards in vifiting his country. They were
treated with all the refpeftful hofpitality ufual among
the Peruvians in the reception of their moft cordial
friends, and Atabalipa promifed to vifit the Spaniffi
commander next day in-his quarters. The decent de¬
portment of the Peruvian monarch, the order of his
court, and the reverence with which his fubjefts ap¬
proached his perfon and obeyed his commands, afto-
niffied thofe Spaniards, who had never met in Ameri¬
ca with any thing more dignified than the petty ca¬
cique of a barbarous, tribe. But their eyes were ftill
more powerfully attra&ed by the vaft profufion of
wealth which they obferved in the Inca’s camp. The
rich ornaments worn by him and his attendants, the
veffels of gold and filver in which the repaft offered to
them was ferved up, the multitude of utenfils of every
kind formed of thofe precious metals, opened profpedts
far exceeding any idea of opulence that a European of
the 16th century could form.
On their return to Caxamalca, while their minds
w'ere yet warm with admiration and defire of the
wealth which they had beheld, they gave fuch a de-
feription of it to their countrymen, as confirmed Pi¬
zarro in a refolution which he had already taken.
From his own obfervation of American manners du¬
ring his long fervice in the New World, as well as
from the advantages which Cortes had derived from
feizing Montezuma, he knew of what confequence it
was to have the Inca in his power. For this PurP°fe>Jthemeof
he formed a plan as daring as it was perfidious. Not- pizarroto
withftanding the character he had afi’umed of an am- teize the
baffador from a powerful monarch, who courted anInca*
alliance with the Inca, and in violation of the repeat¬
ed offers which he had made to him of his own friend-
fiiip. and affiftance, he determined to avail himfelf of
the unfufpicious fimplicity with which Atabalipa re¬
lied on his profeffions, and to feize his ptrfon during
the interview to which he had invited him. He pre¬
pared for the execution of his fcheme with the fame
deliberate arrangement, and with as little compunc¬
tion, as if ic had reflected no difgrace on himfelf or
his’country. He divided his cavalry into three fmall
fquadrons, under the command of his brother Ferdi¬
nand, Soto, and Benalcazar; his infantry was formed
into one body, except 20 of moft tried courage, whom
he kept near his own perfon to fupport him in the
dangerous fervice which he referved for himfelf ; the
artillery, confiding of two fkld-pieces, and the crofs-
bow men, were placed oppofite to the avenue by which
Atabalipa was to approach. All were commanded to
keep within the fquare, and not to move until the fignal
for a&ion was given.
Early in the morning the Peruvian camp was all in
motion. But as Atabalipa was felicitous to appear
with the greateft. fplendour and magnificence in his
firft interview with the ftrangers, the preparations for
this
PER [ 5985 ] PER
Pirn- this were fo tedious, that the day was far advanced
~ before fie began his march. Even then, left the or¬
der of the proceffion ftiould be deranged, he moved fo
flowly, that the Spaniards became impatient and ap-
prehenfive that fome fufpicionof their intention might
be the caufe of this delay. In order to remove this,
Pizarro difpatched one of his officers with frefh aflu-
rances of his friendly difpofition. At length the Inca
approached. Firft of all appeared 400 men in an
uniform drefs, as harbingers to clear the way before
him. He himfelf, filling on a throne or couch, adorn¬
ed with plumes of various colours, and almoft covered
with plates of gold and filver enriched with precious
ftones, was carried on the fhoulders of his principal
attendants. Behind him came fome chief officers of
his court, carried in the fame manner. Several bands
of fingers and dancers accompanied this cavalcade ;
and the whole plain was covered with troops, amount¬
ing to more than 30,000 men.
As the Inca drew near the Spanifh quarters, father
Vincent Valverde, chaplain to the expedition, advan¬
ced with a crucifix in one hand, and a breviary in the
other, and in a long difcourfe explained to him the
do&rine of the creation, the fall of Adam, the incar¬
nation, the fufferings and refurreftion ofJefusChrift, the
appointment of St Peter as God’s vicegerent on earth,
the tranfmiffion of his apoftolical power by fucceffion to
the popes, the donation made to the king of Caftile by
pope Alexander of all the regions in the New World.
In confequenee of all this, he required Atabalipa to
embrace the Chriftian faith, to acknowledge the fu-
preme jurifdi&ion of the pope, and to fubmit to the
king of Caftile as his lawful fovereign ; promifing, if
he complied inftantly with this requifition, that the
Caftilian monarch would proteft his dominions, and
permit him to continue in the exercife of his royal au¬
thority ; but if he fhould impioufly refufe to obey this
fummons, he denounced war againft him in his mailer’s
name, and threatened him with the moft dreadful ef-
fe£ls of his vengeance.
This ftrange harangue, unfolding deep myfteries,
and alluding to unknown fads, of which no power of
eloquence could have conveyed at once a diftinift idea
to an American, was fo lamely tranflated byanunlkil-
ful interpreter, little acquainted with the idiom of the
Spanilh tongue, and incapable of expreffing himfelf
with propriety in the language of the Inca, that its
general tenor was altogether incomprehenfible to Ata¬
balipa. Some parts in it of more obvious meaning,
filled him with aftonifhment and indignation. His re¬
ply, however, was temperate. He began with ob-
ferving, that he was lord of the dominions over which
he reigned by hereditary fucceflion ; and added, that
he could not conceive how a foreign pried Ihould pre¬
tend to difpofe of territories which did not belong to
him ; that if fuch a prepofterous grant had been made,
he, who was the rightful poffeflbr, refufed to confirm
it ; that he had no inclination to renounce the religious
inftitutions eftabliflied by his anceftors ; nor would he
forfake the fervice of the fun, the immortal divinity
whom he and his people revered, in order to worfiiip
the God of the Spaniards, who was fubjedt to death;
that with refpedf to other matters contained in his dif¬
courfe, as he had never heard of them before, and did
not now underftand their meaning, hedefired to know
Vol. VIII. 1
where he had learned things fo extraordinary. “ In Peru-
this book,” anfwered Valverede, reaching out to him^ ~
his breviary. The Inca opened it eagerly; and turn¬
ing over the leaves, lifted it to his ear: “ This,” fays
he, “ is filent; it tells me nothing and threw it
with difdain to the ground. The enraged monk, run¬
ning towards his countrymen, cried out, “ To arms,
Chriftians, to arms; the word of God is infulted ; a-
venge this profanation on thofe impious dogs.”
Pizarro, who, during this long conference, had with
difficulty reftrained his foldiers, eager to feize the rich
fpoils of which they had now fo near a view, imme¬
diately gave the fignal of aflault. At once the martial
mufic ftruck up, the cannon and mulkets began to
fire, the horfe fallied out fiercely to the charge, the
infantry rufhed on fword in hand. The Peruvians,
aftoniftied at the fuddennefs of an attack which they
did not expeft, and difmayed with the deftrudfive ef-
fefts of the fire-arms, and the irrefiftible impreffion of
the cavalry, fled with univerfal confternation on every
fide, without attempting either to annoy the enemy,
or to defend themfelves. Pizarro, at the head of his
chofen band, advanced diredlly towards the Inca ; and
though his nobles crowded around him with officious 13
zeal, and fell in numbers at his feet, while they vied Atabalipa
one with another in facrificing their own lives, that^!zetl
they might cover the facred perfon of their fovereign, lzarro*
the Spaniards foon penetrated to the royal feat ; and
Pizarro feizing the Inca by the arm, dragged him to
the ground, and carried him as aprifoner to his quar¬
ters. The fate of the monarch increafed the precipi¬
tate flight of his followers. The Spaniards purfued
them towards every quarter, and, with deliberate and
unrelenting barbarity, continued to flaughter wretch¬
ed fugitives, who never once offered at reliftance. The
carnage did not ceafe until the clofe of day. Above
4000 Peruvians were killed. Not a Angle Spaniard
fell, nor was one wounded but Pizarro himfelf, whofe
hand was flightly hurt by one of his own foldiers, while
ftruggling eagerly to lay hold on the Inca.
The plunder taken on this occafion was immenfe,
but the Spaniards were ftill unfatisfied ; which being
obferved by the Inca, he endeavoured to apply himfelf
to their ruling palfion, avarice, in order to obtain his He offers
liberty; and therefore offered fuch a ranfom as afto-an immenfc
nifhed them, even after all they knew concerning thejl1/” f°r ^is
opulence of the country. The apartment in which 1
he was confined was 22 feet in length and 16 in
breadth ; and all this fpace he engaged to fill with
veflels of gold as high as he could reach. This pro-
pofal was eagerly caught by Pizarro, and a line was
drawn upon the walls to mark the ftipulated height.
Atabalipa, charmed with the thoughts of liberty,
immediately fet about performing his part of the agree¬
ment, and difpatched meflengers into all parts of the
empire, in order to colledt the immenfe quantity of
gold which he had promifed ; and though the unfor¬
tunate monarch was now in the hands of his enemies,
fuch was the veneration which his fubjefls had for
him, that his orders were obeyed with as great ala¬
crity as though he had been at full liberty ; while he,
in the mean time, flattering himfelf with the hopes of
being foon releafed, made no preparations for expel¬
ling the invaders from his dominions.
In a fhort time, Pizarro received intelligence that
33 S Almagro
PER [ 5986 ] PER
Peru.' Almagro was arrived at St Michael with a reinforce-
“™~' ‘ment equal to the force he had with him. This was
a matter of great joy to the Spaniards, and no fmall
vexation to Atabalipa, who now confidered his king¬
dom as in danger of being totally over-run by thefe
firangers, whofe force he neither knew, nor the means
they had of tranfporting themfelves. For this reafon
he determined to put his brother Huafcar to death,
left he (hould join the ftrangers againft him. To this
he was the rather inclined, as he had got information
that the captive prince had been making applications
to them, and had offered them a much larger fum
than what was ftipulated for the Inca’s ranfom ; and
in confequence of this determination the unfortunate
prince loft his life.
In the mean time, the Indians daily arrived at Ca-
xamalca with vaft quantities of treafure; the fight
of which fo much inflamed the Spaniards, that they
infifted upon an immediate divifion : and this being
complied with, there fell to the fhare of each horfeman
8000 pefo?, at that time not inferior to the value of as
many pounds fterling in the prefent century, and half as
much to each foot-foldier, Pizarro and his officers re¬
ceiving fhares proportionable to their dignity. A fifth
part was referved for the emperor, together with fome
veffels of curious workmanfhip as a prefent. In con¬
fequence of this immenfe acquifition of wealth, many
of the Spaniards became clamorous for their difcharge;
which was readily granted by their general, as well
knowing that the difplay of their riches would not
fail to allure adventurers more hardy, though lefs opu-
15 lent, to his ftandard.
Pizarro re- After this divifion of the fpoil, Atabalipa was very
f0U,ttheOInca,'mP0rtnna,e ^,,zarro *n orfier to recover his liber-
fodeath.^ty > fiut the Spaniard, with unparallelled treachery
and cruelty, had now determined to put him to death.
To this he was urged by Almagro’s foldiers, who,
though they had received an equal {hare with the reft,
were ftill unfatisfied. The Inca’s ranfom had not
been completed; and they were apprehenfive, that
whatever fnms might afterwards be brought in, the
troops of Pizarro would appropriate them to them¬
felves as part of that ranfom. They infifted with Pi¬
zarro, therefore, to put him to death, that all the
adventurers might for the future be on an equal foot¬
ing. Accounts were likewife received that troops
were affembling in the remote provinces of the em¬
pire, which Pizarro fufpe&ed to be done by the In¬
ca’s orders. Thefe accounts were heightened by one
Philippilio an Indian interpreter, who had conceived
a paffion for one of the unhappy monarch’s wives ;
and for that reafon wifhed to have him put to death.
Atabalipa himfelf, too, had the misfortune to haften
his own ruin by his conceiving a contemptuous notion
of Pizarro, which he had not the precaution to con¬
ceal. He had long admired the European arts of
reading and writing, and wiffied much to know whe¬
ther he {hould regard it as a natural or acquired ta¬
lent. In order to determine this, he defired one of
the foldiers who guarded him to write the name of
God upon the nail of his thumb. This he {hewed to
feveral Spaniards fucceffively, aflcing its meaning; and,
to his furprife, they all returned the fame anfwer. At
length Pizarro entered ; and, on prefentingit to him,
he bluftted, and was obliged to own his ignorance j
which infpired the Inca with the contemptuous notion Peru,
of him abovementioned. ~
In order, however, to give fome ffiew of juftice to
fucb a deteftable aftion, and that he might be ex- accufed'ani
empted from {landing fingly as the perpretator, Pi- condemn-
zarro refolved to accufe the Inca of fome capital crime, ed-
and inftitute a court of judicature for the purpofe of
trying him. For this purpofe, he appointed himfelf
and Almagro, with two affiftants, as judges, with full
powers to acquit or condemn : an attorney-general
was named to carry on the profecution .in the king’s
name ; counfellors were chofen to affift the prifoner in
his defence ; and clerks were ordained to record the
proceedings of court. Before this ftrange tribunal, a
charge was exhibited ftill more amazing. It confifted
of various articles : that Atabalipa, though a baftard,
had difpoffeffed the lawful owner of the throne,
and ufurpcd the regal power ; that he had put his bro¬
ther and lawful fovercign to death ; that he was au
idolater, and had not only permitted, but commanded
the offering up of human facrifices ; that he had a
great number of concubines ; that fince his imprifon-
ment, he had wafted and embezzled the royal trea-
fures, which now belonged of right to the conquerors;
and that he had excited his fubje&s to take up arms
againft the Sp<'*niards. On thefe heads of accufation
they proceeded to try the fovereign of a great empire,
over whom they had no jurifdittion. To all thefe
charges the Inca pleaded not guilty. With refpe& to
the death of his brother, he alleged, that the Spa¬
niards could take no' cognizance of the fa<St. With
regard to the taxes which he had levied, and the wars
he had carried on, they were nothing to the Spa¬
niards ; and as to the confpiracy againlt the Spaniards,
he utterly denied it. He called heaven and earth to
witnefs the integrity of his conduft, and how faith¬
fully he had performed Iris engagements, and the per¬
fidy of his accufers. He defired to be fent over to
Spain to take his trial before the emperor ; but no ,7
regard was paid to his intreaties ; he was condemned Andftrang-
to be burnt alive; which cruel fentence was mitigated, led.
as a great favour, to ftrangling; and the unhappy mo¬
narch was executed without mercy.
The death of the Inca was followed by a revolution ■
in the Spanifh affairs, who now became generally
odious. Hideous cries were fet up by his women as
the funeral proccffion paffed by their apartment: ma¬
ny offered to bury themfelves alive with him ; and on
being hindered, ftrangled tbemfelves out of grief and ig
vexation. The whole town of Caxamalca was filled a general
with lamentation, which quickly extended itfelf over revolt of
the whole kingdom. Friends and enemies accufed the'1.14 Pcni-
Spaniards of inhumanity and treachery. Loads of713”5"
gold that were coming to Caxamalca by order of the
deceafed Inca were now flopped ; and the lofs of the
treafure was the firft unfortunate eonfequence which
the Spaniards felt from their late iniquitous cpnduft.
The two fadions of Indians united againft Pizarro ;
and many of the Spaniards not only exclaimed againft:
the cruelty of the invaders, but would even have mu¬
tinied, had not a fenfe of the impending danger kept
them quiet. At Cuzco the friends of the emperor
Huafcar proclaimed Mango Capac the legitimate bro¬
ther of the late Inca, determining to fupport him to
the laft againft. all the machinations of his enemies.
Pizarro,
PER [ 5987 ] PER
Pern. Pt’zarro, in the mean time, fct up Taparpa, the fon
“of Atabalipa, caufing him to be treated with all the
honours due to an emperon Immediately he fet out
for Cuzco, the gaining of which was abfolutely ne-
ceffary for his defign. An army of Indians occupied
the paffes, and refolved to difpute his progrefs. The
conteth, however, was foon decided ; the Spanifh ca¬
valry bore down every thing before them, and great
numbers of Indians were flain. The conquerors
gained a' confiderable booty ; and Pizarro dif-
patched Almagro to reduce Cuzco, while he himfelf
founded a new colony in the fruitful valley of Xauna;
which, however, was not permanent, being afterwards
removed to the place where Lima now (lands.
While Pizarro was thus employed, another com¬
mander, named Ferdinanda Soto, was detached with
60 horfe to make the belt of his way to Cuzco, and
clear the road for the march of the remainder of the
army. He was oppofed by a formidable colleftion of
Indians, who had fortified themfelves in order to de¬
fend a pafs againft him : for which reafon, fearing left
his (Length might be unequal, he fent a melfage to
Pizarro, defiring that the Inca might join him, think¬
ing that his prefence would awe the Peruvians, and
prevent the further effufion of blood ; but his expecta¬
tions were fruftrated by the death of the Inca, which
happened about this time ; fo that there was now a
neceffity for having recourfe to arms ; for as the Spa¬
niards fet up no perftm in his room, the title of Mango
Capac was univerfally acknowledged.
In the mean time, a new fupply of foldiers arriving
from Spain, Benalcazar, governor of St Michael, un¬
dertook an expedition againft Quito, where, accor¬
ding to the report of the natives, Atabalipa had left
the greateft part of his treafure. He accompliftied
his purpofe with very great difficulty, having a coun¬
try covered with rocks and mountains to pafs, and
being oppofed by large bodies of the natives. But
when he got poffeffion of the city, to his extreme mor¬
tification, he found that the inhabitants had,carried off
all their gold and filver ; for they being now acquaint¬
ed with the ruling paffion of the Spaniards, had ta¬
ken care to difappoint it, by removing the treafures
which they knew very well had been the caufe of the
,p expedition.
Chili inva About the fame time, Alvarado, governor of Gua-
dedhyAl- timala, invaded the province of Chili. In this expe-
varado. oitJcm his troops endured fuch hardfhips, and fuffered
fo much from the cold among the Andes, that a fifth
part of the men and all the horfes died, and at the
fame time the reft were fo much difpirited and
emaciated, that they became quite unfit for fervice.
What was word of all, when they had arrived at the
end of their journey, they met with a body of Spa¬
niards drawn up in hoftile array to oppofe them. Thefe
30 had been fent againft him by Pizarro, who claimed
Heisobli- Chili as part of his jurifdiAion, and were now joined
ged by Pi- gena]cazar> w[th the troops under his command,
abandon Alvarado, however, advanced boldly to the attack ;
the enter- but, on the interpofition of feme moderate men in each
prife. party, the difference was accommodated; Alvarado
engaged to return to his government, upon his being
paid 100,000 pefosto defray the expence of bis arma¬
ment ; however, moft of his followers remained in the
country, and uplifted in the fervice of Pizarro*
2
In the mean time Ferdinand Pizarro, the brother of P«tu.
the general, had landed in Spain, where he produced   '
fuch immenfe quantities of gold and filver as aftonilh-
ed the court, even after all they had feen of the wealth
of their new-difeovtred territories. The general’s au- n
thority was confirmed to him with new powers andHono,,rs
privileges, and the addition of 70 leagues extending
along the coaft, to the foutbward of the territory^ the^court
granted in his former patent. Almagro had the title0f Spain,
of adelantado or governor conferred upon him, with
jurifdidtion over 200 leagues of a country lying fouth-
ward from the province allotted to Pizarro ; he him¬
felf was made a knight of the order of St Jago.
Of thefe tranfaftions fome accounts were received at
Peru before the arrival of Ferdinand Pizarro himfelf;
and no fooner did Almagro hear that he had obtained
the royal grant of an independent government, than,
pretending that Cuzco, the capital of all Peru, lay
within his jurifditStion, he attempted to feize it. Pi¬
zarro was no lefs ready to oppofe him ; and a very
dangerous civil war was about to take place, when the
quarrel was made up, on condition that AJmagro
(hould attempt the conqueft of Chili ; and if he did
not find there an eftabbfhment equivalent to his ex¬
pectations, Pizarro (hould yield up to him part of
Peru.
By this reconciliation Pisarro was left at liber¬
ty to fettle the internal policy of his province, w'hich,
though little qualified for a legifiator, he attempted,
by dividing the country info various diftri&s, ap¬
pointing magiftrates to prefide in eac.', and eftabljffi-
ing fuch regulations concerning the adminiftratioa qf
juftice, the royal revenue, &c, as occurred to him.
The feat of government he removed from Cuzco tq Li¬
ma, which he named Ceuitad des loj Reyes, and which,
name it dill retains among the Spaniards in all legal
and formal deeds. Its other name, Lbm, is a cpri
ruptrofl-erf Rimac, the name of the valley in which the
city (lands.
In the mean time Almagro had fet put on his expe¬
dition to Chili; the event of which has been related
under the article Chili ;• and while he was thus em¬
ployed, Pizarro encouraged fome of his moft diftin-
guifhed officers to invade thofe provinces of the empire
which had not yet been vifited by the Spaniards. This
he did with a view to keep them employed, and pre¬
vent tumults : but it was attended with very terrible
confequences. No fooner did Mango Capac the Inca
perceive the feeurity of the Spaniards in thus dividing
their forces, than he feized the opportunity of making
one vigorous effort to redrefs the wrongs of himfelf
and his countrymen, and expel the invaders, who had
tyrannized in fuch a cruel manner. Though (truftly
guarded by the Spaniards, he found means to commu- /
nicate his intentions to the chief men. of his nation,
whom he joined in the year 1536, under pretence of
celebrating a feftival which he had obtained liberty l3
from Pizarro to attend. Upon this the (tandard of A dreadful -
war was immediately erected, and a mod formidableinfurre<aion
army, according to the Spanifh hiftorians, of S.QOjOOo”!^6 ^eru'
men colledted. Many Spaniards were maflacred iu ’
their habitations, and feveral detachments entirely cut
off; and while this vaft army laid fiege to Cuzco, ano¬
ther formidable body invefted Lima, and kept the go¬
vernor clofely (hut up. The greateft effort, however,
33 S 2 was
PER [ 5988 ] PER
Pern, was made againft Cuzco, which was defended by Pi-
  — zarro and his two brothers, with only 170 men. The
fiege lafted nine months ; many of the Spaniards were
killed ; among whom was Juan Pizarro, the general’s
brother, and the beft beloved of them all. The reft
were reduced to the moll defperate fituation, when
Almagro appeared fuddenly in the neighbourhood of
Cuzco. He had received fuch accounts of the infur-
redlion in Peru, as would at any rate have determined
him to return to the affillance of Pizarro; but befides
this, he had now received the royal patent, creating
him governor of Chili, and deemed it certain beyond
all contradidlion, that Cuzco lay within hisjurifdic-
tion ; for which reafon he haftened to prevent it from
They re fading into the hands of the Peruvians. On his arri-
defeated, val his affillance was folicited by both parties. The
and dif- InC3 made many advantageous propofals ; but at length
perfe. defpairing of obtaining any cordial union with a Spa¬
niard, he attacked him in the night by furprife with
a great body of chofen troops. But the Spanilh va¬
lour and difcipline prevailed againft all the numbers of
their enemies; and the Peruvians were repulfed with
fuch daughter, that a great part of the remainder dif-
perfed, and Almagro advanced to the gates of Cuzco
without oppofition. Pizarro’s brothers took meafures
to oppofe his entrance; but prudence for the prefent
reftrained both parties from entering into a civil war
while they were furrounded with enemies; and there¬
fore each leader endeavoured to corrupt the followers
of his antagonift. In this Almagro had the advantage;
and fo many of Pizarro’s troops deferted in the night,
that Almagro was encouraged to advance towards the
city, where he furprifed the centinels ; and invefting
the houfe where the two brothers were lodged, he com¬
pelled them, after an obftinate defence, to furrender
at difcretion ; and Almagro’s authority over Cuzco
was immediately recognized as authentic.
Civil war In this fray only two or three perfons were killed ;
between but matters foon began to wear a more ferious afpedl.
^zi^ar°rail<1 Francis Pizarro, having difperfed the Peruvians who
0 ’ invefted Lima, and received confiderable reinforce¬
ments from other provinces, ordered 500 men under
the command of Alonfo de Alvarado to march to Cuzco,
in hopes of relieving his brothers, if they were not al¬
ready cut off. They advanced to a fmall diftance from
the capital, before they knew that they had a more
formidable enemy than the Indians to encounter. When
they faw their countrymen drawn up on the banks of
a river to oppofe them, they were greatly furprifed;:
however, Almagro, who wiffied rather to gain them
than to fight, began with attempting to feduce their
leader. Alvarado could not by any means be gained
over ; but being inferior in military Ikill, Almagro at¬
tacked him by furprife, entirely defeated and difperfed
his army, taking himfelf and fome of his principal of¬
ficers prifoners.
This viftory feemed decifive; and Almagro was ad-
vifed to make it fo by putting to death Gonzalo and
Ferdinand Pizarros, Alvarado, and fome ©therk whom
he could not hope to gain. This advice, however, he
declined from motives of humanity, and a defire of
making his adverfary appear the aggreffor. For thefe
reafons, inftead of marching diredly againft Pizarro,
he retired quietly to Cuzco; which gave his adverfary
time to recoiled himfdf from the diforder. into which.
the news of fo many difafters had thrown him. He Peru.
began again to pra&ife upon Almagro thofe arts   -
which had before proved fuccefsful; and Almagro a-
gain fuffered himfelf to be deceived by pretended of¬
fers of pacification. The negociations for this pur-
pofe were protradled for feveral months; and while
Almagro was employed in dete&ing and eluding the
fraudulent intentions of the governor, Gonzalo Pt-
zarro and Alvarado found means to corrupt the fol-
diers who guarded them, and not only made their own
efcape, but perfuaded 60 of Almagro’s men to ac¬
company them. There now remained only Ferdinand
Pizarro in the hands of Almagro; and he was delivered
by another adl of treachery. The general propofed
that all points of controverfy ftiould be fubmitted to
the decifion of their fovereign ; and that Ferdinand
Pizarro fttould be inftantly fet at liberty, and return to
Spain, together with fome other officers whom the
general propofed to fend over to (hew the juftice of
his claims. Though the intention of Pizarro by ma¬
king this propofal was evident^ Almagro was deceived
by it, and releafed thofe whom Pizarro wanted; which
he had no fooner done, than the latter threw off all
difguife, and openly declared, that arms alone muft
now decide the matter between them. He therefore
immediately fet out for Cuzco with an army of 700
men, to which Almagro had only 500 to oppofe.
From the weaknefs of his forces, probably, Almagro
did not attempt to guard fome ftrong paffes, through
which Pizarro had to march, but waited patiently for
his adverfary in a plain open country. 15
In the mean time, Pizarro advanced without anyAlmagr®
obftruftion from his enemy; and an engagement foon^dtaken.
happened, in which Almagro was defeated and taken pr;foner.
prifoner. The conquerors behaved with great cruelty,
maffacring a great number of officers, and treating
Almagro himfelf with great feverity. The Indians
had affembled in great numbers to fee the battle, with
an intention to join the vanquifhed party; but were fo
much overawed by the Spaniards, that they retired
quietly after the battle was over, and thus loft the
only opportunity they ever had of expelling their ty¬
rants.—Almagro, after having for fome months lan-
guiftted in prifon, was at length formally tried, and
condemned to die by Pizarro. Notwithftanding his
confummate bravery for which he was remarkable, this
hardy veteran, could not bear the deliberate approach
of death, but condefcended to ufe intreaties to fave his
life. The Pizarros, however, continued inflexible;
and he was firft ftrangled in prifon, and then publicly
beheaded. He left one fon by an Indian woman, .
whom he appointed his fucceffor, by virtue of a power raD**
granted him by the emperor.
As during thefe diffenfions all intercourfe with Spain
ceafed, it was fome time before the accounts of the civil
war were received at court. The firft intelligence waa
given by fome of Almagro’s foldiers, who had left
America on the ruin of their caufe; and they did not
fail to reprefent the injuftice and violence of Pizarro
in the ftrongeft colours, which ftrongly prejudiced the
emperor againft him. In a (hort time, however, Fer¬
dinand Pizarro arrived, and endeavoured to give mat¬
ters a new turn. The emperor was uncertain which
of them he ought to believe; and therefore thought it
neceffary. to fend over fome perfon with ample powers
to
PER [ 5989 ] PER
Peru, to inquire into the merits of the caufe, and to deter-
” mine certainly who was in the wrong. If he found the
governor ftill alive, he was to affume only the title of
judge, in order to have the appearance of ading in
concert with him; but if he was dead, the viceroy
might then produce his commiifion appointing him Pi-
zarro's fucceflbr in the government. This complaifance
to Pizarro, however, proceeded more from a dread of
his power than from any other thing; for in the mean
time, his brother Ferdinand was arrefted at Madrid,
and confined to a prifon, where he remained above 20
years. The perfon nominated to this important trull
17. . was Chriftoval Vaco de Cartro.
dedV^Pi- While this gentleman was preparing for his voyage,
zarro a- Pizarro, confidering himfelf as the unrivalled matter of
mong his Peru, proceeded to parcel out its territories among the
I aflociates. conquerors; and had this divifion been made with any
degree of impartiality, the extent of country which he
had to bellow was fufficient to have gratified his friends,
and to have gained his enemies. But Pizarro conduc¬
ted this tranfadion, not with the equity and candour of
a judge attentive to difcover and to reward merit, but
with the illiberal fpirit of a party-leader. Large di-
ftri&s, in parts of the country moll cultivated and po¬
pulous, were fet apart as his own property, or granted
to his brothers, his adherents, and favourites. To
others, lots lefs valuable and inviting were afiigned.
, The followers of Almagro, amongll whom were many
of the original adventurers, to whofe valour and per-
feverance Pizarro was indebted for his fuccefs, were
totally excluded from any portion in thofe lands, to¬
wards the acquifition of which they had contributed
fo largely. As the vanity of every individual fets an
immoderate value upon his own fervices, and the idea
of each, concerning the recompence due to them, rofe
gradually to a more exorbitant height in proportion
as their conquefts extended, all who were difappointed
in their expe&ations exclaimed loudly againtt the ra-
pacioufnefs and partiality of the governor. The par-
tifans of Almagro murmured in fecret, and meditated
revenge.
Rapid as the progrefs of the Spaniards in South
America had been fince Pizarro landed in Peru, their
avidity of dominion was not yet fatisfied. The officers
to whom Ferdinand Pizarro gave the command of dif¬
ferent detachments, penetrated into feveral new pro¬
vinces; and though fome of them were expofed to
great hardihips in the cold and barren regions of the
Andes, and others fuffered diftrefs not inferior amidll
the woods and marfhes of the plains, they made difco-
veries and conquefts which extended thtir knowledge
of the country, as well as added to their power. Pe¬
dro de Valdivia re-affumed Almagro’s fcheme of inva¬
ding Chili; and, notwithftanding the fortitude of the
natives in defending their poffeffions, made fuch pro¬
grefs in the conqueft of the country, that he founded
the city of St Jago, and gave a beginning to the efta-
blifhment of the Spanifh dominion there. But of all
the enterprifes undertaken about this period, that of
Expedition Gonzales Pizarro was the moil remarkable. The go¬
of Gonzaks-vernor, who feems to have refolved that no perfon in
Eizarro. peru fh0uld poffefs any Ration of diftinguifhed emi¬
nence or authority but thofe of his own family, had
deprived Benalcazar, the conqueror of Quito, of his
command in that kingdom, and appointed his brother
Gonzalo to take the government of it. He inftru&ed Peru,
him to attempt the difcovery and conqueft of the coun-
try to the eaft of the Andes; which, according to the
information of the Indians, abounded with cinnamon
and other valuable fpices. Gonzales, not inferior to
any of his brothers in courage, and no lefs ambitious
of acquiring diftimftion, eagerly engaged in this diffi¬
cult fervice. He fet out from Quito at the head of
340 foldiers, near one half of whom were horfemen,
with 4000 Indians to carry their provifions. In for¬
cing their way through the defiles, or over the ridges
of the Andes, excefs of cold and fatigue, to neither of
which they were accuftomed, proved fatal to the greater
part of the wretched attendants. The Spaniards, tho*
more robuft, and inured to a variety of climates, fuf¬
fered confiderably, and loft fome men ; but when they
defcended into the low country, their diftrefs increafed.
During two months it rained inceflantly, without any
interval of fair weather long enough to dry their cloaths.
The vaft plains upon which they were now entering,
either altogether without inhabitants, or occupied by
the rudeft and leaft induftrious tribes in the New World,
yielded little fubfiftence. They could not advance a
ftep but as they cut a road through woods, or made it
through marfhes. Such inceflant toil, and continual
fcarcity of food, feem more than fufficient to have ex-
haufted and difpirited any troops. But the fortitude
and perfeverance of the Spaniards in the 16th century
were infuperable. Allured by frequent but falfe ac¬
counts of rich countries before them, they perfifted in
ftruggling on, until they reached the banks of the Coca
or Napo, one of the large rivers whofe waters pour in¬
to the Maragnon, and contribute to its grandeur.
There, with infinite labour, they built a bark, which
they expected would prove of great utility, both in
conveying them over rivers, in procuring provifions,
and in exploring the country. This was manned with
50 foldiers, under the command of Francis Orellana,
the officer next in rank to Pizarro. The ftream car¬
ried them down with fuch rapidity, that they were foon
far a-head of their countrymen, who followed flowly
and with difficulty by land. ^
At this diftance from his commander, Orellana, a Orellana
young man of an afpiring mind, began to fancy himfelf fails down
independent; and, tranfported with the predominant,iie riVer
paffion of the age, he formed the fcheme of diftinguilh-
ing himfelf as a difcoverer, by following the courfe of pizarr0..
the Maragnon until it joined the ocean, and by fur-
veying the vaft regions through which it flows. This
fcheire of Orellana’s was as bold as it wras treacherous.
For, if he be chargeable with the guilt of having vio¬
lated his duty to his commander, and with having
abandoned his fellow-foldiers in a pathlefs defart, where
they had hardly any hopes of fuccefs, or even of fafety,
but what were founded on the fervice which they ex-
pedted from the bark, his crime is, in fome meafure,,
balanced by the glory of having ventured upon a na¬
vigation of near zoqp leagues, through unknown na¬
tions, in a velfel haftily conftru&ed with green timber,
and by very unlkilful hands, without provifions, with¬
out a compafs, or a pilot. But his courage and ala¬
crity fupplied every defedt. Committing himfelf fear-
lefsly to the guidance of the ftream, the Napo bore
him along to the foutb, until he reached the great
channel of the Maragnon. Turning with it towards
PER. [ 5990 ] PER
Pern, the coaft, he held on his courfe in that dire&ion. He
" made frequent defcents on both tides the river, fome-
times feizing by force of arms the provifions of the
fierce favages feated on its banks, and fometimes pro¬
curing a fupply of food by a friendly intercourfe with
more gentle tribes. After a long feries of dangers,
which he encountered with amazing fortitude, and of
diftreffes which he fupported with no lefs magnanimi¬
ty, he reached the ocean, where new perils awaited
him. Thefe he likewife furmounted, and got fafe to
the Spanith fettlement in the iflafid Cubagua; from
thence he failed to Spain. The vanity natural to tra¬
vellers who vifit regions unknown to the reft of man¬
kind, and the art of an adventurer, felicitous to mag¬
nify his own merit, concurred in prompting him to
mingle an extraordinary proportion of the marvellous
in the narrative of his voyage. He pretended to have
difeovered nations fo rich, that the roofs of their temples
were covered with plates of gold; and deferibed a re¬
public of women fo warlike and powerful, as to have
extended their dominion over a confiderable tradl of
the fertile plains which he had vifited. Extravagant as
thofe tales were, they gave rife to an opinion, that a
region abounding with gold, diftinguifhed by the name
of El Dorado, and a community of Amazons, were to
be found in this part of the New World; and fuch is
the propenfity of mankind to believe what is wonder¬
ful, that it has been flowly, and with difficulty, that
reafon and obfervation have exploded thofe fables.
The voyage, however, even when ftripped of every ro¬
mantic embellifhment, defprves to be recorded, not only
as one of the moft memorable occurrences in that ad-
ventrous age, but as the firft event that led to any cer¬
tain knowledge of thofe immenfe regions that ftretch
eaftward from the Andes to the ocean.
No words can deferibe the confternation of Pizarro,
when he did not find the bark at the confluence of the
Napo and Maragnon, where he had ordered Orellana
to wait for him. He would not allow himfeif to fuf-
pt& that a man, whom he had entrufted with fuch an
important command, could be fo bafe and fo unfeeling
as to defert him at fuch a jundure. But imputing his
abfence from the place of rendezvous to fome unknown
accident, he advanced above 50 leagues along the
banks of the Maragnon, expeding every moment to
fee the bark appear with a fupply of provifions. At
length he came up with an officer whom Orellana had
left to perilh in the defart, becaufe he had the courage
to remonftrate againft his perfidy. From him he learn¬
ed the extent of Orellana’s crime ; and his followers
3o perceived at once their own defperate fituation, when
Extreme deprived of their only refource. The fpirit of the ftout-
diftrefsof hearted veteran funk within him; and all demand-
Piz^rrVande(^ to ^ back inftantly. Pizarro, though he af-
his men. fumed an appearance of tranquillity, did not oppofe
their inclination. But he was now 1200 miles from
Quito; and in that long march the Spaniards encoun¬
tered hardfhips greater than thofe they had endured in
their progrefs outward, without the alluring hopes
which then foothed and animated them under their fuf-
ferings. Hunger compelled them to feed on roots and
berries, to cat all their dogs and horfes, to devour the
moft loathfome reptiles, and even to gnaw the leather
of their faddles and fword-helts. Four thoufand In¬
dians, and 2io Spaniards, perifhed in this wild and
difsftrous expedition, which continued near two years; Pcta.
and as 50 men were aboard the bark with Orellana, *
only 80 got back to Quito. Thefe were naked like
favages, and fo emaciated with famine, or worn out
with fatigue, that they had more the appearance of
fpe&res than of men. 31
But, inftead of returning to enjoy the repofe which A c°nfpi-
his condition required, Pizarro, on entering Quito,
received accounts of a fatal event that threatened cala- the |ovcr.
mities more dreadful to him than thofe through which nor.
he bad pafled. From the time that his brother made
that partial divifion of his conquefts which has been
mentioned, the adherents of Almagro, confidering
themfelves as proferibeu by the patty in power, no
longer entertained any hope of bettering their condi¬
tion. Great numbers in defpair reforted to Lima,
where the houfe of young Almagro was always open
to them ; and the flender portion of his father’s for¬
tune, which the governor allowed him to enjoy, was
fpent in affording them fubfiftence. The warm at¬
tachment with which every perfon who ferved under
the elder Almagro devoted himfeif to his interefts, was
quickly transferred to Iks foil, who was now grown up
to the age of manhood, and poffeffed all the qualities
which captivate the afft&kms of foldiers. Of a grace¬
ful appearance, dextrous at all martial exercifes, bold,
open, generous, he feemed to be formed for commandj
and as his father, confcious of his own inferiority from
the total want of education, had been extremely atten¬
tive to have him inftruded in every fcience becoming
a gentleman; the accomplifhments which he had ac¬
quired heightened the reiped of his followers, as they
gave him diftindion and eminence among illiterate ad¬
venturers. In this young man the Almagrians found
it point 6f union which they wanted; and looking up
to him as their head, were ready to undertake any
thing for his advancement. Nor was affedion for Al¬
magro their only incitement; they were urged on by
their own diftreffes. Many of them, deftitute of com¬
mon neceffaries, and weary of loitering away life, a
burden to their chief, or to fuch of their affociates as
had faved fome remnant of their fortune from pillage
and confifcation, longed impatiently for an occalion tq
exert their adivity and courage, and began to delibe¬
rate how they might be avenged on the author of all
their mifery. Their frequent cabals did not pafs un-
obferved ; and the governor was warned to be on his
guard againft men who meditated fome defperate deed,
and had refolution to execute it. But, either from the
native intrepidity of his mind, or from contempt of
perfons whofe poverty rendered their machinations of
little confequence, he difregarded the admonitions of
his friends. “ Be in no pain (faid he carelefsly) a-
bont my life; it is perfe&iy fafe, as long as every man
in Peru knows that I can in a moment put him to
death who dares to harbour a thought againft it.”
This fecurity gave the Almagrians full leifure to digeft
and ripen every part of their fcheme; and Juan de Her-
rada, an officer of great abilities, who had the charge
of Almagro’s education, took the lead in their conful-
tations, with all the zeal which that connexion infpi-
red, and with all the authority which the afeendant
that he was known to have over the mind of his pupil
gave him.
On Sunday, the 26th of June, at mid-day, the fea-
fon
PER [ 5991 ] PER
Pern, fon of tranquillity and repofe in all fultry climates,
Herrada, at the head of 18 of the mod determined
Who U cbnfpirators, Tallied out of Almagro’s houfe in corn-
murdered. plete armour; and drawing their fwords, as they ad¬
vanced haitily towards the governor’s palace, cried out,
“ Long live the king, but let the tyrant die.” Their
alfociates, warned of their motions by a fignal, were
in arms at different ftations ready to fupport them.
Though Pizarro was ufually furrounded by fuch a nu¬
merous train of attendants as fuited the magnificence
of the mod opulent fubje£l of the age in which he li¬
ved, yet as he was juft rifen from table, and moft of
his own domeftics had retired to their own apartments,
the confpirators palled through the two outer courts
of the palace unobferved. They were at the bottom
of the ftair-cafe, before a page in waiting could give
the alarm to his mafter, who was converfing with a few
friends in a large hall. The governor, whofe fteady
mind no form of danger could appal, darting up, call¬
ed for arms, and commanded Francifco de Chaves to
make fall the door. But that officer, who did not re¬
tain fo much prefence of mind as to obey this prudent
order, running to the top of the ftair-cafe, wildly alk-
ed the confpirators what they meant, and whither they
were going? Inftead of anfwering, they dabbed him
to the heart, and burft into the hall. Some of the per-
fons who were there threw themfelves from the win¬
dows ; others attempted to fly ; and a few drawing
their fwords, followed their leader into an inner apart¬
ment. The confpirators, animated with having the
objeft of their vengeance now in view, rufhed forward
after them. Pizarro, with no other arms than his fword
and buckler, defended the entry, and, fupported by
his half-brother Alcantara and his little knot of
friends, maintained the unequal conteft with intrepidity
worthy of his paft exploits, and with the vigour of a
youthful combatant. “ Courage, (cried he), compa¬
nions, we^re yet enow to make thofe traitors repent
of their audacity.” But the armour of the confpira¬
tors prote&ed them, while every thruft they made took
effeft. Alcantara fell dead at his brother’s feet; his
other defendants were mortally wounded. The gover¬
nor, fo weary that he could hardly wield his fword,
and no longer able to parry the many weapons furioully
aimed at him, received a deadly thruft full in his throat,
funk to the ground, and expired.
As foon as he was flain, the aflaffins ran out into
the ftreets, and waving their bloody fwords, proclaim¬
ed the death of the tyrant. Above 200 of their affo-
ciates having joined them, they conduced young Al-
magro in folemn proceffion through the city; and af-
fembling the magiftrates and principal citizens, com¬
pelled them to acknowledge him as lawful fucceffor to
his father in his government. The palace of Pizarro,
Young Al- togct^er houfes of feveral of his adherents,
magro were pillaged by the foldiers; who had the fatisfa&ion
heads the at once of being avenged on their enemies, and of en-
rebels. riching themfelves by the fpoils of thofe through whofe
hands all the wealth of Peru had palled.
The new governor marched into the heart of the
empire, in order to reduce fuch places as refufed to
acknowledge his authority. A multitude of ruffians
joined him on his march. His army breathed nothing
but vengeance and plunder * every thing gave way be¬
fore it. If the military talents of the general had
equalled the ardour of his troops, the war had ended Perth
here. Unhappily for Almagro, he had loft his con- “
dudlor John de Herrada. His inexperience made
him fall into the fnares that were laid for him by Pe¬
dro Alvares, who had put himfelf at the head of the
oppofite party. He loft, in attempting to unravel his
plots, that time that he ought to have employed in
fighting. In thefe circumftances, an event, which no
one could have forefeen, happened to change the face
of affairs.
The licentiate Vaca di Caftro, who had been fent
from Europe to try the murderers of old Almagro, ar¬
rived at Peru. As he was appointed to affume the go¬
vernment in cafe Pizarro was no more, all who had
not fold themfelves to the tyrant haftened to acknow¬
ledge him. Uncertainty and jealoufy, which had for
too long a time kept them difperfed, were no longer
an obftacle to their re-union. Caftro, who was as re-
folute as if he had grown old in the fervice, did not
fuffer their impatience to languifli, but inftantly led
them againft the enemy. The two armies engaged at
Chapas on the 16th of September 1542, and fought 34
with inexprtffible obftinacy. Vi&ory, after ^av‘nsfpet^<[)e*
wavered a long time, at the clofe of the day decided j/ca-
in favour of that party whofe caufe was the moft juft. ftra.
Thofe among the rebels who were moft guilty, dread¬
ing to languifh under difgraceful tortures, provoked
the conquerors to murder them, crying out, like men
in defpair, It was I <who killed Pizarro. Their chief
was taken prifoner, and died on the fcaffold.
While thefe fcenes of horror were tranfafling in A-
merica, the Spaniards in Europe were employed irv
finding out expedients to terminate them ; though no
meafures had been taken to prevent them. Peru had
only been made fubjeft to the audience of Panama,
which was too remote to fuperintend the maintenance
of good order, and had too little influence to make its
decrees refpe&ed. A fupreme tribunal was then efta-
bliihed at Lima for the dffpenfation of juftice, which
was to be invefted with authority fufficient to enforce
and to reward a due obedience to the laws. Blafco
Nunez Vela, who prefided in it as viceroy, arrived in
1544, attended by his fubordinates in office, and found
every thing in the moft dreadful diforder.
To put an end to thefe tumults which now fubfift-
ed, would have required a profound genius, and many
other qualities which are feldom united. Nunez had
none of thefe advantaged. Nature had only given him
probity, firmnefs, and ardour ; and he had taken no
pains to improve thefe gifts. With thefe virtues, which
were almoft defers in his fituation, he began to fulfil
his commiffion, without regard to places, perfons, or
circumftances.
Contrary to the opinion of all intelligent Perft>ns, Ba(j |*n_
who wifhed that he fhould wait for frelh inftru&ions dua 0f ihe
from Europe, he publiflred ordinances, which declared viceroy Nu-
that the lands the conquerors had feized fhould notnez
pafs to their defcendants, and which difpoffcffed thofe
who had taken part in the civil commotions. All the
Peruvians who had been enflaved by monks, bifhops,
and perfons belonging to the government, were de¬
clared free. Thofe who belonged to other mafters
were to be freed from their (hackles at the death of
their oppreffors. They could no longer be compelled
to bury themfelves in thf mines, nor could any kind of
labour
PER [ 5992 ] PER
Peru. labour be exafted from them without payment. Their
tribute was fixed. The Spaniards who travelled on
foot were deprived of the right of taking three In¬
dians to carry their baggage ; and thofe who travelled
on horfeback, of the right of taking five. The ca¬
ciques were difcharged from the obligation of furniih-
ing the traveller and his retinue with provifions gratis.
Other tyrannical eftabliihments alfo would foon have
been profcribed ; and the conquered people were on
the eve of being flieltered under the proteftion of
laws, which would at lead have tempered the rigours
of the right of conqueft, if even they had not entirely
repaired the injuftice of them ; but it fhould feem that
the Spaniih government was only to be unfortunate in
the good it attempted to effeft.
A change fo unexpended filled thofe with confter-
nation who faw their fortunes wrefted from them, or
who loft the flattering hope of tranfmitting theirs to
their pofterity. Even thofe who were not affe&ed by
thefe interefted views, being accuftomed to look upon
the Indians as the inftruments and vi&ims of their
avarice, had no conception that any other ideas could
prevail concerning them. From aftonifhment they
proceeded to indignation, murmuring, and fedition.
The viceroy was degraded, put in irons, and ba-
nifhed to a defart ifland, till he could be conveyed
to Spain.
Gonzales Pizarro was then returned from his hazar¬
dous expedition, which had employed him long enough
to prevent him from taking a part in thofe revolutions
which had fo rapidly fucceeded each other. The an¬
archy he found prevailing at his return, infpired him
with the idea of feizing the fupreme authority. His
fame and his forces made it impoffible that this fhould
be refufed him ; but his ufurpation was marked with
fo many enormities, that Nunez was regreted. He was
recalled from exile, and foon colle&ed a fufficient
number of forces to enable him to take the field. Ci¬
vil commotions were then renewed with extreme fury
by both parties. No quarter was afked or given on
either fide. The Indians took part in this as they had
done in the preceding wars; fome ranged themfelves
under the ftandard of the viceroy, others under the
banners of Gonzales. From 15,000 to 20,000 of thefe
unhappy wretches, who were fcattered about in each
army, dragged up the artillery, levelled the roads,
carried the baggage, and deftroyed one anothe*.
35 Their conquerors bad taught them to be fanguinary.
He is over- After a variety of advantages for a long time alternate-
killed by ly obtained, fortune at length favoured the rebellion
Gonzales under the walls of Quito in the month of January, in
Pizarro. the year 1545; and Nunez with the greateft part of his
men were maflacred.
Pizarro took the road of Lima, where they were
deliberating on the ceremonies with which they fhould
receive him. Some officers wiftied that a canopy
fhould be carried for him to march under, after the
manner of kings. Others, with ,adu!ation ftill more
extravagant, pretended that part of the walls of the
town, and even fome houfes, muft be pulled down;
as was the cuftom at Home, when a general obtained
the honours of a triumph. Gonzales contented him-
felf with making his entrance on horfebaek, preceded
by his lieutenant, who marched on foot. Fourbifiiops
accompanied him, and he was followed by the magi-
ftrates. The ftreets were ftrewn with flowers, and the Pent. ;
air refounded with the noife of bells and various mufical ~ t
inftruments. This homage totally turned the head of
a man naturally haughty, and of confined ideas. He
fpoke and afted in the moil defpotic manner.
Had Gonzales pofieffed judgment and the appear¬
ance of moderation, it would have been poffible for
him to render himfelf independent. The' principal
perfons of his party wifhed it. The majority would have
beheld this event with indifference, and the reft would
have been obliged to confent to it. Blind cruelties, in-
fatiable avarice, and unbounded pride, altered thefe
difpofitions. Even thofe, whofe interefts were con-
neded with thofe of the tyrant, wifhed for a deli¬
verer. 37 j
Such a deliverer arrived from Europe in the perfon An end f
of the licentiate Pedro di la Gafca. The fquadron put to the j
and the provinces of the mountains immediately decla-tT>ubles.by \
red for a perfon who was inverted with a lawful autho-dl *
rity to govern them. Thofe who lived concealed in ’
defarts, caverns, and forefts, quitted their retreats to j
join him. Gonzales, who faw no refource left to
fupport him but in fome great atchievement, took the
road of Cuzco, with a refolution to give battle. At
fome leagues diftance from this place he met the royal
army, and attacked it on the 9th of June 1548. One
of his lieutenants, feeing him abandoned at the firft
charge by his beft foldiers, advifed him to throw him¬
felf into the enemy’s battalions, and perifh like a Ro¬
man : but this weak man chofe rather to furrender, and
end his life on a fcaffold. Carvajal, a more able war¬
rior, and more ferocious than himfelf, was quartered.
This man, when he was expiring, boafted that he had
maffacred with his own hand 1400 Spaniards and
20,000 Indians.
Such was the laft feene of a tragedy, of which
every a£l has been marked with blood. The govern¬
ment was moderate enough not to continue the pro-
feriptious ; and the remembrance of the horrid calami¬
ties they had fuffered kept the Spaniards in the
bounds of fubjeftion. What ftill remained of that
commotion that had been raifed in their minds, infen-
fibly funk into a calm; and the country hath remained
in quiet ever fince. ^ j
With regard to the Peruvians, the moft cruel mea- Hard fate |
fures were taken to render it impoffible for them to re-of the.Pe-
bel. Tupac Amaru, the heir of their laft king, hadruvians' I
taken refuge in fome remote mountains, where he lived
in peace. There he was fo clofely furrounded by the
troops which had been fent out againft him, that he
was forced to furrender. The viceroy Francis de To¬
ledo caufed him to be accufed of feveral crimes that
he had not committed, and for which he was behead¬
ed in 1571. All the other defeendants of the Incas
fhared the fame fate, under pretence that they had
confpired agaioft their conquerors. The horror of
thefe enormities excited fo univerfal an indignation
both in the Old and the New World, that Philip II.
thought himfelf obliged to difavow them ; but the
infamous policy of this prince was fo notorious, that
no credit was given to this appearance of hisjuftice
and humanity. 3$
The empire of Peru, at the time it was fubdued, °.f
extended along the South Sea, from the River of Eme^the emPirc*
ralfts to Chili, and on the land ixde to Popayan, ac-
pER [ 5993 1 PER
Peru, cording to fome geographers. It contained within its
“ “extent that famous chain of mountains which rifes in
the Terra Magellanica, and is gradually loft in Mexi¬
co, in order to unite, as it ftiould feem, the fouth-
ern parts of America with the northern. Its terri¬
tory, whidi is very irregular, may be divided into
4? . three claffes.
of^ 10n The principal Cordeleras form the firft. The fum-
mountains mils of thefe, fays M. de fa Condamine, are loft in
called Cor- the clouds, and almoft all 0^them are covered with en-
deleras. ormous mafles of fnow as old as the world. From fe-
veral of thefe fummits, which have in part tumbled
down, and from thefe immenfe heaps of fnow, torrents
of fmoke and flame iffue. Such are the fummits of
Colopaxi, Tongourargua, and Sangai. The greateft
part of the reft have formerly been volcanoes, or will
probably one day become fuch. Hiftory has only pre-
ferved to us the asra of their eruptions fince the dif-
covery of America; but the pumice-ftones, the cal¬
cined earths with which they are ftrewn, and the evi¬
dent veftiges that the flame hath left, are authentic te-
ftimonies of the reality of former eruptions: their
height is prodigious.
Cayambour, which is fituated direftly under the
equator, and Antifona, which is only five leagues di-
ftant-from it to the fouth, are more than 3000 toifes
high, reckoning from the level of the fea ; and Chim-
boraco, which is near 3220 toifes high, furpafles by
one third the altitude of the Peak of Teneriffe, the
higheft mountain of the old hemifphere. Pitchincha
and Caracon, where the French Academicians made
moft of their obfervations with regard to the figure of
the earth, have only 2430 and 2470 toifes of abfolute
height; and this is the higheft mountain that was ever
afeended. Eternal fnows have hitherto rendered fum¬
mits of greater altitude inacceflible.
From this boundary, which is where the fnow ne¬
ver melts, not even in the torrid zone, one hardly
fees, in defeending too or 150 toifes down, any thing
except naked rocks or dry fands: a little lower, one
may perceive fome mofs that covers the rocks; various
kinds of heath, which, though green and damp, make
a clear fire ; round hillocks of fpungy earth, on which
, grow fmall radiated and ftarry plants, whofe petals
are like the leaves of yew. Throughout the whole of
"this fpace, the fnow is only temporary; but it conti¬
nues fometimes whole weeks and months. Lower ftiil,
the ground is commonly covered with a fort of loofe
grafs, which rifes a foot and a half high, or two feet.
This fpecies of hay is the proper charafteriftic that di-
ftinguifties the mountains which the Spaniards call Pa~
nemos- They only give this name to heath, or fuch
uncultivated ground as is too high for wood to grow
on it, or where the rain feldom falls otherwife than in
the form of fnow, tho’ it immediately melts. And,
laftly, in defeending ftiil lower, to the heig’ht of about
2000 toifes above the level of the fea, one fees it fome-
4T times fnow and fometimes rain.
Climate, When we come down from thefe mountains, we
,&c. find others that are lefs confiderable, which occupy
the middle of Peru. The fummitof thefe is common¬
ly cold, barren, and full of mines. The valleys be¬
tween thenrare covered with numerous flocks, and feem
to offer to agriculture the moft copious harvefts. There
are feldom above two months of winter here; and in the
Vo-l. VIII. ' 1
greateft heat we need only pafs out of the fun into the Peru,
fhade, to enjoy the temperate zone. This rapid alterna-
tive of fenfation is not, however, invariable in a climate,
which, by the difpoiition alone of the ground, often
changes in the courfe of a league. But let it be as it
will, it is always found healthy. There is no malady
peculiar to thefe countries, and thofe of our climate
feldom prevail there. An European veffel, however,
in 1719, brought thither an epidemic diforder, which
carried off a great number of Spaniards and Meftees,
and above 200,000 Indians. A more fatal prefent ftill,
which thefe people have received in exchange for their
gold, is the fmall-pox. It fhewed itfelf here for the firft
time in 1588, and has not failed fince to make at in¬
tervals inexpreffible ravages.
The people are not lefs expofed to this fatal diftem-
per on the coafts known by the name of valleys. Their
temperature is not the fame as is elfewhere found in
the fame latitude. It is very agreeable; and, though
the four feafons of the year are fenfibly felt here, there
is none that can with propriety be deemed inconve¬
nient. The winter is the moft ftrongly marked. This
has been accounted for by the winds of the fouth pole,
which bring along with them the impreflion of thofe
fnows and that ice from which they firft came : but
this they preferve only in part, becaufe they blow
while a thick fog lies upon the earth. In reality, thefe
grofs vapours never regularly rife till towards noon :
but it is feldom that they difperfe. The Iky common¬
ly continues fo much covered with them, that the rays
of the fun, which fometimes appear, can only in a very
flight manner mitigate the cold.
Whatever may be the caufe of fo regular a winter
under the torrid zone, it is certain that thefe valleys,
which are covered with heaps of fand, are abfolutely
barren for a fpace of more than 100 leagues, from
Truxillo to Lima. The reft of the coaft is lefs fandy,
but it is ftiil too much fo to be fruitful. No fields are
there found that can be ftyled fertile, except in fuch
lands as are watered by the ftreams which defeend from
the mountains.
Rain might contribute to impart to the foil the fer¬
tility of which it is deftitute; but it is never known
to rain in Lower Peru. Natural philofophy has exert¬
ed its efforts in vain to difeover the caufe of a phseno-
menon fo extraordinary. To this it is owing, that the
houfes, though only built of crude brick, or of earth
mixed with a little grafs, are 6f very long duration.
Their covering is only a Ample matting, placed hori¬
zontally, with a layer of allies an inch deep above, to
abforb the moifture of the fog.
The fame reafons that prevent its raining in the val¬
leys, undoubtedly alfo hinder ftorms. Thofe of their
inhabitants who never travelled in the mountains, are
perfedt ftrangers to thunder and lightning. Their ter¬
ror is equal to their aftoniftiment, when, out of their
country, they firft behold fo uncommon a fpedlacle.
But they have a phasuomenon much more danger¬
ous and dreadful, and which, in its confequences, leaves
much deeper imprefiions in the human imagination
than thunder and the ravages that accompany it.
Earthquakes, which in other countries are fo rare,
that whole generations pafs without beholding one,
are fo common in the valleys of Peru, that they have
there contradled an habit of reckoning them as a fe-
33 T
lies
PER [ 5994 1 PER
Peru, nes of dates; and they are fo much the more memo-
  rable, as their frequent return does not diminifh their
violence. There ate few places on this extenfive coaft
which do not prefent moil dreadful monuments of thefe
41 horrible convulfions of the earth.
How the At the time when the firft conquefts were made,
country was wjjen emigrations were moft frequent, the country of
feukd by tJie Inc33 had a much greater reputation for riches
the Spa- than New Spain ; and, in reality, for a long time much
niards. more confiderable treafures were brought away from it.
The defire of partaking of them mutt neceflarily draw
thither, as was really the cafe, a greater number of
Caftilians. Though they all almoft went over there
•with the hope of returning to their country to enjoy
the fortune they might acquire, yet the majority of
them fettled in the colony. They were induced to this
by the foftnefs of the climate, the falubrity of the air,
and the goodnefs of the provifions. Mexico prefented
jiot the fame advantages, and did not give them rea-
fon to expe& fo much independence as a land infinitely
more remote from the mother-country.
Cufco attra&ed the conquerors in multitudes. They
found this capital built on a ground that was very ir¬
regular, and divided into as many quarters as there
were provinces in the empire. Each of the inhabi¬
tants might follow the ufages of his native country ;
but every body was obliged to conform to theworfhip
eflablilhed by the founder of the monarchy. , There
was no edifice that had any grandeur, elegance, or
convenience ; becaufe the people were ignorant of the
firlt elements of architecture. The magnificence of
what they called the palace of the five reign, of the
princes of the blood, and of the great men of his em ¬
pire, confifted in the profufion of the metals that were
lavifhed in decorating them. The temple of the Sun
was diftinguifhed above all other edifices; its walls
were incrufted or Iheathed with g6ld and filver, orna¬
mented with divers figures, and loaded with the idols
of all the nations whom the Incas had enlightened and
fubdued.
As it was not a folicitnde for their own prefervation
which occupied the Spaniards at firft, they had no
fooner pillaged the immenfe riches which had been
amalfed at Cufco for four centuries, than they w«nt in
great numbers in 1534, under the order of Sebaftian
de Benalcazar, to undertake the deftru&ion of Quito.
The other towns and boroughs of the empire were
over-run with the fame fpirit of rapine ; and the citi¬
zens and the temples were plundered in all parts.
Thofe of the conquerors, who did not take up their
refidence in the fettlements which they found already
formed, built towns on the fea-coafts, where before
there were none : for the fterility of the foil had not
permitted the Peruvians to multiply much there ; and
they had not been induced to remove thither from the
extremity of their country, becaufe they failed very
little. Paita, Truxillo, Callao, Pifca, and Arica,
were the roads which the Spaniards deemed moll con¬
venient for the communication they intended to efta-
blifh among themfelves and with the mother-country.
The different poiitions of thefe new cities determined
the degree of their profperity.
Thofe which were afterwards built in the inland
parts of the country were not ere&ed in regions which
prefented a fertile fyil, copious karvefts, excellent pa-
ftures, a mild and falubrious climate, and all the con- Peru,
veniencies of life. Thefe places, which had hitherto '
been fo well cultivated by a numerous and flourifhing
people, were now totally difregarded. Very foon they
exhibited only a deplorable pifture of a horrid defert;
and this wildnefs mult have been more melaucholy and
hideous than the dreary afpedl of the earth before the
origin of focieties. The traveller, who was led by ac¬
cident or curiofity into thefe defolate plains, could not
forbear abhorring the barbarous and bloody authors of
thefe devaftations, while he refledted that it was not
owing even to the cruel illufions of glory and to the
fanaticifm of conqueft, but to the ftupid and abjedt de¬
fire of gold, that they had facrificed fo much more real
treafure, and fo numerous a population.
This infatiable third of gold, which neither tended
to fubfiftence, fafety, nor policy, was the only mo¬
tive for eftablifhing new fettlements, fome of which
have been kept up, while fevera! have decayed, and -
others have been formed in their ftcad. The fate
of them all has correfponded with the difeovery, pro-
grefs, or declenfion, of the mines to which they were
fubordinate. 43
Fewer errors have been committed in the means of Manner of
procuring provifions. The natives had hitherto lived
hardly on any thing elfe but maize, fruits, and pulfe,
for which they had ufed no other feafoning except fait
and pimento. Their liquors, which were made from
different roots, were more diverfified : of thefe thechi-
ca was the mod ufual; which is made from maze foak-
ed in water, and taken out of the vejfiVl when it begins
to fprout. It is dried in the fun, then parched a ’little,
and at lad ground. The flour, after it has been well
kneaded, is put with water into large pitchers. The
fermentation may be expe&ed in two or three days,
and mud not continue longer. The great inconve¬
nience of this drink, which, when ufed immoderately,
infallibly intoxicates, is, that it will not keep more
than eight days without turning four. Its tafle is
nearly that of the moft indifferent kind of cyder. It
is a refrefhiug, nourifhing, and aperitive liquor. The
Indians, who are never troubled with fuppreffions of
urine, are faid to owe that advantage to the ufe of
this drink.
The conquerors were not fatisfied either with the li¬
quors or with the food of the people they had fub-
dtied. They imported vines from the Old World,
which foon multiplied fufficiently in the fands of the
coads at lea, Pifca, Nafca, Moquequa, and Truxillo,
to furnifh the colony with the wine and brandy it want¬
ed. Olives fucceeded Hill better; and yielded a great
abundance of oil, which was much fuperior to that of
the mother-country. Other fruits were tranfplanted
with the fame fuccefs. Sugar fucceeds fo well, that
none of any other growth can be compared to that
which is cultivated in thefe parts, where it never rains.
In the inland country wheat and barley were fown ;
and at length all the European quadrupeds were foon
found grazing at the foot of the mountains.
This was a confiderable ftep ; but there dill remain¬
ed much more to be done. After they had provided
for a better and a greater choice of fubfidence, the next
care of the Spaniards was to have a drefs more commo¬
dious and more agreeable than that of the Peruvians.
Thefe were, however, better clothed than any other
Arne-
PER [ 5995 1 PER
Peru. American nation. They owed this fuperiority to the
‘ Advantage which they alone pofleffed, of having the
Lama and Pacos, domdlic animals which ferved them
for this ufe. See Camelus.
After the conqueft, all the Indians were obliged to
wear cloths. As the oppreffion under which they
groaned did not'allow them to exercife their former
induftry, they contented themfelves with the coarfer
cloths of Europe, for which they were made to pay an
exorbitant price. When the gold and filver which had
efcaped the rapacity of the conquerors were exhauft-
ed, they thought of re-eftablilhing their national ma-
nufadtures. Thefe were fome time after prohibited, on
account of the deficiency which they occafioned in the
exports of the mother-country. The impofiibility
which the Peruvians found of purchafing foreign fluffs
and paying their taxes, qccafioned permifiion to be
given at the end of ten years for their re-eftablilh-
ment. They have not been difcontinued fince that
time, and have been brought to as great a degree of
perfection as it was poffible they could be under a con*
44 tinual tyranny.
Manufac- With the wool of the vicuna, a fpecies of wild pa-
tuies, &c' cos, they make, at Cuzco and in its territory, {lock¬
ings, handkerchiefs, and fcarfs. Thefe manufactures
would have been multiplied, if the fpirit of deftrudtion
had not fallen on animals as well as on men. The fame
wool, mixed with that of the fheep imported thither
from Europe, which hath exceedingly degenerated,
ferves for carpets, and makes alfo tolerably fine cloth.
Fleeces of inferior quality are employed in ferges, drug¬
gets, and in all kinds of coarfe fluffs.
The manufadtures fubfervient to luxury are eftablifh-
ed at Arequipa, Cuzco, and Lima. In thefe three
towns is made a prodigious number of gold toys and
plate, for the ufe of private perfons, and alfo for the
churches. All thefe manufa&ures are but coarfely
wrought, and mixed with a great deal of copper. We
feldom difcover more tafte in their gold and filver laces
and embroideries which their manufadlures alfo pro¬
duce. This is not altogether the cafe in regard to
their lace, which, when mixed with that of Europe,
looks very beautiful. This laft manufa&ure is com¬
monly in the hands of the nuns, who employ in it
the Peruvian girls, and the young Meftees of the
towns, who for the moll part before marriage pafs fome
years in the convent.
Other hands are employed in painting and gilding
leather for rooms, in making with wood and ivory
pieces of inlaid work and fculpture, and in drawing
figures on the marble that is found at Cucuca, or on
linen imported from Europe. Thefe different works,
which are almoft all manufadured at Cuzco, ferve for
ornaments for houfes, palaces, and temples: the draw¬
ing of them is not bad, but the colours are neither
exad nor permanent. If the Indians, who invent no¬
thing, but are excellent imitators, had able matters
and excellent models, they would at lead make good
copyifts. At the clofe of the laft century, fome works
of a Peruvian painter, named Michael de St Jacques,
were brought to Rome ; and the connoiffeurs difcover-
^ ed marks of genius in them.
Of the Though the Peruvians were unacquainted with coin,
mines of they knew the ufe of gold and filver; for they em-
gold and fil-ployed them in different kinds of ornaments. Indepen¬
dent of what the torrents and accident-procured them Pciu
of thefe metals, fome mines had been opened of little
depth. The Spaniards have not tranfmitted to us the
manner in which thefe rich productions were drawn
from the bofom of the earth. Their pride, which has
deprived us of fo much ufeful knowledge, undoubtedly
made them think, that, in the inventions of a people
whom they called barbarous, there was nothing that
was worthy to be recorded.
. The difference as to the manner in which the Peru¬
vians worked their mines, did not extend to the mines
themfelves. The conquerors opened them on all fides.
At firft the gold mines tempted the avarice of the
greater number. Fatal experience difcouraged thofe
whom paffion had not blinded. They clearly faw,
that, for fome enormous fortunes raifed in this manner,
great numbers, who had only moderate fortunes, were
totally ruined. Thefe mines funk into fuch difcredit,
that, in order to prevent them from being abandoned,
the government was obliged to take the zoth part of
their produce, inftead of the fifth which it at firft re¬
ceived.
The mines of filver were more common, more equal,
and richer. They even produced filver of a lingular
fpecies, rarely found elfewhere. Towards the fea*
coaft, great lumps of this metal are found in thefands.
There are a great number of other mines which are
infinitely more important, and are found in the rocks
and on the mountains. Several of them gave falfe
hopes. Such, in particular, was that of Ucuntaya,
difcovered in 1713. This was only an incruftation of
almoft maffive filver, which at firft yielded feveral mil¬
lions, but was foon exhaufted.
Others which were deeper, have been alike deferted.
Their produce,'though equal to what it was originally,
was not fufficient to fupport the expence of working
them, which augmented every day. The mines of Qui¬
to, Cufco, and Arequipa, have experienced that revo¬
lution which awaits many of the reft.
There are greater numbers of very rich mines which
the waters have invaded. The difpofition of the ground,
which from the fummit of the Cordeleras goes conti¬
nually {helving to the South Sea, muft neceffarily ren¬
der thefe events more common at Peru than in other
places. This inconvenience, which with greater care
and {kill might often have been prevented or diminilh-
ed, has been in fome inftances remedied.
Jofeph Salcedo, about the year 1660, had difcover¬
ed, not far from the town of Puna, the mine of Layca-
cota. It was fo rich, that they often cut the filver
with a chifel. Profperity had fo elevated the mind of
the proprietor, that he permitted all the Spaniards
who came to feek their fortune in this part of the New
World, to work fome days on their own account, with¬
out weighing or taking any account of the prefents be
made them. This generofity drew around him an in¬
finite number of people, whofe avidity made them
quarrel with each other, and the love of money made
them take up arms and fall upon one another; and their
benefactor, who had negleCted'no expedient to prevent
and extinguifh their fanguinary contentions, was hang¬
ed as being the author of them. Whillt he was in pri-
fon, the water got poffeffion of his mine. Superftitiofi
foon made it imagined that this was a puniftiment for
the horrid aft they had perpetrated againft him. This
33 T 2 idea
PER [ 5996 ] P E S
Peru. IJea of divine vengeance was revered for a long time;
~ j3l)i. at jn 1740, Diego de Bacna afibciated with
other opulent people, to avert the fprings which had
deluged fo much treafure. The labours which this dif¬
ficult undertaking required, were not finifhedtill 1754.
The mine yields as much now as it did at firft. But
mines dill richer than this have been difcovered. Such,
for example, is that of Potofi, which was found in the
fame country where the Incas worked that of Porco.
An Indian, named Hualpa, in 1545, purfuing fome
deer, in order to climb certain deep rocks laid hold of
a bu(h, the roots of which loofened from the earth, and
brought to view an ingot of filver. The Indian had
recourfe to it for his own ufe ; and never failed to re¬
turn to his treafure every time that his wants or his de¬
fires folicited him to it. The change that had hap¬
pened in his fortune was remarked by one of his coun¬
trymen, and he difcovered to him the fecret. The two
friends could not keep their conrifel and enjoy their
good fortune. They quarrelled; on which the indif-
creet confident difcovered the whole to his mader, Vil-
laroell, a Spaniard who was fettled in the neighbour¬
hood. Upon this the mine became known, and was
worked ; and a great number of them were found in
its vicinity; the principal of which are in the northern
part of the mountain, and their diredion is from north
to fouth. The moft intelligent people of Peru have
obferved, that this is in general the diredion of the
richeft mines.
The fame of what was palling at Potofi foon fpread
abroad; and there was quickly built at the foot of the
mountain, a town confiding of 60,000 Indians, and
10,000 Spaniards. The fterility of the foil did not
prevent its being immediately peopled. Corn, fruit,
flocks, American duffs,'European luxuries,arrived there
from every quarter. Indudry, which every where fol¬
lows the current of money, could notfearch for it with
fo much fuccefs as at its fource. It evidently appeared
ed that in 1738 thefe mines produced annually near
978,000!. without reckoning the filver which was not
regidered, and what had been carried off by fraud.
From that time the produce has been fo much dimi-
nilhed, that no more than one-eighth part of the coin
which was formerly druck is now made.
The mines of Potofi, and all the mines of South A-
merica, in purifying their gold and filver, ufe mercury,
with which they are fupplied from Guan5a Velica.
The common opinion is, that this mine was dif¬
covered in 1564. The trade of mercury was then
ftill free: it became an exclufive trade in 1571. At
this period all the mines of mercury were fhut ; and
that of Guan$a Velica alone was worked, the proper¬
ty of which the king referred to himfelf. It is not
found to diminifh. This mine is dug in a prodigiouf-
ly large mountain, 60 leagues from Lima. In its
profound abyfs are feen dreets, fquares, and a chapel,
where the myderies of religion on all fedivals are cele¬
brated. Millions of dambeaux are continually kept to
enlighten it.
Private people at their own expence work the mine
of Guan§a Velica. They are obliged to deliver to
government, at a dipulated price, all the mercury
they extradl from it. As foon as they have procured
the quantity which the demands of one year require,
the work is fufpended. Part of the mercury is fold on
the fpot, and the red is fent to the royal magazines Peru
throughout all Peru; from whence it is delivered out ^ ^ '
at the fame price it is fold for in Mexico. This ar-  ■■T'.,.
rangement, which hasoccafioned many of the mines to
drop, and prevented others from being opened, is iu-
excufable in the Spanifh fydem. The court of Ma¬
drid, in this refpedt, merits the fame reproaches as a
minidry in other countries would incur, that would be
blind enough to lay a duty on the implements of agri¬
culture.
The mine of Guanga Velica generally affefts thofe
who work in it with convulfions: this and the other
mines, which are not lefs unhealthy, are all worked
by the Peruvians. Thefe unfortunate viflims of an in-
fatiable avarice are crowded all together and plunged
naked into thefe abyffes, the greated pan of which
are deep, and all exceflively cold. Tyranny has in¬
vented this refinement in cruelty, to render it impof-
fible for any thing to efcape its redlefs vigilance. If
there are any wretches who long furvive fuch barbari¬
ty, it is the ufe of cocoa that preferves them.
PERUGIA, a town of Italy, in the pope’s terri¬
tories, and capital of Perugino. It is an ancient,
handfome, populous, and large city, with a drong ci¬
tadel, an univerfity, and a bidiop’s fee. The churches,
and many other buildings as well public as private,
are very handfome. It is feated on a hill, in E. Long,
12. 26. N. Lat. 43. 6.
PERUGINO, a province of Italy, in the terri¬
tory of the church, bounded on the wed by Tufcany,
on the fouth by Orvietano, on the wed by the duchies
of Spoleto and Urbino, and on the north by the coun¬
ty of Citra Cadeilana. It is one of the fmalled provin¬
ces in the territory of the Church. The air is very
pure, and the foil fertile in corn and good, wine ; be-
fides, the lake Perugia fupplies them with plenty of
fifli. The capital town is Perugia. The lake is eight
miles from the city, and is almod round, being about
five miles in diameter; in it there are three iflands. This
province is about 25 miles in length, and near as much
in breadth.
PERUVIAN bark. See Cinchona.
PESARO, a town of Italy, in the territory of the
pope, and duchy of Urbino, with a bidiop’s fee. It
is a large place, whofe dreets are paved with bricks.
The cadle is very well fortified ; the harbour excel¬
lent, and the cathedral church magnificent. The en¬
virons are remarkable for producing good figs, of
which they fend large quantities to Venice. It is feat-
ed on an eminence at the mouth of the river Fogha, on
the gulph of Venice. E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 43.56.
PESCARA, a very drong town in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Hither Abruzzo; feated at the
mouth of a river of the fame name, which falls into
the Gulph of Venice. E. Long. 14. 20, N. Lat.
42. 22.
PESCHIERA, a fmall but drong town of Italy,
in the Veronefe, with a cadle, and a drong fort; feat¬
ed on the river Mincio, or Menzo, which proceeds
from the lake Garda. E. Long. 10. 37. N. Lat.
45; 23-‘
PESSARY, in medicine, a folid fubdance compo-
fed of wool, lint, or linen, mixed with powder, oil,
wax, &c. made round and long like a finger, in orr
der to be introduced into the exterior neck of the ma-
trixj
PET [ 5997 ] PET
Pcftilence trix, for the cure of feveral uterine diforders.
, 11 PESTILENCE, in medicine, the fame with the
Peter. „
  Plague.
PETAL, in botany, one of the coloured leaves
which compofe the flower.
PETALISM, in antiquity, a kind of banifhment
at Syracufe, by writing the perfon’s name on a leaf;
whence the name.
PETARD, in the art of war. See Gunnery,
n° 57. and Plate cxli.
PETAU (Denis), or Dionyfms Petavius, a
French Jefuit of great erudition, born at Orleans in
15S3. He entered into the fociety of Jefuits in 1605;
and did no little honour to it by his ^earning, which
he employed in defending the Catholic, church, by
criticiting and abufing its adverfaries. Jofeph Sealiger
was the perfon againft whom he was the moft invete¬
rate ; nor did he fpare his friend Cafaubon when he
came in his way. Petavius excelled particularly in the
dark fcience of chronology, the learned world in ge¬
neral being obliged to him for fome exaft and nice
difquilitions on this fubjefk. His chief work, which
is in great repute to this day, he intitled; Rationarum
temporum. It is an abridgement of univerfal hiftory,
from the earlielt times to 1632, in chronological order,
with references to proper authorities. It was impro¬
ved, and feveral additions made to it, by Perizonius,
and others after his death. He died in 1652 ,
PETECHI2E, in medicine, a name given to thofe
fpots, whether red or of any other colour, which ap¬
pear in malignant fevers.
PETCHELI, a province of Afia, in China, and
the chief in the whole empire ; bounded on the eaft
by the fea, on the north by the great wall, on the
weft by Chanfi, and on the fouth by Chantong and
Honan. It contains Pekin, which is the principal
city in the whole empire, and on which 140 towns de¬
pend, befides a vaft number of villages. The air is
temperate, unlefs when the wind blows from the nortlf;
and there is a rainy feafon in the latter end of July
and the beginning of Auguft, but it feldom rains any
other time. The foil is fertile, and produces all forts
of corn ; and there are plenty of cattle, pulfe, and
fruits. They have alfo mines of pit-coal, which is
their only fuel. All the riches of China are brought
into this province, particularly to Pekin, where the
emperor refides.
PETER, or Epijiles of St Peter, two canonical
books of the New Teftamentf written by the apoftle
St Peter, and addreffed to thofe Jewifh converts who
were fcattered throughout Pontus and Galatia, not only
upon the perfecution raifed at Jerufalem, but upon
former difperfions of the Jews into thofe places. The
firft of thefe epiftles is principally defigned to comfort
and confirm them under thofe fiery trials they were
then fubjeft to, and to diredt them how to behave in
the feveral dates and relations both in the civil and
Ghriftian life. In the fecond epiftle, the apoftle pro-
fecutes the fame fubjedf,. to prevent their apoftafy from
the faith, and guard them againft the corrupt prin¬
ciples of the Gnoftics, and thofe who fcoffed at the
promife of Chrift’s coming.
Peter (St), one of the apoftles, was born at Beth-
faida in Galilee, and was named Simon ; but Chrift
having called him to b.e an apoftle, changed his name
into that of Cephas, which is the fame with Peter : for
as he was fifhing on the lake of Genazereth with An- -
drew his brother, the Son of God ordered them to
leave their nets and to follow him ; and from that time
they continued his difciples, He was a witnefs to our
Lord’s transfiguration on the mount. He was prefent
at the laft fupper ; and was in the garden when the
foldiers came to feize Jefus, where, being tranfported
with zeal, he drew his fword and cut off the high-
prieft’s fervant’s ear. But he foon after denied his
knowing his Lord ; and perfifted in it three times, till
the cock-crowing reminded him of Jefus’s having fore¬
told this inftance of his weaknefs ; on which he ftrewed
his repentance by his tears. St Peter was likewife a
witnefs of Chrift’s refurreftion and afcenfion, and of
the defcent of the Holy Ghoft. He afterwards preach¬
ed the gofpel with great zeal, converted 3000 perfons
at his firft fermon, and performed many furprifing mi¬
racles in proof of his divipe million. Some time after,
Herod Agrippa caufed him to be put in prifon at Je¬
rufalem, whence he was delivered by an angel. Dr
Pearfon has proved, that this apoftle was at Rome,
where he met with Philo the Jew, with whom he con-
traded an intimate acquaintance. When Claudius ba-
nifhed the Jews, he returned to Jerufalem; and, fome
fay, travelled thence into Africa, or,according to others,
preached in Britain: that toward the latter end of
Nero he returned to Rome, where he was crucified,
and buried in the Vatican. Conftantine the Great re¬
built and enlarged the Vatican in honour of St Peter,
which at this day is one of the wonders of the world.
He wrote two epiftles, addreffed to the converted
Jews difperfed throughout Alia ; but the other works
attributed to St Peter are fpurious.
Peter of Blots, a learned man of the 12 th centuryy
was born about the year 1120, at the city of Bloi§ in
France, from whence he derived his name. His pa¬
rents being opulent, gave him a learned education. In
his youth, when he ftudied in the univerfity of Paris,
he was exceflively fond of poetry ; and when he was
a little further advanced in life, he became no lefs fond
of rhetoric, to the ftudy of which he applied with the
greateft ardour. From Paris he removed to Bononia
in Italy, to acquire the civil and canon law ; in the
knowledge of both which he very much excelled. He
appears from his writings to have cultivated medicine,,
and feveral branches of the mathematics, wi:h no little
care and fuccefs. The ftudy of theology was the chief
delight and bufinefs of his life, in which he fpent the
greateft part of his time, and made the greateft pro-
grefs. But unfortunately it was that fcholaftic theo¬
logy, which confifted in vain attempts to prove and
explain the many abfurd opinions which then prevail¬
ed in the church, by the fubtleties of Ariftotelian lo¬
gic. In attempting to explain in this manner the moft
abfurd of all opinions that ever exifted amongft man¬
kind,. he was the very firft perfon who employed the
famous word tranfubfantiation, which was foon after
adopted by the church of Rome, and hath ever fince
made fo great a noife. Being appointed preceptor to
William II. king of Sicily in 1167, he obtained the
cuftody of the privy feal; and, next to the archbilhop
of Palermo, the prime minifter, had the greateft in¬
fluence in all affairs. But his power was not of long-
duration : for the archbilhop being baniflied in i 16S,.
our-
Peter.
PET [ 5998 ] PET
"Peter, our author foon after left the court of Sicily, and re-
“ turned into France. He was not long, however, with¬
out a royal patron, being invited into England by
Henry II. who employed him as his private fecretary,
made him archdeacon of Bath, and gave him fome
other benefices. When he had fpent a few years at
court, he conceived a difguft at that way of life, (of
which he hath drawn a very unpleafing picture in one
of his letters), and retired into the family of Richard
archbifhop of Canterbury, who had made him his chan¬
cellor about the year 1176. In this Ration he conti¬
nued to the death of the archbifiiop in 1183, enjoying
the higheft degree of favour with that prelate, though
he ufed much freedom in reproving him for his remifs-
nefs in the government of the church. Our author
remained in the fame Ration in the family of archbi¬
fhop Baldwin, who fucceeded Richard, afting both
as his fecretary and chancellor. He was alfo lent by
that prelate on an embafly to Rome in 1187, to plead
■his caufe before Pope Urban III. in the famous con-
troverfy between him and the monks of Canterbury
about the church of Hackingtpn. After the depar¬
ture of his friend and patron Baldwin for the Holy
Hand in 1 190, our author was involved in various
troubles in his old age, the caufes of which are not
difiinftly known ; and died about the end of the 12th
Century. He appears from his works, which may be
juRly reckoned among the mod valuable monuments
of the age in which he flourifhed, to have been a man
of great integrity and fincere piety, as well as of a
lively inventive genius and uncommon erudition. His
printed works conGR of 134 letters, which hecolledted
together at the defire of Henry IT.; of 65 fermons,
delivered on various occafions ; and of 17 trails on dif¬
ferent fubjedls.
Peter the Hermit. See Crusade.
Peter I. jufily Ryled Peter the Great, czar, and
afterwards emperor, of Ruffia, founder of the Ruf¬
fian empire; for though the country was well known,
and of great antiquity, yet it had no extent of power,
of political influence, or of general commerce in Eu¬
rope, till his time. He was born in 1672 ; and was
proclaimed czar when but ten years of age, in exclu-
fion of John his elder brother, who, being of a fickly
conRitution, was at the fame time very weak in his
underRanding. The princefs Sophia, his half-fiRer,
made an infurreilion in favour of John ; and to put an
end to the civil war, it was at laR agreed that the two
brothers fliould jointly fhare the imperial dignity. Pe¬
ter had been very ill brought up, not only through
the general defedls of the Ruffian education, but like-
wife through the arts of the princefs Sophia, \vho fur-
rounded him with every thing that might Rifle his na¬
tural defire of knowledge, deprave his mind, and ener¬
vate it with pleafures. NotwithRanding this, his in¬
clination for military exercifes difcovered itfelf in his
tendereR years. He formed a company of 50 men,
commanded by foreign officers, clothed and exercifed
after the German manner. He entered himfelf into
the loweR poR, that of a drummer; and never rofe
otherwife than as a foldierof fortune. Herein his de-
fign was to teach his nobility, that merit, not birth,
was the only title to military employments. He re¬
inforced his company with feveral others, till at laR he
had got together a confiderable body of foldiers. As
he then had no war on his hands, he exercifed them Peter,
in all,forts of mock-engagements, and by this means
fecured to himfelf a body of well-difciplined troops.
The fight of a Dutch vefiel, which he had met with
on a lake belonging to one of his pleafure-houfeS,
made fuch an impreffion on his mind, that he concei¬
ved the almoR impradlicable defign of forming a navy.
His firR care was to get fome Hollanders to build fome
fmall veflels at Mofcow; and he palled two fucceffive
fummers on board Englilh or Dutch fhips, which let
out from Archangel, that he might inltruft himfelf
in every branch of naval affairs. In 1696 czar John
died, and Peter was now foie maRer of the empire.
In 1698, he fent an embaffy to Holland; and went
incognito in the retinae, and vifited England as well as
Holland, in order to inform himfelf fully in the art of
(hip-building. At Amllerdam he worked in the yard
as a private Ihip carpenter, under the name of Peter
Michaelof; but he has been often heard to fay, that if
ht had never gone to England, he had Rill remained
ignorant of that art. In 1700 he had got together a
body of flanding forces, confiRing of 30,000 foot,
and now the vaR projedl he bad formed difplayed it¬
felf in all its parts. He opened his dominions, which
till then had been (hut up, having firR fent the chief
nobility of his empire into foreign countries to improve
themfelves in knowledge and learning. He invited
into Ruffia all the foreigners he could meet with, who
were capable of inRrudling his fubje&s in any manner,
and offered them great encouragement to fettle in his
dominions. This raifed many difcontents ; and the
defpotic authority he exerted on that occafion was
fcarcely powerful enough to fupprefs them. In 1700,
being Rrengthened by the alliance of Anguflus king
of Poland, he made war on Charles XII. king of Swe¬
den. His firR ill fuccefs did not deter him : for he
ufed to fay, I know that my armies muR be overcome
for a great while ; but even this will at laR teach them
to conquer. He afterwards gained confiderable ad¬
vantages, and founded Peterfburg in 1703. In 1709
he gained a complete vi&ory over the Swedes at Pnl-
towa. In 1712, he was inclofed by the Turks on the
banks of the Pruth ; and feemed inevitably loR, had
not the Czarina Catherine bribed the grand vizier, and
the czar’s prudence completed his deliverance. In
1716, he made a tour through Germany and Holland,
and vifited the royal academy of fciences at Paris. It
would be endlefs to enumerate all the various efiablilh-
ments for which the Ruffians are obliged to him : He
formed an army according to the manner of the poli-
tefi and moR experienced nations : he fitted out fleets
in all the four feas which border upon Ruffia : he cau-
fed many Rrong fortreffes to be raifed after the beft
plans; and made convenient harbours: he introduced
arts and fciences into his dominions, and freed religion
from many fuperRitions abufes : he made laws, built
cities, cut Canals, &c. ; was generous in rewarding,
impartial in punilhing ; faithful, laborious, and humble ;
yet was not free from a certain roughnefs of temper
natural to his nation. He had indeed cured himfelf of
exc£fs in drinking; but he has been branded with fe¬
veral other vices, particularly cruelty. He publiflied
the unfortunate hiRory of his fon prince Alexei; to¬
wards whom fome blame his feverity, while others
think it no more than was neceffary. He perfe&ly
knew
PET [ 5999 ] PET
JPeterpence knew the honour due to perfons of merit; and not
4 II only heaped honours upon them during their life, but
jpeterfburg. gaye thern 0f efteem even after their death. He
I died of the ftrangury in 1725, and left the world with
the magnanimity of a hero and the piety of a Chri-
fiian.
PETER-P^ce, and ancient tax of a penny on
each houfe paid to the pope.—It was called Pcter-
fence, becaufe it was colleftd on the day of St Peter
ad vincula, and fent to Rome; whence it was alfo
! called Rome-fcot and Roms-penny.
PETERBOROUGH, acity of Northamptonfbire,
with a bifhop’s fee, a market on Saturdays, and two
fairs, on July 10. and Oflober 2. for all tort of (lock-
wrought timber and cheefe. It is feated on the river
Nen, over which there is a bridge that leads into Hun-
tingdonfhire, in marlhy ground. It is not a large
place, for it has but one paridr-church befides the ca¬
thedra) ; but the market place is fpacious, and the
flreets are regular. It fends two members to parliament.
The cathedral was formerly a monaflery ; and is a ma-
jeftic (Irufture, full of curious work, and has a large
choir. W. Lon. o. 15. N. lat. 52. 33.
PETERSBURG, a city of the province of Ingria
in Rufiia, and capital of the whole empire, iituated in
E. Long. 30. 23. N. Lat. 54. 56. It was founded
in the year 1703 by Czar Peter the Great, whofe am¬
bition it was to have a fleet on the Baltic; for which
reafon he determined to found a city which might be¬
come the centre of trade throughout all his dominions.
The fpot he pitched upon was a low, fenny, unculti¬
vated ifland, formed by the branches of the river
Nieva, before they fall into the gulph of Finland.
In the fummer this ifland was covered with mud ; and
in winter became a frozen pool, rendered almolt in-
aeceffible by dreary forells and deep moraffes, the
haunts of bears, wolves, and .other favage animals.
Having taken the fort of Nattebourg, and the town
of Neifchanz, in the year 1703, this mighty con¬
queror affembled in Ingria above 300,000 men, Ruf¬
fians, Tartars, Coffacjks, Livonians, and others, even
from the mod diftant parts of his empire, and laid the
foundation of the citadel and fortifications, which were
finifned in four months, almoft in defpite of nature.
He was obliged to open ways through forelts, drain
Bogs, raife dykes, and lay caufeways, before he could
pretend to found the new city. The workmen were
ill provided with necefiary tools and implements. Inch
as fpades, pick-axes, (hovels, planks, and wheel-bar¬
rows : they were even obliged to fetch the earth from
a great diftance in the (kirts of their garments, or in
little bags made of old mats and rags fewed together.
The had neither huts nor houfes to (belter them from
the feverity of the weather: the country, which had
been defolated by war, could not accommodate fuch a
multitude with provifions; and the fuppliesby the lake
Ladoga were often retarded by contrary winds. In
confequence of thefe hardfhips, above 100,000 men
are faid to have perithed : neverthelefs the work pro¬
ceeded with incredible vigour and expedition ; while
Peter, for the fecurity of his workmen, formed a great
camp, in fuch a manner, that his infantry continued
in Finland, and his cavalry were quartered in Ingria.
Some Swedifh cruizers being defcried in the neigh¬
bourhood, the Czar polled a body of troops in the ifle
of Rutzari, by whom the Swedes were repulfed, and Peterfburg.
the work met with no farther'interruption. The*—~ "
buildings of the city kept pace with the fortrcfs,
which is the centre of the town, furrounded on all
fides by the Nieva ; and, in little more than a year,
above 30,000 houfes were ere&ed. At prefent there
may be about double that number in Peterftmrg, tho*
many of them are paultry and inconliderable. In
order to people this city, Peter invited hither mer¬
chants, artificers, mechanics, and feamen, from all the
different countrits of Europe: he demolifhed the town
of Nieufchants, and brought hither not only the
materials of the houfes, but the inhabitants them-
felves. A thoufand families were drawn frnm Mof-
cow ; he obliged his nobility to quit their palaces and
their villas in and about Mofcow, and take up their re-
fidence at Peterfburg, in a much more cold and comfort-
lefs climate. Finally, refolving to remove hither the
trade of Archangel, he iffued an ordonnance, importing.
That all fuch merchandife as had been conveyed to
Archangel, in order to be fold to foreigners, fhould .
now be fent to Peterfourg, where they fhould pay
no more than the ufual duties. Thefe endeavours and
regulations have rendered this one of the greatefi: and
mod flotirifiiing cities in Europe. The Ruffian boyars
and nobility have built magnificent palaces, and* are
now reconciled to their lituation. At firft many
houfes were built of timber; but thefe being fubjefk
to fudden conflagrations in fpite of all the precautions
that could be taken, the Czar, in the year 1714,
iffued an order, that all new houfes (hould be walled
with brick and covered with tiles. The fort is an.
irregular hexagon, with oppofite baflions. This, to¬
gether with all the reft of the fortifications, was in
the beginning formed of earth only ; but in the fequel
they were faced with (Long walls, and provided with
cafemates, which are bomb-proof.. In the curtain of
the fort, on the right-hand fide, is a noble difpenfary,
well fupplied with excellent medicines, and enriched
with a great number of porcelain vafes from China ami
Japan. From one of gates of the fort a draw-bridge
is thrown over an arm of the river, in which the Czar’s
galleys and other fsnall veffcls are (heltered in the
winter. The mod remarkable building within the
fort is the cathedral, built by the diredion of an Ita¬
lian archited. Peterlburg ispartly builton little iflands,
fome of which are conneded by draw-bridges ; and
partly on the continent. In the highed part, on the
bank of the Nieva, the Czar fixed his habitation, or „
ordinary refidence, built of free-done, and fituated fo
as to command a profped: of the greater part of the
city. Here likevvife is a royal foundery; together
with the fuperb houfes of many noblemen. The
tnarfhy ground on which the city is built, being
found extremely (lippery, dirty, and incommodious,
the Czar ordered every inhabitant to pave a certain
fpace before bis own door. In the year 1716, Peter,
taking a fancy to the ifland Wafili-Oderno, which he
had given as a prefent to prince Menzikoff, refumed
the grant, and ordered the city to be extended into
this quarter. He even obliged the boyars, or. nobles,
to build done houfes on this fpot, though they were
already in poffeffion of others on the (ide of Ingria :
accordingly this is now the mod magnificent part of
the city. On the other fide of a branch of the Nieva
ftaBdfr
PET [ 6000 ] PET
Peterfburg. ftands the Czar’s country or fummer palace, provided
' with a fine garden and orangery. On the bank of
the fame river is the flaboda, or fuburbs, in which the
Germans generally choofe their habitation. Peterfburg
is very much fubje£t to dangerous inundations. In the
year 1715, all the baftions and draw-bridges were either
overwhelmed, or carried away. The breadth, depth,
and rapidity of the Nieva, have rendered it extremely
difficult, if not impra&icable, to join the iflands and the
continent by bridges. Befides, Peter was averfe to
this expedient for another reafon : refolved to accuftom
his fubjedts to navigation, he not only rejefted the
projedt of a bridge ; but alfo ordered, that no boat
fhould pafs between the iflands and continent, except
by the help of fails only. In confequence of this ttrange
regulation, many lives were loft: but at length he
gained his point; and by habituating his fluggifh
Mufcovites to the dangers of the fea, in a little time
produced a breed of hardy failors. The adjacent country
is fo barren, that the town muft be fupplied with provi-
fions from a great diftance ; confequently they are ex¬
tremely dear. Here are woods in plenty, confiding
of pine, fir, alder, birch, poplar, and elm ; but the
oak and the beech are generally brought from Cafan.
In winter the weather is extremely cold, and hot
in the fummer. In June the length of the night
does not exceed three hours, during which the na¬
tives enjoy a continued twilight: but in December
the fun is not vifible more than three hours above the
horizon.
The Czar Peter, who was indefatigable in his en¬
deavours to improve and civilize his fubjefts, negle&ed
nothing which he thought could contribute to thefe
purpofes. He condefcended even to inftitute and re¬
gulate affemblies at Peterfburg: thefe were opened
at five in the afternoon, and the houfe was fhut at ten :
between thefe hours the fafhionable people of both
fexes met without ceremony, danced, converfed, or
played either at cards or at chefs, this laft being a
favourite diverfion among the Ruffians. There was
likewife an apartment fet apart for drinking brandy
and fmoking tobacco. Plays and operas were like¬
wife introduced for the fame purpofes ; but as Peter
had little relilh, and lefs tafte, for thofe entertainments,
they were performed in a very aukward manner in bis
life-time: however, fince his death, thefe performances
have been brought to a greater degree of art and de¬
corum.
This great northern legiflator eflablifhed, in the
neighbourhood of Peterfburg, manufadtures of linen,
paper, faltpetre, fulphur, gun-powder, and bricks,
together with water-mils for fawing timber. He in-
ftituted a marine academy, and obliged every confi-
derable family in Ruffia to fend at leaft one fon or
kinfman, between the ages of ten and eighteen, to
this feminary, where he was inftru&ed in navigation,
learned the languages, was taught to perform his ex-
ercifes, and to live under the fevereft difcipline. To
crown his other plans of reformation, he granted
letters-patent for founding an academy, upon a very
liberal endowment; and though he did not live to exe¬
cute this fcheme, his emprefs, who furvived him,
brought it to perfedlion. It was modelled on the
plans of the royal focietyin London, and the academy
of Fratice. Mr Bullfinger opened it in the year 1726,
with an eloquent fpeech on the defign and utility of Petersfidd
an academy of fciences ; and the profefibrs, who have I.
always diftinguifhed themfelves by their merit and ltlon'
erudition, publifhed an annual colleflion of their tranf-
aftions: a talk the more eafy, as they have the benefit
of printing preffes, well managed, at Peterfburg.
PETERSFIELD, a handfome town of Hamp-
fhire in England, fending two members to parliament.
It is feated in W. Long. 1. 5. N. Lat. 51.5.
PETERWARADIN, a fortified town in Scla-
vonia, and one of the ftrongeft frontier places the
houfe of Auftria has againft the Turks, feated on the
Danube between the Drave and the Save. E. Long.
20. o. N. Lat. 45. 20.
PETIOLE, in botany, the flender ftalks thatfup-
port the leaves of a plant.
PETIT, or Petite, a French word fignifying
little or /mail.
Petite Guerre, denotes the operations of detached
parties, and the war of pofts. See War, Part III.
Petit Sergeanty. See Serge ant y.
Petit Treafon. See Treason.
Petit (John Lewis), an eminent furgeon, born at
Paris in 1674. He had fc early an inclination to
furgery, that Mr Littre, a celebrated anatomift, be¬
ing in his father’s houfe, he regularly attended that
gentleman’s ledlures, from his being feven years of age.
He was received mafter in furgery in the year 1700 ;
and acquired fuch reputation in the practice of that
art, that in 1726 the king of Poland fent for him to
his court, and in 1734 the king of Spain prevailed on
him to go into that kingdom. He reftored the health
of thofe princes; and they endeavoured to detain him by
offering him great advantages, but he chofe rather to
return to France. He was received into the academy
of fciences in 1715; became dire&or of the royal
academy of furgery; made feveral important difeo-
veries ; and invented new inftruments for the improve¬
ment of forgery. He died at Paris in 1750. He
wrote anexcellentTreatife on the Difeafes of the Bones,
the beft edition of which is that of 1723 ; and many
learned Differtations in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences, and in the firft volume of the Memoirs of
Surgery.
PETITIO principii, in logic, the taking a thing
for true, and drawing conclufions from it as fuch,
when it is really falfe, or at leaft wants to be proved
before any inferences can be drawn from it.
PETITION, a Application made by an inferior
to a fuperior, and efpecially to one having jurifdic-
tion. It is ufed for that remedy which the fuhjeft
hath to help a wrong done by the king, who hath
a prerogative not to be fued by writ: In which fenfe
it is either general, That the king do him right ;
whereupon follows a general indorfement upon the
the fame, Let right he done the party : Or it is fpecial,
when the conclufion and indorfement are fpecial, for
this or that to be done, &c.
By ftatute, the foliciting, labouring, or procuring
the putting the hands or confent of above twenty per-
fons to any petition to the king or either houfe of
parliament, for alterations in church or ftate, unlefs
by affent of three or more juftices of peace of the
county, or a majority of the grand jury at the affizes
or Xeffions, &c. and repairing to the king or parlia¬
ment
PET F 6001 1 PET
Petitory, ment; tQ deliver fuch petition with above the number
Petltot‘ of ten perfons, is fubjeft to a fine of tool, and three
months imprifonment, being proved by two witnefles,
within fix months, in the court of B. R. or at the
affizes, &c. And if what is required by this ftatute
be obferved, care mufl be taken that petitions to the
king contain nothing which may be interpreted to re-
fledt on the adminiftration ; for if they do, it may
come under the denomination of a libel: and it is re¬
markable, that the petition of the city of London for
the fitting of a parliament was deemed libellous, be-
caufe it fuggefted that the king’s diffolvinga late par¬
liament was an obllrudlion of juftice; alfo the peti¬
tion of the fevejj bilhops, fent to the Tower by James
II. was called a libel* &c. To fubfcribe a petition
to the king, to frighten him into a change of his mea-
fures, intimating, that if it he denied many thoufands of
his fibjetts i/oill be difcontented, &c. is included among
the contempts againft the king’s perfon and govern¬
ment ; tending to weaken the fame, and is punilhable
by fine and imprifonment.
PETITORY action, in Scots law. See Law,
N° clxxxiii. 18. 20.
PETITOT (John), a curious painter in enamel,
born at Geneva in 1607. He ftudied the art with
fuch application, that he arrived to a degree of per-
feftion that may almoft be accounted inimitable. He
was wonderfully patient in finifhing his works, though
he had the addrefs to conceal his labour: however, he
only'painted the heads and hands of the figures; the
hair, grounds, and drapery, being executed by Bor-
dier his brother-in-law. Thefe two artifts had the
credit of aflbciating and labouring together for fifty
years, without the lead mifunderftanding happening
between them. It is afierted by an ingenious French
writer, that Petitot and Bordier derived the know¬
ledge of the mod curious and durable colours proper
for enamelling, from Sir Theodore Mayerne at Lon¬
don, who recommended Petitot to Charles I. He
had the honour to paint the portraits of that monarch
and the whole royal family, and continued in England
until Charles’s unhappy end : he then went to Paris,
where he was highly favoured by Lewis XIV. and
acquired an ample fortune. Being a Proteftant, the
revocation of the edifl of Nantz obliged him to retire
to Geneva ; but fettling foon after at Veray in the
canton of Bern, he paffed the remainder of his life in
cafe and affluence. He died in 1691 ; and had 17
children : of whom one took to painting, and fettled
at London, where he gained good reputation; but
was much inferior to his father.
Petitot may be called the inventor of painting por-
. traits in enamel. Though his friend Bordier made fe-
veral attempts before him, and Sir Theodore Mayerne
had facilitated the means of employing the moil beau¬
tiful colours; yet Petitot completed the works, which
under his hand acquired a foftnefs and livelinefs of co¬
louring that will never change, and will ever render
his works valuable. He made ufe of gold and filver
plates, and feldom cnaotdled on copper. . When he
fir ft. came in vogue, his price was 20 louis’s a head,
which'be foon raifed to 40. It was his cuftom to
take a painter with him, who painted the pi&ure in
oil ; after which Petitot fketched out his work, which
he always finifhed after the life. When he painted
Vou'VIH. 1
the king of France, he took thofe piflures for his co> Petra,
pies that moft refembled him ; and the king afterwards Petrarch-
gave him a fitting or two to finilh his work.
PETRA, (Casfar, Lucian), a town of Greece on
the coaft of Illyricum, near Dyrrhachium, and not
far from the mouth of the river Panyafus.—Ano¬
ther Petra, (Livy) ; a town of Masdica, a diftridt
of Thrace, lying towards Macedonia; but in what
part of Macedonia, he does not fay.
Petra, (Ptolemy), Petreea (Silius Italicus), Pe-
trina (Italicus), in both which laft urbs is underftood;
an inland town of Sicily, to the fouthrweft of Engyum.
Now Petraglia, (Cluverius).
Petra Jecktael, (2 Kings xiv.), a town of the A-
malekites ; near the Adfcenfus Scorpionis (Judg. i.)
and the Valley of Salt in the fouth of Judea : after¬
wards in the poffeffion of the Edomites, after deftroy-
ing the Amalekites.
Petra Recent, or Rekem, fo called from Rekem
king of the Midianites, flain by the Ifraelites, (Num.
xxxi.) Formerly called now Petra ; the capi¬
tal of Arabia Petrsea, (Jofephus). Ptolemy places it
in Long. 66. 45. from the Fortunate Ifiands, and Lat.
30. 20. It declines therefore 80 miles to the fouth
of the parallel of Jerufalem, and 36 miles, more or
lefs, from its meridian to the eaft. Jofephus fays,
that the mountain on which Aaron died flood near
Petra ; which Strabo calls the capital of the Nabataei;
at the diftance of three or four days journey from Je¬
richo. This Petra feems to be the Sela of Ifaiah xvi.
1. and xlii. 11. the Hebrew name of Petra “ a rock
Though fome imagine Petra to be no older than the
time of the Macedonians.
PETRARCH (Francis), a celebrated Italian poet,
was born at Arezzo in 1304, and was the fon of Pe-
trarco di Parenzo. He ftudied grammar, rhetoric,
and philofophy, for four years at Carpentras; from
whence he went to Montpelier, where he ftudied the
law under John Andreas and Cino of Piftoia, and
probably from the latter received a tafte for Italian
poetry. As Petrarch only ftudied the law out of
complaifance to his father, who on his vifiting him
at Bologna had thrown into the fire all the Latin poets
and orators except Virgil and Cicero, he, at 22 years
of age, hearing that his father and mother were dead
of the plague at Avignon, returned to that city to
fettle his domeftic affairs, and purchafed a country-
houfe in a very folitary but agreeable fituation, called
Vauclufe; where he firft knew the beautiful Laura,
with whom he fell in love, and whom he has immor-
talifed in his poems. He at length travelled int,0
France, the Netherlands, and Germany ; and at his
return to Avignon entered into the fervice of Pope
John XXII. who employed him in feveral important
affairs. Petrarch was in hopes of being raifed to fome
confiderable polls : but being difappointed, he applied
himfelf entirely to poetry ; in which he met with fuch
applaufe, that in one and the fame day he received
letters from Rome and the chancellor of the univer-
fity of Paris, by which they invited him to receive
the poetic crown. By the advice of his friends, he
preferred Rome to Paris, and received that crown
from the fenate and people on the 8th of April
1341. His love of folitude at length induced him to
return to Vauclufe ; but, after the death of the beau-
33 U tiful
PET [ 6002 j PET
Petre tlful Laura, Provence became infupportable to him,
.11 and he returned to Italy in 1352; when, being at
Petrifaction M-j]an< Galeas Viceconti made him counfellor of ftate.
Petrarch fpent almoft all the reft of his life in travel¬
ling to and from the different cities in Italy. He was
archdeacon of Parma, and canon of Padua ; but ne¬
ver received the order of priefthood. All the princes
and great men of his time gave him public marks of
their efteem ; and while he lived at Arcqua, three miles
from Padua, the Florentines deputed Boccace to go
to him with letters, by which they invited him to Flo¬
rence, and informed him, that they reftored to him all
the eftate of which his father and mother had been
deprived during the diffenfions between the Guelphs
and Gibelines. He died a few years after at Arcqua,
in 1374. He wrote many works that have rendered
his memory immortal ; thefe have been printed in four
volumes folio. His life has been written by feveral
authors.
PETRE, or Salt-petre, in chemiftry. See
Nitre.
PETRE A, in botany, a genus of the angiofper-
mia order belonging to the dicjynamia clafs of plants.
There is only one fpecies, a native of New Spain. It
rifes to the height of 15 or 16 feet, with a woody
flalk covered with grey bark, fending out feveral long
branches. Thefe h^ve a whiter bark than the Item,
and are garnilhed with leaves at each joint, which, on
the lower part of the branches, are placed by threes
round them ; but, higher up, they are rough, and
have a rough furface. The flowers are produced at
the ends of the branches, in loofe bunches nine or
ten inches long, each flower Handing on a flender
flower-ftalk about an inch long : the empalement of the
flower is compofed of five narrow obtufe leaves about
an inch long, which are of a fine blue colour, and
much more confpicuous than the petals, which are
white, and not more than half the length of the em¬
palement. The plant is propagated by feeds procured
from the places where they are natives, and of which
very few are good ; for though Dr Houfton, the dif-
coverer of the plant, fent parcels of feeds to feveral
perfons in England, only two plants were produced
from the whole. The feeds muft be fown in a good
hot-bed ; and when the plants come up, they fhould
all be planted in a feparate fmall pot filled with light
loamy earth, and plunged into a hot-bed of tartners
bark, where they fhould afterwards conftantly remain.
PETREL, in ornithology. See Procellaria.
PETRIDIA, in natural hlftory, a genus of ferupi,
of a plain, uniform texture; of no great variety of
colours, and emulating the external form of pebbles.
PETRIFACTION, in phyfiology, denotes the
converfion of wood, bones, and other fubftances, into
Hone.
The foflile bodies found petrified are principally ei¬
ther of vegetable or animal origin; and are more or
lefs altered from their original ftate, according to
the different fubftances they have lain buried among in
the earth; Tome of them having fuffered very little
change, and others being fo highly impregnated with
cryftalline, fparry, pyritical, or other extraneous mat¬
ter, as to appear mere maffes of ftone or lumps of the
matter of the common pyrites; but they are generally
of the external dimenfipns, and retain more or lefs of
the internal figure, of the bodies into the pores of which Petrohruf- :
this matter has made its way.
. The animal-fubftances thus found petrified are fea- etro £U—‘m
fhells; the teeth, bony palates, and bones, of fifli; the
bones of land-animals, &c. Thefe are found varioufly
altered, by the infinuation of ftony and mineral mat¬
ter into their pores; and the fubftance of fome of them
is now wholly gone, there being only ftony, fparry, or
other mineral matter remaining in the fhape and form.
As to the manner in which petrifa&ion is accom-
plilhed, we know very little. It has been thought by
many philofophers, that this was one of the rare pro-
ceffes of nature; and accordingly fuch places as afford¬
ed a view of it, have been looked upon as great curi-
ofities. However, it is now difeovered, that petrifac¬
tion is exceedingly common ; and that every kind of J
water carries in it fome earthy particles, which being
precipitated from it, become ftone of a greater or lef-
fer degree of hardnefs; and this quality is moft re¬
markable in thofe waters which are much impregnated
with felenitic matter. Of late, it has alfo been found Fufe Phil. «
by fome obfervations on a petrifaction in Eaft Lothian Tranf-v'<S9* '
in Scotland, that iron contributes greatly to the pro-part,'p'^s* ]
cefs: and this it may do by its precipitation of any
aluminous earth which happens to be diffolved in the
water by means of an acid; for iron has the property
of precipitating this earth, though it cannot precipi¬
tate the calcareous kind. The calcareous kinds of
earth, however, by being foluble in water without any
acid, muft contribute very much to the procefs of pe-
trefa&ion, as they are capable of a great degree of
hardnefs by means only of being joined with fixed air,
on which depends the folidity of our common cement
or mortar ufed in building houfes. See the articles
Cement and Mortar. See alfo Sand, Sf.lenites, . J
Rock, Stone, and Water.
PETROBRUSSIANS, in church-hiftory, a religious
fed which arofe in France and the Netherlands about
the year 1126, fo called from their leader Peter Bruys.
They denied, that children, before the ufe of reafen, can
be juftified by baptifm. They alfo condemned all
places of public worlhip, croffes, &c. and are faid to
have reje&ed the facrament of the eucharift, and pray¬
ers for the dead.
PETROLEUM, or Rock-oil, is an extremely
fubtile and penetrating fluid, and is much the thinned
of all the native bitumens. It is very light and very
pellucid ; but though equally bright and clear under
all circumftanc'es, it is liable to a very g^eat variety in
its colour. It is naturally almoft colourlefs, and in its
appearance greatly refembles the moft pure oil of tur¬
pentine: this is called ‘wAite petroleumt though it has
no more colour than water. It is fometimes tinged of
a brownilh, reddifh, yellowifh, or faint greenifh colour;
but its moft frequent colour is a mixture of the reddifh
and blackifh, in fuch a degree that it looks black when
viewed behind the light, but purple when placed be¬
tween the eye and a candle or window. It is of a pun¬
gent and acrid tafte; and of a very ftrong and pene¬
trating fmell, which very much approaches to that of
the diftilled oil of amber. The white is moft efteem-
ed. It is fo very inflammable, that while it floats on
the furface of the water, as it does in many parts of
Italy, it takes fire at the approach of a candle.
Petroleum is found in rivers, in wells, and trickling
down
PET [ 6003 ] PET
Pttroleiim. down the fides of hills along with little ftreams of wa-
*" ter. It (hort, it is the molt frequent of all the liquid
bitumens, and is perhaps the molt valuable of them all
in medicine. It is to be chofen the pureft, lighteft,
and molt pellucid that can be had, fuch as is of the
molt penetrating fmell and is molt inflammable.
It is principally ufed externally, in paralytic cafes,
and in pains of the limbs.
Mr Bouldoc made feveral experiments with the white
petroleum of Modena, an account of which he gave to
the Paris academy.
It ealily took fire on being brought near a candle,
and that without immediately touching the flame; and
when heated in any veflel, it will attraft the flame of
a candle, though placed at a great height above the
veflel, and the vapour it fends up taking fire, the flame
will be communicated to the veflel of heated liquor,
and the whole will be confumed. It burns in the wa¬
ter ; and when mixed with any liquor fwims on the
furfaceof it, even of the higheft reftified fpirit of wine,
which is 4 heavier than pure petroleum. It readily
mixes with all the effential oils of vegetables, as oil of
lavender, turpentine, and the reft, and feeras very much
of their nature; nor is this very ftrange, fince the al¬
liance between thefe bodies is probably nearer than is
imagined, as the eflential oils of vegetables may have
been originally mineral ones, and drawn up out of the
earth into the vtffels of the plants.
Petroleum, when ftiakea, yields a few bubbles; but
they fooner fubfide than in almoft any other liquor, and
. the liquor refumes its clear ftate again almoft imme-
roediately. This feems owing to the air in this fluid
being very equally diftributed to all its parts, and the
liquor being compofed of particles very evenly and
nicely arranged.
This extenfibility of the oil is alfo amazing. A drop
of it will fpread over feveral feet of water, and in this
condition it gives a great variety of colours; that is,
the feveral parts of which this thin film is compofed,
aft as fo many prifms. The moft feverc froft never
congeals petroleum into ice; and paper wetted with it
becomes tranfparent, as when wetted with oil; buldt
does not continue fo, the paper becoming opake again
in a few minutes, as the oil dries away.
Spirit of wine, which is the great diffolvent of ful-
phur, has no effeft upon petroleum, not even with ever
fo long a digeftion. It will not take fire with the dc-
phlegmated acid fpirits; as oil of cloves, and other of
the vegetable eflential oils do: and in diftillation, ei¬
ther by balneum marise, or in fand, it will neither yield
phlegm nor acid fpirit; but the oil itfelf rifes in its own
form, leaving in the retort only a little matter, thick
as honey, and of a brownifh colour.
Alonfo Barba, in his book of metals, gives 3 very
melancholy inftance of the power of petroleum of ta¬
king fire at a diftance: he tells us, that a certain well,
yielding petroleum on the furface of its water, being
to be repaired, the workman took down into the well
with himalanthorn and a candle in it; there were fome
boles in the lanthorn, through which the petroleum at
at a confiderable diftance fucked out the flame of the
candle, and, taking fire, burft up with the noife of a
- cannon, and tore the man to pieces.
The people of mount Ciaro, in Italy, have fome years
fince found out a much eafier way of finding pretVo<>
leum than that which they formerly had been ufed to. Petromy-
This mountain abounds with a fort of greyifh fait, zon-
which lies in large horizontal beds, mingled with ftrata'"’™"
of clay, and large quantities of a fpar of that kind
called by the Germans felznites; which is the common
fort, that ferments with acids, and readily diflblves in
them, and Calcines in a fmall fire. They pierce thefe
flates in a perpendicular direftion till they find water ;
and the petroleum which had been difperfed among
the cracks of thofe flates, is then waflied out by the
water, and brought from all the neighbouring places
to the hole or well which they have dug, on the fur-
face of the water of which it fwims after eight or ten
days. When there is enough of it got together, they
lade it from the top or the water with brafs bafons, and
it is then eafily foparated from what little water is
taken up with it. Thefc wells or holes continue to
furniih the oil in different quantities for a confiderable
time ; and when they will yield no more, they pierce
the flates in fome other place.
Petroleum is never ufed among us; but the French
give it internally in hyfteric complaints, and to their
children for worms; fome alfo give it from 10 to 15
drops in wine, for fupprefiions of the menfes. This,
however, is rather the praflice of the common people
than of the faculty.1
PETROMYZON, the Lamprey, a genus of fifties
belonging to the clafs of amphibia names. It has fe-
ven fpiracula at the fide of the neck, no gills, a fiftula
on the top of the head, and no bread or belly fins.
There are three fpecies, diftinguiftied by peculiaries in
their back-fins. There are three fpecies.
1. Themarinus, or fea-lampiey, is fometimes found
fo large as to weigh four or five pounds. The mouth is
round, and placed rather obliquely below the end of the
nofe: the edges are jagged, which enables them to adhere
the more ftrongly to the ftones, as their cuftom is, and
which they do fo firmly as n?t to be drawn off with¬
out fome difficulty. Mr Pennant mentions one weigh¬
ing three pounds, which was taken out of the Efk, ad¬
hering to a ftone of 12 pounds weight, fufpended at
its mouth, from which it was forced with no fmall
pains. There are in the mouth 20 rows of fmall
teeth, difpofed in circular orders, and placed far with¬
in. The colour is dufky, irregularly marked with
dirty yellow, which gives the fifti a difagreeable look.
Lampreys are found at certain feafonsof the year in
feveral of our rivers, but the Severn is the moft noted
for them. They are fea-fifh ; but, like falmon, quit
the fait waters, and afcend the latter end of the win¬
ter, or beginning of fpring, and after a flay of a few
months return again to the ocean, a very few excep¬
ted. The beft feafon for them is in the months of
March, April, and May ; for they are more firm when
juft arrived out of the fait water than they are after¬
wards, being obferved to be much wafted, and very
flabby at the approach of hot weather. Tney are
taken in nets along with falmon and (had, and fome¬
times in weels laid in the bottom of the river. It
has been an old cuftom for the city of Gloucefter,
annually, to prefent his majefty with a lamprey pye,
covered with a large railed cruft. As the gift is
made at Chriftmas, it is with great difficulty the cor¬
poration can procure any frefh lampreys at that time,
though they give a guinea a-piece for them, fo early
33 U 3 iu
PET [ 6004 ] PET
Petromy- In the feafbn. They are reckoned a great delicacy,
Petronins e‘t^er when potted or ftewed ; but are a furfeiting
 11 food, as one of our monarchs fatally experienced, Hen¬
ry I.’s death being occaOoned by a too plentiful meal
of thefe fifh. It appears, that, notwithftanding this ac¬
cident, they continued in high efteem ; for Henry IV.
granted prote&ions to fuch (hips as brought over lam¬
preys for the table of his royal confort.
Mr Pennant is of opinion, that the ancients were un¬
acquainted with this fiih ; at lead, he fays, it is cer¬
tain, that which Dr Arbuthnot and other learned
men render the word lamprey, is a fpecies unknown
in our feas, being the nmrana of Ovid, Pliny, and
others, for which we want an Engliih name. This
fiih, the lupus (our bafle), and the myxo (a fpecies of
mullet), formed that pride of Roman banquets, the
tripatinam, fo called, according to Arbuthnot, from
their being ferved up in a machine with three bottoms.
The words lampetra and petromyzon are but of mo¬
dern date, invented from the nature of the fifh ; the
firft a lavihendo petras, the other from anc]
n-va-uu, becaufe they are fuppofed to lick or fuck the
rocks.
2. The fluviatilis, or leffer lamprey, fometimes grows
to the length of 10 inches. The mouth is formed like
that of the preceding. On the upper part is a large bi¬
furcated tooth: on each fide are three rows of very mi¬
nute ones: on the lower part are feven teeth, the exterior
of which on one fide is the largeft. The irides are yellow.
As in all the other fpecies, between the eyes, on the top
of the head, is a fmall orifice of great ufe to clear its
mouth of the water that remains on adhering to the
Hones, for through that orifice it ejefts the water in the
fame manner as cetaceous fifh. On the lower part of
the back is a narrow fin, beneath that rifes another,
which at the beginning is high and angular, then grows
narrow, furrounds the tail, and ends near the anus.
The colour of the back is brown or dufky, and fome¬
times mixed with blue; the whole under-fide filvery.
Thefe are found in the Thames, Severn, and Dee, are
potted with the larger kind, and are by fome preferred
to it, as being milder tafted. Vaft quantities are taken
about Mortlake, and fold to the Dutch for bait for
their cod-fifhery. Above 430,000 have been fold in a
feafon at 40 s. per 1000. Of late, about 100,000
have been fent to Harwich for the fame purpofe. It
is faid that the Dutch have the fecret of preferving
them till the turbot fifhery.
3. The bronchialis, or lampern, is fometimes found
of the length of eight inches, and about the thickncfs
of a fwan’s quill; but they are generally much fmaller.
The body is marked with numbers of tranfverfe lines,
that pafs crofs the fides from the back to the bottom
of the belly, which is divided from the mouth to the
anus by a ftrait line. The back fin is not angular
like that of the former, but of an equal breadth.
The tail is lanceolated, and Ihort at the end. They are
frequent in the rivers near Oxford, particularly the Ills;
but not peculiar to that county, being found in others
of the Englifh rivers, where, inftead of concealing
themfelves under the ftones, they lodge themfelves in
the mud, and never are obferved to adhere to any thing
like other lampreys.
PETRONIUS arbiter (Titus), a great critic and
polite writer of antiquity, the favourite Nero, fup¬
pofed to be the fame mentioned by Tacitus in the 16th Petrofa,
book of his Annals. He was proconful of Bithynia,
and afterwards conful, and appeared capable of the
greateft employments. He was, neverthelefs, extreme¬
ly voluptuous; for he fpent the greateft part of the day
in fleep, and the night in pleafure and bufinefs. He
was one of Nero’s principal confidents, and in a man¬
ner the fuperintendant of his pleafures; for that prince
thought nothing agreeable or delightful but what was
approved by Petronius. The great favour fhewn him
drew upon him the envy of Tigellinus, another of Ne¬
ro’s favourites, who accufed him of being concerned in
a confpiracyagainft the emperor; on which Petronius
was feized, and being fentenced to die, he from time
to time caufed his veins to be opened and clofed again,
entertaining himfelf the while in difeourfing on poetry
with his friends. He afterwards fent to Nero a book
fealed up with his own hand, in which he deferibed the
debaucheries of that prince under borrowed names, and
died in the year 65 or 66. There are ftill extant a fa-
tire, and fome other of his pieces, well written in La¬
tin, but filled with indecencies; which occafioned Pe-
tronius’s’ being called Autor purijfima impuritatis.
There was found in the laft century a fragment of his
works at Traou, in Dalmatia. It is a folio manufeript
two fingers thick, in which is contained Trimalcio’s
fupper ; it made much noife among the learned, and
occafioned many difputes for and againft its authenti¬
city.
PETROSA ossa, in anatomy, a name given to the
fourth and fifth bones of the cranium, called alfo ojfa
temporum, and ojjfa fquamofa ; the fubftance whereof,
as their firft and laft names exprefs, is fquamofe and
very hard.
PETTY (Sir William), fon of Anthony Petty a
clothier, was born at Rumfey, a little haven-town in
Hampfhire, in 1623 ; and while a boy took great de¬
light in fpending his time among the artificers there,
whofe trades he could work at when but twelve years
of age. Then he went to the grammar-fehool there :
at 15, he was mafterof the Latin, Greek, and French
tongues, and of arithmetic and thofe parts of pra&ical
geometry and aftronomy ufeful to navigation. Soon-
after, he went to Caen in Normandy, and Paris, where
he ftudied anatomy, and read Vefalius with Mr
Hobbes. Upon his return to England, he was pre¬
ferred in the king’s navy. In 1643, vvhen the war
between the king and parliament grew hot, he went
into the Netherlands and France for three years ; and
having vigoroufly profecuted his ftudies, efpecially in
phyfic, at_Utrecht, Leyden, Amfterdam, and Paris,,
he returned home to Rumfey. In 1647, he obtained
a patent to teach the art of double-writing for feven-
teen years. In 1648, he publifhed at London “ Ad¬
vice to Mr Samuel Hartlib, for the advancement of
feme particular parts of learning.” At this time he
adhered to the prevailing party of the kingdom ; and
went to Oxford, where he taught anatomy and che-
miftry, and was created a do&or of phyfic. In 1650,
he was made profeffor of anatomy there ; and foon af¬
ter, a member of the college of phyficians in London.
The fame year he became phyfician to the army in.
Ireland ; where he continued till 1659, and acquired a
great fortune. After the Reftoration he was intro¬
duced to king Charles II. who knighted him in 1661.
In
P E Z [ 6005 ] P H A
Petty In 1662, he publiflied “ A treatife of taxes and con-
11 tributions.” Next year he was greatly applauded in
^>Kron' Ireland for his invention of a double-bottomed fliip.
He died at London of a gangrene in the foot, occa-
fioned by the fwelling of the gout, in 1687. Befides
the works above-mentioned, he wrote a vaft many
others.
Petty, any thing little or diminutive, when com¬
pared with another.
Yz-TTY-Bag, an office in chancery ; the three clerks
of which record the return of all inquiiitions out of
every county, and make all patents of comptrollers,
gaugers, cuftomers, &c.
Vt-TTY-Pogger, a little tricking folicitor or attor¬
ney, without either fkill or confcience.
Petty, ox Petit, Larceny. See Larceny.
Ymn-Patees, among confeftioners, a fort of fmall
pies, made of a rich cruft filled with fweet-meats.
Petty- Singles} among falconers, are the toes of a
hawk.
Petty - Pally, in the fea-language, a competent al¬
lowance of victuals, according to the number of the
fhip’s company.
Petty, or Petit, Treafon. See Treason.
PETUNSE, in natural hiftory, one of the two
fubftances whereof porcelain or china-ware is made.
The petunfe is a coarfe kind of flint or pebble, the
furface of which is not fo fmooth when broken as that
of our common flint. See Porcelain.
PEUCEDANUM, or sulphur-wort ; a genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are three fpeciesj none of which have
any remarkable properties excepting the officinale, or
common hogs-fennel, growing naturally in the Eng-
li(h falt-marfhes. This rifes to the height of two feet,
with channelled ftalks, which divide into two or three
branches, each crowned with an umbel of yellow
flowers, compofed of feveral fmall circular umbels.
The roots, when bruifed, have a ftrong fetid fcent like
fulphur, and an acrid, bitterifh, un&uous tafte.
Wounded in the fpring, they yield a confiderable
quantity of yellow juice, which dries into a gummy
refin, and retains the ftrong fmell of the root. This
fhould feem to be. poflefled of fome medicinal virtues,
but they have never been afcertained with any preci-
fion. The exprefled juice was ufed by the ancients in
lethargic diforders.
PEWIT, sea-crow, ox Mire cronv, in ornithology.
See Larus.
PEWTER, a faftitious metal ufed in making do-
meltic utenfils, as plates, difhes, &c.—The bafis of
the metal is tin; which is converted into pewter, by
mixing at the rate of an hundred weight of tin with
15 pounds of lead and fix pounds of brafs.—Befides
this compofition, which makes the common pewter,
there are other kinds,, compounded of tin, regulus of
antimony, bifmuth, and copper, in feveral proportions.
PEZRON (Paul), a very learned and ingenious
Frenchman, born at Hennebon in Britany in 1639,
and admitted into the order of Citeaux in 1660. He
was a great antiquary, and was indefatigable in track¬
ing the origin of the language of the Goths; the re-
fult of which was, that he was led to efpoufe a fyftem
of the world’s being much more antient than modern
chronologers have fuppofed. This he communicated
to the public in a treatife printed at Paris in 1687, Phseacia
4to. intitled The antiquity of Time, refored and de- il ,
fended againji the Jews and modern chronclogers. Thisp
book of Pezron’s was extremely admired for the in¬
genuity and learning in it; yet caufed no fmall alarm
among the religious, againft whom he neverthelefs-de-
fended his opinions. He went through feveral pro¬
motions, the laft of which was the abbey of Charmoye,
to which he was nominated by the king; and died in
1706.
PHiEACIA, one of the names of the ifland Cor-
cyra, (Homer, Stephanus). Pheeaces the people,
(Ovid), noted for their indolence and luxury: hence
Horace ufes Phseax for a perfon indolent and fleek;
and hence arofe their infolence and pride, (Ariftotle).
The ifland was famous for producing large quantities
of the fineft flavoured apples, (Ovid, Juvenal, Pro¬
pertius).
PHiEDRUS, an ancient Latin writer, who com¬
pofed five books of fables, in lambic verfe. He was
a Thracian; and was born, as there is reafon toconclude,
fome years before Julius Casfar made himfelf mailer of
the Roman empire. Plow he came into the fervice of
Auguftus is not known; but his being called Auguflus’s
freedman in the title of the book, Ihows that he had
been that emperor’s flave. The fables of Phtedrus are
valued for their wit and good fenfe, exprefled in very
pure and elegant language; and it is remarkable that
they remained buried in libraries altogether unknown
to the public, until they were difcovered and publilhed
by Peter Pithou, or Pithceus, a learned French gentle¬
man, toward the clofe of the 16th century.
PHENOMENON, in philofophy, denotes any re¬
markable appearance, whether in the heavens or earth,
and whether difcovered by obfervation or experiment.
PHAETON, in fabulous hiftory, was the fon of
Apollo and of the nymph Clymene. He had a dif-
pute with Epaphns, the fon of Jupiter and lo; when
the latter, upbraiding him, faid, that he was not the
fon of Phoebus, but that his mother artfully made ufe
of that pretence to cover her infamy. Phaeton, fired
at this reproach, flew to his mother, and by her ad¬
vice carried his complaint to Apollo, who received him
with great tendernefs, and fwore by Styx to grant
whatever he requefted, as a proof of his acknowledg¬
ing him for his fon. The youth boldly allied the di-
redion of the chariot of the fun for one day. His
father, grieved and furprifed at this demand, ufed all
his arguments to diffuade him from the ralh attempt;
but all was in vain, and, being by his oath reduced to-
fubmit to his obftinacy, entrufted him with the reins,,
after he had dire&ed him how to ufe them. The
young adventurer was however foon fenfible of his mad-
nefs. He was unable to guide the fiery fteeds; and
loofing the reins, Jupiter, to prevent his confuming the
heavens and earth, (truck him with a thunder-bolt,,
and hurled him from his feat into the river Eridanus or
Po. His lifters Phaethufa, Lambetia, and Phasbe, la¬
menting his lofs upon its banks, were changed by the
gods into black poplar trees; and Cycnus, king of
Liguria, alfo grieving at his fate, was transformed in¬
to a fwan.
PHAGEDENA, in medicine, denotes a corrod¬
ing ulcer.
PHAGEDENIC medicines, thofe ufed to eat off
proud:
Phalsns
Phalaris.
P H A
proud or fungous flefh; fuch as are all the cauftics.
PHAL^ENA, the Moth, in zoology, a genus of
. infefts belonging to the order of lepidoptera. The
feelers are fetaceous, and taper gradually towards the
points; the wings are often bent backwards; and there
are no lefs than 460 fpecies.
All the creatures of this clafs are quiet by day, re¬
maining fixed to the (talks or leaves of plants, except
only fome of the males, which are now and then found
fluttering about in the woods in fearch of the females ;
but as foon as night approaches, they all fly about®
This difpofition is very remarkably implanted in their
nature : for when kept (hut up in boxes, they always
remain quiet without changing place all day ; but as
foon as the fun is about fetting, they always begin to
flutter about and fly as much as their prifon will per¬
mit them.
PHALANGIUM, in zoology, a genus of infe&s
belonging to the order of aptera. They have eight
feet, two eyes on the top of the head placed very near
each other, and other two on the fides of the head :
the feelers refemble legs, and the belly is round.
There are nine fpecies.
PHALANX, in Grecian antiquity, a fqnare bat¬
talion, confiding of 8000 men, with their (hields join¬
ed and pikes eroding each other; fo that it was next
to impoffible to break it.
PHALARIS, a remarkable tyrant, born at Crete,
where his ambitious defigns occafioned his banifliment:
be took refuge in Agrigentum, a free city of Sicily,
and there obtained the fupreme power by ftratagem.
Two circumdances have contributed to preferve his
name in hidory. His cruelty, in one aft of which he
gave an example of drift juft ice. It is thus related:
Perillus, a hrafs founder at Athens, knowing the
cruel difpofition of Phalaris, contrived a new fpecies
of punifliment for him to inflift on his fubjefts. He
cad a brazen bull, bigger than the life, with an open-
ing in the fide, to admit the viftims; who being (hut
up in the body, a fire was kindled under it to roaft
them to death ; and the throat was fo contrived, that
their dying groans refembled the roaring of a bull.
The artift brought it to the tyrant, expefting a great
reward. Phalaris admired the invention and workman-
fit ip, but ordered the inventor to be put into it to
make the firft trial. At lad the tyrant was put to
death by his own fubjefts. Some epiftles are atiri-
buted1^ to him, concerning the genuinenefs of which
there was a difpute in the lad century between Mr
J3oyle and Dr Bentley.
Phalaris, or Canary-grafs; a genus of the digy-
nla order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants.
There are ten fpecies, of which the mod remarkable
are the canarienfis, or manured Canary-grafs ; and
the arundinacea, or reed Canary-grafs. Thefe are both
natives of Britain. The firft grows by the road-fides 5
and is frequently cultivated for the fake of the feeds,
which are found to be the bed food for the Canary and
[ 6006 ]
P H A
cad. This is commonly called painted lady'grafs, or I
ladies-trejfcs.
PHALEREUS (Nepo$), a village and port of_
Athens: this lad neither large nor commodious, for
which reafon Themiftocles put the Athenians on build¬
ing the Pirseeus ; both joined to Athens by long
walls. The Phalereus lay nearer the city, (Paufanias).
Demetrius Phalereus, the celebrated fcholar of Theo-
phraftus, was of this place; to whom the Athenians
erefted above 300 ftatues; which were afterwards de-
ftroyed by his enemies, on his flight to Ptolemy king
of Egypt, (Strabo). Here Demofthenes was won’;
to declaim, to accuftom his voice to furmount the noife
and roaring of the fea, a juft and lively emblem of po¬
pular aflemblies.
PHALEUCIAN verse, in ancient poetry, a
kind of verfe confiding of five feet, the firft of which
is a fpondee, the fecond a daftyl, and the three lalt
trochees.
PHALLUS, the morel ; a genus of the order of
fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
There are two fpecies.
1. The efculentus, or efcnlent morel, is a native of Bri-
tain, growing in woods, groves, meadows, pc.ftures, &c.
The fubftance, when recent, is wax-like and friable ; the
colour a whitilh yellow, turningbrownilh in decay ; the
height of the whole fungus, about four or five inches.
The ftalk is thick and clumfy,fomc what tuberous at the
bafe, and hollow in the middle. The pileus is either
round or conical; at a medium about the fize of an egg,
often much larger; hollow within; its bafe united to the
ftalk; and its furface cellular, or latticed with irregu¬
lar finufes. The magnified feeds are oval. It is much
efteemed at table both recent and dried, being com¬
monly ufed as an ingredient to heighten the flavour of
ragouts. We are informed by Gleditfch, that morels
are obferved to grow in the woods of Germany in the
greated plenty in thofe places where charcoal has
been made. Hence the good women who colleft
them to fell, receiving a bint how to encourage their
growth, have been accuftomed to make fires in certain
places of the woods, with heath, broom, vaccinium,
and other materials, in order to obtain a more plenti¬
ful crop. This ft range} method of cultivating morels
being however fometimec attended with dreadful con-
fequences, large woods having been fet on fire and
deilroyed by itv the magiftrates thought fit to inter-
pofehis authority, and the praftice is now interdifted.
2. The impudicus, ftinking morel, or ftinkhorns,
is alfo a native of Britain, and found in woods and on
banks. It arifes from the earth under a veil or volva,
(haped exaftly like a hen’s egg, and of the fame co¬
lour, having a long fibrous radicle at its bafe. This
egg-like valva is compofed of two coats or membranes,
the fpace between which is full of a thick, vifeid,
tranfparent matter, which, when dry, glues the coats
together, and (bines like varniftt. In the next ftage
of growth, the volva fuddenly burfts into feveral la-
other fmall birds. The fecond grows on the banks of cerated permanent fegments, from the centre of which
It is ufed for thatching ricks or cottages, and
endures much longer than draw. In Scandinavia they
mow it twice a-year, and their cattle eat it. There
is a variety of this cultivated in our gardens with
beautifully ftriped leaves. The ftripes are generally
green and white; but fometimes they have a purplilh
arifes an ereft, white, cellular, hollow ftalk, about
five or fix inches high and one thick, of a wax-like
friable fubftance, and rood foetid cadaverous fmell,
conical at each end, the bafe inferted in a white, con¬
cave, membranaceous turbinated cup, and the fum-
mit capped with a hollow, conical pileus, an inch long,
having
P H A [ 6007 ] P H A
Phanatic having a reticulated cellular furface, its bafe detached
ph 11 . from the {talk, and its fummit umbilicated, the um-
- atUa y' bilicus fometimcs perforated and foraetimes clofed.
The under fide of this pileus is covered with a clear,
vifcid, gelatinous matter, fimilar to that found be¬
tween the membranes of the volva ; and under this
vifcid matter, concealed in reticulated receptacles,
are found the feeds, which when magnified appear
fpherical. As foon as the volva burfts, the plant be¬
gins to difFufe its intolerable odours, which are fo
powerful and widely expanded, that the fungus may
be readily difcovered by the fcent only, before it ap¬
pears to the fight. At this time, the vifcid matter
between the coats of the volva grows turbid and fuf-
cous ; and when the plant attains its full maturity,
the clear vifcid fubftance in the pileus becomes gra¬
dually difcoloured, putrid, and extremely foetid, and
foon afterwards turns blackifti, and, together with the
feeds and internal part of the pileus itfelf, melts away.
The fetid fmell then begins to remit, the fungus
fades, and continues for a fhort time faplefs and coria¬
ceous, and at laft becomes the food of worms. The
cadaverous fcent of this fungus greatly allures the flies;
which, lighting upon the pileus, are entrapped in the
vifcid matter, and perifh. We are informed by Qle-
ditfch, that the vulgar people in Thuringia call the un¬
opened volvse by the ridiculous name of ghqfis and
demons eggs; and that they colled and dry them
either in the fmoke or open air, and, when reduced
to powder, ufe them in a glafs of fpirits as an aphro-
difiac.
PHANATIC, or Fanatic, a vifionary; one who
fancies he fees fpeftres, fpirits, apparitions, or other
imaginary objeds, even when awake ; and takes them
to be real. See Phantasy and Fanatic.
Such are phrenetics, necromancers, hypochondriac
perfons, lycanthropi, &c. See Phrenetic, Hypo¬
chondriac, Lycanthropi.
Hence the word is alfo applied to enthufiafts, pre¬
tenders to revelation, new lights, prophecies, &c. See
Enthusiast, and Second-5;^/.
PHANTASM, a term fometimes ufed in a fyno-
nimous fenfe with idea, or notion retained in the mind
of an external objed.
PHANTASY,_ or Fancy, the Imagination ; the
fecond of the powers or faculties of the fenfitive or
P H A R
S the art of compounding natural and artificial fub-
ftances for the purpofes of medicine, in fuch a man¬
ner as is moft fuitable to the refpedive properties
of each, and may beft anfwer the indications of cure.
This art, which in feme way or other muft have
been coeval with medicine itfelf, has for a long time
been divided into the chemical and galenical. No ra¬
tional principles of diftindion, however, were prefer-
ved ; and thofe which were ranked among the chemi¬
cal medicines in one difpenfatory, have been ranked
among the galenical ones in another. Hence the Lon¬
don college rejeded the divifion altogether; and Dr
Lewis reckons pharmacy, in its full extent, to be no
other than a branch of chemiftry ; and the moft Ample
pharmaceutical preparation is chemical, in as far as
2
rational foul, by which the fpecies of objeds received Pharif*s.
by the common fenfe are retained, recalled, further
examined, and either compounded or divided. See
Imagination.
Others define the phantafy to be that Jhternal fenfe
or power, whereby the ideas of abfent things are
formed, and reprefented to the mind as if they were
prefent. In melancholics and madmen this faculty is
very ftrong, reprefenting many extravagant and mon-
ftrous things, and framing its images as lively as
thofe of fenfation : whence the vifions and deceptions
thofe perfons are liable to.
PHARISEES, a famous fed of the Jews, who
diftinguiftied themfelves by their zeal for the tradi¬
tions of the elders, which they derived from the fame
fountain with the written word itfclf; pretending that
both were delivered to Mofes from Mount Sinai, and
were therefore both of equal authority. From their
rigorous obfervance of thefe traditions, they looked
upon themfelves as more holy than other men : and
therefore feparated themfelves from thofe whom they
thought finners or profane, fo as not to eat or drink
with them ; and hence, from the Hebrew word pharis.,
which fignifies to feparate, they had the name of
Pharifees or Separatifis.
Their pretences to extraordinary piety drew after
them the common people, who held them in the high-
eft efteem ann veneration. They held a refurre&ion
from the dead, and the exiftence of angels and fpirits ;
but, according to Jofephus, this was no more than a
Pythagorean refurre&ion, that is, of the foul only,
by its tranfmigration into another body, and being
born anew with it. From this refurre&ion they ex¬
cluded all who were notorioufly wicked, being of opi¬
nion that the fouls of fuch perfons were tranfmitted
into a ftate of everlafting punifliment ; but as to lefler
crimes, they imagined that they were puniflied in the
bodies wdiich the fouls of thofe who had committed
them were fent into. According to this notion it was,
that Chrift’s difciples allied him concerning the blind
man, “ Who did fin, the man or his parents, thatjie
was born blind ?” With the Effenes, they held abfo-
lute predeftination; and with the Sadducees, free¬
will : but how they reconciled thefe doftrines, we are
nowhere informed.
M A C Y
it has any dependance on the properties of its mate¬
rials.
The theory of pharmacy therefore is the fame with
that of chemiftry; as are alfo the operations, which
remain to be difeuffed here only in as far as they are
made fubfervient to the medicinal art, diftindt from
that which is purely chemical. The objeds of phar¬
macy, however, are much more limited than thofe of
chemiftry: the latter comprehending, in the utmoft la¬
titude of the w’ord, almoft every fubftance in nature;
while pharmacy regards only fuch bodies in the vege¬
table, animal, and mineral kingdoms, as, by their ef-
feds on the human frame, tend to preferve health, or
to reftore it when loft.
Fart
5975
Part I.
PHARMACY.
Part I. ELEMENTS of PHARMACY.
CHAP. I.
A general view of the Properties of medicinal
fubfiances, and their relations to one another.
Sect. I. Of Vegetables.
1. The medicinal virtues of vegetables differ very
confiderably according to the different circumftances of
the plant, fuch as its age, the feafon of the year, and
the foil in which it grows.
2. This is exemplified in herbs, fome of which con¬
tain moft odoriferous matter when young, while others
have little or none till they have attained a confider-
able age:—In fruits, fome of which contain an auftere
acid, afterwards changed into a fweet by maturation ;
others, fuch as the orange, at firft contain a ftrong
aromatic, and then an acid:—In roots; fome of which,
during the fummer, contain a thin watery juice; but,
if wounded early in the fpring, yield rich balfamic
juices, concreting into folid gummy refins, fome of
which, from our indigenous plants, are fuperior to
thofe brought from foreign countries :—In aromatic
and in fetid plants; the former of which grow ftronger
and more fragrant in open expofures, dry foils, and
fair warm feafons; while the latter lofe their fmell in
fuch circumftances. Regard muft therefore be had to
thefe and other fimilar circumftances in the colle&ing
of plants for medical purposes.
3. The different parts of the fame plant are very
often different in quality from one another. Thus, the
leaves and flowers of wormwood are intenfely bitter,
while the root is aromatic. The capfule inclofing the
feeds of poppy has a narcotic virtue, but the feeds
themfelves have none.
4. The adlive parts of vegetables are generally ca¬
pable of being extradted, without any alteration of their
qualities, by fome operations of a very fimple nature;
but by others, of a nature feemingly as fimple, their
nature may be entirely changed. The operations of
fermentation, and of fire, are of this nature; for by
means of them, the produdlsof vegetables may be con¬
verted into fubftances having quite different properties
from what they have naturally. Of the changes pro¬
duced by thefe operations we fhall therefore now take
notice.
Art. 1. Of the Changes produced in Vegetables, or
their Juices, by Fermentation.
5. All juices, or infufions, which are either limply
fweet, or have a fweetnefs mixed with acidity, throw off
by fermentation a great quantity of grofs feculent mat¬
ter; and are converted into a vinous liquor, affording
by diftillation an inflammable fpirit.
6. The effedts of the produdts juft now mentioned
©n the human body are diredtly oppofite to thofe of
tlie juices from which they were produced. The latter
attenuate the animal fluids, and relax the folids, in fuch
a manner as in fome cafes to prove ufeful aperient me¬
dicines, and, if taken to too great excefs, to produce
dangerous fluxes; but the former always thicken the
fluids, and conftringe the folids.
7. In confequence of the different qualities of the
juices or infufions, there are differences among the vi¬
nous liquors produced from them; but the fpirit, when
pure, is always found to be the fame, from whatever
fubftanee it is produced.
8- Befides the grofs matter thrown off during the
fermentation, there is feparated from feveral wines an
acid faline fubftance named tartar; of a reddilh or
white colour, according to the wine which produces
it. The red colour is not effential to the fait; for red
tartar may be purified by folution in water, and then
the tartar of all wines is found to be the fame.
9. In fermentation there is alfo feparated from the
fermenting fubftance a great quantity of incoercible
vapour, formerly known by the name of gas, but now
difcovered to be one of the component parts of our
atmofphere, and the fame with that which is called
fxed air; concerning which fee the articles Air, Fix¬
ed Air, Gas, &c.
10. Many fubftances, not fufceptible of fermenta¬
tion by themfelves, may yet be brought into that ftate
by an admixture of artificial ferments, or even of thofe
which admit of a fpontaneous fermentation, together
with a proper quantity of water. This method is
fometimes followed with vegetable matters intended
for diftillation, on a fuppofition that a flight fermenta¬
tion will unlock their texture, and give out their prin¬
ciples more freely than otherwife ; but it is much to
be doubted whether this is really the cafe. The ope¬
ration of fermentation is the fame from firft to laft ;
and if its laft cffefts are to convert the whole, or a
great part, of the effential oil and faline parts of the ve¬
getable into ardent fpirit, it may reafonably be thought
that its firft effefts muft be to convert a part of thefe
fubftances into the fame fpirit. At any rate, it is
univerfally agreed, that when fermentation is employ¬
ed with the abovementioned view, it muft be continued
only for a very ftiort time.
it. The juices of fruits, though very fufceptible of
fermentation in their natural ftate, yet, when boiled till
they become thick, are found to be indifpofed to fer¬
ment; and this not only in their thick ftate, but when
diluted again with water; though there appears to be
fcarcely any other alterations produced in them by the
boiling. Hence liquids, prone to fermentation, may
thus be preferved. How far this diminution of their
fermentability may affeft their medical virtues, is not
as yet clear.
12. The degree of the fpecies of fermentation, by
which wines and inflammable fpirits are prpduced, is
called vinous fermentation. If the procefs is further
protrafted, more grofs matter is thrown off, and new
changes fucceed, but in a flower and lefs tumultuary
manner than before. The heating inebriating wine
becomes by degrees a cooling acid vinegar, which
feems to counteradft the effedts of the ether: the
more the wine abounded with inflammable fpirit, the
more does the vinegar abound with uninflammable
acid.
There are, however, certain qualities of vegetables,
which are not completely fubdued even by this fecond
ftage of fermentation; fome vinegars being apparent¬
ly
Part I. P H A R
Elements. ]y more coloured, and containing more of an oily
and vifcid matter than others. By adding to the fer¬
mentable liquor fubjefls of other kinds, the qualities
both of wines and vinegars may be ftill further di-
verfified, fo as to adapt them to particular medicinal
ufes.
13. It is obfervable, that though the acetous fer¬
mentation will always fucceed the vinous, unlefs indu-
ftrioufly prevented, yet it is not always preceded there¬
by ; for many, perhaps all, fermentable liquors may
be made to pafs to the acetous (late, without any in¬
termediate period of true vinofity.
14. If the procefs is ftill further continued, further
changes takes place. The matter putrefies : and at
length what little liquor remains unevaporated, is
found to be mere water, and the folid fubttance at
the bottom appears to be the fame with common
mould.
15. This is reckoned by the chemifts one of the
ftages of fermentation, and diftinguifhed by the name
of the putrefattive ftage : it is far more general in its
objedft than the other two ; every vegetable matter be¬
ing fufceptible of putrefa&ion, but fome particular
kinds only being adapted to vinous or acetous fermen¬
tation.
16. Putrefaflion difcovers one difference'in vege¬
tables, which feems worthy of being remarked. The
generality of vegetables rot and turn to mould, with¬
out yielding any very offenfive fmell from the begin¬
ning to the end of the refolution : but there are fome
which emit, throughout the whole procefs, a ftrong fe¬
tor, very nearly of the fame kind with that which ac¬
companies the putrefa&ion of animal-fubftances. See
the articles Fermentation and Putrefaction.
Art. 2. Productions from Vegetables by Fire.
17. Fire, the other grand agent in the refolution
of bodies, produces in vegetables decompofitions of
a different kind. Its general effefts are the follow-
ing.
18. Vegetable fubftances, burnt in the open air,
are reduced partly into afhes, and partly into flame
and fmoke; which laft, condenfed in long canals,
forms a naufeous black foot. In the burning of moft
vegetables, an acid vapour accompanies the fmoke;
but the foot is never found to partake of it.
I9- Vegetables urged with a red heat in clofe vef-
fels (the veflel containing the fubjeft being made to
communicate with another placed beyond the a&ion of
the fire for receiving the matters forced out by the
heat) give over a watery liquor called; an acid
liquor called fpirit ;an elaftic incoercible vapour,
which appears to be partly fixed and partly inflam¬
mable air, and to which an exit muft be occafionally
allowed left it burft the veflels or blow off the recei¬
ver ; a thin oil, at length a very thick dark coloured
oil, both which are of an acrimonious tafte, and a
burnt fetid fmell, whence they are called empyreumatic
oils. There remains behind a black coal, not diflb-
luble in any kind of liquors, not fufceptible of putre-
faftion, not alterable by the moft vehement degree of
fire fo long as the air is excluded, but which, on ad¬
mitting air to it, burns without flaming, and with little
or no fmoke, and leaves a very fmall quantity of white
alhes.
Vol. VIII. 2
M A C Y.
20. The white allies of vegetables, infufed or boiled
in water, impart to it a pungent faline fubftance, called'
firt alkaline fait, which may be feparated in a folid
form by evaporating the water. The remaining part
of the afhes, which is by far the largeft in quantity,
is a pure earth differing from that which is the refalt
of putrefaflion, in being readily diffoluble by every
acid liquor, while the other is not afted upon by any
acid.
21. Such is the general analyfis of vegetables by
fire. But there are fome vegetables, which, as they
feem to (hew, during putrefa&ion, fome analogy in
their matter with that which conftitutes animal-bodies,
difcover alfo a like analogy in the prefent refolution;
yielding little or no acid ; and, inftead of a fixt alka¬
line fait which remains in the afhes, affording a vola¬
tile alkaline fait, which arifes along with the aqueous
and oily principles.
22. Alkaline falls, and acid or four fubftances, are
looked upon as being oppofite in their nature to one
another. Moft of the bodies which are diffoluble in
alkaline liquors, are precipitated or thrown out from
the folution on the addition of an acid ; and moft of
thofe which are diffoluble in acids, are in like manner
precipitated by alkalies. If an acid and an alkali be
direftly mixed together, there generally enfues an ef-
fervefcence or tumultuary difcharge of air-bubbles,
owing to the fixed air they contain ; but if they are
previoufly deprived of their fixed air, no effervefcence
takes place.
23. In all cafes, the alkali and acid uniting toge¬
ther, compofe a new body, called a neutral fait, which
has neither the fournefs of the one ingredient, nor the
peculiar pungency of the other, and which will not
diflblve thofe fubftances which either the acid or the
alkali, feparately, would diffolve.
24. To thefe charafters it may be added, that al¬
kaline falts change the colour of blue flowers or their
infufions, as of violets, to a green, and acids to a red ;
while the neutral compound, formed by the coalition
of the two, makes no alteration in the colour.
25. It muft be obferved, however, that to change
blue flowers to a green, is not univerfally a mark of
alkalies, for fome folutions of earthy bodies in acids
have the fame effeS : thefe laft may be diftinguifhe4
from alkalies, by adding to them a known alkali,
which will immediately precipitate the earth, and form
a neutral compound with the acid.
26. Fixed alkaline falts, perfeflly purified, appear
to be one and the fame, whatever kind of vegetable
they were produced from ; thofe of fome marine plants
excepted. In volatile alkalies, and in the pure earthy
part of the afhes, there appears to be, refpe&ively, the
like identity.
27. Empyreumatic oils differ fomewhat in the de¬
gree of acrimony and fetidnefs, and the acid fpirits
differ in degree of ftrength, or in the quantity of wa-'
ter they are diluted with ; how far they may differ in
any other refpefts is little known, thefe preparations
having been rarely ufed or examined.
28. It may be obferved, that the alkaline falts, both
of the fixed and of the volatile kind, are entirely crea¬
tures of the fire, being feldom if ever found to exift na¬
turally in any vegetable : the oil, doubtlefs, pre-exifted
in the fubjeiS, but owes its acrimony and fetidnefs
33 X to
6009
Elements,
6oio PHARMACY. Parti.
Elements, to the fire; for the moll mild and infipid oils receive
  — the fame qualities on being urged with the fame de¬
gree of heat: the acid, which is likewife naturally
contained in vegetable fubje&s, proves always tainted
in the prefent procefs with the ill fmell and tafte of
the oil that accompanies it ; but whether the acid it-
felf fuffers any change in its nature, is unknown.
29. When chemiftry began firft to be formed into
a rational fcience, and to examine the component parts
and internal conftitution of bodies, it was imagined,
that this refolution of vegetables by fire, difcovering
to us all theiraftive principles, unclogged and unmixed
with one another, would afford the furell means of
judging of their medicinal powers. But, on profecu-
ting thefe experiments, it was foon found, that they
were infufficient for that end ; that the analyfes of
poifonous and efculent plants agreed often as nearly
with one another as two analyfes of one plant : that
by the a&ion of a burning heat, the principles of ve¬
getables are not barely feparated, but altered, tranf-
pofed, and combined into new forms; infomuch that
it was impolfible to know what form they exifted in,
and what qualities they were endowed with, before
thefe changes and tranfpofitions happened.
Art. 3. Subjiancet naturally contained in Vegetables, and
feparable by Art ’without Alteration of their native
Qualities'
I. Grofs oils abound chiefly in the kernels of fruits»
and in certain feeds ; from which they are commonly
extracted by expreffion, and hence are diftinguilhed
by the name of expreffed oils. They are contained al-
fo in all the parts of all vegetables that have been ex¬
amined, and may be forced out by vehemence of fire ;
but here their qualities are greatly altered in the pro¬
cefs by which they are extracted or difcovered.
31. Thefe oils, in their common ftate, are not dif-
foluble either in vinous fpirits or in water, though, by
means of certain intermedia, they may be united both
with one and the other. Thus a llcilful interpofition
of fugar renders them mifcible with water into what
are called lohochs and oily draughts; by the interven¬
tion of gum or mucilage, they unite with water into a
milky fluid ; by alkaline falls they are changed into a
foap, which is mifcible both with watery and fpiritous
liquors, and is perfe&ly diffblved by the latter into an
uniform tranfparent fluid. The addition of any acid
to the foapy folution abforbs the alkaline fait; and
the oil, which of courfe feparates, is found to have
undergone this remarkable change, that it now dif-
folves, without any intermedium, in pure fpirit of wine.
32. Expreffedoils, expofed to the cold, lofe greatly
of their fluidity \ fome of them, in a fmall degree of
cold, congeal into a confiftent mafs. Kept for fome
time in a warm air, they become thin and highly ran¬
cid ; their foft, lubricating, and relaxing quality, is
changed into a fharp acrimonious one : and in this
ftate, inftead of allaying, theyoccafion irritation ; in-
fteadof obtunding corrofive humours, they corrode and
inflame. Thefe oils are liable to the fame noxious al¬
teration while contained in the original fubjeft ; hence
the rancidity which the oily feeds and kernels, as al¬
monds, and thofe called the cold feeds, are fo liable to
contrafk in keeping. Neverthelefs, on triturating thefe
feeds and kernels with water,, the oil, by the inter¬
vention of the other matter of the fubjeA, unites with Elementf.
the water into an emulfion or milky liquor, which, in-   
ftead of growing rancid, turns four on. Handing. The
rancidity alfo to which the oils are fubjefi, appears to
be owing to the impurities contained in them; for
pure oil is found to be quite incorruptible.
33. In the heat of boiling water, and even in a de¬
gree of heat as much exceeding this as the heat of
boiling water does that of the human body, thefe oils
fuffer little diffipation of their parts. In a greater
heat, they emit a pungent vapour, feemingly of the
acid kind ; and when fuffered to grow cold again, they
are found to have acquired a greater degree of .con¬
fluence than they had before, together with an acrid
tafte. In a heat approaching to ignition, in clofe vef-
fels, greateft part of the oil arifes in an empyreumatkr
ftate, a black coal remaining behind.
34. II. Grofsfebaceous matter. From the kernels of
fome fruits, as that of the chocolate-nut, we obtain, in¬
ftead of a fluid oil, a fubftanceof a butyraceous confift-
ence; and from others, as the nutmeg, a folid matter as
firm as tallow. Thefe concretes are mod commodioufly
extra&ed by boiling the fubjeft in water; the feba¬
ceous matter, liquefied by the heat, feparates and ari¬
fes to the furface, and refumes its proper confiftencc
as the Hcjuor cools.
35. The fubftances of this clafs have the fame ge¬
neral properties with expreffed oils, but are lefs difpo-
fed to become rancid in keeping than moft of the
common fluid oils.
36. III. EJfentialoilszxe. obtained only from thofe ve¬
getables, or parts of vegetables, that are confiderably
odorous. They are the direct principle, in which the
odour, and oftentimes the warmth, pungency, and
other adtive powers of the fubjedt, refide ; whence
their name of effences or ejfentialoils.
37. Effential oils unite with redtified fpirit of wine,
and compofe with it one homogene tranfparent fluid 4
though fome of them require for this purpofe a much
larger proportion of the fpirit than others. Water
alfo, though it does not diffolve their whole fubftance,
may be made to imbibe fome portion of their more
fubtle matter, fo as to become confiderably im¬
pregnated with their flavour: by their admixture with
fugar, gum, the yolk of an egg, or alkaline falls,,
they are made totally diffoluble in water. Digefted
with volatile alkalies, they undergo various changes
of colour, and fome of the lefs odorous acquire con-
fiderable degrees of fragrance; whilft fixed alkalies
univerfally impair their odour.
38. In the heat of boiling water, thefe oils totally
exhale : and on this principle they are commonly ex-
tradted from fubjedls that contain them ; for no other
fluid that naturally exifts in vegetables is exhalable by
that degree of heat, except the aqueous moifture, from
which greateft part of the oil is eafily feparated. Some
of thefe oils arife with a much lefs heat, a heat little
greater than that in which water begins vifibly to
evaporate. In their refolution by a burning heat, they
differ little from expreffed oils.
39. Effential oils, expofed for fome time to a warm
air, fuffer an alteration very different from that which
the expreffed undergo. Inftead of growing thin, ran¬
cid, and acrimonious, they gradually become thick,
and at length harden into a folid, brittle concrete, with
Part I. P H A R
Elements, a remarkable diminution of their volatility, fragrancy,
pungency, and warm ftimulating quality. In this
ftate they are found to confift of two kinds of matter}
a fluid oil, volatile in the heat of boiling water, and
nearly of the fame, quality with the original oil; and
of a groffer fubftance which remains behind, not ex-
halable without a burning heat, or fuch a one as chan¬
ges its nature, and refolves it into an acid, an empy-
reumatic oil, and a black coal.
40. The admixture of a concentrated acid inftantly
produces in effential oils a change nearly fimilar to that
which time effedts. In making thefe kinds of com¬
mixtures, the operator ought to be on his guard ; for
when a ftrong acid, particularly that of nitre, is pour¬
ed haftily into an cflential oil, a great heat and ebul¬
lition enfue, and often an explolion happens, or the
mixture burfts into a flame. The union of expreffed
oils with acids is accompanied with much lefs con-
flia.
41. IV. Concrete effentialoil. Some vegetables, asrofes
and elecampane roots, inflead of a fluid effential oil,
yield a iubftance pofTeffing the fame general properties,
but of a thick or febaceous confiftence. This fub¬
ftance appears to be of as great volatility and fubtlety
of parts as the fluid oils: it equally exhales in the heat
of boiling water, and concretes upon the furface of the
coflefted vapour. The total exhalation of this mat¬
ter, and its concreting again into its original confid¬
ent ftate, without any feparation of it into a fluid and
a folid part, diftinguifhes it from efiential oils that
have been thickened or indurated by age or by acids.
42. V. Camphor. This is volatile like eflential oils, and
foluble both in oils and inflammable fpirits : it unites
freely with water by the intervention of gum, but very
fparingly and imperfedtly by the other intermedia that
render oils mifcible with watery liquors. It differs
from the febaceous as well as fluid effential oils, in fuf-
fering no fenflble alteration from long keeping; in
being totally exhalable, not only by the heat of boil¬
ing water, but in a warm air, without any change or
feparation of its parts, the laft particle that remains un¬
exhaled appearing to be of the fame nature with the
original camphor; in its receiving no empyreumatic
impreffion, and fuffering no refolution, from any de¬
gree of fire to which it can be expofed in clofe veffels,
though readily combuftible in the open air ; in being
diffolved by concentrated acids into a liquid form ; and
in feveral other properties which it is needlefs to fpe-
cify in this place.
43. VI. Refm. Effential oils, indurated by ageor acids,
are called refins. When the indurated mafs has been
expofed to the heat of boiling water, till its more
fubtle part, or the pure effential oih that remained in
it, has exhaled, the grofs matter left behind is likewife
called refm. We find in many vegetables refins ana¬
logous both to one and the other of thefe concretes;
fome containing a fubtle oil, feparable by a heat of
boiling water ; others containing nothing that is ca¬
pable of exhaling in that heat.
44. Refins in general diffolve in reftified fpirit of
wine, though fome of them much more difficultly than
others : it is chiefly by means of this diffolvent that
they are extra&ed from thefubje&s in which they are
contained. They diffolve alfo in oils, both expreffed
and effential } and may be united with watery liquors
M A C Y, 6011
by means of the fame intermedia which render the fluid Element-.
oils mifcible with water. In a heat lefs than that of
boiling water, they melt into an oily fluid; and in this
ftate they may be incorporated one w’ith another. In
their refolution by fire, in clofe veffels, they yield a
manifeft acid, and a large quantity of empyreumatic
oil.
45. VII. Gawtdiffersfromtheforegoing circumftances
in being uninflammable : for though it may be burnt to
a coal, and thence to aflies, it never yields any flame.
It differs remarkably alfo in the proportion of the
principles into which it is refolved by fire ; the quan¬
tity of empyreumatic oil being far lefs, and that of
acid far greater. In the heat of boiling water, it fuf-
fers no diffipation ; nor does it liquefy like refins; but
continues unchanged, till the heat is fo far increafed
as to fcorch or turn it to a coal.
46. By a little quantity of water it is foftened into
a vifcous adhefive mafs, called mucilage: by a larger
quantity it is diffolved into a fluid, which proves more
or lefs glutinous according to the proportion of gum.
It does not diffolve in vinous fpirits, or in any kind of
oil ; neverthelefs, when foftened with water into a mu¬
cilage, it is eafily mifcible both with the fluid oils and
with refins, which by this means become foluble ifi
watery liquors along with the gum, and are thus ex¬
cellently fitted for medicinal purpofes.
47. As oily and refinous fubftances are thus united
to water by the means of gum, fo gums may in like
manner be united to fpirit of wine by the intervention
of refins and effential oils; though the fpirit does not
take up near fo much of the gum as water does of the
oil or refin.
48. Acid liquors, though they thicken pure oils,
or render them confiftent, do not impede the d Ablu¬
tion of gum, or of oils blended with gum. Alkaline
falls, on the contrary, both fixed and volatile, though
they render pure oils diffoluble in water, prevent the
folution of gum, and of mixtures of gum and oil. If
any pure gum be diffolved in water, the addition of
any alkali will occafion the gum to feparate, and fall
to the bottom in a confiftent form ; if any oily or re¬
finous body was previoufly blended with thegum, this
alfo feparates, and either finks to the bottom, or rifes
to the top, according to its gravity.
49. VIII. Gum-refin. By gum-refin is underftood a
mixture of gum and refin. Many vegetables contain
mixtures of this kind, in which the component parts
are fo intimately united, with the interpofition perhaps
of fome other matter, that the compound, in a phar¬
maceutical view, may be confidered as a diftinft kind
of principle ; the whole mafs diffolving almoft equally
in aqueous and in fpirituous liquors; and the folutions
being not turbid or milky, like thofe of the groffer
mixtures of gum and refin, but perfectly tranfparent.
Such is the aftringent matter of biftort root, and the
bitter matter of gentian.
50. IX. Saline matter. Of the falinejuices of vegetables
there are different kinds ; the fweet and the acid ones
are the moft plentiful, and thofe which are the moil
known.
51. Thefe juices, expofed to a heat equal to that
of boiling water, fuffer generally no other change than
the evaporation of their watery moifture ; the faline
matter remaining behind, along with fuch of the other
33 X 2 not
6012
Elements, not volatile parts as were blended with it in the juice;
from many, after the exhalation of great part of the
water, the faline matter gradually feparates in keep¬
ing, and concretes into little folid mafles, leaving the
other fubftances diflblved, or in a moift ftate; from
others, no means have yet been found of obtaining a
pure concrete fait.
52. Thefe falts diflblve not only in water like other
faline bodies, but many of them, particularly the
fweet, in redlified fpirit alfo. The grofs oily and
gummy matter with which they are almoft always ac¬
companied in the fubjeft, diflblves freely along with
them in w'ater, but is by fpirit in great meafure left
behind. Such heterogeneous matters as the fpirit
takes up are almoft completely retained by it, while
the fait concretes ; but of thofe which water takes up,
a confiderable part always adheres to the fait. Hence
effential falts, as they are called, prepared in the com¬
mon manner from the watery juices of vegetables, are
always found to partake largely of the other foluble
principles of the fubjedl ; whilft thofe extradled by
fpirit of wine prove far more pure. By means of rec¬
tified fpirit, fome produdlions of this kind may be ex¬
cellently freed from their impurities ; and perfedl fac-
charine concretions be obtained from many of our in¬
digenous fweets.
53. There is another kind of faline matter, obtain¬
ed from fome refinous bodies, particularly from ben¬
zoin, of a different nature from the foregoing, and
fuppofed by fome of the chemiits to be a part of the
efiential oil of the refin, coagulated by an acid, with
the acid more predominant or more difengaged than
in. the other kinds of coagulated or indurated oils.
Thefe concretes diffolve both in water and in vinous
fpirits, though difficultly and fparingly in both : they
ffiow fome marks of acidity, have a confiderable (hare
of fmell like that of the refin they are obtained from,
exhale in a heat equal to that of boiling water, or a
little greater, and prove inflammable in the fire.
General obfervations on the foregoing principles.
54. 1 ft, Efiential oils, as already obferved, are ob¬
tainable only from a few vegetables, and camphor from
a much fmaller number: but grofs oil, refin, gum,
and faline matter, appear to be common, in greater
or lefs proportion, to all; fome abounding more with
one, and others with another.
55. 2dly, The feveral principles are in many cafes
intimately combined, fo as to be extracted together
from the fubjeft by thofe diflblvents, in which fome of
them, feparately, could not be diflblved. Hence wa¬
tery infufions, and fpirituous tindlures of a plant, con¬
tain, refpeflively, more than water or fpirit is the pro¬
per diflblvent of.
56. 3dly, After a plant has been fufficiently infufed
in water, all that fpirit extracts from the refiduum may
be looked upon as confifting wholly of fuch matter as
dire&ly belongs to the aftion of fpirit. And contra-
riwife, when fpirit is applied firft, all that water ex-
tradls afterwards may be looked upon as confifting
only of that matter of which water is the direft dif-
fplvent.
57. q-thly, If a vegetable fubftance, containing all
the principles we have been fpeaking of, be boiled in
water, the efitntial oil, whether fluid or concrete, and
Part I.
the camphor and volatile eflential fait, will gradually Elements,
exhale with the fleam of the water, and may be col- ~
lefted by receiving the fleam in proper vefl'els placed
beyond the a&ion of the heat. The other principles
not being volatile in this degree of heat, remain be¬
hind ; the grofs oil and febaceous matter float on the
top ; the gummy and faline fubftance, and a part of
the refin, are difiblved by the water, and may be ob¬
tained in a folid form by draining the liquor, and ex-
pofing it to a gentle heat till the water has exhaled.
The reft of the refin ftill retained by the fubjeft may
be extra&ed by fpirit of wine, and feparated in its
proper form by exhaling the fpiric. On thefe founda¬
tions moft of the fubftances contained in vegetables
may be extra&ed, and obtained in a pure ftate, how¬
ever they may be compounded together in the fubjeft.
By this operation, however, fome very confiderable
change is undoubtedly produced by the fire ; fince, by
pouring back the liquor which has arifen in diftillation
upon that which remains in the ftill, we ftiall never be
able to recompofe a liquor like that before it was di-
ftilled.
58. 5thly, Sometimes one or more of the principles
is found naturally difengaged from the others, lying
in diftinft receptacles within the fubje£l, or extrava-
fated and accumulated on the furface. Thus, in the
dried roots of angelica, cut longitudinally, the micro-
fcope difeovers veins of refin. In the flower-cups of
hypericum, and the leaves of the orange-tree, tranf-
parent points are diftinguilhed by the naked eye,
which, on the firft view, feem to be holes; but, on a
clofer examination, are found to be little veficles filled
with eflential oil. In the bark of the fir, pine, larch,
and fome other trees, the oily receptacles are extreme¬
ly numerous, and fo copioufly fupplied with the oily
and refinous fluid, that they frequently burft, efpe- "
cially in the warm climates, and difeharge their con¬
tents in great quantities. The acacia, tree in Egypt,
and the plum and cherry among ourfelves, yield almoti
pure gummy exudations. From a fpecies of afh is fe-
creted the faline fweet fubftance manna ; and the only
kind of fugar which the ancients were acquainted
with, appears to have been a natural exudation from
the cane.
59. 6thly, The foregoing principles are, fo far as
is known, all that naturally exift in vegetables; and
all that art can extract from them, without fuch ope¬
rations as change their nature, and deftroy their ori¬
ginal qualities. In one or more of thefe principles,
the colour, fmell, tafte, and medicinal virtues of the
fubjedt, are almoft always found concentrated.
60. ythly, In fome vegetables, the whole medicinal
a&ivity refides in one principle. Thus, in fweet al¬
monds, the only medicinal principle is a grofs oil ; in
horfe-radifli root, an efiential oil; in jalap-root, a re¬
fin, in marfiimallow-root, a gum ; in the leaveg-ef for-
rel, a faline acid fubftance.
61. 8thly, Others have one kind of virtue refiding
in one principle, and another in another. Thus Peruvian
bark has an aftringent refin and a bitter gum worm¬
wood, a ftrong-flavoured eflential oil, and a bitter
gum-refin.
62. 9thly, The grofs infipid oils and febaceous mat¬
ters, the Ample infipid gums, and the fwcet and acid
faliae fubftances, feem nearly to agree in their medi¬
cinal
PHARMACY.
Part I.
Elements, cinal qualities, as well as in their pharmaceutic pro¬
perties.
63. lothly, But efiential oils, refins, and gum-
refins, differ greatly in different fubje&s. As effen-
tial oils are univerfally the principle of odour in vege¬
tables, it is obvious that they muft differ in this re-
fpeCt as much as the fubjefts from which they are ob¬
tained. Rtfins frequently partake of the oil, and
confequently of the differences depending thereon ;
with this further diverfity, that the grofs reiinous part
often contains other powers than thofe which refide in
oils. Thus from wormwood a refin may be prepared,
containing not only the ftrong fmell and flavour, but
likewife the whole bitternefs of the herb ; from which
laft quality the oil is entirely free. The bitter, aftrin-
gent, purgative, and emetic virtues of vegetables, re¬
fide generally in different forts of refinous matter, ei¬
ther pure, or blended with gummy and faline parts;
of which kind of combinations there are many fo in¬
timate, that the component parts' can fcarcely be fe-
parated from one another, the whole compound dif-
folving almoft equally in aqueous and fpirituous men-
flrua.
64. nthly, There are fome fubftances alfo which,
from their being totally diflbluble in water, and not
at all in fpirit, may be judged to be mere gums; but
which, neverthelefs, pofiefs virtues never to be found
in the Ample gums. Such are the aftringent gum
called acacia, and the purgative gum extrafted from
aloes.
65. I2thly, It is fuppofed that vegetables contain
certain fubtle principles or preflding fpirits, different
in different plants, of too great tenuity to be colleft-
ed in their pure (late, and of which oils, gums, and
refins, are only the matrices or vehicles. This inquiry
is foreign to the purpofes of pharmacy, which is con¬
cerned only about groffer and more fenflble obje&s.
When we obtain from an odoriferous plant an effential
oil, containing in a fmall compafs the whole fragrance
of a large quantity of the fubjefl, our intentions are
equally anfwered, whether the fubflance of the oil be
the dired odorous matter, or whether it has diffufed
through it a fragrant principle more fubtle than itfelf.
And when this oil, in long keeping, lofes its odour,
and becomes a rtfin, it is equal, in regard to the pre-
fent conflderations, whether the effed happens from
the avolation of a fubtle principle, or from a change
produced in the fubftance of the oil itfelf.
Sect. II. Animals.
66. In animal-bodies we find certain fubftances
which have a great refemblance, in their general pro¬
perties, to thofe of the vegetable kingdom.
67. Animal oils and fats, like the grofs oils of ve¬
getables, are not of themfelves diffbluble either in wa¬
ter or vinous fpirits: but they may be united with
water by the intervention of gum or . mucilage j and
moft of them may be changed into dbap, aud thus
rendered mifcible with fpirit, as well as water, by fixt
alkaline falls.
68. The odorous matter of fome odoriferous ani-
mal-fubftances, as mufti, civet, caftor, is, like effen-
tial oils, foluble in fpirit of wine, and volatile in the
beat of boiling water. Cartheufer relates, that from
caftor an adual effeiuial oil has been obtained, in very
i
6013
fmall quantity, but of an exceedingly ftrong diffufive Elements,
fmell.’ '
69. The veficating matter of cantharides, and thofe
parts of fundry animal-fubftances in which their pe¬
culiar taftes refide, are diflblved by redified fpirit,
and feem to have fome analogy with refins and gum¬
my refins.
70. The gelatinous principle of animals, like the
gum of vegetables, diflblves in water, but not in fpi¬
rit or in oils ; like gums alfo, it renders oils and fats
mifcible with water into a milky liquor.
71. Some infeds, particularly the ant, are found
to contain an acid juice which approaches nearly to
the nature of vegetable acids.
72. There are, however, fundry animal-juices,
which differ greatly, even in thefe general kinds of
properties, from the correfponding ones of vegetables.
Thus animal-ferum, which appears analogous to vege¬
table gummy juices, has this remarkable difference,
that though it mingles uniformly with cold or warm
water, yet, on confiderably heating the mixture, the
animal-matter feparates from the watery fluid, and
concretes into a folid mafs. Some have been appre-
henfive, that the heat of the body, in fome diflem-
pers, might rife to fuch a degrecas to produce this
dangerous or mortal concretion of the ferous hu¬
mours : but the heat requifite for this effed is greater
than the human body appears capable of fuftaining,
being nearly about the middle point between the
greateft human heat commonly obferved and that of
boiling water.
73. The foft and fluid parts of animals are ftrongly
difpofed to run into putrefadion ; they putrefy much
fooner than vegetable matters, and when corrupted
prove more offenfive.
74. This procefs takes place, in fome degree, in
the bodies of living animals, as often as the juices
ftagnate long, or are prevented, by an obftrudion of
the natural emundories, from throwing off their more
volatile and corruptible parts.
75. During putrefadion, a quantity of air is ge¬
nerated, all the humours become gradually thinner,
and the fibrous parts more lax and tender. Hence
the tympany which fucceeds the corruption of any of
the vifeera, or the imprudent fupprefiion of dyfente-
ries by aftringents ; and the weaknefs and laxity of
the veffels obfervable in feurvies, &c.
76. The craffamentum of human blood changes by
putrefadion into a dark livid-coloured liquor; a few
drops of which tinge the ferum of a tawny hue; like
that of the ichor of fores and dyfenteric fluxes, and
of the white of the eye, the faliva, the ferum of blood
drawn from a vein, and that which oozes from a bli¬
tter in deep feurvies, and in the advanced ftate of ma¬
lignant fevers.
77. The putrid craflamentum changes a large quan¬
tity of recent urine to a flame-coloured water fo com¬
mon in fevers and in the feurvy. This mixture, after
(landing an hour or two, gathers a cloud refembling
what is feen in the crude water of acute diftempers,
with fome oily matter on the furface, like the feum
which floats on fcorbutic urine.
78. The ferum of blood depofits, in putrefadioir,
a fediment refembling well-digefted pus, and changes
to a faint olive grecu. A ferum, fo far putrefied as
to
PHARMACY.
Part I.
Elements..
6014
Elements.
PHARMACY.
to become green, is perhaps never to be feen in the
‘veffels of living animals; but in dead bbdies this fe-
rum is to be diltinguilhed by the green colour which
the flelh acquires in corrupting. In failed meats, this
is commonly afcribed to the brine, but erroneoufly ;
for that has no power of giving this colour, but only
of qualifying the tafte, and in fome degree the ill ef-
fe&s, of corrupted aliments. In foul ulcers, and other
fores, where the ferum is left to ftagnate long, the
matter is likewife found of this colour, and is then
always acrimonious.
79. The putrefaftion of animal-fubftances is pre¬
vented or retarded by all faline matters, even by the
fixt and volatile alkaline falls, which have generally
been fuppofed to produce a contrary effedt. Of all
the falts that have been made trial of, fea-falt feems
to refill putrefaction the leaft : in fmall quantities, it
even accelerates the procefs. The vegetable bitters,
as chamomile-flowers, are much ftronger antifeptics,
not only preferring fleflr long uncorrupted, but like¬
wife fomewhat corredting it when putrid : the mineral
acids have this laft effedl in a more remarkable degree.
Vinous fpirits, aromatic and warm fubftances, moil
of the diaphoretic drugs, and the acrid plants falfely
called alkalefcent, as fcurvy-grafs and horfe-radifh, are
alfo found to refill putrefadlion ; and fome of the ab~
forbent earths, as chalk, to promote it.
80. It is obfervable, that notwithftanding the ftrong
tendency of animal-matters to putrefadlion, yet broths
made from them with the admixture of vegetables, in-
Head of putrefying, turn four. Dr Pringle finds, that
when animal-flefh in fubftance is beaten up with bread
or other farinaceous vegetables, and a proper quantity
of water, into the confiftence of a pap, this mixture like¬
wife, kept in a heat equal to that of the human body,
grows in a little time four; whilft the vegetable matters,
without the flelh, fuffer no fuch change. See the
fendix to his Obfervations on the Difeafes of the Army.
81. Animal-fubftances, burnt in the open air, are
refolved, like vegetables, into foot and afli.es ; but
with this difference, that no fixt alkaline fait can be
obtained from the alhes, and that no acid vapour ac¬
companies the fmoke. They emit, during the burn¬
ing, a fetid fmell of a peculiar kind, by which animal-
fi»bftances may be diftinguilhed at once from all thofe
of the vegetable kingdom. In clofe veffels, they give
over, after the watery moifture, a volatile alkaline fait,
which either concretes into a folid form, or diffolves
in the water, and thus compofes what is called fpirit;
together with an empyreumatic oil, of a more fetid
kind than the oils of vegetables, without the leaft: foot-
ftep of acid throughout the whole procefs. A black
coal remains, which, in the open air, burns into white
alhes void of faline matter.
82. It was obferved in the preceding fe&ion, that
fome few vegetables, in this refolution of them by fire,
difcover fome agreement in their matter with bodies of
the animal kingdom, yielding a volatile alkaline fait
in confiderable quantity, with little or nothing of the
acid or fixed alkali which the generality of vegetables
afford. In animal-fubftances alfo there are fome ex¬
ceptions to the general analyfis: from animal-fats, in-
fftad of a volatile alkali, an acid liquor is obtained,
and their empyreumatic oil wants the peculiar offen-
fivenefs of the other animal-oils.
Sect. HI. Minerals.
Art. 1. Oils and Bitumens.
83. In the mineral kingdom is found a fluid oil,
called napththa or petroleum, floating on the furfaceof
waters, or iffuing from clefts of rocks, particularly in
the eaftern countries, of a ftrong fmell, very different
from that of vegetable or animal oils, limpid almoft
as water, highly inflammable, not foluble in fpirit of
wine, and more averfe to union with water than any
other oils.
84. There are different forts of thefe mineral oils,
more or lefs tinged, of a more or lefs agreeable, and
a ftronger or weaker fmell. By the admixture of con¬
centrated acids, which raife no great heat or conflift
with them, they become thick, and at length confiftent;
and in thefe ftates are called bitumens.
85. Thefe thickened or concreted oils, like the
correfponding products of the vegetable kingdom, are
generally foluble in fpirit of wine, but much more dif¬
ficultly, more fparingly, and for the moft part only
partially : they liquefy by heat, but require the heat
to be confiderably ftronger. In a proper degree of
heat they give out a fluid oil, greatly refembling the
native petrolea, a fmall quantity of a black coaly mat¬
ter remaining behind. Their fmells are various; but
all of them, either in their natural ftate, or when melt¬
ed or fet on fire, yield a peculiar kind of ftrong fcent,
called, from them, bituminous.
Art. 2. Earths.
86. In treating of vegetables and animals, we for¬
bore to fpeak of their earthy matters, that the diftin-
guifhing charadlers of the feveral claffes of earthy bo¬
dies might be the eafier apprehended, by having them
placed here in one fynoptical view; the little impro¬
priety, of joining the vegetable and animal earths to
the mineral, muft be overlooked for the fake of that ad¬
vantage. Under the mineral earths are included Hones,
thefe being no other than earths in an indurated ftate.
The different kinds of thefe bodies hitherto taken no¬
tice of, are the following.
I. Earths foluble in the nitrous, marine, and vege¬
table acids, but not at all, or exceeding fparingly, in the
vitriolic acid. When previoufy diffolved in other acids,
they are precipitated by the addition of this lajl, ’which
thus unites with them into infpid, or nearly infpid con¬
cretes, not dijfoluble in any liquor. Of this kind are,
87. [i.] The mineral calcareous earth: difiinguijh-
ed by its being convertible, in a frong fire without addi¬
tion, into an acrimonious calx called quicklime. This
earth occurs in a variety of forms in the mineral king¬
dom. The fine foft chalk, the coarfer limeftones, the
hard marbles, the tranfparent fpars, the earthy matter
contained in waters, and which, feparating from them,
incruftates the fides of caverns or hangs in icicles from
the top* receiving from its different appearances dif¬
ferent appellations; how ftrongly foever fome of thefe
bodies have been recommended for particular medi-.
cinal purpofes, are at bottom no other than different
forms of this calcareous earth; Ample pulverization
depriving them of the fuperficial charaOers by which
they are diftinguiftted in the mafs. Moft of them con¬
tain generally a greater or lefs admixture of fome of
Part X. P H A R
Elements, the indiflbluble kinds of earth; which, however, affe&s
‘ their medicinal qualities no otherwife than by the ad¬
dition which it makes to their bulk. Chalk appears to
be one of the pureft, and is therefore in general pre¬
ferred. They all burn into a ftrong quicklime : in
this ftate, a part of them diffolves in water, which thus
becomes impregnated with the aftringent and lithon-
triptic powers that have been erroneoufly afcribed to
fome of the earths in their natural ftate.
88. £2.] The animal calcareous earth: burning in¬
to quicklime, like the mineral. Of this kind are oyiter-
fhells, and all the marine (hells that have been exami¬
ned ; though with fome variation in the ftrcngth of the
quicklime produced from them.
89. £3.] The earth of bones and horns: not at all
burning into quicklime. This kind of earth is more dif¬
ficult of folution in acids than either of the preceding.
It is accompanied in the fubjeft with a quantity of ge¬
latinous matter, which may be feparated by long boil¬
ing in water, and more perfeftly by burning in the
open air: the earth may be extra&ed alfo from the
bone or horn, though difficultly, by means of acids ;
whereas vegetables, and the foft parts of animals, yield
their pure earth by burning only.
II. Earths foluble ninth eafe in the vitriolic as nuell as
ether acids ; and yielding, in all their combinations there-
•with, faline concretes foluble in •water.
90. [1.] Magnefia alba: compoftng •with the vitrio¬
lic acid a bitter purgative liquor.
91. [2.] Aluminous earth : compojtng nnith the vi¬
triolic acid a very ajlringent liquor.
III. Earths, •which by digejlion in acids, either in the
cold or in a moderate •warmth, are not at all diffolved.
92. £1.] Argillaceous earth: becoming hard, or ac¬
quiring an additional hardnefs, in the fire. Of this kind
of earth there are feveral varieties, differing in fome
particular properties: as the purer clays, which when
moiftened with water form a very vifeous mafs, diffi¬
cultly diffufible through a large quantity of the fluid,
and flowly fubfiding from it; boles, lefs vifeous, more
readily mifcible with water, and more readily fubfiding;
and ochres, which have nothing of the vifeofity of the
two foregoing, and are commonly impregnated with a
yellow or red ferrugineous calx.
93. [2.] Cryftalline earth: naturally hard, fo as to
Jlrike fparks •with Jleel; becoming friable in a ftr ong fire.
Of this kind are flints, cryftals, &c. which appear to
confift of one and the fame earth, differing in the pu¬
rity, hardnefs, and tranfparency of the roafs.
94. [3.] Gypfeous earth: reducible by a gentle heat
into a foft powder, which unites with water into a mafs,
fomewhat vifeous and tenacious while moift, but quickly
drying and becoming hard. A greater heat deprives the
powder of this property, without occafioning any other al¬
teration. Such are the tranfparent felenitte; the fi¬
brous ftony maffes improperly called Englijh talc} and
the granulated gypfa, or plafter of Paris (tones.
95. [4.] Talky earth: fcarcely alterable by a vehe¬
ment fire. The maffes of this earth are generally of a
fibrous or leafy texture; more or lefs pellucid, bright,
or glittering; fmooth and unftuous to the touch; too
flexible and elaftic to be eafily pulverized; foft, fo as
to be cut with a knife. In thefe refpe&s fome of the
gypfeous earths greatly refemble them: but the diffe¬
rence is readily difeovered by fire; a weak heat redu-
M A C Y. 6015
cing the gypfeous to powder, while the ftrongeft makes Elements,
no other alteration in the talky, than fomewhat dimi- ""
nilhing their flexibility, brightnefs, and unftuofity.
Art. 3. Metals.
96. Of metals, the next divifion of mineral bodies,
the moft obvious charadlers are, their peculiar bright
afpeft, perfect opacity, and great weight: the lighted
of them is fix, and the heavieft upwards of 19 times
heavier than an equal bulk of water.
97. They all melt in the fire, except platina; a me¬
tallic body which has not been applied to any medici¬
nal ufe, and which is therefore excluded from this ge¬
neral view of medicinal fubje&s.
98. Gold and filver, how long foever they are con¬
tinued in fufion, remain unchanged and undiminiftied.
The others, if air is admitted to them, are gradually
converted, with different degrees of facility, into a
powdery or friable fubftance called calx, deftitute of,
the metallic afped, and much lighter in proportion to
its bulk than the metal itfelf. This change in their
obvious properties is generally accompanied with a no¬
table alteration in their medicinal virtues: thus quick-
filver, which, taken into the body in its crude ftate and
undivided, feems inadive; when calcined by fire, proves,
even in fmall dofes, a ftrong emetic and cathartic, and
in fmaller ones a powerful alterative in chronical dif-
orders; while regnlus of antimony, on the contrary, is
changed, by the fame treatment, from a high degree
of virulence to a ftate of inadivity.
99. Calces of mercury and arfenic exhale in a heat
below ignition: thofe of lead and bifmuth, in a red or
low white heat, run into a tranfparent glafs: the others
are not at all vitrefcible, or not without extreme vehe¬
mence of fire. Both the calces and glafies recover their
metallic form and qualities again, by the (kilful addi¬
tion of any kind of inflammable fubftance that does not
contain a mineral acid.
100. All metallic bodies difiblve in acids; fome only
in particular acids, as filver and lead in the nitrous;
fome only in compofitions of acids, as gold in a mix¬
ture of the nitrous and marine; and others, as iron and
zinc, in all acids. Some likewife diflblve in all alka¬
line liquors, as copper; and others, as lead, in expref-
fed oils. Fufed with a compofition of fulphur and fixed
alkaline fait, they are all, except zinc, made foluble in
water.
lot. AH metallic fubftances diflblved in faline li¬
quors have powerful effe&s in the human body, tho’
many of them appear in their pure ftate to be inaftive.
Their adivity is generally in proportion to the quan¬
tity of acid combined with them : thus lead, which in
its crude form has no fenfible effed, when united with
a fmall portion of vegetable acid into cerufs, difeovers
a low degree of the ftyptic and malignant quality which
it fo ftrongly exerts when blended with a larger quan¬
tity of the fame acid, into what is called faccharum
faturni: and thus mercury, with a certain quantity of
the marine acid, forms the violent corrofive fublimate,
which, by diminifhing the proportion of acid, becomes
the mild medicine called mercurius dulcis.
Art. 4. Acids.
102. The mineral acids are diftinguilhed by the
names of the concretes from which they have been prin¬
cipally
6016 P H A R
Elements, cipally extrafted; the vitriolic from vitriol, the nitrous
  from nitre or faltpetre, and the marine from common
fea-falt. They are all highly corrofive, infomuch as
not to be fafely touched, unlefs largely diluted with
water, or united with fuch fubftances asobtund or fup-
prefs their acidity. Mixed haftily with vinous fpirits,
they raife a violent ebullition and heat, accompanied
with a copious difcharge of noxious fumes: a part of
the acid unites intimately with the vinous fpirit into a
new compound void of acidity, called dulcified fpirit.
It is pbfervable, that the marine acid is much lets dif-
pofed to this union with fpirit of wine than either of
the other two: nevertheleis, many of the compound
falls refulting from the combination of earthy and me¬
tallic bodies with this acid, are folublc in that fpirit,
while thofe with the other acids are not. All thefe acids
effervefce ftrongly with alkaline falls, both fixed and
volatile; and form with them neutral falls, that is, fuch
as difcover no marks either of an acid or alkaline qua¬
lity.
103. We have already taken notice of two kinds of
alkaline fait; the volatile alkali of animals, and the fix¬
ed alkali of vegetables. In the mineral kingdom, an¬
other fpecies of fixed alkali, different infeveral refpefts
from the vegetable, is found fometimes in a detached
ftate, but more plentifully in combination with the
marine acid, with which it compofes fea-falt. From
the coalition of the different acids with thefe three al¬
kalies, and with the feveral foluble earths and metallic
bodies, refult a variety of faline compounds, the prin¬
cipal of which will be particularized in the fequel of
this treatife.
104. The vitriolic acid, in its cencentrated liquid
ftate, is much more ponderous than the other two,
emits no vifible vapours in the heat of the atmofphere,
but imbibes moiflure there from, and increafes in its
weight: the nitrous and marine emit copious corrofive
fumes, the nitrous yellowifh red, and the marine
white ones. If bottles containing the three acids are
flopped with cork, the cork is found in a little time
tinged black by the vitriolic, corroded into a yellow
fubftance by the nitrous, and into a whitifh one by the
marine.
105. It is above laid down as a chara&er of one of
the clafles of earths, that the vitriolic acid precipitates
them when they are previoufly diffolved in any other
acid: it is-obvious, that on the fame principle this par¬
ticular acid may be diftinguifhed from all others. This
character ferves not only for the acid in its pure ftate,
but likewife for all its combinations that are foluble in
water: if a folution of any compound fait whofe acid
is the vitriolic, be added to a folution of chalk in any
other acid, the vitriolic acid will part from the fub¬
ftance it was before combined with, and join itfelf to
the chalk, forming therewith a compound, which, be¬
ing no longer diffoluble in the liquor, renders the whole
milky for a time, and then gradually fubfides.
106. This acid may be diftinguilhed alfo in com¬
pound falls, by another criterion not lefs ftrongly
marked : if any fait containing it be mixed with
powdered charcoal, and the mixture expofcd, in a
clofe veflel, to a moderately ftrong fire, the acid will
unite with the dire&ly inflammable part of the char¬
coal, and compofe therewith a genuine fulphur. Com¬
mon brimftone is no other than a combination of the
M A C Y. Part I. 1
vitriolic acid with a fmall proportion of inflammable Elements, j
matter. With any kind of inflammable matter that is "V
not volatile in clofe veflels, as the coal of vegetables, of
animals, or of bitumens, this acid compofes always the
fame identical fulphur.
107. The nitrous acid alfo, whatever kind of body
it be combined with, is both diftinguifhed and extri¬
cated therefrom, by means of any inflammable fub¬
ftance brought to a ftate of ignition : if the fubjeft be
mixed with a little powdered charcoal, and made red-
hot, a deflagration or fulmination enfues, that is, a
bright flame with a hifling noife; and the inflammable
matter and the acid being thus confumed or diffipated
together, there remains only the fubftance that was
before combined with the acid, and the fmall quantity
of afhes afforded by the coal.
108. This property of the nitrous acid, deflagrating
with inflammable fubftances, and that of the vitriolic
of forming fulphur with them, ferve not only as cri¬
teria of the refpeftive acids in their various forms and
difguifes, but likewife for difcovering inflammable
matter in bodies, when its quantity is too fmall to be
fenfible on ^>ther trials.
109. If a fixed alkaline fait be united with a vege¬
table acid, as that of vinegar, into a neutral fait ; on
adding to this compound fome marine acid, the ace¬
tous acid will be difengaged, fo as to exhale totally in
a moderate heat, leaving the marine in poffeflion of the
alkali; the addition of the nitrous will in like man¬
ner difpoffefs the marine, which now arifes in its pro¬
per white fumes, though without fuch an addition it
could not be extricated from the alkali by any degree
of heat: on the addition of. the vitriolic acid, the ni¬
trous gives way in its turn, exhaling in red fumes, and
leaving only the vitriolic acid and the alkali united to¬
gether.
110. Again, if any metallic body be diffolved in
an acid, the addition of any earthy body that is diffo¬
luble in that acid will precipitate the metal: a vola¬
tile alkaline fait will in like manner precipitate the
earth, and a fixed alkali will diflodge the volatile ;
which laft being readily exhaled by heat, the remain¬
ing fait will be the fame as if the acid and fixed alkali
had been joined together at firft, without the interven¬
tion of any of the other bodies.
111. The power in bodies, on which thefe various
tranfpofitions and combinations depend, is called by
the chemifts affinity; a term, like the Newtonian at-
defignei to exprefs, not the caufe, but theef-
fe&. When an acid fpontaneoufly quits a metal to
unite with an alkali, they fay it has a greater affinity
to the alkali than to the metal: and when, converfely,
they fay it has a greater affinity to fixed alkalies than
to thofe of the volatile kind, they mean only that it
will unite with the fixed in preference to the volatile,
and that, if previoufly united with a volatile alkali, it
will forfake this for a fixed one.
112. The doftrine of the affinities of bodies is of a
very extenfive ufe in the chemical pharmacy : many of
the officinal proceffes, as we (hall fee hereafter, are
founded on it: feveral of the preparations turn out
very different from what would be expefted by a per-
fon unacquainted with thefe properties of bodies; and
feveral of them, if, from an error in the procefs, or
other caufes, they prove unfit for the ufe intended, may
be
Fart I. P H A R
Elements, be rendered applicable to other purpofes, by fuch
tranfpofitions of their component parts as are pointed
out by the knowledge of their affinities. See Che¬
mistry, n° 64.
CHAP. II.
Of the Pharmaceutical Apparatus.
117. Furnaces. One-of the principal parts of the
pharmaceutic apparatus conflfts in contrivances for
containing and applying fire, and for diredting and re-
k gulating its power. Of thefe contrivances, called fur¬
naces, there are different kinds, according to the con-
veniency of the place, and the particular purpofes they
are intended to aufwer. See the article Furnace ;
and Chemistry, n° 98, 99, 101, 102.
118. The moft. fimple pharmaceutical furnace is the
common ftove, otherwife called tlje furnace for open fire*
This is ufually made of an iron hoop, five or fix inches
deep ; with a grate or fome iron-bars acrofs the bot¬
tom, for fupporting the fuel. It either hands upon
feet, fo as to be moveable from place to place, or is
fixed in brick-work. In this laft cafe, a cavity is left
under the grate for receiving the affies that drop thro’
it ; and an aperture or door, in the fore-part of this
afh-pit, ferves both for allowing the afhes to be occa-
fionally raked out, and for admitting air to pafs up
through the fuel. This furnace is defigned for fuch
operations as require only a moderate heat ; as infu-
fion, decodtion, and the evaporation of liquids. The
veffel containing the fubjeft-matter is fupported over
the fire by a irevet.
119. A deeper hoop or body, cylindrical, paralle-
lopipedal, widening upwards, elliptical, or of other
figures ; formed of, or lined with, uich materials as
are capable of fuftaining a ftrong fire, with a grate
and afh-pit beneath, as in the preceding, and commu¬
nicating at the top with a perpendicular pipe, or chim¬
ney, makes a wind-furnace.
120. The greater the perpendicular height of the
chimney, the greater will be the draught of air thro*
the furnace, and the more intenfely will the fire burn ;
provided the width of the chimney is fufficient to al-
■ low a free paflage to all the air that the furnace can re¬
ceive thro* the grate : for which purpofe, the area of
the aperture of the chimney fhould be nearly equal to
the area of the interflides of the grate.
121. Hence, where the chimney confifts of move-
able pipes, made to fit-upon one another at the ends,
fo that the length can be occafionally increafed or di-
minifhed, the vehemence of the fire will be increafed or
diminifhed in the fame proportion.
122. In furnaces whofe chimney is fixed, the
fame advantage may be procured on another principle.
As the intenfity of the fire depends wholly upon the
quantity of air fucceffively paffing through and ani¬
mating the burning fuel, it is obvious, that the mofl
vehement fire may be fuppreffed or reftrained at plea-
fure, by more or lefs doling either the afh-pit door by
which the air is admitted, or the chimney by which it
pafies off; and that the fire may be more or lefs raifed
again, by more or lefs opening thofe pafiages. A
moveable plate or regifter, in any convenient part of
the chimney, affords commodious means of varying
the width of the paffage, and confequently of regula¬
ting the heat.
Vol. VIII. 1
M A C Y.
123. There are two general kinds of thefe wind-
furnaces ; one, with the chimney on the top, over the
middle of the furnace ; the other with the chimney on
one fide, and the mouth clear.
124. In the firft, either the upper part of the fur¬
nace is contrafted to fuch an aperture, that the chim¬
ney may fit upon it ; or it is covered with an arched
dome, or with a flat plate, having a like aperture in
the middle. As in this difpofition of the chimney, the
infide of the furnace cannot be come at from above ;
a door is made in the fide, a little above the grate,
for fupplying fuel, infpe&ing the matter in the fire, &c.
125. For performing fufions in this furnace, the cru¬
cible, or melting veffel, is placed immediately among the
fuel; with a flip of brick, or fome other like fupport,
between it and the grate, to keep the cold air, which en¬
ters underneath, from ftriking on its bottom.
126. When defigned as a reverberatory, that is, for
diftillation in long necks or coated glafs-retorts, two
iron bars are placed acrofs, above the fire, for fupport¬
ing the veffel, whofe neck comes out at an aperture
made for that purpofe in the fide. This aperture
fhould be made in the fide oppofite to that in which is
the door above-mentioned, or at lead fo remote from
it, that the receiver, fitted on the neck of the diftilling
veffel without the furnace, may not lie in the operator’s
way when he wants to ftir the fire or throw in freffi fuel.
127. The other kind of wind-furnace communi¬
cates, by an aperture in its back-part near the top,
either with an upright pipe of its own, or with the
chimney of the room ; in which laft cafe, all other
paffages into the chimney muft be clofed up. Here
the mouth of the furnace ferves for a door, which may
be occafionally covered with a plate or tile. Of this
kind is the furnace moft commonly ufed for fufion in a
crucible.
Vejfels. Of thefe and other pharmaceutical
inftruments the principal will be mentioned in the fol¬
lowing chapter, in fpeaking of the feveral operations^to
which they are refpedtively fubfervient.
152. Weights. Two different kinds of weights are
made ufe of in this country ; one in the merchandize
of gold andfilver; the other for almoft all goods befides.
The firft we ball Troy, the latter Averdupois ’weight.
153. The goldfmiths divide the Troy pound into tz
ounces; the ounce into 20 penny-weights; and the
penny-weight into 24 grains. The Averdupois pound
is divided into 16 ounces; and the ounce into 16 parts,
called drams.
The pound of the London and Edinburgh difpen-
fatories (which is the only one made ufe of in this ar¬
ticle) is that of the goldfmiths, divided in the follow¬
ing manner:
The Pound ^ twelve Ounces.
The Ounce f . • jeight Drams.
The Dram Qcon ainspthree Scruples.
The Scruple3 ^twenty Grains.
The grain is equal to the goldfmiths grain,
154. The medical or Troy pound is lefs than the
averdupois, but the ounce and the dram greater. The
Troy pound contains 5760 grains; the averdupois
7000 grains. The Troy ounce contains 48c grains;
the averdupois only 437^. The Troy dram 60; the
averdupois dramfomewhat more than 27. Eleven drams
averdupois are equal to five drams Troy; 12 ounces
33 Y averdupois
6017
Elements.
6oi8
Elements.
PHARMACY.
Part I.
averdupols to nearly n ounces Troy; and 19 pounds
‘averdupois to fomewhat more than 23 pounds Troy.
155. Thefe differences in our weights have occa*
fioned great contufion in the pra&ice of Pharmacy.
As the druggitts and grocers fell by the averdupois
weight, the apothecaries have not in general kept any
weights adjufted to the Troy pound greater than two
drams, ufing for all above averdupoife. By this
means it is apparent, that in all compofnions, where
the ingredients are prefcribed, fome by pounds and
others by ounces, they are taken in a wrong propor¬
tion to each other; and the fame happens when any
are dire&ed in leffer denominations than the ounce, as
thefe fubdivifions ufed by the apothecaries are made
to a different ounce. The mercurial plafterof the late
Pharmacopoeia, and the mercurial cerate of the prefent,
if compounded by the avtrdupoife weight, contain
about one fixth lefs quickiilver than if made, as they
ought to be, by the Troy. This error prevailed fo
far as to be received in fome former editions of the
London Pharmacopoeia itfelf; but is now happily re¬
moved.
156. Meafures. The meafures employed with us in
pharmacy are the common wine-meafures.
A Gallon ^ Teight Pints
The Pint v contains < fixteen Ounces.
The Ouncej height Drams.
157. By a fpoonful, in the London difpenfatory, is
underftood, the meafure of half an ounce; in the Edin¬
burgh, haff an ounce weight in fyrups, and three
drams in diftilled waters.
158. Though the pint is called by Latin writers
libra or “ pound,” there is not any known liquor of
which a pint-meafure anfwers to that weight. A
pint of the higheft redfified fpirit of wine exceeds a
pound by above half an ounce; a pint of water ex¬
ceeds it by upwards of three ounces; and a pint of
oil of vitriol weighs more than two pounds and a
quarter.
159. A table of the weights of certain meafures of
different fluids may on many occafions be ufeful, both
for affifting the operator in regulating their propor¬
tions in certain cafes, and for (hewing the comparative
gravities of the fluids themfelves. Dr Lewis has
drawn up fuch a table for a pint, an ounce, and a
dram meafure of thofe liquids, whole gravity has been
determined by experiments that can be relied on.
The wine-gallon contains 231 cubic inches; whence
the pint contains 28^; the ounce i4-£-i-; and tlie dram
-riFurx of a cubic inch.
Inflammable Spirits.
./Ethereal fpirit of wine
Highly-rettified fpirit of wine
Common-reftified fpirit of wine
Proof-fpirit
Dulcified fpirit of fait _ -
Dulcified fpirit of nitre
Wines.
Burgundy
Red port
Canary ...
Its 4
§' 2 2
11 36
12 5 20
13 2 40
4 1 36
14 4 48
15 2 40
14 1 36
15 1 36
ij 6 40
Expressed Oils.
Oil-olive
Lin feed oil
Essential Oils.
Oil of turpentine
of orange-peel
of juniper-berries
of roftmary
of origanum
of caraway-feeds
of nutmegs
of favin
of hyffop
of cummin-feed
of mint
of pennyroyal
of dill-feed
of fennel-feed
of cloves
of cinnamon
of faffafras
Alkaline Liquors.
Lixiv. faponarium,P^r.EW.
Spirit of fal ammoniac
Strong foap-boilers ley
Lixivium tartari
Acid Liquors.
Wine-vinegar
Beer-vinegar
Glauber’s fpirit of fait
Glauber’s (pirit of nitre
Strong oil of vitriol
Animal-Fluids.
Urine
Cows milk
Affes milk
Blood
Waters.
Diftilled water
Rain-water
Spring-water
Sea-water
Quicksilver.
14 o
14 2
16 o
17 1 10
17 6 24
24 o
l5 3 44
15 6 56
!7 4
20 2 40
28 5 20
15 5 20
15 6 40
16 o
16 1 4
15 1 50
15 2 40
15 3 12
15 5 20
214 5 20,6440
52v
53t
45!
51
52
54
54
54
54t
55t
55t
56
56
56*
57
57
59t
59x
63
60
64t
67
90
58
59i
65i
76
1074-
59
59t
60
6ot
57
57x
58
59
805
CHAP. III.
Of the Pharmaceutical Operations.
Sect. I. Solution.
160. Solution is an intimate commixture of /olid
bodies with fluids into one feem.ngly homogeite liquor.
The diffolving fluid is called a Menjlruum or Solvent.
161 The principal menftrua made ufe of in phar¬
macy, are water, vinous fpirits, oils, acid and alkaline
liquors.
162. Water is the menftruum of all falls, of vege¬
table gums, and of animal-gellies. Of falls it dif-
folvc-s only a determinate quantity, though of one kind
of (alt more than another; and being thus faturated,
leaves any additional quantity of the fame fait un¬
touched.
163. Experiments have been made for determining
the
Parti
Elements.
PHARMACY.
6019
the quantities of water which different falls require for and Eller, as appears in the above table, four drams Elements,
their diffolution: Mr Eller has given a large fet in the
Memoirs of the royal academy of fciences of Berlin
for the year 1750, from which the following table is
extra&ed.
Eight ounces by weight of diililled water diffolved
Of refined fugar
Green vitriol
Blue vitriol
White vitriol
Epfom fait
Purified nitre
Soluble tartar
Common fait
Sal gemmae
. Sal catharticus Glauberi
Seignette’s fait
Alum
Sal ammoniac
Vitriolated tartar
Salt of hartfhorn
Sugar of lead
Cream of tartar
Borax
more: fo that in the trial of fix different perfons,"
made probably in different circumftances, the greatelt
difference is only one-fixth of the whole quantity of
fait; whereas in fome other falts there are differences
of twice or thrice the quantity of the fait. In the ex¬
periments from which the table is drawn, the water
was of the temperature of between 40 and 42 degrees
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or above freezmg by
about one-feventh of the interval between freezing and
the human heat.
165. Some falts omitted by Eller are here fubjoin-
ed : the firft is taken from Dr Grew, and the other four
from Neumann.
Eight ounces of water diflblved
Of fixed alkaline fait - above
Sal diureticus
Sugar-candy, both brown and white
Sugar of milk
Effential fait of forrel
166. Though water takes up only a certain quan¬
tity of one kind of fait, yet when faturated with one,
it will ftill diffolve fome portion of another; and when
it can bear no more of either of thefe, it will dill
take up a third, without letting go any of the former.
The principal experiments of this kind that have been
made relative to pharmaceutic fubje&s, are exhibited
the following table, of which the two firft articles
Water, 32 parts by weight
fully laturated with
164. Though great care appears to have been taken
in making thefe experiments, it is not to be expected,
that the proportions of the feveral falls, foluble in a „ -
certain quantity of water, will always be found exadtly are from Grew, and the others from Eller,
the fame with thofe above fet down. Salts differ in
their folubility according to the degree of their pu¬
rity, perfection, and drinefs: the vitriols, and the
artificial compound falls in general, differ remarkably
in this refpeft, according as they are more or lefs im¬
pregnated with the acid ingredient. Thus vitriolated
tartar, perft&ly neutralized, is extremely difficult of
folution : the matter which remains in making Glau¬
ber’s fpirit of nitre, is no other than a vitriolated tar¬
tar ; and it diflblves fo difficultly, that the operator is
obliged to break the retort in order to get it out; but
on adding more of the vitriolic acid, it diffolves with
eafe. Hence many have"been tempted to ufe an over¬
proportion of acid in this preparation ; and we fre¬
quently find in the (hops, under the name of vitriolated
tartar, this acid foluble fait. The degree of heat
cafions alto a notable difference in the q>
Nitre
Common fait
Nitre
Common fait
Volatile alkali
Sal ammoniac
Soluble tartar
Vitriolated tartar
Glauber’s fait
Epfom fait -
Borax
diffolved afterwards
Sal ammoniac 10
Nitre - jo
Fixed alkali 7
Nitre, near 2
Nitre - 4
Common fait 2^
Nitre - 2
Fixed alkali 2
Nitre - 1
Sugar - 6
Fixed alkali 2
Salamm. 2
Com. fait 2
Fixt alk. 2i
Sugar 2
Sugar
167. In regard to the other clafs of bodies which
, ity of: water is a menftruum for, viz. thofe of the gummy
fait taken up: in very cold weather, eight ounces of and gelatinous kind, there is no determinate point
water will diffolve only about one ounce of nitre; of faturation: the water unites readily with any
whereas, in warm weather, the fame quantity will take proportions of them, forming with different quantities
up three ounces or more. To thefe circumttances are liquors of different confiftences. This fluid takes up
probably owing, in great part, the remarkable diffe- likewife, when alfifted by trituration, the vegetable
rences in the proportional folubilities of fait, as deter- gummy refins, as ammoniacum and myrrh ; the folu-
mined by different authors: it is obfervable, that tions of which, though imperfedt, that is, not tranf-
common fait is lefs affe&ed in its folubility, by a van- parent, but turbid and of a milky hue, are neverthe-
ation of heat, than any other, water in a temperate lefs applicable to valuable purpofes in medicine. It
ftate diffolvjng nearly as much of it as very hot water; mingles with vinous fpirits, with acid and alkaline
and accordingly this is the fait in which the different liquors, not with oils ; but imbibes fome of the more
experiments agree the belt. In the experiments of fubtle parts of effential oils, fo as to become impreg-
H iff nann, Neumann, and Petit, the proportion of nated with their fmell and tatte.
th:s fait, on a reduction of the numbers, comes ont 168. Redtified fpirit of wine is the menftruum of
exactly the fame, viz. three ounces of the fait to eight the effential oils, refins and camphor of vegetables;
of wat^r : Dr Brownrigg makes the quantity of fait a of the pure diltilled oils, and feveral of the colouring
little more; Dr Grew, a dram and a fcruple more $ and medicinal parts of animals; of fome mineral bi-
* 33 Y a tuminous
6020 P H A R
Elements, luminous fubftances, as of ambergris: and of foaps,
  though it does not aft upon the exprefled oil and fixed
alkaline fait of which foap is compofed; whence, if foap
contains any fuperfluous quantity of either the oil orfalt,
it may, by means of this menftruum, be excellently
purified therefrom. It diflblves, by the affiftance of
heat, volatile alkaline falls; and, more readily, the neu¬
tral ones, compofed either of fixed alkali and the acetous
acid, as the fal diureticus, or of volatile alkali and the
nitrous acid, as alfo the fait of amber, &c. It mingles
with water and with acids; not with alkaline lixivia.
169. Oils diflblve vegetable refins and balfams,
wax, animal-fat, mineral bitumens, fulphur, and cer¬
tain metallic fubllances, particularly lead. The ex¬
prefled oils are, for moft of thefe bodies, more power¬
ful menftrua than thofe obtained by diftiilation ; as
the former are more capable of fuftaining, without in¬
jury, a ftrong heat, which is, in moft cafes, neceflary
to enable them to aft. It is faid, that one ounce of
fulphur will diflblve in three ounces of exprefled oil,
particularly that of linfeed; but requires fix ounces of
eflential oil, as that of turpentine.
170. All acids diflblve alkaline falts, alkaline earths,
and metallic fubftances. The different acids differ
greatly in the aftion upon thefe laft; one diflblving
only fome particular metals ; and another, others.
171. The vegetable acids diflblve a confiderable
quantity of zinc, iron, copper, lead, and tin ; and
extraft fo much from the metallic part of antimony,
as to become powerfully emetic : they diflblve lead
more readily, if the metal is previoufly calcined by fire,
than in its metallic ftate.
172. The marine acid diflblves zinc, iron, and cop¬
per ; and though it fcarce afts on any other metallic
fubltance in the common way of making folutions, it
may neverthelefs be artfully combined with them all
except gold : the corrofive fublimate, a:-d antimonial
cauftic of the fhops, are combinations of it with mer¬
cury and the metallic part of antimony, effefted by
applying the acid, in the form of fume, to the fubjefts,
at the fame time alfo ftrongly heated.
173. The nitrous acid is the common menftruum of
all metallic fubftances, except gold and the metallic
part of antimony; of which two, the proper folvent is
a mixture of the nitrous and marine acids called aqua
174. The vitriolic acid, diluted with water, eafily
diflblves zinc and iron : in its concentrated ftate, and
afiifted by a boiling heat, it may be made to corrode,
or imperfeftly diflblve, moft of the other metals.
175. Alkaline lixivia diflblve oils, refinous fubftances,
and fulphur. Their power is greatly promoted by the
addition of quicklime ; inftanees of which occur in the
preparation of foap, and in the common cauftic. Thus
acuated, they reduce the fklh, bones, and other folid
parts of animals, into a gelatinous matter.
176. Solutions made in water, and in fpirit of wine,
poflefs the virtues of the body diflblved ; whilft oils
generally Iheathe its aftivity, and acids -and alkalies
vary its quality. Hence watery and fpirituous liquors
are the proper menftrua of the native virtues of vege¬
table and animal matters.
177. Moft of the foregoing folutions are eafily effec¬
ted, by pouring the menftruum on the body to be
diflblved,. and luffering them to ftand together, for
M A C Y. Part I.
fome time, expqfed to a fuitable warmth. A ftrong Elements,
heat is generally requifite to enable oils and alka-
line liquors to perform their office: nor will acids aft
on fome metallic bodies without its affiftance. The
aftion of watery and fpirituous menftrua is likewife ex¬
pedited by a moderate heat; though the quantity
which they afterwards keep diffolved is not, as fome
fuppofe, by this means increafed : all that heat occa-
fions thefe to take up more than they would do in a
longer time in the cold, will, when the heat ceafes,
fubfide again : this at leaft is moft commonly the cafe,
though there may be fome inftancesof the contrary.
178. The aftion of acids on the bodies which they
diffolve, is generally accompanied with heat, effervef-
cence, and a copious difeharge of fumes. The fumes
which arife during the diffolution of fome metals in the
vitriolic acid, prove inflammable: hence in the pre¬
paration of the artificial vitriols of iron and zinc, the
operator ought to be careful, efpecially where the fo-
lution is made in a narrow-mouthed veffel', left, by the
imprudent approach of a candle, the exhaling vapour
be fet on fire.
179. There is another fpccies of folution, in which
the moifture of the air is the menftruum. Fixed alka¬
line falts, and thofe of the neutral kind, compofed of
alkaline falts and the vegetable acids, or of foluble
earths and any acid except the vitriolic, and fome me¬
tallic falls, on being expofed for fome time to a moift
air, gradually attraft its humidity, and at length be¬
come liquid. Some fubftances, not diflbluble by the
application of water in its groffer form, as the butter
of antimony, are eafily liquefied by this flow aftioa
of the aerial moifture. This proccfs is termed Deli-
quiation.
Sect. II. Extraction.
180. The liquors which diffolve certain fubftances 1
in their pure ftate, ferve likewife to extraft them
from admixtures of other matter. Thus reftified
fpirit of wine, the menftruum of effential oilsand refins,
takes up the virtues of the refinous and oily vege¬
tables ; as water does thofe of the mucilaginous and
faline ; the inaftive earthy parts remaining untouched
by both. Water extrafts likewife from many plants
fubftances which by themfelves it has little effeft up¬
on ; even effential oils being, as we have formerly ob-
ferved, rendered foluble in that fluid, by the admixture
of gummy and faline matte,r, of which all vegetables
participate in a greater or lefs degree. Thus many of
the aromatic plants, and molt of the bitters and altrin-
gents,. yield their virtues to this menftruum.
181. Extraftion is performed by macerating or
fteeping the fubjeft in its appropriated menftruum in
the cold, or digejling or circulating them in a mode¬
rate warmth; or infujing the plant in the boiling li¬
quor, and fuffering them to ftand in a covered veffel
till grown cold ; or aftually boiling them together for
fome time.
182. The term digeftion is fometimes ufed for ma¬
ceration ; and in this cafe the procefs is direfted to be
performed without heat: where this circumftance is
not expreffed, digeftion always implies the ufe ofheat.
Circulation differs from digeftion only in this, that the
fteam, into which a part of the liquor is refolved by
the heat, is, by means of a proper difpofition of the
. veffels^
Part I. P H A R
Elements, veffels, condenfed and conveyed back again upon the
 fubjedfc. Digeftion is ufually performed in a matrafsy
(or bolthead), Florence flalk, or the like; either of
which may be converted into a circulatory veffel, by
inverting another into the mouth, and fecuring the
jun&ure with a piece of wet bladder. A fingle ma-
trafs, if its neck is very long and narrow, will anfwer
the purpofe as effe&ually, the vapour cooling and con-
denfing before it can rife to the top. In a velfel of
this kind, even fpirit of wine, one of the molt volatile
liquors we know of, may be boiled without any con-
fiderable lofs,. The ufe of this inltrument is likewife
free from an inconvenience which may, in fome cafes,
attend the other, of the nppermolt veffel being burlt
or thrown off. As the long-necked matrafies here re¬
commended are difficultly tilled or emptied, and like¬
wife very dear, a long glafs-pipe may be occafionally
luted to the Ihorter ones.
183. Heat greatly expedites extradtion ; but by this
means proves as injurious to fome fubllances, by occa-
fioning the menftruum to take up their groffer and
more ungrateful parts, as it is necefiary for enabling
it to extract the virtues of others. Thusguaiacum or
logwood.impart little to aqueous liquors without a
boiling heat, whillt even a fmali degree of warmth
proves greatly prejudicial to the fine bitter of carduus
benedifitus. This plant, which, infufed in boiling, or
digefted in. fenfibly hot water, gives out a naufeous
talle, fo offenfive to the ftomach as to promote vomi¬
ting, yields to the cold dement a grateful balfamic
bitter, the moil elegant ftomachic of the (hops.
184. As heat promotes the diflblving power of li¬
quids ; fo cold, on the other hand, diminiffies it.
Hence tin&ures, or extradtions made by a confiderable
heat, depofit in cold weather a part of their contents,
and thus become proportionably weaker; a circuin-
ftance which deferves particular regard.
Sect. III. Depuration.
185. There are different methods of depurating or
purifying liquors from their feculences, according as
the liquor itfelf is more or lefs tenacious, or the fecu¬
lent matter of greater or lefs gravity.
186. Thin fluids readily depofit their more ponde¬
rous impurities upon ftanding at reft for fome time in
a coo! place: and may then be decanted,, ox ^poured
off clear, by inclining the veffel.
187. Glutinous, undluous, or thick fubftances, are
to be liquefied by a fuitable heat ; when the groffer
feculeneies will fall to the bottom, the lighter aring to
the furface, to be defpumated or feummed off.
188,189. Where the impurities are neither fo ponde-
ous as to fubfide freely to the bottom, nor fo light as to
arife readily to the furface, they may be feparated in
great meafure by colature through drainers of linen,
woollen, or other cloth, and more perfedlly by filtra¬
tion through a foft bibulous kind of paper made for
this ufe.
190. Glutinous and unftuous liquors, which do not
eafily pafs through the pores of a filter or ftrainer, are
clarified by beating them up with whites of eggs
which concreting or growing hard when heated, and
entangling the impure matter, arife with it to the fur¬
face. The mixture is to be gently boiled till the feum
begins to break, when the veffel is to be removed from
M A C Y. 6021
the fire, the cruft taken off, and the liquor pafltd Elements,
through a flannel-bag.
191. Decantation, colature, and filtration, are ap¬
plicable to moft of the medicated liquors that (land in
need of purification. Defpumation and clarification
very rarely have place ; fince thefe, along with the
impurities of the liquor, frequently feparate its medi¬
cinal parts. Thus, if the deco&ion of poppy-heads
for making diacodium be folicitoufly feummed or cla¬
rified, (as fome have been accuftomed to do), the me¬
dicine will lofe almoft all that the poppies communi¬
cated ; and inftead of a mild opiate, turn out little
other than a plain fyrup of fugar.
192. It may be proper to obferve, that the com¬
mon forts of filtering-paper are apt to communicate a
difagreeable flavour : and hence, in filtering fine bit¬
ters, or.fther liquors whofe gratefulnefs is of prima¬
ry confequence, the part which paffes through firft
ought to be kept apart for inferior purpofes.
Sect. IV. Cryjlallization.
,93>~,I97* Water, affifted by heat, diffolves a larger
proportion of faline fubftances than it can retain when
grown cold. Hence, on the abatement of the heat,
a part of the fait feparates from the menftruum, and
concretes at the fides and bottbm of the veffel. Thefe
concretions, unlefs too haftily formed by the fudden
cooling of the liquor, or difturbed in their coalefcence
by agitation or other like caufes, prove tranfparent,
and of regular figures, refembling in appearance the
natural fprig-cryftals.
198. Different falls require different quantities of
water to keep them diffolved : and hence if a mixture
of two or more be diffolved in this fluid, they will be¬
gin to feparate and cryftallize at different periods of
the evaporation. Upon this foundation falls are freed
not only from fuch impurities as water is not capable
of diffolving and carrying through the pores of a filter,
but likewite from admixtures of one another; that
which requires moft water to diffolve in (hooting firth
into cryftals.
Sect. V. Precipitation.
199. By this operation, bodies are recovered from
their folutions by means of the addition of fome other
fubftance, with which either the menftruum, or the
body diffolved, have a greater affinity than they have
with one another.
200. 201. Precipitation, therefore, is of two kinds;
one where the fubftance fuperadded unites with the men¬
ftruum, and occafions that before diffolved to be thrown
down ; the other, in which it unites with the diffolved
body, and falls along with it to the bottom. _ Of the
firft we have an example in the-precipitation of ful-
phur from alkaline lixivia by the means of the acid ;
of the fecond, in the precipitation of mercury from
aquafortis by fea-falt or its acid.
189. Where metals are employed as precipitants,
as in the purification of martial vitriol from copper,
by the addition of frefti irony they ought to be per¬
fectly clean and free from any nifty or greafy matter:
otherwife they will not readily, if at all, diffolve, and
confequently the precipitation will not fucceed ; for
the fubftance to be precipitated feparates only by the
additional one diffolving and taking its place. The
feparated
6022 P H A R
Element?. fe para ted powder oftentimes, inflead of falling to the
bottom, lodges upon the precipitant ; from which it
muft b.e occafionally lhaken off, forreafons fufiiciently
obvious.
203. Though in this operation the precipitated
powder is generally the part required for ufe, yet fome
advantage may frequently be made of the liquor re¬
maining after the precipitation. Thus when fixed al¬
kaline fait is diffolved in water, and fulphur diffolved
in this/ ixivium, the addition of acids feparates and
throws down the fulphur, only in virtue of the acid
uniting with and neutralizing the alkali by which the
fulphur was held diffolved ; confequently, if the pre¬
cipitation is made with the vitriolic acid, and the acid
gradually dropped in till the alkali is completely fa-
tiated, that is, fo long as it continues to occafion any
precipitation or turbidnefs, the liquor will yield, by
proper evaporation and cryftaliizaiion, a neutral fait,
compofed of the vitriolic acid and fixed alkali, that is,
vitriolated tartar. In like manner, if the precipita¬
tion is made with the nitrous acid, a true nitre may
be recovered from the liquor ; if with the marine, the
fait called fpiritus falls marini coagulatus ; and if with
the acid of vinegar, the fal diurcticus.
Sect. VI. Evaporation.
204. This is a third method of recovering foil'd bo¬
dies from their folutions, effefted by the means of heat;
which evaporating the fluid part, that is, forcing it
off in fleam, the matter which was diffolved therein is
left behind in its folid form.
205. This procefs is applicable to the folutions of
all thofe fubftances which ate left volatile than the
menftruum, or which will not exhale by the heat re-
quifite for the evaporation of the fluid; as the folutions
of fixed alkaline falls, of the gummy, gelatinous, and
other inodorous parts of vegetables and animals in wa¬
ter, and of many refinous and odorous fubftances in
fpirit of wine.
206. Water extra&s the virtues of fundry fragrant
aromatic herbs almoft as perfe&ly as redlified fpirit of
wine : but the aqueous infufions are far from being
equally fuited to this procefs with thofe made in fpi¬
rit ; water carrying off the whole odour and flavour of
the fubjed, which that lighter liquor leaves entire be¬
hind it. Thus a watery infufion of mint lofes in eva¬
poration the fmell, tatle, and virtues of the herb ;
whilft a tin&ure drawn with pure fpirit yields, on the
fame treatment, a thick balfamic liquid, or folid gum¬
my refin, extremely rich in the peculiar qualities of
the mint.
207. In evaporating thefe kinds of liquors, parti¬
cular care mult be had, towards the end of the pro¬
cefs, that the heat be very gentle ; otherwife the mat¬
ter as it grows thick will burn to the veffel, and con-
trad a difagreeable fmell and tafte : this burnt flavour
is called an empyreuma. The liquor ought to be kept
ilirring during the evaporation ; otherwife a part of
the matter concretes on the furface expofed to the air,
and forms a pellicle which impedes the farther evapo¬
ration.
Sect VII. DiJHllation.
208. In the foregoing operation, fluids are rarefied
M A C Y. Part I.
by heat into fleam or vapour, which is fuffered to ex- Elements,
hale in the air, but which the bufinefs of this is to col*
led and preferve. For this purpofe the fleam is re¬
ceived in proper veffels, luted to that in which the fub-
jed is contained; and being there cooled, condenfes
into a fluid form again.
209. There are two kinds of diftillation : by the
one, the more fubtle and volatile parts of liquors are
elevated from the grofler; by the other, liquids, in¬
corporated with folid bodies, are forced out from them
by vehemence of fire.
210. Tothefirft belongs the diftillation of the pure
inflammable fpirit from vinous liquors, and of fuch of
the adive parts of vegetables as are capable of being
extraded by boiling water or fpirit, and at the fame
time of arifing along with their fleam.
211. As boiling water extrads or diffolves the ef-
fential oils of vegetables whilft blended with the
other principles of the fubjed without faturation, but
imbibes only a determinate, and that a fmall, portion
of them in their pure ftate; as thefe oils are the only
fubftances contained in common vegetables, which prove
totally volatile in that degree of heat; and as it is in
them that the virtues of aromatics, and the peculiar
odour and flavour of all plants, refide; it is evident that
water may be impregnated, by diftillation, with the
more valuable parts of many vegetables: that this im¬
pregnation is limited, the oil arifing in this procefs
pure from thofe parts of the plant which before ren¬
dered it foluble in water without limitation ; hence
greateft part of the oil feparates from the diftilled aque¬
ous liquor, and, according to its greater or lefs gravity,
either finks to the bottom or fwims on the furface :
that confequently infufions and diftilled waters are
greatly different from one another: that the firft may
be rendered ftronger and flronger by pouring the li¬
quor on frefh parcels of the fubjed; but that the lat¬
ter cannot be in like manner improved by cohobating,
or rediftilling them from frefh ingredients.
212. As the oils of many vegetables do not freely
diftil with a lefs heat than that in which water boils,
as redified fpirit of wine is not fufceptible of this de¬
gree of heat, and as this menttruum totally diffolves
thefe oils in their pure ftate; it follows, that fpirit ele¬
vates far lefs from moll vegetables than water; but
that neverthelcfs the diftilled fpirit, by keeping all
that it does elevate perfedly diffolved, may. in fome
cafes, prove as ftrong of the fubjed as the diftilled
water.
213. The apparatus made ufe of for diftilling fpi-
rits, waters, and oils, confilts of a fill, or copper veffel,
for containing the fubjed, on which is luted a large
head with a fwan neck. The vapour arifing into the
head, is thence conveyed through a ’worm, or long fpi-
ral pipe, placed in a vefftl of cold water tailed a refri~
geratory; and being there condenfed, runs down into
a receiver.
214. It may be obferved, that as the parts which
are preferved in evaporation cannot arife in diftillation,
the liquor remaining after the diftillation, properly de¬
purated and infpiffated, will yield the fame extrads as
thofe prepared from the tindure or doodion of the
the fubjed made on purpofe for that ui : the o - of
thefe operations colleding only the volatile parts, and
PHARMACY.
Part T.
Elements the other the more fixed ; fo that where one fubjrft
■ ““contains medicinal parts of both kinds, they may thus
be obtained diftindt, without one being injured by the
procefs which collefts the other.
215, 216, 217. The fubjefts of the fecond kind of
diftillation are, the grofs oils of vegetables and animals,
the mineralacidfpirits.andthemetallicfluid quickfilver;
which as they require a much ftronger degree of heat
to elevate them than the foregoing liquors can fuftain,
fo they likewife condenfe without arifing fo far from
the aftion of the fire. The diftillation of thefe is per¬
formed in low glnfs-veflels, called, from their neck be¬
ing bent to one fide, retorts: to the farther end of the
neck a receiver is luted, which Handing without the
furnace, the vapours foon condenfe in it, without the
ufe of a refrigeratory: neverthelefs, to promote this
effedt, fome are accuftomed, efpecially in warm wea¬
ther, to cool the receiver, by occafionally applying wet
cloths to it, or keeping it partly immerfed in a vefiel
of cold water.
Sect. VIII. Sublimation.
218. As all fluids are volatile by heat, and confe-
quently capable of being feparated, in moft cafes, from
fixed matters by the foregoing procefs; fo various fo-
lid bodies are fubjedted to a limilar treatment. Fluids
are faid to dijlil, and folids to fiiblime; though fome-
times both are obtained in one and the fame operation.
If the fubliming matter concretes into a mafs, it is com¬
monly called a fubliniate; if into a powdery form,
firwers.
219. The principal fubjedls of this operation are,
volatile alkaline falts; neutral falls, compofed of vola¬
tile alkalies and acids, as fal ammoniac; the fait of am¬
ber, and flowers of benzoin; mercurial preparations;
and fulphur. Bodies of themfelves not volatile are fre¬
quently made to fublime by the mixture of volatile
ones: thus iron is carried up by fal ammoniac in the
preparation of the flores wartiales.
220. The fumes of folid bodies in clofe veflels rife
but little way, and adhere to that part of the veflel
where they concrete. Hence a receiver or condenfer
is lefs neceflary here than in the preceding operation ;
a Angle veflel, as a matrafs, or tall vial, or the like,
being frequently fufficient. The moft commodious ap¬
paratus for the fublimation of particular fubftances, and
the moft advantageous method of conducing the feve-
ral proceflts, will be afterwards delivered.
Sect. IX. Exprejjlon.
221. The prefs is chiefly made ufe of for forcing
out the juices of fucculent herbs and fruits, and the
infipid oils of the unftuous feeds and kernels.
222. The harder fruits, as quinces, require to be
previoufly well beat or ground ; but herbs are to be
only moderately bruifed. The fubjeft is then inclu¬
ded in a hair-bag, and prefled betwixi wooden plates,
in the common fcrew-prefs, as long as any juice runs
from it.
223. The expreflion of oils is performed nearly in
the fame manner as that of juices; only here, iron plates
are fubftitnted to the wooden ones there made ufe of.
The fubjrdf is well pounded, and included in a ftrong
canvas-bag, betwixt which and the plates of the prefs
a hair-cloth is interpofed.
224. The infipid oils of all the unAuous feeds are
obtained, uninjured, by this operation, if performed"
without the ufe of heat, which though it greatly pro¬
motes the extra&ion of the oil, at the fame time im-
prefles an ungrateful flavour, and increafes its difpofi-
tion to grow rancid.
225. The oils exprefled from aromatic fubftances
generally carry with them a portion of their eflential
oil: hence the fmell and flavour of the exprefled oils of
nutmegs and mace. They are very rarely found im¬
pregnated with any of the other qualities of the fub-
jetft: oil of muftard fted, for inftance, is as foft and
void of acrimony as that of almonds, the pungency of
the muftard remaining entire in the cake left after the
expreflion.
Sect. X. Exficcation.
226. There are two general methods of exficcating
or drying moift-bodies: in one, their humid parts are
exhaled by heat j in the other, they are imbibed or
abforbed by fubftances whofe foft and fpongy tex¬
ture adapts them to that ufe. Bodies intimately com¬
bined with or dificived in a fluid, as recent vegetables
and their juices, require the firft ; fuch as are only fu.
perficiaily mixed, as when earthy or indiflbluble pow¬
ders are ground with water, are commodioufly fepara¬
ted from it by the fecond.
227. Vegetables and their parts ate ufually exficca-
ted by the natural warmth of the air; the afiiftance of
a gentle artificial heat may, neverthelefs, in general,
be not only lafely, but advantageoufly had recourfe to.
By a moderate fire, even the more tender flowers may
be dried in a little time, without any lofs either of their
odour or lively colour; which would both be greatly
injured or detlroyed by a more flow exficcation in the
air. Some plants indeed, particularly thofe of the acrid
kind, as horfe-radifh, feurvy grafs, and arum,lofe their
virtues by this procefs, however carefully performed;
but far the greater number retain them unimpaired,
and oftentimes improved.
228. The thicker vegetable juices may be exficca-
ted by the heat of the fun; or, where this is not fuffi-
cient, by that of a water bath, or an oven moderately
warm. The thinner juices may be gently boiled till
they begin to thicken, and then treated as the forego¬
ing : this procefs,' termed infpijfation or evaporation,
has been fpoken of already. The juices of fome plants,
as arum-root,'briony-root, orris-root, wild cucumbers,
&c. feparate, upon ttanding for fome time, into a thick
part which falls to the bottom, and a thin aqueous
one which fwims above it: this laft is to be poured off,
and the firft exficcated by a gentle warmth: prepara¬
tions of this kind have b< en ulually called fxcula; that
of the wild cucumber, is the only one which pra&ice
now retains.
229. Indiflbluble bodies mixed with water into a
thick confiftence, may be eafily freed from the greatefl
part of it, by dropping them on a ehalk-ftone, or fome
powdered chalk prefled into a fmooth mafs, which rea¬
dily imbibes their humidity. Where the quantity of
fluid is large, as in the edulcoration of precipitates, it
may be feparated by decantation or filtration.
Sect. XL Comminution.
230. Comminution is the bare redu&ion of folid
coherent
6023
Elements-
6024 P H A R
iElements. coherent bodies into fmall particles or powder. The
■   methods of effefling this are various, according to the
texture of the fubjeft.
231. Dry friable bodies, or fuch as are brittle and
not very hard, and mixtures of thefe with fomewhat
moift ones, are eafily pulverized in a mortar.
232. For very light dry fubttances, refins, and the
roots of a tenacious texture, the mortar may in fome
cafes be previoufly rubbed with a little fweet oil, ora
few drops of oil be occafionally added: this prevents
the finer powder of the firft from flying off, and the
others from cohering under the peftle. Camphor is
moft commodioufly powdered, by rubbing it with a
little redtified fpirit of wine.
233. Tough fubftances, as woods, the peels of
oranges and lemons, &c. are moft conveniently rajped;
and foft oily bodies, as nutmegs, pafled through a
grater.
234. The comminution of the harder minerals, as
calamine, cryftal, flint, &c. is greatly facilitated by
extin£iion; that is, by heating them red hot, and
quenching them in water: by repeating this procefs a
few times, moft of the hard ftones becomes eafily pul-
verable. This procefs, however, is not to be applied
to any of the alkaline or calcareous ftones ; left, in-
ftead of an infipid powder, we produce an acrimonious
calx or lime.
235. Some metals, as tin, though ftrongly cohering,
in their natural ftate, prove extremely brittle when
heated, infomuch as to be eafily divided into fmall par¬
ticles by dextrous agitation. Hence the officinal me¬
thod of pulverifing tin, by melting it, and, at the in-
flant of its beginning to return into a ftate of folidity,
brifitly fhaking it in a wooden box. The comminution
of metals in this manner is termed by the metallur-
gifts granulation.
236. On a fimilar principle, certain falls, as nitre,
may be reduced into powder in large quantity, by
diffolving them in boiling water, fetting the folution
over a moderate fire, and keeping the fait conftantly
ftirring during its exficcation, fo as to prevent its par¬
ticles, disjoined by the fluid, from re-uniting together
into larger mafles.
237. Powders are reduced to a great degree of
finenefs by triturating or rubbing them for a length
of time in a mortar. Such as are not diflbluble in wa¬
ter, or injured by the admixture of that fluid, are moi-
ftened with it into the confiftence of a pafte, and levi¬
gated or ground on a flat fmooth marble or iron
plate or where a large quantity is to be prepared at
times,,, in mills made for that ufe.
238. Comminution, though one of the moft Ample
operations of pharmacy, has, in many cafes, verycon-
fider«ble effedis. The refinous purgatives, when fine¬
ly triturated, are more eafily foluble in the animal-
fluids, and confequently prove more cathartic and lefs
irritating than in their grofler ftate. Crude antimony,
which when reduced to a tolerably fine powder dif-
covers little medicinal virtue, if levigated to a great
degree of fubtlety, proves a powerful alterative in
many chronical diforders.
239. By comminution, the heavieft bodies may be
made to float in the lighteft fluids, for a longer or
fhorter time, according to their greater or lefs degree
of tenuity. Hence we are furnifhed with an excellent
M A C Y. Part I. |
criterion of the finenefs of certain powders* and a me- Elements.;
thod of feparating the more fubtle parts from the  
grofler, diftinguilhed by the name of elutriation, or
wajhing over. See 275, &c.
Sect. XII. Fujion.
240. Fusion is the reduction of folid bodies into
a ftate of fluidity by fire. Almoft all natural fubftan¬
ces, the pure earths and the folid parts of animals
and vegetables excepted, melt in proper degrees of
fire ; fome in a very gentle heat, whilft others require
its Utmoft violence.
241. Turpentine, and other foft refinous fubftances,
liquefy in a gentle warmth ; wax, pitch, fulphur, and
the mineral bitumens, require a heat too great for the
hard to fupport; fixed alkaline falls, common fait, and
nitre, require a red or almoft white heat to melt them;
and glafs, a full white heat.
242. Among metallic fubftances, tin, bifmuth, and
lead, flow long before ignition : antimony likewife
melts before it is vifibly red-hot, but not before the
veflel is confiderably fo: the regulus of antimony de¬
mands a much ftronger fire. Zinc begins to melt in a
red heat ; gold and filver require a low white heat;
copper, a bright white heat; and iron, an extreme
white heat.
243. One body, rendered fluid by heat, becomes
fometimes a menftruum for another not fufibJe of it-
felf in the fame degree of fire. Thus red-hot filver
melts on being thrown into melted lead lefs hot than
itfelf: and thus if fteel, heated to whitenefs, be taken
out of the furnace, and applied to a roll of fulphur ;
the fulphur inftantly liquefying, occafions the fteel to
melt with it; hence the chalyis cum fulphure of the
fliops. This concrete, neverthelefs, remarkably im¬
pedes the fufion of fome other metals, as lead, which,
when united with a certain quantity of fulphur, is
fcarce to be perfectly melted by a very ftrong fire :
hence the method, deferibed in its place, of purifying
zinc, a metal which fulphur has no effeft upon, from
the lead fo frequently mixed with it.
244. Sulphur is the only unmetallic fubftance which
mingles in fufion with metals. Earthy, faline, and
other like matters, even the calces and glafles prepared
from metals themfelves, float diftindl upon the furface,
and form what is called fcoria or drofs. Where the
quantity of this is large in proportion to the metal, it
is moft commodioufly feparated by pouring the whole
into a conical mould : the pure metal or regular, tho*
fmall in quantity, occupies a confiderable height in
the lower narrow part of the cone, and when con¬
gealed may be eafiiy freed from the fcoriae by a
hammer. The mould fliould be previoufly greafed,
or rather fmoked, to make the metal come freely out;
and thoroughly dried and heated, to prevent the explo-
fion which fometimes happens from the fudden contaft
of melted metals with moift bodies.
Sect. XIII. Calcination.
245. By calcination is underftood the rednftion of
folid bodies by the means of fire, from a coherent to a
powdery ftate, accompanied with a change of their
quality; in which laft refpeA this procefs differs from
co'mminution.
246. To this head belong the burning of vege¬
table
Part II. P H A R
Elements, table and animal matters, otberwife called ujiion, inci-
" iteration, or concremation ; and the change of metals
into a powder, which in the fire either does not melt,
or vitrifies, that is, runs into glafs.
247. The metals which melt before ignition, are cab
cined by keeping them in fufion for fome time. The
free admiffion of air is eflentially neceffary to the fuc-
cefs of this operation ; and hence, when the furface of
the metal appears covered with calx, this muft be ta¬
ken off or raked to one fide; otherwife, the remain¬
der, excluded from the air, will not undergo the change
intended. If any coal, or other inflammable matter that
does not contain a mineral acid, be fuffered to fall into
the veflel, the effefl expedted from this operation will
not be produced, and part of wbat is already calcined
will be revived or reduced; that is, it will return into
its metallic form again.
248. Thofe metals which require a llrong fire to
melt in, calcine with a much lefs heat than is fufficient
to make them flow'. Hence the burning or fcorifica-
tion of fuch iron or copper veflels as are loqg expofed
to a confiderable fire without defence from the air.
Gold and filver are not calcinable by any degree of fire.
249. In calcination, the metals vifibly emit fumes;
neverthelefs, the weight of the calx proves greater than
that of the metal employed. The antimonial regulus-
gains about one-eleventh part of its weight; zinc,
fometimes one-tenth ; tin, above one-fixth ; and lead,
in its converfjon into minium, oftentimes one-fourth.
250. The calcination of metallic bodies (gold, fil¬
ver, and mercury excepted) is greatly promoted by
nitre. This fait, expofed to the fire in conjunftion with
any inflammable fubftances, extricates their inflammable
matter, and burfts with it into flame, accompanied with
M A C Y.
a hilling noife : this procefs is ufually termed
tion or detonation.
251. All the metallic calces and fcorise are revived
into their metallic ftate, by fufion with any vegetable
i>r animal inflammable matter. They are all more dif¬
ficult of fufion than the refpe£tive metals themfelves ;
and fcarcely any of them, thofe of lead and bifmuth
excepted, can be made to melt at all, without fome
addition, in the ftrongeft fire that can be produced in
the common furnaces. The additions called fluxes, em¬
ployed for promoting the fufion, confift chiefly of fix¬
ed alkaline falls : a mixture of alkaline fait with in¬
flammable matter, as powdered charcoal, is called a
reducing flux, as contributing at the fame time to bring
the calx into fufion and to revive it into metal. Such a
mixture is commonly prepared from one part of nitre
and two parts of tartar ; by grinding them well toge¬
ther, fetting the powders on fire with a bit of coal
or a red-hot iron, then covering the veflel, and fuffer-
ing them to deflagrate or burn, till they are changed
into a black alkaline coaly mafs. This is the com¬
mon reducing flux of the chemifts; and is called from
its colour, the black flux. Metallic calces, or fcorias,
mingled with twice their weight of this compound,
and expofed to a proper fire, in a clofe-covered cru¬
cible, melt, and refume their metallic form : but tho*
they received an increafe of weight in the calcination,
the revived metal is always found to weigh confiderably
lefs than the quantity which the calx was made from.
For a more particular account of all thefe proctfles,
and an explanation of the principles on which they de¬
pend, fee Chemistry paflim, and the articles them¬
felves as they occur in the order of the alphabet.
Part II. PREPARATIONS and COMPOSITIONS;
Containing thofe of the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, as directed in the
last editions.
CHAP. I.
Pharmaceutical Preparations.
Sect. I. 7he more Simple Preparations.
The preparation of earthy and fuch other pulverable
bodies as will not diflblve in water.
252. Thefe fubftances are lirft to be pulverifed in a
mortar, and then levigated with a little water, upon a
hard and fmooth marble, into an impalpable powder:
this is to be dried upon a chalk-ftone, and afterwards
fet by for a few days, in a warm, or at leaft very dry
place. L.
253. After this manner are to be prepared,
254. Verdegris. L.
255. Antimony. L. E.
256. Crab's claws. L. E.
257. Coral. L. E.
258. Chalk. L. E. This is firft to be pow'dered,
and then well wafhed with water, till the latter
comes off without either colour or tafte. E.
259. Bezoar Jlone; which is to be moiftened in the
Irrigation with fpirit of yvine infteadof water. L,
Voi. VIII. 2
260. Calamine ftone, previoufly calcined, is to be
had from thofe who make brafs. L. E.
261. Blood Jlone. L. E.
262. Lapis lazuli. E.
263. Pearls. L. E.
264. Crab's eyes, fo called. L. E.
265. OyJler-Jhells, wafhed clean from dirt, (L). The
hollow fhclls are to be preferred to the plain, (E.)
becaufe they contain more of the fine white earth in
proportion to the rough outward coat; which lad
appearsto be largely impregnated with marinefalt.
266. Egg-Jhells,freed, by boiling, from the fkin that
adheres to them. L.
267. Amber. L.
268. Tutty. L. E.
269. In preparing antimony, calamine, and tutty,
particular care ought to be taken to reduce them,
into the moft fubtle powder pofiible. L.
272. Some few fubftances are more advantageouf-
ly levigated with fpirit of wine than with water.
Thus bezoar has the green colour, ufually expec¬
ted in this coftly preparation, confiderably improved
thereby. A little fpirit may be added to the other
animal-fubftances, if the weather is very hot, and large
33 2 TJan“
6025
Element?.
6026 P H A R
Prepara- quantities of them are prepared at once, to prevent
tio>ns. their running into putrefaction ; an accident which,
in thofe circumftances, fometimes happens when they
are levigated with water only. Crab’s-eyes, which
abound with animal gelatinous matter, are particularly
liable to this inconvenience.
273. The caution given above for reducing antimo¬
ny, calamine, and tutty, to the greateft fubtlety pof-
fible, demands particular attention. The tendernefa
of the parts to which the two laft are ufually applied,
requireo them to be perfectly free from any admixture
of grofs irritating particles. The firft, when not
thoroughly comminuted, might not only, by its {harp
needle-iike fpicula, wound the ftomach, but likewife
anfwers few valuable purpofes as a medicine, proving
either an ufelefs. load upon the vifcera, or at beft
palling off without any other fenfible effeCt than an in-
creafe of the groffer evacuations; whilft, if reduced to
a great degree of finenefs, it turns out to be a medicine
of confiderable efficacy.
274. The moft fuccefsful method of obtaining thefe
powders of the requifite tenuity, is to wafh off the
finer parts by means of water, and continue levigating
the remainder till the whole becomes fine enough to
remain for fome time fufpended in the fluid. The pro-
cefs is thus directed in the Edin. Pharm.
A quantity of water is to be poured upon the levigated
powder, in a large veffel, and the veffel repeatedly
fhaken, that the finer parts of the powder may be
diffufed through the water: the liquor is then to be
poured off, and fet by till the powder fettles. The
grofs part, which the water would not take up, is to
be further levigated, and treated in the fame manner.
After this method are prepared antimony, calamine,
tutty, bloodftone, chalk, and lapis lazuli.
275. By this method, which is that commonly
praCtifed in the preparation of colours for the painter,
powders may be obtained of any required degree of te¬
nuity ; and without the lead mixture of the grofs parts,
which are always found to remain in them after long
•continued levigation : all the coarfer matter fettles at
firft, and the finer powder continues fufpended in the
water, longer and longer, in proportion to the de¬
gree of its finenefs. The fame procefs may likewife
be advantageoufly applied to other hard pulverable bo¬
dies of the mineral kingdom, or artificial preparations
of them ; provided they are not foluble in, or fpecifi-
cally lighter than, water. The animal and abforbent
powders, crab’s-claws, crab’s-eyes, oyfter-(hells, egg-
fhells, chalk, pearl, coral, and bezoar, are not well
adapted to this treatment ; nor indeed do they require
it. Thefe fubftances are readily foluble in acid juices
without much comminution : if no acid is contained in
the firft paffages, they are apt to concrete, with the
mucous matter ufually lodged there, into hard indiffo-
luble mafles; the greater degree of finenefs they are
reduced to, the more are they difpofed to form fuch
concretions, and enabled to obftrudl the orifices of the
fmall vefiels.
276. "The purification or trying of hog's lard and mut¬
ton fuet. L.
(phop them into fmall pieces, and melt them by a
gentle heat, with the addition of a little water}
then ftrain them from the membranes.
M A C Y. Part II.
The ufe of the water is to prevent the fat from Prepwa-
burning and turning black ; which it does very effec- tlons°
tually, though it fomewhat prolongs the procefs, and''*
is likewife apt to be in part imbibed by the fat.
277. The purification of viper's fat. L.
Let the fat, feparated from the inteftines, be melted
by a gentle fire, and then prefled thro’ a thin linen
cloth.
The quantity of this fat ufually purified at a time is
fo fmall, that the heat may be eafily regulated fo as
to prevent burning, without the addition of any water.
278. The defpumation or clarifying of honey. L. E.
Let the honey be liquefied in a water-bath, (that is*
by fetting the veflel containing the honey in a vef-
fcl of hot water), and the fcum which arifes taken
off.
The intention of this procefs is to purify the honey
from wax or other droffy matters that have been united
with it by the violence of the prefs in its feparation
from the comb, and from meal and fuch like fubftan¬
ces which are fometimes fraudulently mingled with
it. When the honey is rendered liquid and thin by
the heat, thefe lighter matters rife freely to the fur-
face.
279. The drying of fquilli.
Let the fquill, cleared from its outer {kin, be cut
tranfverfely into thin flices, and dried with a very
gentle heat. L. The operation is known to have
been fuccefsfully performed when the fquill becomes
brittle without lofing its acrimony and bitternefs. E.
By this method the fquill dries much fooner than
when only its feveral coats are feparated, as has been
ufually diredted; the internal part being here laid bare,
which, in each of the entire coats, is covered with a
thin Ikin, which impedes the exhalation of the moi-
fture. The root lofes, in this procefs, four fifths of its
original weight ; the parts which exhale appear to
be merely watery: hence fix grains of the dry root
are equivalent to half a dram of it when frelh ; a cir-
cumftance to be particularly regarded in the exhibition
• of this medicine.
280. The burning of fpsnge.
Burn the fponge in a clofe earthen vcffel, until it be¬
comes black and eafily friable, then powder it in a
glafs or marble mortar. L. The fponge is to be cut
in fmall pieces, and well freed from earthy matters
previous to the operation, and is to be frequently
itirred during the time of burning, is.
This medicine, only lately received in the difpenfa-
tory, has been in ufe for a confiderable time, and em¬
ployed againft fcrophulous diforders and cutaneous
foulneffes, in dofes of a fcruple and upwards. Its vir¬
tues feem to depend upon a volatile fait, juft formed
and combined with its own oil; if the fponge be di¬
ddled with a ftronger heat, it yields a large proportion
of that fait in its proper form. The fait is in this pre¬
paration fo far extricated, that if the burnt fponge be
ground m a brafs mortar, it corrodes the metal, fo as
to contract a difagreeable taint, and fometimes an eme¬
tic quality.
A good deal of addrefs is requifite for managing
this
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- this procefs in perfeftion. The fponge ftiould be cut
t!on!!- fmall, and beaten for fome time in a mortar, that all
the (tony matters may be got out, which, compared
with the weight of the fponge when prepared, will
fometimes amount to a conlidtrable quantity. The
burning fhould be difcontinued as foon as ever the mat¬
ter is become thoroughly black. If the quantity put
into the vefl'el at once is large, the outfide will be fuf-
ficiently burnt before the infide is affe&ed ; and the
volatile fait of the former will in part efcape before
that in the latter is begun to be formed. The beft me¬
thod of avoiding this inconvenience feems to be, to
keep the fponge continually ftirring, in fuch a machine
as is ufed for the roafting of coffee.
281. “The calcination of hartjhorn. L.
Burn pieces of hartfhorn in a potter’s furnace, till they
become perfe&ly white; then powder and levigate
them after the fame manner as the other earthy bo¬
dies.
The intention here is, totally to burn out and expel
the oil, fait, and other volatile parts, fo as to leave
only a white infipid animal earth. For this purpofe, a
ftrong fire and the free admiffion of air are neceffary.
The potter’s furnace is dire&ed merely for the fake of
convenience ; where this is not to be had, any com¬
mon furnace or ftove may be made to ferve: on the
bottom of the grare fpread fome lighted charcoal, and
above this lay the horns. The whole will burn vehe¬
mently ; the vegetable matter is reduced to afhes; and
the horns are burnt to whitenefs, ftill retaining their
original form, by which they are eafily diftinguifhed
from the other: they ought to be feparated as foon as
grown cold, to prevent their imbibing any fixed fait
from the vegetable afhes moiftened by the air. The
horns left after the diftillation of the volatile fait and
oil ofihartfhorn are as proper for this ufe as any other;
that procefs only colleding fuch parts as are here dif-
fipated in the air.
Calcined hartfhorn is the pureft of the animal ab-
forbent powders; as being perfedfly free from any
glutinous or oily matter, which moft of the others
abound with. It appears neverthelefs to be one of the
weakeft in abforbent power, or the moft difficult of-fo-
lution in acids.
282. The extrafiion ef pulps. L.
Unripe pulpy fruits, and ripe ones if they are dry, are
to be boiled in a fmall quantity of water until they
become foft ; then prefs out the pulp thro’ a ftrong
“ hair-fieve, and afterwards boil it down to a due
confiftence, in an earthen veffel, over a gentle fire;
taking care to keep the matter continually ftirring,
to prevent its burning.
283. The pulp of cafia fiftularis is in like manner to
be boiled out from the bruifed pod, and reduced af¬
terwards to a proper confiftence, by evaporating
the water.
284. The pulps of fruits that are both ripe and frefh,
are to be preffed out thro’ the fieve, without any
previous boiling.
2'85. The firaining of for ax. L.
Soften ftorax calamita in hot water; then prefs it out
betwixt warm iron plates; and feparat? the ftorax*
M A C Y. 6027
now purified, from the water. Prepant-
Thc ftorax commonly met with, ftands greatly In tlons*.„
need of purification. It contains a large quantity of
woody matter, which this procefs effedlually frees it
from, though in other refpe&s liable to fome inconve¬
niences. The woody fubftance in fome meafure de¬
fends the ftorax from the aftion of the prefs, and re¬
tains part of it behind ; at the fame time that the fto¬
rax is apt to fuffer a confiderable diffipation of its vo¬
latile parts, in which its fragrance and principal virtue
confift. To prevent as much as poffible this laft in¬
convenience, the operator ought carefully to avoid
ufing a greater heat than is absolutely necefiary; and
as foon as the ftorax is fufficiently foftened, to be expe¬
ditious in the draining of it.
Storax may be excellently purified by means of fpi-
rit of wine, which this refin totally diffolves in, fo as
to pafs thro’ a filtre, the impurities alone being left.
If the ftorax is afterwards wanted in a folid form, it
may be recovered from this folution by gently diftilling
off the fpirit, which will elevate very little of its fla¬
vour, or by pouring to it a quantity of water. See
Sedt. vi. $ 3.
286. Strained opium, or the Thebaic extraft. L.
Take of opium, cut into flices, one pound ; difiblveh
into the confiftence of a pulp, in a pint of boiling
water, with care to prevent its burning; and whillt
it remains quite hot, ftrongly prefs it from the fe¬
ces, thro’a linen-cloth ; the drained opium is then
to be reduced, by a water-bath or other gentle heat,
' to its original confiftence.
Opium, thus foftened by a fmall quantity of water,
paffes the ftrainer entire, the fasces only being left
behind. If it was diflblved in a large quantity of
water, its refinous and gummy parts would be fepa¬
rated from one another.
Where large quantities of opium are purified at
once, the infpiflation is moft commodioufly performed
in a water-bath; but fmall quantities may be very
fafely infpiflated, by placing the veflel immediately
over a gentle fire, the matter being kept ftirring, and
the veffel occafionally removed from the fire whenever
there is any fufpicion of its becoming too hot. The
groffer impurities of the opium are by this procefs ef-
fedtually feparated; but fome of its heterogeneous ad¬
mixtures, confifting chiefly of duft and farinaceous
matters, are fo fine, as partly to pafs along with it
through the pores of the ftrainer when dilated by the
prefs: this manifeftly appears upon boiling the drained
opium in water, and afterwards in fpirit; when a con¬
fiderable quantity of earthy matter will be left, whicli
is not foluble in either of thofe menftrua.
287. The other gums, as ammoniacum, galbanum,
afafcetida, and the like, are purified after the fame
manner; only here a larger quantity of water may be
made ufe of without injury. If the refinous part hap¬
pens to fubfide, take it out, and referve it to be added
again towards the end of the infpifi'ation, that it may
unite with the reft into one uniform mafs.
Any gum that melts eafily, as galbanum, may like-
wife be purified by including it in a bladder, and keep¬
ing it in boiling water, until the gum becomes foft
enough to be preffed from its impurities through a
canvas ftrainer. L.
33 2 2
288. Pri*
6028
Ftepara- 288. Preparation of millepedet, &c.
tlonS* The millepedes are to be inclofed in a thin canvas-
cloth, and fufpended over hot fpirit of wine, in a
clofe veffel, till they are killed by the fteam, and
rendered friable. Z. Z.
Purification of iron filings.—Let the filings be laid
upon a fieve, and a magnet applied below, fo that
they may be gradually attra&ed through it. E.
Preparation of iron filings.—Let purified filings of iron
be laid in a moiit place till they fall down in ruft,
which is to be rubbed into an exceeding fine pow¬
der. E.
Sect. II. Subjlances extracted from Vegetables
by Expreffiton.
§. 1. Juices.
289. Juices are obtained from the fucculent parts of
plants, by including them, after being properly cut,
bruifed, &c. in a hair-bag, and preffing them, be¬
twixt wooden checks, in the common fcrew-prefs,
as long as any liquor drops from them.
290. The harder fruits require to be previoufly well
beaten or ground; but herbs are to be only moderately
' bruifed; for if thefe are over bruifed, a large quantity
of the herbaceous matter will be forced out along withthe
juice. Hempen or woollen bags are apt to communi¬
cate a difagreeable flavour; the threads of thefe like-
wife fwell in proportion as they imbibe moifture, fo as
in great meafure to prevent the free percolation of the
juice.
291. The fluids thus extrafted from fucculent fruits,
both of the acid and fweet kind ; from mod of the
acrid herbs, as fcurvy-grafs and water-creffes; from the
acid herbs, as forrel and wood-forrel; from the aperi¬
ent la&efcent plants, as dandelion and hawkweed; and
from fundry other vegetables, contain great part of
the peculiar tafte and virtues of the refpedtive fubjefts.
The juices, on the other hand, extra&ed from moft of
the aromatic herbs, as thpfe of mint and the fragrant
Turkey balm, commonly called balm of gilead, have
fcarce any thing of the flavour of the plants, and feem
to differ little from deco&ionsof them, made in water,
boiled till the volatile odorous parts have been difiipa-
ted. Many of the odoriferous flowers, as the lily,
violet, hyacinth, not only impart nothing of their fra¬
grance to their juice, but have it totally deftroyed by
the previous bruifing. From want of fufficient atten¬
tion to thefe particulars, practitioners have been fre-
qyently deceived in the effeds of preparations of this
clafs: juice of mint has been often prefcribed as a fto-
machic, though it wants thofe qualities by which
mint itfelf, and its other preparations, operate in that
intention.
292. The juices thus forcibly preffed out from plants,
differ from thofe which flow fpontaneoufly or from in-
cifions; thefe laft confifting chiefly of fuch fluids as are
not diffufed through the whole fubftance of the vege¬
table fnbjed, but elaborated in diflind veffcls, or fe-
cretedinto particular receptacles. From poppy-heads,
{lightly wounded, there iffues a thick milky liquor,
which dries, by a moderate warmth, into opium; whilft
the juice obtained from them by preffure is of a dark
green colour, and far weaker virtue.
293. Juices newly exprcffed are generally thick,
Part II.
vifcid, and very impure : by colature, a quantity of Prepara-
grofs matter is feparated, the juice becomes thinner, tl0ns•
limpid, and better fitted for medicinal purpofes, though
as yet not entirely pure: on (landing, it becomes
again turbid, and apt to run into a fermentative or
putrefadive (late. Clarification with whiles of eggs
renders the juices more perfedly fine; but there are
few that will bear this treatment without a manifeft
injury to their flavour, tafte, and virtue.
294. The mod effedual method of purifying and
preferving thefe liquors is, to let the drained liquors
ftand in a cool place till they have depofited their grof-
fer feces, and then gently pafs them feveral times thro’
a fine (trainer till perfedly clear; when about ^th
part their weight of good fpirit of wine may be added,
and the whole fuffered to ftand as before: a frefti fe-
diment will now be depofited, from which the liquor
is to be poured off, drained again, and put into fmall
bottles that have been waftied with fpirits and dried.
A little oil is to be poured on the furface, fo as very
nearly to fill the bottles, and the mouths clofed with
leather, paper, or (lopped with draw, as the flaflts in
which Florence wine is brought to us: this ferves to
keep out dud, and fuffers the air, which in procefs of
time arifes from all vegetable liquors, to efcape; which
air would otherwife endamger the burfting of the
glaffes, or, being imbibed afrefti, render their contents
vapid and foul. The bottles are to be kept on the
bottom of a good cellar or vault, placed up to the necks
in fand. By this method, juices may be preferved a
year or two; and fome for much longer time.
295. Thefcorlutic juices, &c.
Take of the juice of garden fcurvy-grafs, two pints;
brooklime, water-creffes, each one pint ; Seville
oranges, a pint and quarter. Mix them together,
let them ftand till the feces have fubfided, and then
either pour the liquor off clear, or pafs it through a
drainer. L.
Take of juice of garden fcurvy-grafs, oranges, water-
creffes, each two pints ; fpirituous nutmeg-water,
half a pint. Mix all together, and fet by the liquor
till the feces have fubfided; then pour off the clear.
E.
Thefe juices are of confiderable ufe for the purpofes
expreffed in the title; and may be taken, from an ounce
or two to a quarter of a pint, two or three times a
day. They generally increafe the urinary fecretion,
and fometimes introduce a laxative habit.
296. Infpijfiated juice, commonly called extrafl, of
'wolfi/bane.
Let the frefti leaves of wolffbane be included in a can¬
vas bag, and ftrongly fqueezed in a prefs, in order
to give out their juice, which is to be infpiffated to
the confidence of thick honey, in veffels expofed to
the fteam of boiling water, keeping it carefully ftir-
ring towards the end.
After the fame manner are prepared the infpiffated
juices or extracts of belladonna, flammula jovis,
hyofciamus, and ftramonium. E.
297. Infpijfated juice, or extratt, of hemlock.
Having expreffed the juice of the frefh leaves and ftalks
of hemlock while ia flower, as dire&ed for wolfs¬
bane,
PHARMACY.
Part II.
Prcpara- bane, and infplffated it to the confidence of honey;
tionf. ]et tjie whole cool, and then add as much of the
" ^ powder of dried hemlock-leaves as is fufBcient to
make the mafs of a due confiltency for pills. Care,
however, muft be taken, that the evaporation pro¬
ceed only as far as to admit about a fifth part of the
powder.
$ 2. Expressed oils.
298. Expressed oils are obtained chiefly from certain
feeds and kernels of fruits, by thoroughly pounding
them in a ftonermortar, or, where the quantities are
large, grinding them in mills, and then including
them in a canvas bag, which is wrapped in a hair¬
cloth, and ftrongly prefled betwixt iron plates. The
canvas, if employed alone, would be fqueezed fo clofe
to the plates of the prefs as to prevent the oil from
running down : by the interpofition of the hair¬
cloth, a free paflage is allowed it.
299. Sundry machines have been contrived both for
grinding the fubjeft and prefiing out the oil, in the
way of bufinefs. To facilitate the expreflion, it is cufto-
mary to warm either the plates of the prefs, or the fub-
je& itfclf after the grinding, by keeping it ftirring in
a proper veflel over the fire: the oil, liquefied by the
heat, feparates more freely and more plentifully. When
the oil is dcfigned for medicinal purpofes, this praftice
is not to be allowed: for heat, efpecially if its degree
is fufficient to be of any confiderable advantage for
promoting the reparation, renders the oil lefs foft and
palatable, imprefles a difagreeable flavour, and increafes
its difpofition to grow rancid: hence the colleges both
of London and Edinburgh exprefsly require the ope¬
ration to be performed without heat.
Nor are the oils to be kept in a warm place after
their exprefiion. Expofed but for a few days to a
heat no greater than that of the human body, they
lofe their emollient quality, and become highly rancid
and acrimonious. Too much care cannot be taken for
preventing any tendency to this acrid irritating flate,
in medicines fo often ufed for abating immoderate ir¬
ritation.
So much are thefe oils difpofed to this injurious al¬
teration, that they frequently contradl an acrimony
and rancidity while contained in the original fub-
jefls. Hence great care is requifite in the choice of
the un&uous feeds and kernels, which are often met
with very rancid: almonds are particularly liable to in¬
conveniences of this kind*
300. ExpreflVd oils are prepared for mechanic ufes
from fundry different fubje&s, as nuts, pcppy-feed,
hemp-feed, rape-feed, and others. Thofe diredted for
medicinal purpofes in the London and Edinburgh Phar¬
macopoeias, are,
301. Oil of abnonds. L. E.
302. Oil of lirifeed. L. E.
303. Oil of mujiard feed. L.
304. Oil of ricinus. E.
305. The oil of almonds is prepared from the fweet
and bitter almonds indifferently; the oils obtained from
both forts being altogether the fame. Nor are the dif¬
ferences of the other oils very confiderable, the difcri-
minating qualities of the fubjedts not refiding in the
oils that are thus obtained by exprelflon: the oil of
rouftard-fesd is as foftj infipid, and void of pungcncyj
6029
as that of fweet almonds, the pungency of the muflard Prepara-
remaining entire in the cakeleft after theexpreflion. The tlons'
feveral oils differ in fome of their properties from one
another; but in medicinal qualities they appear to be
all nearly alike, and agree in one common emollient
virtue. They foften and relax the folids, and obtund
acrimonious humours: and thus become ferviceable,
internally, in pains, inflammations, heat of urine,hoarfe-
nefs, tickling coughs, &c.; in glyfters, for lubricating
the inteftines, and promoting the ejedtion of indurated
faeces; and in external applications for tenfion and ri¬
gidity of particular parts. Their common dofe is half
an ounce: in fome cafes, they are given to the quan¬
tity of three or four ounces. The moft commodious
forms of their exhibition we (hall fee hereafter, in the
fed! ion of Emulfions.
306. The oils exprefled fromaromaticfubftances differ
from the foregoing, in retaining for the moft part an
admixture of the aromatic matter of the fubjedl. Thus
nutmegs and mace yield, upon expreflion, an oil im¬
pregnated with the flavour of the fpices ; and an oil
expreffed from anifeeds, has a great (hare of the pecu¬
liar fmell of the feeds. A purgative oil alfo is extrac¬
ted in America from the purgative feeds of the rici-
mis. It does not appear that other qualities of vege¬
tables are communicated to their exprefled oils.
307. The rinds of the feveral varieties of oranges,
lemons, and citrons, yield by a kind of exprefiion their
effential oils almoft pure, and nearly fimilar to thofe
which are obtained from them by diftillation. The ef¬
fential oils, in which the fragrance and aromatic warmth
of thefe fruits refide, are contained in numerous little
velicles, which may be diftinguifhed by the naked eye,
fpread all over the furface of the peel. If the rind is
cut in flices, and the flices feparately doubled or bent
in different parts, and fqueezed between the fingers,
the veficles burft at the bending, and difcharge the oil
in a number of fine {lender jets. A glafs-plate being
fet upright in a glafs or porcelane veflel, and the flices
fqueezed againft the plate, the little jets unite into
drops upon the plate, and trickle down into the veflel
beneath. But though this procefs affords the true na¬
tive oil, in the fame ftate wherein it exifted in the fub¬
jedl, unaltered by fire or other agents, it is not pradli-
cable to advantage, unlefs where the fruit is very plen¬
tiful, as only a fmall part of the oil it contains can
thus be extracted or colledled.
The oil is more perfedlly feparated by rubbing the .
rind upon a lump of fugar. The fugar, by the in¬
equality of its furface, produces the effedl of a rafp in-
tearing open the oily veficles; and in proportion as the
veficles are opened, the fugar imbibes the oil. When
the outward part of the lump is fufficiently moiftened,
it is fcraped off, and the operation continued on the
frefh furface. The oil thus combined with the fugar,
is fit for moft of the ufes to which it is applied in a
fluid ftate. Indeed, the pure efiential oils obtained by
diftillation are often purpofely mixed with fugar, to
render their ufe the more commodious.
Sect. III. Infufons in different Menjlrua.
§ 1. Infusions and Decoctions in Water.
Water, the dire& menftrunm of gums and falts,
extra&s readily the gummy and faline parts of vege-
tablcgj Its action, however, is not limited to thefe j
the
PHARMACY.
6030 PHARMACY. Part IT.
Prepara- the refinous and oily principles being, in moft ve^e- kingdom, but has no action on any other kind of earthy Piepara-
tions. tables, fo intimately blended with the gummy and fa-
1'ne, as to be in great part taken up along with them:
fome of the refinous cathartics, and moft of the aro¬
matic herbs* as well as bitters and aftringents, yield
to water the greateft part of their fmell, tafte, and me¬
dicinal virtue. Even of the pure eflential oils and odo¬
rous refins of vegetables, feparated from the other prin¬
ciples, water imbibes a part of the flavour; and by the
artificial admixture of gummy or faline matter, the
whole fubftance of the oil or refin is made diffoluble in
water.
308. Of pure falls, water diflblves only certain de¬
terminate quantities, (fee n° 162): by applying heat,
it is generally enabled to take up more than it can do
in the cold, and this in proportion to the degree of
heat; but as the liquor cools, this additional quantity
feparates, and the water retains no more than it would
have difiblved without heat. With gummy fubltances,
on the other hand, it unites unlimitedly, difiblving more
and more of them till it lofes its fluidity: heat expe¬
dites the a&ion of the water, but cannot enable it to
take up more than it would do, by allowing it longer
time in the cold. The aftive parts extracted from moft
vegetables by water, and oils and refins made foluble
in water by the artificial adm xture of gum, partake of
this property of pure gums, being diflbluble without
faturation.
309. It has been imagined that vegetables in a frelh
flate, while their oily, refinous, and other a6tive parts,
are already blended with a watery fluid, would yield
their virtues to water more freely and more plentifully
than when their native moifture has been diffipated by
drying. Experience however fhews, that dry vege¬
tables in general give out more than frefh ones, wa¬
ter feeming to have little a&ion upon them in their re¬
cent ftate. If, of two equal quantities of mint, one
be infufed frefh in water, and the other dried and then
infufed in the like quantity of water for the fame
length of time, the infufion of the dry herb will be re¬
markably the ftrongeft : and the cafe appears to be the
fame in all the vegetables that have been tried.
310. In all the preparations deferihed in this fec-
tion, it is to be underftood that the fubjedts muft be
moderately and newly dried; unlefs when they are ex-
prefsly ordered to be taken frefli ; in which cafe it is
to be judged that their virtues are deltroyed or impair¬
ed by drying.
311. The native colours of many vegetables are
communicated to water along with their medicinal
matter: many impart a colour different from their own;
and others, tho’ of a beautiful and deep colour them-
felves, give fcarcely any to the menftruum. Of the
firft kind are the yellow and red flowers; of the fecond,
the leaves of moft plants; of the third, fome of the
blue flowers, as thofe of cyanus and larkfpur. Acid
liquors change the infufions of moft flowers, the yellow
ones excepted, to a red ; and alkalies, both fixed and
volatile, to a green.
312. From animal-fubftances, w’aterextrafts the ge¬
latinous and nutritious parts, whence glues, gellies,
broths, &c.; and along with thefe, it takes up prin¬
ciples of more activity, as the acrid matter of cantha-
rides. It diffolves alfo fome portion of calcined calca¬
reous earths, both of the animal and of the mineral
matter.
Art. i. Infujtons in cold Water.
313. Infufion of car duus.
Take an ounce of the dried leaves of carduus benedic-
tus, and a pint of common water; let them fteep for
fix hours without heat, and then filter the liquor
through paper.
By this management, only the finer parts of the car¬
duus are extracted, and the infufion proves an agree¬
able light bitter: it fits eafier on the flomach than any
other medicine of the bitter kind ; whereas, by long
continued maceration, or by the application of heat,
the groffer and more ungrateful parts are taken up,
and the liquor becomes naufeous, fo as to provoke vo¬
miting. The light infufion is often given with great
benefit in weakneffes of the ftomach, where the com¬
mon bitters do not agree. It may be flavoured at plea-
fure with aromatic materials; inftead-of pure water, a
mixture thereof with fome grateful diftilled fpirituous
water, as 12 ounces of common water, and four of the
fpirituous water of orange-peel, may be ufed for the
menftruum. The little quantity of fpirit contained in
this compound will not confiderably vary the diffolving
power of the water.
314. Many other vegetables may be advantageoufly
treated in the fame manner. From thofe which, are
weak in virtue, rich infufions may be obtained, by re¬
turning the liquor upon frefli quantities of the fubjeCt,
the water loading itfelf more and more with the active
parts. Thefe loaded infufions are doubtlefs applicable
to valuable purpofes in medicine, as they contain, in a
fmall compafs, the finer, more fubtle, and aftive prin¬
ciples of vegetables, in a form readily mifcible with
the fluids of the human body.
315. Tincture of mint. E.
Take half an ounce of the dry leaves of fpearmint,
and a pint of fimple mint-water. Steep them in a
clofe vefiel, in a warm place, for four hours, and
then drain out the tinCture.
The diftilled water of mint is impregnated with as
much of the volatile parts of the herb, as water can be
made to retain by diftillation. By infufion, however,
it ft ill takes up more, being equally effedual, as a men¬
ftruum, with frefh water; hence the tin&ure proves
very rich in the virtue of the mint. This is another
isfeful method of obtaining ftrong infufions from vege¬
tables, and it may be varied at diferetion; the diftilled
water of one plant may be employed as a menllruun)
for another.
316. Infufion of Peruvian bark.
Take an ounce ©f Peruvian bark reduced into fine
powder, and twelve ounces of water. Macerate
without heat for twenty-four hours, occafionally
{baking the veflel ; then pour off the clear liquor,
and pafs it through a fine (trainer.
The infufion appears to be one of the beft prepara¬
tions of the bark for weak ftomachs, and may begiven
in dofes of two or three ounces, in intermitting fevers,
and in other diforders where the corroborating virtues
of bark are required.
317. Tar-
Part II.
P H A R
317. far-'water.
Take of tar, two pounds ; water, one gallon. Stir
them ftrongly together with a wooden rod; and
after {landing to fettle for two days, pour off the
water for ufe.
Tar-water was fome time ago recommended to the
world as a certain and fafe medicine in almoit all dif-
eafes; a How yet effedlual alterative in cachexies,
fcurvies, chlorotic, hyfterical, hypochondriacal, and
other chronical complaints ; and a fudden remedy in
acute diftempers which demand immediate relief, as
plturifies, peripneumonies, the fmall-pox, and all kinds
of fevers in general. The medicine, though certainly
far interior to the chara&er that has been given of it,
is doubtlefs, in many cafes, of confiderable utility : it
fenfibly raifes the pulfe, and occafions fome confider¬
able evacuation, generally by perfpiration or urine,
though fometimes by (fool or vomit: hence it is fup-
pofed to aft by increafing the vis vitse, and enabling
nature to expel the morbific humors.
M A C Y.
quorice, one ounce; faflafras-bark, half an ounce ;
coriander-feeds, three drams ; Ample lime-water, fix
pints. Macerate without heat for two days ; and
then drain off the liquor.
In all thefe compofitions, the additional articles
take off the ill flavour of the lime-water, render it
more grateful both to the palate and ftomach, and
at the fame time confiderably promote its medicinal
efficacy, efpecially when intended againft cutaneous
diforders, and foulnefs of the blood and juices. They
may be taken in the fame quantities as the Ample
lime-water, and continued for fome time ; the patient
keeping moderately warm during their ufe.
319. The Cretaceous potion.
Take of prepared chalk, gum arabic, of each one
ounce ; fine fugar, half an ounce ; common water,
two pints; fpirituous nutfaeg-water, two ounces.
Mix them together. E.
Art. ii. Infufions in boiling Water.
318. Lime-water.
Take a pound of quicklime, and a gallon and a half
of water. Pour the water gradually upon the lime ;
and when the ebullition is over, let the whole (land
to fettle ; then filter the liquor through paper. L.
Take a pound of frefh burnt quicklime, and two gal¬
lons of water. Pour the water by little and little
upon the lime ; and when the ebullitiqn is over,
ftrongly (hake the veffel; then let the whole ftand
at reft, that the lime may fettle ; and after two
days filter the liquor, which is to be kept in veffels
clofely Hopped. E.
A lime-water may be prepared in the fame manner
from calcined oyfter-(hells.
321. Lime-water has been found of great fervice
in fcrophulous and fcorbutic complaints; in fome kinds
of alvine fluxes, female weakneffes, and other diforders
proceeding from a laxity and debility of the folids;
particularly in corpulent and phlegmatic habits. It
appears likevvife to be poffeffed of a lithontriptic power,
and in fundry calculous cafes has procured confiderable
relief: the lime-water prepared from calcined oyfter-
(hells is found to be, in this intention, more efficacious
than that of the common ftone or chalk lime. It is
given internally, in the dofe of a quarter of a pint,
three or four times a-day ; and likewife ufed externally
for wafhing foul ulcers.
Compound lime-water. E.
Take of faffafras, root and bark, (haved, two ounces ;
nutmegs, well bruifed, three drams; liquorice, diced,
one ounce; lime-water, frefti prepared, four pints.
Digeft them together for two days, in a very clofe
veffel; and then drain the liquor.
Lime-water lefs compounded. L.
Take of liquorice, one ounce ; faffafras-bark, half
an ounce; fimple lime-water, fix pints. Macerate
without heat for two days; and then drain the
liquor.
Lime- water more compounded. L.
Take of guaiacum wood, fhaved, half a pound; li-
320. Simple bitter infufion. L.
Take of gentian root, frefh yellow rind of lemon-
peel, carefully freed from the inner white part, each
half an ounce; dry yellow rind of Seville orange-
peel, freed in like manner from the white, one dram
and a half; boiling water, three quarters of a pint.
Macerate for an hour or two ; then filter the liquor
through paper, or pafs it through a drainer, with¬
out preffure.
This is a very elegant and ufeful bitter; as agree¬
able to the tafte as can well be contrived, the pills
communicating a fine flavour; which is the only ad¬
dition that the gentian dands in need of.
321. Purging bitter infufwn. L.
Take of fena, yellow rind of lemon-peel, frefh, each
three drams ; gentian root, yellow rind of Seville
orange-peel, dry; leffer cardamom-feeds, freed from
the huflcs, each half a dram ; boiling water, five
ounces by meafure. Macerate them together; and
when cold, drain off the liquor.
322. Bitter infufion with fen a. E.
Take of fena, one dram ; gentian root, fweet fennel-
feeds, each half a dram ; boiling water, a quarter
of a pint. Infufe them for four hours, and then
drain the liquor.
This infufion may likewife be prepared with two,
three, or more times the quantny of fena.
Both thefe are ufeful purging bitters. The quan¬
tities here prefcribed are intended for one dofe ; the
firft is the larged, and the other the fmalled dofe in
which fena is ufually given.
323. Common infufion of fena. L.
Take of fena, an ounce and a half; crydals of tartar,
three drams ; leffer cardamom-feeds, freed from the
huflcs, two drams; water, one pint. Boil the cry-
ftals of tartar in the water until they are diffolved ;
then pour the water, whilft it continues boiling,
upon the other ingredients; and when cold, drain
off the liquor for ufe.
In the former L. Pharmacopceia, an alkaline fait was
ufed
603!
Prepara-
2
a- ufed in the infuifion of fena, inftead of the acid one here
• direfted. The firft was fuppofed to promote the ope¬
ration of the medicine, by fuperadding a degree of
purgative virtue of its own, and by enabling the wa¬
ter to extract fomewhat more from the capital ingre¬
dient than it would be capable of doing by itfelf;
whilft acids have rather a contrary effeft. Experience,
however, has fufficiently fhown, that this infufion, and
the following one with lemon-juice, do not fail in
their intention ; and, in a medicine very naufeous to
niany, it is of principal confequence to prepare it fo,
that the lighteft and lead difguftful parts may be ex-
trafted. Alkaline falls increafe the offenfivenefs of
the fena ; whilft cryftals of tartar confiderably improve
the colour of the infufion, and likewife render the
tafte to fome perfons lefs difagreeable. Soluble tartar
fliould feem a good ingredient in thefe kinds of com-
pofitions, as it not only improves the tafte, but pro¬
motes the purgative virtue of the medicine : this ad¬
dition alfo renders the infufion lefs apt to gripe or oc-
cafion flatulencies.
324. Infufion of fena with lemon. L.
Take of fena, an ounce and a half; yellow rind of
lemon-peel, frefh, one ounce; lemon-juice, one
ounce by meafure ; boiling water, one pint. Ma¬
cerate them together; and when cold, (train off the
infufion.
This is a very pleafant and fufficiently efficacious
purge : the Committee obferve, that it is the moft
agreeable form they have been able to contrive for the
exhibition of fena to fuch as are more than ordinarily
offended with its flavour. The dofe is from two ounces
to four.
325, Infufion of tamarinds with fena. L.
Take of tamarinds, fix drams; cryftals of tartar, fena-
leaves, of each one dram ; coriander-feeds, half a
dram ; brown fugar, half an ounce ; boiling wa¬
ter, eight ounces. Macerate the ingredients in a
clofe earthen veffel unglazed, fhaking it now and
then. After four hours drain off the liquor. This
infuiion may be made with a double or triple quan¬
tity of fena.
326. Infufion of rhubarb. E.
Take of rhubarb, half an ounce; boiling water, half
a pint. Infufe them for a night, and to the drain¬
ed liquor add one ounce of fpirituotls cinnamon-
water.
This appears to be one of the beft preparations of
rhubarb when defigned as a purgative; water extract¬
ing its virtue more effectually than either vinous or
ipirituous menftrua: in this refpeCt rhubarb differs
from moft of the other vegetable cathartics.
327. Infufion of flammula jovis. E.
Take of the dried leaves of the flammula jovis, two
drams; boiling water, one pint. Macerate fora
quarter of an hour; then let the liquor boil a little,
and drain it. This may be made alfo with three
or four drams of flammula jovis.
328. Tinfture of rofes.
Take of red rofe-buds, freed from the white heels,
Part II.
half an ounce ; ftrong fpirit (called oil) of vitriol, Prepara-
one fcruple ; boiling water, two pints and a half; _
double-refined fugar, one ounce and a half. Firft
mingle the fpirit of vitriol with the water in a
glafs or glazed earthen veffel, and in this mixture
macerate the rofes; when the liquor is grown cold,
drain it, and add the fugar. L.
Take of red rofes,. cleared from the heels and dried,
one ounce; fpirit of vitriol, one dram ; boiling
water, four pints; white fugar, two-ounces. Ma¬
cerate the rofes with the boiling water for four
hours in an unglazed earthen veffel; then add the
acid, and, after the liquor is drained, the fugar. E.
This tinCture is of an elegant red colour, and makes
a very grateful addition to juleps in hsemorrhages, and
all cafes that require mild coolers and fubaftringents:
it is fometimes taken with bolufes or eleCtuaries of the
bark ; and likewife makes a good gargle.
329. Mucilage of gum-arabic. E.
Take of gum-arabic in powder, four ounces; hot wa¬
ter, fix ounces ; mix them, diligently rubbing them
together all the time, and drain through a linen
cloth.
330. Mucilage of gum tragacanth. E.
Take of gum tragacanth in powder, one ounce; hot
water, half a pint. Macerate for 24 hours; then
rub the ingredients well together, and fqueeze the
mucilage through a linen-cloth.
Art. in. Decoctions.
3 31. The effeft of boiling differs from that of infufion
in fome material particulars. One of the moft obvious
differences is, that as the effential oils of vegetables, in
which their fpecific odours refide, are volatile in the
heat of boiling water, they exhale in the boiling along
with the watery dream, and thus are loft to the re¬
maining decodtion; whereas both in cold and hot infu-
fions they are preferved. Odorous fubftances, and thofe
in general wrhofe virtues depend on their volatile parts,
are therefore unfit for this treatment. The foluble
parts of thefe may, neverthtlefs, be united in this fornt
wdth thofe of bodies of a more fixed nature, by boil¬
ing the latter till their virtues are fufficiently extrac¬
ted, and then infufing the former in this decodlion.
332. Theextraftionof thevirtueof thefubjefiisufual-
ly promoted or accelerated by a boiling heat; but this
rule is lefs general than it is commonly fuppofed to be.
We have already obferved, that Peruvian .bark gives
out its virtue more perfectly by cold infufion than by
coflion. In fome cafes, boiling occafions a manifeft
difunion of the principles of the fubjedl: thus, when
almonds are triturated with cold water, their oil, blend¬
ed with the mucilaginous or oth^r foluble matter of the
almond, unites with the water into a milky liquor call¬
ed an emuljion} but on boiling them in water, the
oil feparates and rifes to the furface; and if the moft
perfeft emulfion be made to boil, a like feparation
happens.
333. The white deco ft ion. L.
Take of calcined hartfhorn, prepared, two ounces;
gum-arabic, two drams; water, three pints. Boil
them till only two pints remain; and then drain off
the liquor. •
This
PHARMACY.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- This deco&ion is ufed as common drink in acute dif-
tions- cafes attended with a loofenefs, and where acrimonious
humours abound in the primx vice. The gum is added
in order to render the liquor lightly glutinous, and
thus enable it to fuftain more of the calx ; which is
the ingredient that the colour, but probably not the
virtue, of the medicine depends upon. Calcined hartf-
horn has no quality from which it feems capable ei¬
ther of conftringing and ftrengthening the veffels, gi-
ving a greater degree of confiitency to thin fluids, or
obtunding acrimonious humours. It blunts and ab-
forbs acid juices ; but acrimony and acidity are very
different: there are few (perhaps none of the acute)
diforders of adults attended with the latter; and few
of infants are unaccompanied therewith. Some have
propofed ftarch as an ingredient in thefe kinds of de-
coflions; a fmall quantity of this foft gelatinous, fari¬
naceous fubftance fhould feem to be greatly preferable
to the earthy calx. It may be obferved, that the wa¬
ter is not enabled by the boiling to dtffolve any part
of the calx; and that in the decodion the earth is
only diflfufed in fubftance thro’ the water, as it would
be by agitation.
334. Deception of the ’woods. E.
Take of guaiacum fhavings, three ounces; raifins of
the fun, ftoned, two ounces; faffafras wood (liaved,
liquorice fliced, of each one ounce; water, one
gallon. Boil the guaiacum and raifins with the wa¬
ter, over a gentle fire, to the confumption of one
half: adding towards the end, the faffafras and li¬
quorice Strain out the liquor without preffure.
This decodion is very well contrived ; and if its ufe
is duly continued, will do great fervice in fome cuta¬
neous difeafes, foulnefs of the blood and juices, and
fome diforders of thebreaft; particularly in cold phleg¬
matic habits. It may be taken by itfelf in the quan¬
tity of a quarter of a pint, two or three times a-day,
or ufed as an afliftant in a courfe of mercurial or anti-
monial alteratives; the patient in either cafe keeping
warm, in order to promote the operation of the me¬
dicine.
335. Deception of marfomallo’w root. E.
Take of marflimallow root, moderately dried, fix
ounces;-large raifins, ftoned, two ounces; common
water, fix pints. Boil to four pints, adding the
other ingredients towards the end. Strain out the
liquor, and let it fettle till fine.
This decodtion is intended chiefly as an emollient,
to be liberally drank of in nephritic paroxyfms ; in
which cafes, by foftening and relaxing the parts, it
frequently relieves the pain, and procures an eafy paf-
fage for the fabulous matter. Two or three ounces of
this deco&ion may be taken for a dofe.
336. PePloral deception. L.
Take common barley, ftoned raifins, figs, each two
ounces; liquorice, half an ounce ; water, four pints.
Euft boil the water with the barley, then add the
raifins, and laftly (juft before the end of the pro-
cefs) the figs and liquorice; the boiling is to be
continued fo long, that the liquor, when ftrained,
may be no more than two pints. L.
Vol. VIII. r t
M A C Y. 6033
This decoflion is an ufcful foft peftoral; and very Prepara,
agreeable to the palate. It is a good auxiliary in tl0n~s'
ftiarp defluxions on the breaft and lungs, and has fome-
times done fervice by itfelf. It may be drank at plea-
fure.
337. Barley-'water. L. E.
Take of pearl-barley, two ounces; water, four pints.
Firft wafli the barley from the mealy matter that
adheres to it, with fome cold water; then boil it a
little with about half a pint of frelh water, which
will acquire a confiderable tinge from it. Throw
away this tinged water; put the Parley into the
water preferibed, made firft to boil ; and continue
the boiling till half the water is wafted; then ftrain.
This liquor is to be drank freely, as a diluter, in fe¬
vers and other diforders. However trivial medicines
of this clafs may appear to be, they are of greater
importance in the cure of acute difeafts, than many
more laborious preparations.
338. Mucilage of quincefetds. L.
Take of quince-feeds, one dram ; water, fix ounces
by meafure. Boil them over a foft fire, till the wa¬
ter grows (limy almoft like the white of an egg ;
then pafs it through a linen cloth.
This is a pleafant foft mucilage, of a fomewhat
fwcetilh tafte, and a light agreeable fmell: in thefe re-
fpe&s, and in its eafy folubility in water, it differs
from the mucilage of gum-tragacantb, to which fome
have fuppofed it fimilar: it has another difference, to
its difadvantage, being apt 4o grow mouldy in keep¬
ing.
[339]—349* Viper-lroth. L.
Take a middle-fized viper, freed from the head, fkin,
and inteftines, and two pints of water. Boil them
to a pint and a half; then remove the veffel from
the fire ; and when the liquor is grown cold, let the
fat, which congeals upon the furface if the viper
was freih, be taken off. Into this broth, whilft
warm, put a pullet of a moderate fize, drawn and
freed from the fkin, and all the fat, but with the
flefh entire. Set the veffel on the fire again, that
the liquor may boil ; then remove it from the fire,
take out the chicken, and immediately chop its flefh
into little pieces: put thefe into the liquor again,
fet it over the fire, and as foon a$ it boils up,
pour out the broth, firft carefully taking off the
feum.
Here all the circumftances fubfervient to the perfec¬
tion of the broth are carefully fet down : and even
plain chicken-broth, for the ufe of the fick, ought to
be made in a fimilar manner.
This feems to be one of the beft preparations of the
viper; all the benefit that can be expeffed from that
animal being by this means obtained. It is very nu¬
tritious and reftorative food: continued fora length of
time, it has fomeiimes done good fervice in leprous and
other obftinate cutaneous difeafes. The dried flefh of
the vipers brought from abroad is not at all fuperior
to the frefh vipers of our own country; the wines and
tinfture of the animal, probably, have little virtue ;
the volatile fait, however ftrongly recommended by
34 A fome
6034
Prepara- fome, does not appear to differ from that producible
tlon5, from every animal-fubftance.
350. Decoflion of fencka. E.
Take of feneka, rattlefnake root, one ounce ; water,
a pint and a half. Boil to one pint, and (train.
The virtues of this deco&ion will be eafily under-
ftood from thofe of the root which it is prepared from.
The dofe, in hydropic cafes, and rheumatic or arthri¬
tic complaints, is two ounces; to be repeated three or
four times a-day, according to its effeft.
351. The common fomentation. L.
Take of abrotanum leaves dried, fea-wormwood tops
dried, camomile-flowers dried, each one ounce ;
bay-leaves dried, half an ounce ; water, fix pints.
Lightly boil them, and (train out the decodtion for
life.
It is left to the choice of the apothecary to take ei¬
ther the male or female abrotanum, that is, fouthern-
wood or lavender-cotton : which, though differing from
one another, in fome refpeft may be looked upon as
fimilar with regard to the purpofes for which this com-
pofition is intended : nor indeed can either of them
give much afliftance to camomile-flowers and worm¬
wood. The ufe of this decoftion is expreffed in its
title : fpirit of wine, which is commonly added in fo¬
mentations, is left to be diredled by the prefcriber, in
fuch quantity as particular cafes may require.
352. The common decottion for glyjlers. L.
Take of mallow-leaves dried, one ounce; camomile
(lowers dried, fweet fennel-feeds, each half an
ounce ; water, one pint. Boil them together, and
(train out the decoftion for ufe.
The title of this decodtion fufficiently expreffes its
life, as the bafis of glyfters.
35 3. The common- decoction. E.
Take of camomile-flowers, one ounce ; carway-feeds,
half an ounce ; water, two quarts. Boil for a quar¬
ter of an hour, and then (train out the liquor.
This decodtion is intended to anfwer the purpofes
of both the foregoing. It is lefs loaded with in¬
gredients than either, but not perhaps for that reafon
the lefs ufeful.
$ 2. Wheys.
356. Mufard-onhey.
Take milk and water, of each a pint; bruifed mu-
(tard-feed, an ounce and a half. Boil them toge¬
ther till the curd is perfedtly feparated ; afterwards
(train the whey through a cloth.
This is the mod elegant, and by no means the leaf!
efficacious method of exhibiting muftard. It warms
and invigorates the habit, and promotes the different
fecretions. Hence, in the low (late of nervous fevers,
it will often fupply the place of wine. It is alfo of
ufe in the chronic rheumatifm, palfy, dropfy, &c. The
addition of a little fugar will render it more agreeable.
—The dofe is an ordinary tea-cupful four or five times
a-day.
537. Alum-nnhey.
Boil two drams of powdered-alum in a pint of milk
Part II.
till it is curdled ; then (train out the whey. Prepara-
This whey is beneficial in an immoderate flow of the
menfes, and in a diabetes or cxceffive difcharge of
urine.—The dofe is two, three, or four ounces, ac¬
cording as the (tomach will bear it, three times a-day.
If it fiiould occafion vomiting, it may be diluted.
583. Scorbutic •whey.
This whey is made by boiling half a pint of the fcor-
butic juices in a quart of cow’s milk. More benefit,
however, is to be expedited from eating the plants
than from their expreffed juices.
The fcorbutic-plants are, bitter-oranges, brooklime,
garden fcurvy-grafs, and water-creffes.
§ 3. Vinegars.
359. Vinegar extracts the virtues of feveral medi¬
cinal fubftances in tolerable perfection : but at the
fame time its acidity makes a notable alteration in
them, or fuperadds a virtue of a different kind ; and
hence it is more rarely employed in this intention than
purely aqueous or fpirituous menftrua. Some drugs,
however, vinegar, for particular purpofes, excellently
affifts or coincides with, as fquills, garlic, ammo-
niacum, and others: and in many cafes, where this
acid is itfelf principally depended on, it may be ad-
vantageoufly impregnated with the flavour of certain
vegetables ; moft of the odoriferous flowers impart to
it their fragrance, together with a fine purplifli or red
colour. Violets, for in dance, if frefh parcels of them
are infufed in vinegar in the cold for a little time,
communicate to the liquor a pleafant flavour, and
deep purplilh red colour. Vinegar, like other acids,
added to watery infufions or decoCtions, generally pre¬
cipitates a part of what the water had diffolved.
360. Vinegar of fquills.
Take of dried fquills, one pound ; vinegar, fix pints.
Macerate the fquills in the vinegar with a gentle
heat; then prefs out the liquor, and fet it by till
the feces have fubfided: the vinegar being after¬
wards poured off, add to it about one-twelfth its
quantity of proof-fpirit, that it may keep the longer
from growing mothery. L.
Take [of the dried root of fquills, four ounces; di-
(tilled vinegar, two pints; proof-fpirit, *two oun¬
ces. Macerate the root with the vinegar for eight
days; then add the fpirit; and when the feces have
fubfided, pour off the clear liquor. E.
This is a medicine of great antiquity : we find, in a
treatife attributed to Galen, an account of its prepara¬
tion, and of many particular virtues then afcribed to
it. It is a very powerful (timulant, aperient, and
attenuant of tenacious juices; and hence is frequently
ufed with good fuccefs in diforders of the bread oc-
cafioned by a load of thick vifcid phlegm, for promo¬
ting urine in hydropic cafes, &c. The dofe of this
medicine is from a dram to half an ounce. Where
crudities abound in the firfl paffages, it may be given
at firfl in a larger dofe,. to evacuate them by vomit.
It is moft conveniently exhibited along with cinna¬
mon or other agreeable aromatic waters, which pre¬
vent the naufea it would otherwife, even in fmall do-
fes, be apt to occafion.
PHARMACY.
64. Wines,..
Part II.
P HA R
$ 4. Wines.
361. The original intention of medicated wines
was, that medicines, which were to be continued for
a length of time, might be taken in the mod familiar
and agreeable form ; by this means a courfe of reme¬
dies was complied with, notwithftanding the repug¬
nance and averfion which the fick. often manifeft to
thofe dire&ly furniihed from the (hops ; and hence the
inferior fort of people had their medicated ales. Ne-
verthelefs, as vinous liquors excellently extradl the vir¬
tues of feveral fimples, and are not ill fitted for keep¬
ing, they have been employed as officinal menftrua al-
fo ; and fubitances of the greateft efficacy are trufted
in this form. As compounds of water and inflam¬
mable fpirit, they take up fuch parts of vegetables and
animals as are foluble in thofe liquors; though moft
of them abound at the fame time with a mucilaginous
or vifcous fubftance, which renders them lefs effe&ual
menftrua than purer mixtures of water and fpirit.
They contain likewife a fubtle acid, which fomewhat
further obftrufts their adion on certain vegetable and
animal matters, but enables them, in proportion to its
quantity, to diflblve fome bodies of the metallic kind,
and thus impregnate themfelves with the corroborating
virtues of fteel, the alterative and emetic powers of
antimony, and the noxious qualities of lead.
Note, To all the medicated wines, after they have
been ftrained, you may add about one-twentieth
their quantity of proof-fpirit to preferve them from
fermentation. They may be conveniently kept in
the fame kind of glafs-bottles that wines generally
are for common ufes, which fhould likewife be
corked with the fame care. L.
362—364. Alkalinealoetic ovine. L.
Take of any fixed alkaline fait, eight ounces; foco-
torine aloes, faffron, myrrh, each one ounce; fal
ammoniac purified, fix drams; mountain wine, two
pints. Macerate without beat for a week or long¬
er ; then filter the wine through paper.
This is the elexir proprietatis Helmontii, with fome
little variations which affed the compounder rather
than the compofition.
Helmont and others have entertained a very high
opinion of this medicine, and looked upon it as “ a
vivifying and preferving balfam, capable of continuing
health and prolonging life to the utmoft polfible li¬
mits.” The medicine is doubtlefs a very efficacious
and ufeful one for many purpofes : it may be fo ma¬
naged as to attenuate vifcid juices and open obftruC-
tions in the remoter parts, and promote evacuation by
almoft all the emundories. In dofes of one, two, or
three drams, it increafes the urinary fecretion ; and if
the patient is kept moderately warm, generally proves
diaphoretic or fudorific; in larger dofes, it gently
loofens the belly.
363, a. Bitter 'wine. L.
Take of gentian root, yellow rind of lemon-peel, frelh,
each one ounce ; long pepper, tw'o drams ; moun¬
tain wine, two pints. Macerate without heat, and
ftrain out the wune for ufe.
This is a very elegant bitter, which the addition of
the long^epper renders confiderably warmer than the
M A C Y. 6035
watery infofion. Gentian and lemon-peel, as we have Prepara-
already feen, make a bitter of a very grateful flavour. tlon,c’
“ The fpice here added was feleded after the trial of
many other materials.”
365, b. Bitter wine. E.
Take of gentian root, half an ounce ; Peruvian bark,
one ounce ; dried orange-peel, two drams; canella
alba, one dram ; proof-fpirit, four ounces ; white-
wine, two pints. Firft pour on the proof-fpirit,
then the wine ; macerate four days, and drain.
This wine fupplies the place of the domachic tinc¬
ture of the former pharmacopoeia.
366. Antimonial or emetic wine.
Take of crocus of antimony, wafhed, one ounce;
mountain wine, a pint and a half. Diged without
heat, and filter the wine through paper. L.
Take of glafs of antimony, levigated, one ounce;
white wine, one pint. Digeft for three days, fha-
king the mixture now and then, and filter the liquor
through paper. E.
The antimonial wine pofTeffes the whole virtues of
that mineral, and may be fo dofed and managed as
to perform all that can be eflfe&ed by any antimonial
preparation; with this advantage, that as the aftive
part of the antimony is here already diffolved and ren¬
dered mifcible with the animal-fluids, its operation is
more certain. Given from 10 to 50 or 60 drops, it
afts generally as an alterative and diaphoretic ; in lar¬
ger dofes, as a diuretic and cathartic ; whilft three ob
four drams prove for the mod part violently emetic.
It has been chiefly ufed in this lad intention, in fome
maniacal and apople&ic cafes; and hence gained the
name of emetic wine.
367. Steel-wine.
Take of iron filings, four ounces; cinnamon, mace,
each half an ounce; Rhenifh wine, four pints.
Macerate without heat for a month, frequently fha-
king the veffel; then drain off the wine for ufe. L.
Take of iron-filings, three ounces ; cochineal, half a
dram ; Rhenifli wine, two pints. Diged them to¬
gether for twenty days, frequently lhaking the vef¬
fel ; and then pafs the wine through a filter. E.
Both thefe wines are fufficiently elegant ones. Rbe-
nilh is an excellent mendruum for fteel, and diffolyes
a confiderable quantity of it: the cochineal, in the
fecond, imparts a fine colour ; and the fpices, in the
firft, give the liquor an agreeable flavour, make it fit
eafier on the ft.omach, and likewife promote its medi¬
cinal efficacy.
368. Steel-wine is a very ufeful preparation ofthis me¬
tal, and frequently exhibited in chlorotic and other in-
difpofitions where chalybeates are,'proper. Boerhaave
recommends it as one of the nobleft medicines he was
acquainted with, for promoting that power in the bo¬
dy by which blood is made, when weakened by a bare
debility of the over-relaxed folids, and an indolent,
cold, aqueous indifpofition of the juices; for in this
cafe, fays he, no virtue of any vegetable or animal
fubftance, no diet or regimen can effect that, which
is effedted by iron ; but it proves hurtful where the vi¬
tal powers are already too ftrong, whether this pro-
34 A 2 ceeds
6036 P H A R
Prepara- ceeds from the fluids or the foiids. The dofe is from
tlQn!5, a dram to half an ounce ; which may be repeated two
or three times a-day.
369. Saffron-wine. L.
Take of faffron, one ounce ; canary, one pint. Ma¬
cerate without heat, and drain off the wine.
Canary has been obje&ed to by fome as an impro-
per menilruum for medicinal fimples, fince it contains
a large quantity of un&uous matter, which impedes
its diffolving power : a pint of this fort of wine left,
upon evaporation, two ounces of a mellaginous fub-
ftance, not unlike honey boiled hard. It is neverthe-
lefs, for faffron, a very well adapted menftruum, as
not only fufficiently loading itfelf with its virtues, but
likewife coinciding in the general intention of the me¬
dicine, that of a cordial. The preparation made with
Canary is alfo better fitted for keeping than when
wines that have any tendency to acidity are employed ;
for tin&ures of faffron drawn with thefe laft foon lofe
their fine colour; whilft thofe made with the firft re¬
tain it for a much longer time. The dofe of this
tinflure is from one dram to three or more.
370. Wine of ipecacoanha. L.
Take of ipecacoanha, two ounces; yellow rind of Se¬
ville orange peel, dried, half an ounce; Canary,
two pints. Macerate without heat, and ftrain out
the wine.
371 .fin [lure of ipecacuanha. E.
Take of ipecacuanha in powder, one ounce; moun¬
tain w’ine, one pint. After three days digeftion,
let the tindlure be filtered for ufe.
Both thefe wines are very mild and fafe emetics,
and equally ferviceable in dyfenteries alfo, with the
ipecacuanha in fubftance ; this root yielding nearly all
its virtues both to the mountain and Canary wines
here ordered, as it does a good lhare of them even to
aqueous liquors. The common dofe is an ounce, more
or lefs, according to the age and ftrength of the
patient.
372. Viper-wine. L.
Take of dry vipers, two ounces; mountain, three
pints. Macerate with a gentle heat for a week ;
and then ftrain off the wine.
It has been dffputed, whether live or dry vipers are
preferable for making this medicine : fuch as are mo¬
derately and newly dried, are perhaps the mod eligible,
fince, by exii coat ion, they feem to lofe only their phleg¬
matic or aqueous parts. Whether they communicate
to the wine, either when ufed frefh or dry, fo much
virtue as they are fuppofed to do, is greatly to be
doubted. Some compofitions under this name have
been highly celebrated, as reftoratives, in debilities
and decays of conftitution ; but what virtues of this
kind they poffeffed, were fupplied chiefly from other
ingredients.
373. Wine of millepedes. E.
Take oflive millepedes, bruifed, two ounces; Rhenilh
wine, one pint. Pour the wine on the millepedes
bruifed a little ; infufe for twelve hours, and ttrain
M A C Y. Part IT.
off the liquor, and fqueeze it out from the reli- Prepaia-
duum. tions.
Tin's wine has been commended as an admirable
cleanfer of all the vifcera, yielding to nothing in the
jaundice and obltruftions of the kidneys or urinary
paffages, of excellent fervice in almoft all chronical
diftempers, even in fcrophulous and ftrumous fwellings,
and in defluxions of rheum upon the eyes. But thofe
who expected thefe extraordinary virtues from it, have
often been deceived ; and at prefent there are few
who have any great dependence on it. It is dire&ed
to be given from half an ounce to two ounces.
374. Cephalic tinfture. E.
Take of wild valerian root, four ounces; Virginian
fnakeroot, one ounce; rofemary tops, half an ounce;
French white-wine, fix pints. Digeft them toge¬
ther for three days, and then filter the tindhire.
This preparation promifes to be a medicine of con-
fiderable utility as a cephalic, that is, in diforders of
the nervous fyftem, wherein the membranes of the
brain are often principally affefted, as in vertiginous,
epileptic, and paralytic complaints.
375. Vinous tinfture of rhubarb. L.
Take of rhubarb, two ounces; Idler cardamom feeds,
freed from the hulks, half an ounce; faffron, two
drams; mountain wine, two pints. Macerate with¬
out heat, and then ftrain off the tindlure.
This is a warm, cordial, laxative medicine. It is
ufed chiefly in weaknefs of the ftomach and bowels,
and fome kinds of loofendl’es, for evacuating the of¬
fending matter, and ftrengthening the tone of the vif¬
cera. It may be given from half a fpoonful to three
or four fpoonfuls or more, according to the circum-
ftances of the diforder, and the purpofes it is intended
to anfwer.
376. fiuclura facra.
Take of focotorine aloes, eight ounces ; canella alba,
two ounces ;. mountain wine, ten pints. Reduce
the aloes and canella feparately into powder ; then
mix, and pour on them the wine ; afterwards ma¬
cerate without heat, for a week or longer, occa-
fionally fhaking the veffel; laftly, ftrain off the
wine. It will be convenient to mix with the pow¬
ders fome white fand, well walhed from dirt, to
prevent the aloes from concreting, which it is apt
to do upon being moiflened. L.
Take of focotorine aloes in powder, one ounce ; Gin¬
ger, Jamaica pepper, each one dram; mountain
wine, a pint and a half. Digeft for feven days,
lhaking the mixture now and then, and then ftrain
off the tim&ure. E.
This medicine has long been in great elleem, not
only as a cathartic, but likewife as a ftimulus; the
wine diffolving all that part of the aloes in which thefe
qualities refide, a portion only of the lefs a&ive re-
finous matter being left. The aromatic ingredients
are added to warm the medicine, and fomewhat alle¬
viate the ill flavour of the aloes : canella alba, or cloves,
are faid, among numerous materials that have been
made trial of, to anfwer this end the moft fuccefsfully.
The tin&ura facra appears from long experience,
to
Part II. P H A R
Prepara to be a medicine of excellent fervice in languid,
tims. phlegmatic habits, not only for cleanfing the primse
vise, but likewife for attenuating and diffolving vifcid
juices in the remoter parts, for ftimulating the folids,
warming the habit, promoting or exciting the uterine
purgations, and the hsemorrhoidal flux. The dofe,
as a purgative, is from one to two ounces, or more :
it may be introduced into the habit, fo as to be pro¬
ductive of excellent effefts as an alterant, by giving
it in fmall dofes at proper intervals: thus managed, it
does not for a confiderable time operate remarkably
by ftool; but at length proves purgative, and occa-
fions a lax habit of much longer continuance than that
produced by the other common cathartics.
377. Thebaic tindurs. L. [See n° 418.3
Take of (trained opium, two ounces; cinnamon,
cloves, each one dram ; mountain wine, one pint.
Macerate without heat for a week, and then filter
the tin&ure through paper.
This is the liquid laudanum of Sydenham, with the
exchange of Canary wine for mountain, and the omif-
fion of an ounce of faffron. The aromatics in the
form above are in fo fmall quantity, that the prefcriber
can fcarce expeCt any confiderable effedt from them,
the proportion of each that goes to a grain of opium,
amounting to no more than the fixteenth part of a
grain : even thefe minute proportions, however, are
in good meafure fufficient to take off the ill odour of
the opium ; which feems to be all that is intended by
them.
378, 379. The principal advantages of exhibiting
opium in this form are, that by being already diflblved,
it exerts itfelf the fooner in the body ; and that by fome
perfons, liquids are more commodioufly taken, than a
bolus or pill. The common dofes of the tindiure are
from ten drops to forty, fifty, or more, according to
the exigences of the cafe. It were to be wilhed, that
the dofe could be more exadlly afcertained, by weight
or meafure ; as the drops may, according to different
circumftances, vary in quantity, though in number the
fame ; and as an error therein may, in fome cafes, be
ef mifchievous confequences. Twenty drops contain
at a medium about one grain of opium, or rather fo
much as that quantity of wine will extradf from one
grain ; for the liquor does not diflblve the whole fub-
ftance of the opium, nor is the folution equivalent
in its effedt to the full quantity of opium employed
in it.
A liquid opiate, free from the inconveniencies here
complained of, will be defcribed under the the head of
fpirituous tindlurts.
380. White dittany ’wine. E.
Take of white dittany root, one ounce; iron filings
free from ruft, three drams ; white wine, one pint.
Digeft 25 hours, and then ftrain of the liquor.
$ 5. Ales.
381. There are two ways of impregnating malt-
liquors with the virtues cf medicinal fubftances : Ma¬
cerating the fubjedl in the liquor after the fermen¬
tation is completely finilhed ; and fermenting it along
with the liquor, or at leaft adding it towards the
end of the fermentation, that, by the refolutive power
M A C Y. 6037
of that procefs, its texture may be opened, and its Prepara-
medicinal parts more fully extradted. Neumann ob- tlons' ,
ferves, that the active powers of many vegetables
are not only effedtually extradted, but extended, as
it were, by fermentation : that fo much pounded nut¬
meg as will lie on the point of a knife, gives a flavour
to a large vat of fermenting ale ; whereas, when
the fermentation is finifhed, the quantity of liquor to
which it gives a like impregnation, is comparatively
inconfiderable.
As the medicinal ales are chiefly intended for diet-
drinks, it is not neceffary to be very exadt with regard
to their dofes. In general, they may be taken to a
pint or more in the day, and continued as long as ne-
ceflary. They fliould not, however, be long ufed at a
time, as all bitters are apt to affedt the head when
their ufe is perfifted in.
382. Antifcorbutic ale.
Take of horfe-radifh root, frefh, one pound ; £reat
water-dock root, diced and dried, two pounds; wa¬
ter-trefoil, dried, four ounces. Infufe them in ten
gallons of new ale.
In fcorbutic diforders, this ale, ufed as common
drink, generally does fervice.
383. Bitter ale.
Take of gentian root, four ounces ; lemon peel, three
ounces; canella alba, two ounces; ale, two gallons.
Let the ingredients be cut fmall, and fteeped in the
ale without heat.
This is an agreeable ftomachic ale, fuperior to the
common purls and molt other preparations of that
kind.
384. Diuretic ale.
Take of muftard-feed and juniper-berries, each eight
ounces; feeds of the wild carrot, fix ounces; new
fmall ale, ten gallons.
In gravelly complaints, and dropfical habits, this is
an ufeful diet-drink.
385. Opening ale.
Take of fena, four ounces ; tops of lefler centaury,
and wormwood, each three ounces; of focotorine
aloes, half an ounce. Infufe in ten gallons of ale.
Half a pint of this ale may be taken twice a-day,
or oftener if neceflary, to keep the body open.
386. Dr Butler's ale.
Take of betony, fage, agrimony, garden feurvy-grafs*
Roman wormwood, each three handbills; elecam¬
pane roots, each four ounces; new alt, four gal¬
lons. The herbs and roots are to be put in a bag,
and hung in the ale while it works.
This liquor has fo far obtained among the common
people, as to have been frequently made and fold in
public houfes. It is ufed in the fpring, for purifying
the blood, and preventing fcorbutic diforders.
387. Cephalic ale.
Take of wild valerian root, ten ounces ; muftard feed,
whole, fix ounces; Virginian fnakeroot, two ounces;
rofemary, or fage, three ounces; new fmall ale, ten
gallons.
The
6038
Prepara- The ingredients of this compofition are all of the
t'lons- warm and ftimulating kind ; and confequently tend to
invigorate the nervous fyftem, and promote the circu¬
lation of the fluids. In palfies, epileptics, and verti¬
goes, Come benefit may be expefled from this liquor
ufed as common drink.
$ 6. Spirituous Tinctures.
388. Rectumed fpirit of wine is the direft men-
ftruum of the refins and effential oils of vegetables ;
and totally extra&s thefe active principles from fundry
vegetable matters, which yield them to water either
not at all, or only in part. It diflblves likewife the
fweet faccharine matter of vegetables ; and generally
thofe parts of animal-bodies in which their peculiar
fmells and taftes refide.
389. The virtues of many vegetables are extrafled
almolt equally by water and rectified fpirit ; but in
the watery and fpirituous tinftures of them there is
this difference, that the adive parts in the watery ex-
tradions are blended with a large proportion of inert
gummy matter, on which their folubility in this men-
ftruum in great meafure depends, while, redified fpirit
extrads them almoft pure from gum. Hence, when
the fpiritnous tindures are mixed with watery liquors,
a part of what the fpirit had taken up from the fubjed
generally feparates and fubfides, on account of its ha¬
ving been freed from that matter which, being blend¬
ed with it in the original vegetable, made it foluble in
water. This, however, is not univerfal; for the ac¬
tive parts of fome vegetables, when extraded by rec¬
tified fpirit, are not precipitated by water, being al-
moft equally difibluble in both menflrua.
390. Redified fpirit may be tinged by vegetables
of all colours, except blue: the leaves of plants in
general, which give out but little of their natural co¬
lour to watery liquors, communicate to fpirit the
whole of their green tindure, which for the moil
part proves elegant, though not very durable.
v Fixed alkaline falls deepen the colour of fpi¬
rituous tindures; and hence have been fuppofed to
promote the difiblving power of the menllruum, tho’
this does not appear from experience : in the trials
that have been made to determine this affair, no more
was found to be taken up in the deep-coloured tinc¬
tures than in the paler ones, and often not fo much :
if the alkali be added after the extradion of the tinc¬
ture, it will heighten the colour as much as when
mixed with the ingredients at firfl. Nor is the addi¬
tion of thefe falts in making tindures ufelefs only,
but likewife prejudicial, as they in general injure the
flavour of aromatics, and fuperadd a quality fome-
times contrary to the intention of the medicine.—Vo¬
latile alkaline falts, in many cafes, promote the adion
of the fpirit. Acids generally weaken it, unlefs when
the acid has been previoufly combined with the vinous
fpirit into a compound of new qualities, called dulcified
fpirit.
391. General rules for exiratting tinttures.
I. The vegetable fubftances ought to-be moderately
and newly dried, unlefs they are exprefsly ordered
otherwife. They fhould likewife be cut and bruifed
before the menftruum is poured on them.
II. If the digeftion is performed in balneo, the whole
Part II.
fuccefs depends upon the proper management of Prepara-
the fire : it ought to be all along gentle, unlefs the tl0l^c•
hard texture of the fubjed fhould require it to be
augmented; in which cafe the heat may be increa-
fed, fo as to make the menftruum boil a little to¬
wards the end of the procefs.
III. Very large circulatory veffels ought to be em¬
ployed for this purpofe, which fhould be heated be¬
fore they are luted together.
Circulatory veflels are thofe which are fo contrived,
and of fuch a height, that the vapour which arifes
during the digeftion may be cooled and condenfed in
the upper part, and fall down again into the liquor
below : by this means the diffipation both of the fpi¬
rit and of the volatile parts of the ingredients is pre¬
vented. They are generally compofed of two long¬
necked matrafles or bolt-heads ; the mouth of one of
which is to be inferted into that of the other, and the
jun&ure fecured by a piece of wet bladder. The life
of heating the veflels is, to expel a part of the air ;
which otherwife, rarefying in the procefs, would en¬
danger burfting them or blowing off the uppermoft
matrafs. A Angle matrafs with a long neck, or with
a glafs-pipe inferted into its mouth, is more commo¬
dious than the double veflel. See 182.
IV. The vfeflel is to be frequently fhaken during the
digeftion.
V. All tindures fhould be fuffered to fettle before
they are committed either to the filter or ftrainer.
VI. In the tindures (and diftilled fpirits likewife) de-
figned for internal ufe, no other fpirit (drawn from
malt, melafles, or other fermented matter) is to be
ufed than that exprefsly preferibed.
VII. Refin and refinous gums yield tindures more
fuccefsfully, if, after being ground into powder,
they be mixed with fome white fand well wafhed
and dried, which will prevent their running into
lumps by the heat. If the powders preferibed are
fufBcient for this purpofe, fuch an addition is unne-
ceflary.
392. Bitter tinfture. L.
Take of gentian root, two ounces ; yellow rind of
Seville orange-peel, dried, one ounce; lefftr cardo-
mom-feeds, freed from the hulks, half an ounce;
proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeft without heat, and
ftrain off the tindure.
393. Bitter tinfiure, or ftoniachic elixir. E.
Take of gentian root, two ounces; dried orange-
peel, an ounce; canella alba, half an ounce ; cochi¬
neal, half a dram; French brandy, two pints. Let
them lleep for four days, and then filter the elixir.
Both this and the preceding compofition are very
ufeful ftomachic bitters.
394. Tindure of ’wormwood. E.
Take of the dried tops of wormwood in flower, four
ounces ; redified fpirit of wine, two pints. Mace¬
rate for two days ; and ftrain the liquor, prefling
it out from the refiduum ; then pour it upon other
'two ounces of wormwood ; macerate again for four
days, and prefs through a linen-cloth ; and laftly,
filter the liquor.
PHARMACY.
395.. Aromatic
PHARMACY.
Part II.
?don5»a 395* Aromatic tinfture.
 Take of cinnamon, fix drams; lefler cardomom-feeds,
freed from the hufks, three drams; long-pepper,
ginger, each two drams; proof-fpirit, two pints.
Digeft without heat, and then drain off the tinc¬
ture. L.
Take of cinnamon, fix drams; lefier cardomom -feeds,
an ounce; angelica feeds, three drams; long-pepper,
two drams ; proof-fpirit, two pints. Macerate for
feven days ; and then filtre. E.
This is a very warm aromatic, too much fo to be
given without dilution. A teafpoonful or two may
be taken in wine, or any other convenient vehicle, in
languors, weaknefs of the ftomach, flatulencies, and
other like complaints. The Jiomachic tinEiure, defcri-
bed hereafter, is fimilar in intention to this; but con¬
trived lefs hot of the fpices, that it may be taken by
itfelf.
396. Balfamic tinfture.
Take of balfam of copaiba, one ounce and a half;
balfam of Peru, half an ounce; Englifh faffron,
one dram ; re&ified fpirit of wine, one pint. Di-
geft thefe ingredients together, in a fand-heat, for
three days ; and then pals the tinfture through a
(trainer.
This tinfture is an excellent balfamic, both for in¬
ternal and external purpofes. It is ufually given, in
dofes of 10, 20, or 30 drops, in the fluor albus, gleets,
cachexies, fome kinds of afthmas and nephritic com¬
plaints, for ftrengthening the tone of the vifcera, and
corroborating the nervous fyftem in general. Some
caution is requifite in the ufe of thefe refinous warm
medicines: in cold, languid, phlegmatic habits, they
have for the mod part good effefts; but in bilious and
plethoric conftitutions, where there is any tendency to
inflammation or immoderate heat, they are manifeftly
prejudicial, and raife or continue febrile fymptoms.
397. Tinfture of cantharides..
Take of cantharides, bruifed, two drams ; cochineal,
half a dram ; proof-fpirit, a pint and a half. Di-
gelt them together; and afterwards filter the tinc¬
ture through paper. L.
Take of cantharides, two drams ; reftified fpirit of
wine, a pint and a half. Digeft for four days, and
then filter the tinfture. E.
Thefe tinftures poffefs the whole virtues of the fly,
and are the only preparations of it defigned for inter¬
nal ufe; tinftures being by far the moft commodious
and fafe form for the exhibition of this aftive drug.
The ufual dofe of thefe tinftures is from 10 to 20
drops, which may be taken in a glafs of water, or
any other more agreeable liquor, twice a-day, and in-
creafed by two or three drops at a time, according to
the effeft.
398. Tinfture of cardo7noms-.
Take of leffer cardomom-feeds, hulked, half a pound ;
proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeft without heat, and
ftrain the tinfture. L.
Take of lefier cardomom-feeds, fix ounces; proof-
fpirit, two pints. Macerate for eight days; and
then- filter. E,
Tinfture of cardamoms has been in ufe for a confi-
derable time, though but lately received into the dif-
penfatory. It is a pleafant, warm cordial, and may be
taken, along with any proper vehicle, from a dram to
a fpoonful or two.
398. Tinfture of cafor.
Take of Ruffia caftor, powdered, two ounces ; proof-
fpirit, two pints. Dtgeft for ten days without heat,
and ftrain off the tinftute. L.
Take'of Ruffia caftor, an bunce and a half; reftified
fpirit of wine, one pint. Digeft them for fix days,
and afterwards ftrain out the liquor. E.
400. Compmnd tinfture of caftor. E.
Take of Ruffia caftor, one ounce; afafetida, half an
ounce; vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, one pint. Di¬
geft for fix days in a clofe-ftopped phial, and then
ftrain the tinfture.
This compofition is a medicine of real efficacy, par¬
ticularly in hyfterical diforders, and the feveral fymp¬
toms which accompany them. The vinous fpirit of fal
ammoniac, now ufed inftead of the volatile oily fpirit
prefcribed,is an excellent menftruum both for the caftor
and the afafetida, and greatly adds to their virtues.
401,3. Tinfture of cinnamon. L. E.
Take of cinnamon, an ounce and a half; proof-fpirit,
a pint. Digeft without heat, and ftrain off the tinc¬
ture.
The tinfture of cinnamon poffcffes the reftringent
virtues of the cinnamon, as well as its aromatic cordial
ones; and in this refpeft it differs from the diftilled
waters of the fpice.
401, b. Volatile tinfture of guaiacum. L.
Take of gum guiacum, four ounces; volatile aromatic
fpirit, a pint and a half. Digeft, without heat, in
a veffel clofe ftopped ; and afterwards let the tinc¬
ture be paffed through a ftrainer.
This is a very elegant and efficacious tinfture; the
volatile fpirit excellently diffolving the gum, and at
the fame time promoting its medicinal virtue. In rheu¬
matic cafes, a tea-fpoonful, taken every morning and
evening in any convenient vehicle, has proved of lin¬
gular fervice.
402. Simple tinfture of Peruvian bark. L. E.
Take of Peruvian bark, four ounces; proof-fpirit, two
pints. Digeft and ftrain.
A medicine of this kind has been for a long time
pretty much in efteem, and ufually kept in the (hops,
though but lately received into the difpenfatory.
For general ufe, this is the moft convenient of the
bark-tinftures, the proof-fpirit extrafting nearly all the
virtues of the bark. It may be given from a tea¬
fpoonful to half an ounce, or an ounce, according to
the different purpofes it is intended to anfw'er.
403. Volatile tinfture of Peruvian bark. L.
Take of Peruvian bark, four ounces; fpirit of fal am¬
moniac, two pints. Digeft without heat in a vef¬
fel clofe ftopped; and afterwards ftratn the tine-'
ture.
This tinfture is but lightly impregnated with the
virtues*
6039
6040 P H A R
Prepara- virtues of the bark ; and is fo acrimonious, that the
tions. larged dofe which can with fafety be given of it, can
“'‘"contain only a very fmall quantity of the fubjeA. The
medicine neverthelefs has its ufes, and may be fervice-
able in fome cafes where the ftronger are improper, as
in difficulty of breathing, obftruftions, and oppreffions
of the bread. Stronger tinftures of this kind may be
obtained by means of dulcified fpirit of fal ammoniac,
or the fpirit prepared with quicklime. All the three
may be employed where a large quantity of bark is not
required, as at the clofe of the cure of intermittents; in
weaknefsof digedion, attended with a cold fenfation at
the domach; and fome fluxes, particularly thofe from
the uterus, where the circulation is languid, the fibres
relaxed, and where there is a periodical return of flight
feverifli complaints. In thefe cafes, Dr Lewis fays he
has often experienced falutary effe&s from a tindlure
in dulcified fpirit of fal ammoniac, given to the quan¬
tity of a teafpoonful five or fix times a-day, in any
appropriated vehicle.
404. Compound tinSIure of Peruvian hark. E.
Take of Peruvian bark, in powder, three ounces; Vir¬
ginian fnakeroot, gentian, each two drams; French
brandy, two pints. Let them deep together for
three days, and afterwards filter the tinfture.
The fubdances here joined to the bark, in many
cafes, promote its efficacy in the cure of intermitteuts;
and not unfrequently, are abfolutely neceflary. In
fome ill habits, particularly where the juices are flug-
giffi and tenacious, the vifeera and abdominal glands
obdrudled, the bark by itfelf proves unfuccefsful, if
not injurious; whilll given in conjun&ion with corro¬
borant domachics and deobdruents, it rarely fails of
the due effeft. Gentian and Virginian fnakeroot, are
among the bed additions for this purpofe; to which it
is often neceflary to join chalybeat medicines alfo.
405. Tindlure of faffron. E.
Take of Englidt fadron, one ounce ; French brandy,
one pint. After digeding them for five days, let
the tindlure be filtered out for ufe.
This tindlure is fimilar in virtue to the faffron-wine,
n° 368. A fpirituous mendruura is here preferred to
the wine, as a tindlure drawn with the former retains
its elegant colour longer, and is not apt to depofit in
keeping any part of what it had taken up from the
iaflron.
406. Tindlure or ejfence of white dittany. E.
Take of frefli dittany root, two ounces; redlified fpi¬
rit of wine, 14 ounces. Diged for eight days, and
filter.
407. Fetid tincture. E.
Take of afafetida, two ounces; vinous fpirit of fal am¬
moniac, one pint. Macerate for fix days in a clofe-
flopped phial, and ftrain.
This tindlure poflefles the virtues of the afafetida it¬
felf, and may be given from 10 drops to 50 or 60.
408. Tindlure of foot.
Take of wood-foot, two ounces; afafetida, one ounce;
proof-fpirit, two pints. Diged and drain. L.
Take of fluffing wood foot, one ounce; afafetida, half
M A C Y. Part II.
an ounce; French brandy, a pint. Digeft for fix Prepara-
days, and drain. E. tions-
Thefe medicines are found ferviceable, not only in
hyderic cafes, but likewife in other nervous diforders.
They may be given from a tea fpoonful to a common
fpoonful twice a day.
409. Tindlure of jalap.
Take of jalap-root, eight ounces; proof-fpirit, two
pints. After proper digediun, ftrain off the tinc¬
ture. L.
Take of jalap, in coarfe powder, three ounces; French
brandy, one pint. Digeft them for eight days, and
ftrain the tindlure. E.
This tindlure is an ufeful and mild purgative, the
menftruum here employed taking up fo much of the
gummy parts as corredls the griping quality which .
the refin is attended with. It may be taken by itfelf
from a dram to half an ounce ; or mixed in fmalltr
quantity with cathartic infufions, or the like.
410. a, Tindlure of Kino.
Take of gum kino, two ounces; proof-fpirit, one pint.
Digeft for eight days,and ftrain.
410. b, Japonic tindlure. L. E.
Take of Japan earth, three ounces; cinnamon, two
ounces; proof fpirit, two pints. After proper di-
geftion, let the tindlure be pafled through a ftrainer.
This tinflure is of good fervice in all kinds of de¬
fluxions, catarrhs, loofeneffes, uterine floors, and other
like diforders, where mild aftringent medicines are in¬
dicated. Two or three teafpoonfffis may be taken
every now and then, in red wine, or any other proper
vehicle.
411. Tindlure of gum-lac. E.
Take of gum-lac, powdered, an ounce; Myrrh, pow¬
dered, half an ounce; fpirit of feurvygrafs, a pint
and a half. Digeft in a fand-heat for fix days; after
which ftrain off the tindlure for ufe.
This tindlure is principally employed for ftrength-
ening the gnms, and in bleedings and fcorbutic exul¬
cerations of them : it may be fitted for ufe in thefe in¬
tentions, by mixing it with honey of rofes, or the like.
Some recommend it internally againft fcorbutic com¬
plaints, and as a corroborant in gleets, female weak-
nefles, &c. Its warmth, pungency, and manifeftly
aftringent bitterifh tafte, point out its virtues, in thefe
cafes, to be confiderable; though common practice a-
mong us has not yet received it.
412. Tindlure of the martial flowers. L.
Take of martial flowers, four ounces; proof-fpirit, one
pint. Digeft and ftrain.
413. a, Tindlure of iron. E.
Take of the feales of iron, prepared and reduced to
powder, three ounces; muriatic acid, as much as is
fufficient for diflblving the powder. Digeft with a
great heat; and when the iron is totally diffolved,
add as much fpirit of wine as will make the whole
two pounds by meafure.
413. b.
Part II. PHARMACY. 6041
413. b, Tlntture tf inn in fpirit of fait. L.
Take of iron filings, half a pound ; Glauber’s fpirit
of fait, three pounds ; re&ified fpirit of wirte, three
pints. Digeft the iron filings in the fpirit of fait,
without heat, as long as the fpirit acts upon the iron;
after the fseees have fubfided, evaporate the liquor
to one pound, and add thereto the vinous fpirit.
All thefe tin&ures'are greatly preferable to the
calces or croci of iron, as being not only more fpeedy,
but likewife more certain, in their operation: the lat¬
ter, in fome cafes, pafs off,through the inteftinal tube
with little effeft ; whilft the tinftures fcarce ever fail.
From 10 to 20 drops of either of the tin&ures, may
be taken two or three times a-day, in any proper ve¬
hicle ; though it is feldom advifeable to extend the
dofe fo far as the laft of thefe quantities, efpecially in
regard to the tin&ure in the fpirit of fait, which is ex¬
ceeding ftrong of the iron.
414. Tintturc of metotuum. E.
Take of opium, two drams ; Ample Jamaica pepper-
water, 20 ounces by weight; re&ified fpirit of
wine, 10 ounces by weight. Having rubbed the
©pium well with the water, add the fpirit, digeft for
eight days, and then filter through paper.
415. Tintturc of melampodium, or black hellebore. L. E.
Take of black hellebore roots, four ounces; cochineal,
two fcruples; proof-fpirit, two pints. Digeft them
together, and afterwards filter the tinfture through
paper.—The Edinburgh college orders only half a
dram of cochineal, and defires the digeftion to be
continued for eight days.
This is perhaps the beft preparation of hellebore
when defigned for an alterative, the menftruum here
employed extra&ing the whole of its virtues. It has
been found, from experience, particularly ferviceable
in uterine obftruftions; in fanguine conftitutions, where
chalybeates are hurtful, it feldom fails of exciting the
menftrual evacuations, and removing the ill confe-
quences of their fuppreffion. So great is the power
of this medicine, that wherever, from an ill conforma¬
tion of the parts, or other caufes, the expefted dif-
charge does not fucceed upon the ufe of it, the blood,
as Dr Mead has obferved, is fo forcibly propelled, as
to make its way through other paflages. A tea-fpoon-
ful of the tinfture may be taken twice in a day in
warm water, or any other convenient vehicle.
416- Tinfture of mujk. L.
Take of mulk, two drams; reftified fpirit of wine, one
pint. Digeft for ten days, and ftrain.
417. Tinfture of myrrh.
Take of myrrh, three ounces; proof fpirit, two pints.
After due digeftion, ftrain off the tinfture. L.
Take of myrrh in powder, an ounce and a half; rec¬
tified fpirit of wine, a pint. Digeft for ten days;
then ftrain off the tinfture for ufe. E.
Tinfture of myrrh is recommended internally for
warming the habit, attenuating vifcid juices, ftrength-
ening the folids, opening obftruftions, particularly
thofe of the uterine veffels, and refilling putrefaftion.
JBoerhaave greatly efteems it in all languid cafes pro-
Vou VIII. 1
ceeding from fimple inaftivity ; in thofe female difor- Prepan-
ders which are occafioned by an aqueous, mucous, (lug- tl0RS,
gilh indifpofition of the humours, and a relaxation of
the velfels; in the fluor albus, and all difeafes arifing
from a like caufe. The dofe is from 15 drops to 40
or more. The medicine may doubtlefs be given in
thefe cafes to advantage; tho’ with us it is more com¬
monly ufed externally, for cleanfing foul ulcers, and
promoting the exfoliation of carious bones.
418. Thebaic tinfture, commonly called liquid lauda¬
num. E.
Take of opiilm, two ounces; fpirituous cinnamon-wa¬
ter, 20 ounces. Digeft for four days, and filter.
This is a very elegant liquid opiate; the menftruum
diffolving nearly the whole fubftance of the opium, and
effectually covering its ill flavour. The ufual dofe is
from 15 to 25 or 30 drops.
419,3. Tinfture of rhubarb. E.
Take of rhubarb, three ounces ; leffer cardamom-
feeds, half an ounce ; proof-fpirit two pints. Di¬
geft for feven days, and ftrain.
b, Spirituous tinfture of rhubarb. L.
Take of rhubarb, two ounces; leffer cardamom feeds,
hulked, half an ounce; faffron, two drams; proof-
fpirit, two pints. Digeft without heat, and ftrain
off the tinfture for ufe.
c, Bitter tinfture of rhubarb. E.
Take of rhubarb, two ounces; gentian root, half an
ounce; Virginian fnake-root, one dram; French
brandy, two pints. Digeft for feven days, and then
ftrain off the tinfture.
d, Sweet' tinfture of rhubarb. E.
Is made by adding four ounces of fugar-candy to the
fimple tinfture made as above direfted, and ftrained.
All the foregoing tinftures of rhubarb are defigned
as ftomachics and corroborants, as well as purgatives :
fpirituous liquors excellently extraft thofe parts of the
rhubarb in which the two firft qualities refide, and the
additional ingredients confiderably promote their effi¬
cacy. In weaknefs of the ftomach, indigeftion, laxity
of the inteftines, diarrhoeas, colicky and other like
complaints, thefe medicines are frequently of good
fervice: the fecond is alfo, in many cafes, an ufeful
addition to the Peruvian bark, in the cure ofintermit-
tents, particularly in cacheftic habits, where the vifcera
are obftrufted. In thefe intentions, a fpoonful or
two may be taken for a dofe, and occafionally re¬
peated.
420, a. Saturnine tinfture. L.
Take of fugar of lead, green vitriol, each two ounces;
reftified fpirit of wine, two pints. Reduce the falls
feparately into a powder; then add the fpirit, and
digeft them together without heat : afterwards filter
the tinfture through paper.
b. Antiphthifical tinfture. E.
Take of fngar of lead, an ounce and a half; vitriol of
iron, an ounce ; reftified fpirit of wine, a pint. Let
a tinfture be extrafted without heat.
The reducing of the falls feparately into powder,
34 B and
6042 P H A R
Prepara- and performing the digeflion without heat, are very
tl0liS- neceflary circumfiances: for if the ingredients are at¬
tempted to be pulverized together, they will grow foft
and almoft liquid ; and if heat is made ufe of, fcarce
any tin&ure will be obtained.
Thefe tinctures are fometimes given from 20 to 30
drops, for reftraining immoderate fecretions, particu¬
larly the colliquative fweats attending he&ic fevers and
phthifical diforders, whence the name antipkthijical
tintture. They are undoubtedly medicines of great
efficacy in thefe cafes, but too dangerous ones to be
ralhly ventured on. Some have fuppofed that they do
not contain any of the fugar of lead ; but experiments
made for that purpofe, have fiiown that they do: and
therefore, the London college has very judicioufly
changed the title of their tinfture into one expreffion,
its being a preparation of lead.
421. a. Tintturc of fena. L.
Take of raifins, ftoned, 16 ounces; fena, one pound;
caraway feeds, one ounce and a half; lelfer carda¬
moms, hulked, half an ounce; proof fpirit, one
gallon. Digeft without heat, and then ftrain the
tindure.
b. Compound tinfture of fena, commonly called elixir
of health. E.
Take of fena, two ounces; jalap-root, one ounce;
coriander feeds, half an ounce ; French brandy,
three pints. Digeft for feven days ; then ftrain off
the tindure, and add to it four ounces of powdered
' fugar-candy.
Both thefe tindures are ufeftil carminatives and ca¬
thartics, efpeciallyto thofewho have accuftomed them-
felves to the ufe of fpirituous liquors ; they oftentimes
relieve flatulent and colicky complaints, where the
common cordials have little effed : the dore is from
one to two ounces. Several preparations of this kind
have been offered to the public, under the name of
Daffy's elixir; the two above are equal to any, and
fuperior to moft of them.
422. 7intture of fnakeroot.
Take of Virginian fnakeroot, three ounces; proof fpi¬
rit, two pints. Digeft without heat, and ftrain off
the tindure. L.
Take of Virginian fnakeroot, two ounces; cochineal,
one dram ; proof fpirit, two pints. Digeft in a
gentle heat for three days, and then ftraiu the tinc¬
ture. E.
The tindure of fnakeroot was in the former phar¬
macopoeia direded with the tinttiira falis tartari;
which being now expunged, it was propofed to the
college to employ redified fpirit; but as the heat of
this fpirit prevents the medicine from being taken in
fo large a dofe as might otherwife be, a weaker fpirit
was made choice of. The tindure made in this men-
Itruum, which extrads the whole virtues of the root,
may be taken to the quantity of a fpoonful or more,
every five or fix hours.
423. Stomachic tinfiure. L.
Take of raifins, ftoned, four ounces; cinnamon, half
an ounce; caraway feeds, leffer cardamoms,^hulk¬
ed, cochineal, each two drams; proof fpirit, two
pints. Digeft without heat, and ftrain off the tinc¬
tures.
M A C Y. Part II. ;
This is a moderately warm ftomachic tindure, much Prepara-
more pleafant than the ufquebaugh of the former phar- t'ons•
macopceias. It may be taken, without any vehicle, to “* I
half an ounce or an ounce, though oftener ufed in mix¬
ture.
424. Styptic tinClure. L.
Take of green vitriol, calcined, one dram; French
brandy (fuch as has acquired a yellowifti tinge from
the calk), two pints. Mix them together, that the
fpirit may grow black ; then pafs it through a
firainer.
The title of this tindure expreffes its medicinal in¬
tention. The celebrated Jlyptic of Helvetia:, (which
is faid to be the fame with that oiEaton), differs from it
no otherwife than in being more operofe in compofition.
They are recommended both for internal ufe, and for
reftraining external haemorrhages : their virtues do not
feem to depend fo much on the iron as on the men-
ftruum, the quantity of metal diffolved being extreme¬
ly fmall. In keeping, the iron is apt to feparate, and
the liquor to lofe its black colour.
425. Tinfture of fulphur.
Take of redified fpirit of wine, one pint. Hepar
fulphuris (that is, a mixture of fulphur and fixed al¬
kaline fait melted together) four ounces. Grind
the hepar into powder whilft hot from the fire,
add to it the fpirit, and digeft in a moderate heat
for 24 hours; then pour off the tindure from the
fasces.
The digeftion may be commodioufly performed in a
glafs receiver : put the fpirit firft into the veffel, and
pour the hot powder upon it: then (hake them toge¬
ther ; and to prevent the exhalation of any part of the
fpirit during the digeftion, inlert a glafs tube into the
mouth of the receiver.
This tindure is of a rich gold colour, a hot aro¬
matic tafte, and a particular, not ungrateful fmell.
Its virtues are thofe of a warm, attenuating, aperient,
and anti-acid medicine. The dofe is from 10 to 60
drops. It is moft commodioufly taken in Canary or
other rich wines.
426. Tinfture of half am of Tolu. E.
Take of balfam of Tolu, an ounce and a half; redi¬
fied fpirit of wine, a pint. Digeft in a fand-heat,
until the balfam is diffolved ; and then ftrain the
tindure.
Thisfolution of balfam of Tolu poffeffes all the vir¬
tues of the balfam itfelf. It may be taken internally,
in the feveral intentions for which this valuable balfam
is proper, to the quantity of a tca-fpoonful or two, in
any convenient vehicle. Mixed with the plain fyrup
of fugar, it forms an elegant balfamic fyrup.
427. Simple tinfture of valerian. L.
Take of wild valerian root, four ounces; proof fpi¬
rit, two pints. After due digeftion, ftrain off the
tindure.
The valerian root ought to be reduced into fine
powder, otherwife the fpirit will not fufficiently ex-
trad its virtues. The tindure proves of a deep co¬
lour, and confiderably ftrong of the valerian ; though
it has not been found to anfwer fo well in the cure of
epileptic
’ Part II.
Prepara- epileptic diforders, as the root in fubftance,. exhibited
in the form of powder or bolus. The dofe of the tinc-
ture is from half a fpoonful to a fpoonful or more, two
or three times a-day.
428. Volatile tinfture of valerian. 1».
Take of wild valerian root, four ounces; volatile aro¬
matic fpirit, two pints. Digeft without heat in a
veflel clofely flopped, and afterwards ftrain off the
tinfture.—The Edinburgh college orders two oun¬
ces of the root to a pint of vinous fpirit of fal am¬
moniac, and the digeftion to be continued for fix
days in a clofe flopped vial.
The volatile fpirit is here an excellent menftruum,
and at the fame time confiderably promotes the virtues
of the valerian, which in fome cafes wants an affilt-
ance of this kind. The dofe may be a tea-fpoonful
or two.
429. Tinfture of veratrum, or white hellebore. L. E.
Take of white hellebore root, eight ounces; proof
fpirit, two pints. Digeft them together for ten
days, and filter the tinfture through paper.
This tinfture is fometimes ufed for acuating cathar¬
tics, &c. and as an emetic in apopleftic and maniacal
diforders. It may likewife be fo managed, as to
prove a powerful alterative and deobftruent, in cafes
where milder remedies have little effeft. But a great
deal of caution is requifite in its ufe : the dofe, at firft,
ought to be only a few drops; if confiderable, it
proves violently emetic or cathartic.
430. Balfam of guaiacum. L.
Take of gum guaiacum, one pound ; balfam of Peru,
three drams; reftified fpirit of wine, two pints and
a half. Digeft till the gum is diflblved, and then
ftrain off the balfam.
431. Elixir of guaiacum. E.
Take of guaiacum, in powder, one pound ; balfam of
Peru, three drams; reftified fpirit of wine, two
pounds and a half. Digeft for 10 days, and ftrain.
Both thefe compofitions are medicines of great effi¬
cacy, and capable of anfwering many ufeful purpofes.
They warm and ftrengthen the habit, and promote in-
fenfible perfpiration. Twenty or thirty drops may be
taken two or three times a-day, or oftener, in any pro¬
per vehicle, in rheumatic complaints, cutaneous defe-
dations, &c. particularly where the patient is of a cold
phlegmatic temperament, and the folids weak and re¬
laxed. In hot bilious conftitutions, and tenfenefs or ri¬
gidity of the veflels, like other ftimulating medicines,
they are evidently improper.
432. Volatile elixir of guaiacum. L.
Take of gum guaiacum, four ounces ; balfam of Pe¬
ru, two drams. Diltilled oil of faffafras, half a
dram ; vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, a pound and
a half. Macerate for fix days in a clofe flopped vial,
and ftrain.
433. Balfamum commendatoris, Beaume de comman~
deur.
Take of dry Peruvian balfam, one ounce; ftorax in
the tear, two ounces; benjamin, three ounces; fo-
6043
cotorine aloes, myrrh, olibanum, angelica roots, Prcpnra-
St John’s-wort flowers, each half an ounce; fpirit tlonf*
of wine, two pounds eight ounces by weight. Let
them ftand together in the fun during the dog-days,
in a glafs veflel clofely flopped ; and afterwards
ftrain out the balfam through a linen cloth.
This balfam has been inferted, with little variation,
in fome foreign pharmacopoeias, and likewife kept a
fecret in private hands, under the titles of Balfanmm
Perficum, Balfam of Berne, Wade's balfam, Friar's bal¬
fam, Jefuits drops, &c. The form above is takeri
from the original receipt publifhed by Pomet {Hifoire
des Drogues, edit. 2. tom. ii. p. 56.) It ftands great¬
ly recommended, externally, for cleanfingand healing
wounds and ulcers, for difcuffing cold tumours, allay-
ing gouty, rheumatic, and other old pains and aches;
and likewife internally, for warming and ftrengthening
the ftomach and inteitines, expelling flatulencies, and
relieving colicky complaints. Outwardly, it is ap¬
plied cold on the part with a feather ; inwardly, a few
drops are taken at a time, in wine or any other conve¬
nient vehicle.
434. Traumatic or vulnerary balfasu.
Take of benzoine, three ounces ; ftorax, {trained, tw'o
ounces; balfam of Tolu, one ounce; focotorine
aloes, half an ounce ; reftified fpirit of wine, two
pints. Digeft, that the gums may as much as pof-
lible be diffblvedt and then ftrain off the balfam for
ufe. L.
This is an elegant reformation of the preceding
compofition, confiderably more Ample, yet not infe¬
rior in efficacy. The balfam of Tolu fupplies, with
advantage, the dry Peruvian balfam, a drug very rare
to be met with in this country : the olibanum, myrrh,
and angelica roots, here omitted, were certainly fuper-
fluous in a medicine containing fo much more power¬
ful materials; and the St John’s-wort flowers are as
defervedly thrown out, as having little elfe to recom¬
mend them than prejudice or fuperftition.
Take of benzoine, powdered, three ounces; balfam of
Peru, two ounces ; hepatic aloes, in powder, half an
ounce ; reftified fpirit of wine, two pints. Digeft
them in a fand-heat, for the fpace of three days;
and then ftrain the balfam. E.
This is a further contraftion of the beaume de com*
mandeur, without any injury to it as a medicine, at
leaft with regard to the pUrpofes for which the title
ftiews it defigned. Socotorine aloes is here judiciouf-
ly exchanged for the hepatic, which appears from ex¬
perience to be the moft ferviceable in external applica¬
tions.
436. Elixir of aloes. L.
Take of tinfture of myrrh, two pints; focotorine
aloes, faffron, each three ounces. Digeft them to¬
gether, and ftrain off the elixir.
437. Elixir proprietatis. E.
Take of tinfture of myfrh, two pounds; focotorine
aloes, three ounces; Englifti faffron, two ounces.
Digeft for eight days, fuffer the faeces to fubfide,
and pour off the clear elixir.
This is the elixir proprietatis of Paracelfus, improved
with regard to the manner of preparation.
34 B 2 This
PHARMACY.
6044 P H A R
Prepara- This medicine is greatly recommended, and not un-
nons. jefervedly, as a warm ftimulant and aperient. It
ftrengthens the ftomach and other vifcera/cleanfes the
firft paflages from tenacious phlegm, and promotes the
natural fecretions in general. Its continued ufe has
frequently done good fervice in cache&ic and i&eric
cafes, uterine obilrudlions, and other like diforders ;
particularly in cold, pale, phlegmatic habits: where
the patient is of a hot, bilious conftitution, and florid
complexion, this warm ftimulating medicine is lefs
proper, and fometimes prejudicial. The dofe may be
from 20 drops to a tea-fpoonful or more, two or three
times a-day, according to the purpofes which it is in¬
tended to anfwer.
538. Elixir proprietatis vitriolicum. E.
Take of myrrh in powder, focotorine aloes in pow¬
der, each an ounce and a half; Englilh faffron, one
ounce ; dulcified fpirit of vitriol, one pint. Di-
geft them in a fand-heat for the fpace of fix days;
and having then fuffered the faeces to fubfide, pour
off the clear elixir.
This elixir poffeffes the general virtues of the pre¬
ceding ; and is, in virtue of the menftruum, prefer¬
red to it in hot conftitutions, and weakneffes of the
ftomach.
439. Paregoric elixir.
Take of flowers of benzoin, opium, {trained, each one
dram; camphor, two fcruples; effential oil of ani-
feeds, half a dram; rectified fpirit of wine, two
pints. Digeft and {train. L.
Take of flowers of benzoin, Englifh faffron, of each
three drams; opium, two drams; diftilled oil of ani-
feed, half a dram ; vinous fpirit of fal. ammoniac,
one pint. Digeft four days in a clofe {topped vial,
and (train. E.
This elixir is taken from Le Mort with the omiflion
of three unneceffary ingredients, honey, liquorice, and
alkaline fait. It was originally preferibed under the
title of elixir qfihmaticum, which it does not ill deferve.
It contributes to allay the tickling, which provokes
frequent coughing ; and at the fame time is fuppofed
to open the bread, and give greater liberty of breath¬
ing: the opium procures (as it does by itfelf) a tem¬
porary relief from the fymptoms ; whilft the other in¬
gredients tend to remove the caufe, and prevent their
return. It is given to children againft the chin-
cough, 8cc. from five drops to 20 ; to adults, from 20
to ioq.
440. Acid elixir of vitriol. L.
Take of the aromatic tin&ure, one pint ; ftrong fpirit
called oil) of vitriol, four ounces. Mix them toge¬
ther ; and after the faeces have fubfided, filter the
elixir through paper.
441. In the new edition of the Edinburgh pharma-
copceia the elixir vitrioli is thus prepared.
Take of cinnamon, one ounce and a half; ginger, one
ounce; pepper-mint leaves, dried, half an ounce;
oil of vitriol, fix ounces; re&ified fpirit of wine,
two pints. Drop the oil of vitriol by little and
little into the fpirit of wine ; and digeft them toge¬
ther in a fand-bath, with a very gentle heat, for
three days then add the other ingredients; conti-
M A C Y. Part Il.j
nue the digeftion, in the fame gentle heat for three Prepara- '
days longer ; and afterwards filter the tin&ure in a tions- j
glafs funnel.
Thefe compofitions are valuable medicines in
weaknefs and relaxations of the ftomach, and decays
of conftitution, particularly in thofe which proceed
from irregularities, which are accompanied with flow
febrile fymptoms, or which follow the fuppreffion of
intermittents. They have frequently taken place after
bitters and aromatics, by themfelves, had availed no¬
thing : and, indeed, great part of their virtue depends
on the vitriolic acid ; which, barely diluted with wa¬
ter, has, in thefe cafes, where the ftomach could bear
the acidity, produced happy effedts.
Fuller relates (in his Medicina gymnaftica) that he
was recovered by Mynjiehfs elixir (of which the above
are improved preparations) from an extreme decay of
conftitution, and continual Teachings to vomit. They
may be given from 10 to 30 or 40 drops or more,
according to the quantity of acid, twice or thrice a-day,
at fuch times as the ftomach is moft empty.
442. Sweet elixir of vitriol. L.
Take of the aromatic tindlure, one pint; dulcified fpi¬
rit of vitriol, eight ounces by weight. Mix them
together.
This is defigned for perfons whofe ftomach is too
weak to bear the foregoing acid elixir ; to the tafte, it
is gratefully aromatic, without any perceptible aci¬
dity. The dulcified fpirit of vitriol, here diredled, oc-
cafions little or no precipitation upon adding to it the
tindlure.
443. The Edinburgh college diredls this to be made
of the fame ingredients and in the fame manner as the
aromatic tindture, excepting that dulcified fpirit of vi¬
triol is ufed inftead of fpirit of wine.
444. Compound elixir of myrrh. L.
Take of extradl of favin, one ounce; tinfture of
caftor, one pint; tinfture of myrrh, half a pint.
Digeft them together; and then {train the elixir.
This preparation is a medicine of great importance
in uterine obftrudlions, and in hypochondriacal cafes ;
though, pofiibly, means might be contrived of fuper-
adding more effedtually the virtues of favin to a tinc¬
ture of myrrh and caftor. It may be given from five
drops to twenty or thirty, or more, in pennyroyal
water, or any other fuitable vehicle.
445. Elixir facram.
Take rhubarb, cut final], ten drams; focotorine aloes,
in powder, fix drams; leffer cardamom feeds, half
an ounce ; French brandy, two pints. Digeft for
two days ; and then ftrain the elixir.
446 Camphorated fpirit of wine. L. E.
Take of camphor, two ounces ; re&ified fpin't of wine,
two pints. Mix them together, that the camphor
may be diffolved.
This foliation of camphor is employed chiefly for
external ufes, againft rheumatic pains, paralytic numb-
neffes, inflammations ; for difeufling tumours, prevent-
ing gangrenes, or reftraining their progrefs. It is too
pungent to be eshibited internally, even when dilutedt
nos
Part H. P H A U
Prepara- nor does the dilution fucceed w*ll ; for on the admix-
tlon' - ture of aqueous liquors, the champhor gradually fe-
parates and runs together into little maffes.
The moft convenient method of uniting camphor
with aqueous liquors, for internal ufe, feemsto be by
the mediation of almonds, or of mucilages; triturated
with thofe, it readily mingles with water into the form
of an emulfion, at the fame time that its pungency is
confiderably abated. It may alfo be commodioufly
exhibited in the form of an oily draught, expreffed oils
totally diflblving it.
$ 7. Oils by Infusion and Decoction.
447. Expressed oils extrad the refinous and oily
parts of vegetables, but do not adi upon or unite
with the gummy and mucilaginous: hence the oleum
e mucilaginibui, or oil of mucilages (n° 450) of the
ihops, contains nothing of the mucilage which its in¬
gredients abound with. Thefe oils may be tinged, by
vegetable matters, of almoft all colours-: the leaves of
moft plants communicate a green ; yellow flowers, a
dilute gold colour; fome red flowers, a light red;
alkanet root, a beautiful and deep red.
448. In making the officinal oils from the leaves of
plants, a good deal of care is neceflary, to give them
the fine green colour expedted in them. If the boil¬
ing of the herb in the oil is not continued till all the
aqueous moifture has exhaled (the mark of which is, the
herb’s being crifp), the oil will have a dingy yellowilh
hue : if continued longer, it turns black, and contradts
an empyreumatic fmell. The moft convenient method
of managing the procefs feems to be, to ftrain off the
oil when fufficiently impregnated with the virtues of
the plant, and afterwards to let it ftand in a clean
veflel over a gentle fire, until, by frequent trials on
a white tile, it appears to have gained the deep green
colour required.
449. Oil of St John's wort. L.
Take of the flowers of St John’s wort, full blown,
frelh gathered, and carefully freed from the cupi,
four ounces; oil olive, two pints. Pour the oil
upon the flowers, and let them ftand together till
the oil is fufficiently coloured.
450. Oil of mucilages. L.
Take of marlhmallow root, frelh, half a pound ; lin-
feed, fenugreek-feed, each three ounces ; water,
two pints; oil olive, four pints. Bruife the roots
and feeds, and gently boil them in the water for
half an hour; then add the oil, and continue the
boiling till all the water is wafted; afterwards let
the oil be carefully poured off for ufe.
451. Oil of elder. L.
Take of elder-flowers, one pound ; oil-olive, two
pints. Boil the flowers in the oil, till they are al¬
moft crifp ; then prefs out the oil, and fet it by till
the feces have fubfided.
452. Green oil. L.
Take of bay leaves, rue leaves, marjoram leaves, fea-
wormwood leaves, chamomile leaves, each, frefh
gathered, three ounces; oil olive, two pints. Bruife
the herbs, and gently boil them in the oil till
M A C Y. 6045
they are altnoft crifp ; then prefs out the oil, let it Prepara-
ftand to fettle, and afterwards pour it off from the tlon?'
fediment.
All the foregoing oils are defigned for external ap¬
plications only. They were fuppofed, befides the ge¬
neral emollient quality of the oil itfelf, to receive par¬
ticular virtues from the ingredients. At prefent there
are few who expedt much more from thefe preparations
than from common oil itfelf, which has the advantage
of being lefs offenfive. The mucilaginous ingredients,
marlhmallow root and linfeed, in the olewn e mucila-
giuibus, make no addition to the virtue of the oil; for
mucilages, as already obferved, are not foluble in oils.
Experience has not difcovered any fuch Angular qua¬
lities in flowers of St John’s wort, that four ounces of
them Ihould communicate any remarkable virtue to a
quart of oil. Of the other herbs, the more valuable
parts are diflipated by the boiling heat: and although
the remaining matter, if it was taken internally, either
by itfelf, or diffolved in watery or fpirituous liquors,
might not be deftitute of a&ivity, yet it can fcarcely
be fuppofed, when combin#d with a large quantity of
oil, to have any material effedl in external applications.
The number of thefe oils has, therefore, been judi-
cioufly retrenched at the late reformation: the four,
above retained by the London college, are not one-
tenth part of thofe which were formerly ordered to be
kept in the (hops. The moft certain way of anfwering
the purpofes intended by thefe preparations appears
to be, by mixing with the exprefled oil a fuitable
quantity either of the native refins of vegetables, or of
the effential oils and refinous extradts artificially pre¬
pared from them.
452. Camphorated oil. E.
Take of frelh-drawn oil of almonds, or linfeed, two
ounces ; camphor, half an ounce. Diffolve the cam¬
phor in the oil.
This oil is defigned, like the foregoing ones, for
external purpofes ; particularly againft burns, rheu¬
matic pains, &c.
45 3. Odoriferous oil.
Let fome fine carded cotton be dipped in oil of olive,
or oil of ben nuts, that it may be thoroughly im¬
bibed with the oil, without retaining fo much as to
drip fpontaneoufly. Lay a bed of this cotton in
the bottqpi of a tin or porcelane veffcl, and lightly
fpread upon it a pretty thick layer of any odori¬
ferous flowers frelh gathered, as jafmine flowers,
violets, lilies of the valley, &c. Above thefe,
fpread more of the cotton, and then more flowers,
alternately, till the veffel is full ; than cover it clofe,
and let it ftand for twenty-four hours in a gentle
warmth. Great part of the fragrance of the flowers ^
will be communicated to the oil in the cotton,
which is to be ftratified in the fame manner with,
two or three frefh quantiles of the flowers, till it is
fufficiently impregnated therewith ; after which the
oil is to be fqueezed out from the cotton in a prefs.
This appears to be the moft effedlual method of
transferring into expreffed oils the odoriferous matter
of thofe tender flowers which yield little or no effential
oil: the perfumed oils and effences of thofe flowers.
brought
6046 P H A R
Prepara- brought from Italy, arc prepared in this manner. The
uons. odorous parts may be again feparated from the oil,
' and transferred into water or fpirit, by diftillation with
thofe Hquors.
Sect. IV. Confervation af recent Vegetable^ and
their Infufionsy tic. by Sugar and Honey.
$ 1. Conserves.
454. Conserves are compofitions of recent vege¬
table matters and fugar beaten together into an uni¬
form mafs.
This management was introduced for preferving
certain fimples, undried, in an agreeable form, with
as little alteration as poffible in their native virtues;
and to fome fubjefts it is very advantageoufly applied.
Vegetables, whofe virtues are loft or deftroyed in dry¬
ing, may in this form be kept uninjured for a length
of time : -for, by carefully fecuring the mouth of the
containing veflel, the alteration, as well as diffipation,
of their adtive principles, is generally prevented ; and
the fugar preferves them from the corruption which
juicy vegetables would otherwife undergo.
There are, however, fundry vegetables whofe vir¬
tues are impaired by this treatment. Mucilaginous
fubftances, by long lying with fugar, become Ids glu¬
tinous, and aftringents fenfibly fofter upon the pa¬
late. Many of the fragrant flowers are of fo tender
and-delicate a texture, as almoft entirely to lofe their
peculiar qualities on being beaten or bruifed.
In general, it is obvious, that in this form, on ac¬
count of the large admixture of fugar, only fubftances
of confiderable adlivity can be taken to advantage as
medicines. And indeed, conferves are at prefent con-
fidered chiefly as auxiliaries to medicines of greater
efficacy, or as intermediums for joining them together.
They are very convenient for reducing into bolufes or
pills the more ponderous powders, as mercurius flui¬
ds, the calces of iron, and other mineral preparations;
which with liquid or lefs confiftent matters, as fyrups,
will not cohere.
The fhops were formerly encumbered with many
conferves altogether inlignificant ; the few now retain¬
ed have in general either an agreeeable flavour to re¬
commend them, or are capable of anfwering fome
ufeful purpofes as medicines. Their common dofe is
the bulk of a nutmeg, or as much as can be taken up
at once or twice upon the point of a knife. There is
in general no great danger of exceeding in this parti¬
cular.
455. General method of preferving conferves.
Leaves are picked from the ftalks, and flowers from
their cups. They are beaten in a marble mortar,
with a wooden peftle, into a fmooth mafs; after
which thrice their weight of double-refined fugar is
added by degrees, and the beating continued till
they are uniformly mixed.
The fugar fhould be pulverifed by itfelf, and pafled
through a lieve, before it is mixed with the vegetable
mafs'; otherwife it cannot eafily be reduced to fuffi-
cient finenefs, fo as to be duly incorporated. Some
vegetables are fcarce reducible to the requifite finenefs
-by beating in a mortar; fuch is orange-peel. This
is mod conveniently rafped or grated off from the
fruit, then well mixed with the fugar, and the com-
M A C Y. Part II.
pound fet by in a clofe veffel for fome weeks ; after Prepara-
which it may be beaten fmooth with confiderably lefs
labour than at firft. This peel, and red rofe-buds,
are commonly ground in a wooden mill made for that
purpofe.
456. Conferve of the leaves of garden fcurvy-grafs. L.
This is the only form that fcurvy-grafs in fubftance
can be kept in without the total lofs of its virtues.
The conferve retains the full tafte and virtue of the
herb for a very confiderable length of time, as a year
or two, provided the veffel be made perfeftly clofe
and fet in a cool place. It may be given in fcorbutic
habits three or four times a-day, or oftener.
457. Conferve of the leaves of gwood-forrel. L.
This is a very elegant and grateful conferve; in
tafte it is lightly acidulous, with a peculiar flavour,
which fome referable to that of green-tea. It is taken
occafionaliy for quenching third, and cooling the
mouth and fauces, in hot diltempers.. It may be ufe-
fully joined to the foregoing preparation, whofe vir¬
tue it fomewhat promotes, at the fame time that it
improves the tafte.
458. Conferve of the leaves of fpearmint. L.
The conferve of mint retains the tafte and virtues
of the herb. It is given in weaknefs of the ftomach
and retchings to vomit ; and not unfrequently does
fervice in fome cafes of this kind, where the warmer
and more adtive" preparations of mint would be lefs
proper.
459. Conferve of the leaves of rue. L.
This conferve is given from a dram to half an ounce
in crudities of the primae vise, for promoting digeftion,
and in hyfteric diforders: it gently ftimulates the fo-
lids, attenuates vifcid juices, and excites the natural
fecretions. Some have had a great opinion of it, ta¬
ken in a morning, as a prefervative againft the effe&s
of contagious air or exhalation.
460. Conferve of the tops of fea-ouormoxiood. L.
The conferve of wormwood has been celebrated in
dropfies: Matthiolus relates, that feveral perfons were
cured by it of that diftemper, without the affiftance
of any other medicine. Where the diforder indeed
proceeds from a fimple laxity or flaceidity of the fo-
lids, the continued ufe of this medicine may be of fome
fervice, as it appears to be a not inelegant mild cor¬
roborant. It is diredled to be given in the dofe of
half an ounce, about three hours before meals.
461. Conferve of the buds of red rofes. L.
This is a very agreeable and ufeful conferve. A
dram or two, diffolved in warm milk, are frequently
given as a light reftringent in weaknefs of the fto¬
mach, and likewife in coughs and phthifical com¬
plaints. In the German Ephemerides, examples are
related of very dangerous phthifes cured by the con¬
tinued ufe of this medicine : in one of thefe cafes, 20
pounds of the conferve were taken in the fpace of a
month; and in another, upwards of 30. Riverius
mentions feveral other inftances of this kind.
462. Conferve of rofemary-flowers. L.
Rofemary-flowers in great meafure lofe their pecu¬
liar
;Part II. P H A R
Prepara- liar fragrance by beating ; and hence the conferve has
rionr. very ]{ttje 0f t}je;r flavour. Some are therefore accu-
ftomed to make this preparation from the leaves of the
plant, (which retain their virtues under the peftle),
or at leaft to add a portion of thefe to the flowers.
The conferve of rofemary is dire&ed in weaknefs of
the nerves, and as a light cordial.
463. Conferve of the yellow rind of Seville orange-
peel. L.
This conferve is a very elegant one, containing all
the virtues of the peel in a form fufficiently agreeable
both with regard to the dofe and the conveniency of
taking. It is a pleafant, warm ftomachic, and in this
intention is frequently made ufe of.
' 464' Conferves of foes. L.
Let the floes be put into water, and fet over the fire
till they grow foft, with care that they do not
burft. Then take the floes out of the water, prefs
out their pulp, and mix with it thrice its weight of
double-refined fugar.
This preparation is a gentle aftringent, and may be
given as fuch in the dofe of two or three drams. The
degree of its aftringency will vary according to the
maturity of the floes and the length of time that the
conferve has been kept.
$ 2. Preserves.
465. Preserves are made by fteeping or boiling re¬
cent fimples, firft in water, and then in fyrup or
folution of fugar. The fubjedt is afterwards either
kept moift in the fyrup ; or taken out and dried,
that the fugar may candy upon it: this laft is the
moll ufual method.
In this procefs fome of the moll valuable parts of
the fubjedt are extrafted by the liquor, and confe-
quently loll to the preparation ; greater regard being
here had to palatablenefs than medicinal efficacy. And
indeed moll of the preparations of this kind are con-
Cdered rather as fweetmeats than as medicines, as the
bufinefs of the confedtioner rather than of the apothe¬
cary. It would be needlefs therefore to mention the
dofes of the feveral articles, or give particular remarks
on the manner of preparing them.
466. Candied eryngo roots. L.
Boil them in water till the rind will eafily peel off;
when peeled, flit them through the middle, take
out the pith, and wadi them three or four times in
cold water. For every pound of the roots fo pre¬
pared, take two pounds of double-refined fugar,
which is to be difiblved in a proper quantity of wa¬
ter, and fet over the fire : as foon as the liquor be¬
gins to boil, put in the roots, and continue the
boiling till they are foft.
467. After this manner are Angelica falks, &c.
468. Candied orange-peel. L.
Steep the frelh peels of Seville oranges in water ; which
is to be frequently renewed, until they lofe their
bitternefs. Then, having diflblved in water a fuit-
able quantity of double-refined fugar, boil the peels
in this liquor till they become foft and tranfparent.
469. After the fame manner are candied, Lemon-
peels.
M A C Y. 6047
470. Nutmegs and ginger are brought to us ready Prepara-
candied from the Ealt Indies. E. “""S’
471. Candied feel.
Put any quantity of clean filings of iron into, a brafs
kettle, fufpended over a very gentle fire. Add to
them, by little and little, twice their weight of
white fugar, boiled to the confiftence of candy, with
which powdered (larch has been previoufly mixed in
the proportion of a dram to every pound ; agitating
the kettle continually, that the filings may be crull-
ed over with the, fugar, and taking great care to
prevent their running into lumps.
This is a very agreeable preparation of fteel; but
has hitherto been made only by the confedlioners.
The college of Edinburgh received it in the former
editions; but, as there defcribed, it was almofl im-
poffible to hinder the matter from concreting into
lumps. They have now difcovered the intermedium
which prevents that inconvenience, and which the con-
fe&ioners have kept a fecret, the addition of a little
ftarch to the fugar. The preparation may be given
to the quantity of half a dram, in thofe cafes wherein
chalybeate medicines are proper.
§ 3. Gellies.
472—477. Vegetable gellies are compofed of the
juices of fruits and fugar, boiled to a thick confiftence.
Independently of the admixture of fugar, the boiling
appears to occafion fome alteration in the quality of
the juices themfelves. The recent juices of the fum-
mer fruits are prone to fermentation : after they have
been boiled, they are lefs difpofed to ferment,, and at
the fame time they are much lefs liable to produce, in
the human body, flatulencies, gripes, or fluxes ; tho’
they dill retain, in no fmall degree, their original an-
tifeptic, anti-inflammatory, and aperient or reftrin-
gent virtues.
§ 4. Syrups.
478. Syrups are faturated folutions of fugar made
in water, or watery or vinous infufions, or in juices.
They were formerly confidered as medicines of much
greater importance than they are thought to be at
prefent. Syrups and diftilled waters were for fome
ages made ufe of as the great alteratives; infomuch
that the evacuation of any peccant humour was never
attempted till, by a due courfe of thefe, it had firft:
been regularly prepared for expulfion. Hence arofe
the exuberant colledion of both which we meet with
in pharmacopoeias; and like errors have prevailed in
each. As multitudes of diftilled waters have been
compounded from materials unfit to give any virtue
over the helm, fo numbers of fyrups have been pre¬
pared from ingredients which in this form cannot be
taken in fufficient dofes to exert their virtue ; for two
thirds of a fyrup conlilt of fugar, and greateft part of
the remaining third is an aqueous fluid.
479. Syrups are at prefent chiefly regarded as con¬
venient vehicles for medicines of greater efficacy ; and
made ufe of for fweetening draughts and juleps, for
reducing the lighter powders into bolufes, pills, or
eleduaries, and other like purpofes. Some likewife
may not improperly be confidered as medicines them¬
felves j as thofe of faffron and buckthorn-berries.
480. General
6048
prepara-
PHARMACY. Part II.
480. General rules for preparing fyrups.
I. All the rules laid down for making deco&ions are
likewife to be obferved in the decoftions for fyrups.
Vegetables, both for decoftions and infufions, ought
to be dry, unlefs they are exprefsly ordered other-
wife.
II. Only the pureft or double-refined fugar ought to
be ufed.
In the fyrups prepared by boiling, it has been cufto-
ma*y to perform the clarification with whites of eggs
after the fugar had been diffolved in the decoftion of
the vegetable. This method is apparently injurious
to the preparation ; fince not the impurities only of
the fugar are thus difcharged, but a confiderable part
likewife of the medicinal matter, which the water had
before taken up from the ingredients, is feparated a-
long with them. Nor indeed is the clarification and
defpumation of the fugar, by itfelf, very advifable;
for its purification by this procefs is not fo perfeft as
might be expefted : after it has undergone this pro¬
cefs, the refiners ftill feparate from it a quantity of
oily matter, which is difagreeable to weak (lomachs.
It appears therefore mod eligible to employ fine fu¬
gar for all the fyrups ; even the purgative ones (which
have been ufually made with coarfe fugar, as fome-
what coinciding with their intention) not excepted;
for as the purgative medicines are in general ungrate¬
ful to the ftomach, it is certainly improper to employ
an addition which increafes their offenfivenefs.
III. Where the weight of the fugar is not exprefied,
29 ounces thereof are to be taken to every pint of
liquor. The fugar is to be reduced into powder,
and diflblved in the liquor by the heat of a water-
bath, unlefs ordered otherwife. L.
Although in the formulae of feveral of the fyrups, a
double weight of fugar to that of the liquor is di¬
rected, yet lefs will generally be fufficient. Firft,
therefore, difiblve in the liquor an equal weight of fu¬
gar ; then gradually add fome more in powder till a
little remains undiflblved at the bottom, which is to
be afterwards incorporated by fetting the fyrup in a
water-bath.
The quantity of fugar Ihould be fo much as the li¬
quor is capable of keeping diflblved in the cold : if
there is more, a part of it will feparate and concrete
into cryftals or candy ; if lefs, the fyrup will be fub-
je& to ferment, efpecially in warm weather, and change
into a vinous or four liquor. If, in cryftallizing, on¬
ly the fuperfluous fugar feparated, it would be of no
inconvenience; but when part of the fugar has can¬
died, the remaining fyrup is found to have an under
proportion, and is as fubjeCt to fermentation as if it
had wanted fugar at firft.
IV. Copper-veffels, unlefs they are well tinned, (hould
not be employed in the making of acid fyrups, or
fuch as are compofed of the juices of fruits.
The confe&ioners, who are the moft dextrous people
at thefe kinds of preparations, to avoid the expence of
frequently new-tinning their veflels, rarely make ufe
of any other than copper ones untinned, in the pre¬
paration even of the moft acid fyrups, as of oranges
and lemons. Neverthelefs, by taking due tfare that
their coppers be well fcoured and perfectly clean, and
that the fyrup remain no longer in them than is abfo-
lutely neceflary, they avoid giving it any ill tafte or Prepara-
quality from the metal. This praftice, however, is tlolls-
by no means to be recommended to the apothecary.
V. The fyrup, when made, is to be fet by till next
day: if any faccharine cruft appears upon the fur-
face, take it off. L.
481. Syrup of garlick. L.
Take of garlic, diced, one pound ; boiling water, two
pints. Macerate them in a clofe veffel for twelve
hours ; then (train off the liquor, and diffolve in it
a proper quantity of fugar, fo as to make a fyrup.
This fyrup is occafionally made ufe of for attenua¬
ting vifcid phlegm, and promoting expectoration in
humoral afthmas and oppreffions of the breaft : in
thefe cafes, it proves a medicine of confiderable effi¬
cacy, though a very unpleafant one; it taftes and
fmells ftrongly of the garlic. The college have re¬
ceived it as an alternative to the oxymel of garlic, for
the ufe of thofe with whom honey difagrees.
482. Syrup of marjhmallo'ws.
Take of marflimallow roots, frefli, one pound ; double-
refined fugar, four pounds; water, one gallon.
Boil the water with the roots to one half: when
grown thoroughly cold, pour off and prefs out the
decoCtion, and fet it by for a night to fettle : next
morning pour off the clear liquor, and, adding to it
the fugar, boil the whole to the weight of fix
pounds. L.
Take of moderately dried marfhmallow-roots, nine
ounces ; white fugar, four pounds; water, a gal¬
lon. Boil the water with the marfhmallow-roots to
the confumption of one half; then drain out the re¬
maining deco&ion, and fuffer it to reft for fome
time. Pour off the clear liquor from the fediment,
and boil it with the fugar over a gentle fire, keep¬
ing the matter continually ftirring till it becomes a
fyrup. E.
The fyrup of marflimallows is ufed chiefly in nephri¬
tic cafes, for fweetening emollient decoftions, and the
like : of itfelf it can do little fervice, notwithftanding
the high opinion which fome have entertained of it;
for what can be expefted from two or three fpoonfuls
of the fyrups, when the decoftion, from which two
or three pounds are made, may be taken at a draught
or two ? The college of Edinburgh has very properly
united this and the pefloralfyrup into one ; for the fy¬
rup of marflimallows has always, till the late reforma¬
tion, contained the principal ingredients of the pefto-
ral fyrup, and its own capital ingredient coincides in
the fame intention.
483. Syrup of orange-peel.
Take of the yellow rind of Seville orange-peel, frefli,
eight ounces ; boiling water, five pints. Macerate
them for a night in a clofe veffel; next morning
drain out the liquor, and diflblve in it the proper
quantity of fugar for making it into a fyrup. L.
Take of the yellow rind of orange-peel, frefli, fix
ounces; boiling water, three pints. Infufe them
for a night in a clofe veffel : then drain the liquor;
let it (land to fettle ; and, having poured it off clear
from the fedimeat, diffolve therein feven pounds and
a
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- a quarter of white fugar, fo as to make it into a fy-
tion?‘ rup without boiling. E.
In making this fyrap, it is particularly neceffary
that the fugar be previovifly powdered, and diflblved
in the infufion with as gentle a heat as poffible, to pre¬
vent-the exhalation of the volatile parts of the peel.
With thefe cautions, the fyrup proves a very elegant
and agreeable one, poffelfing great lhare of the fine
flavour of the orange-peel.
484, a. Balfamic-Jyrup.
Take of balfam of Tolu, eight ounces ; water, three
pints. Boil them for two or three hours in a cir¬
culatory veffel, or at lead in a long-necked matrafs,
having its mouth lightly covered. When grown
cold, ftrain out the liquor, and mix therewith a
proper quantity of fugar to make it into a fyrup. L.
The coition may be conveniently performed in a re¬
tort, with a receiver adapted to it, the liquor which
comes over being occafionally poured back; or the
water may be entirely drawn off, and the fugar diflbl¬
ved in the diftilled liquor.
Take of the fyrup of-fugar, juft made, and warm from
the fire, two pounds ; tindure of balfam of Tolu,
one ounce. When the fyrup has grown almoftcold,
ftir into it the tindure by little at a time, agitating
them well together till perfedly united. The mix¬
ture is then to be kept in the heat of a water-bath
until the fpirit has exhaled. E.
The intention of the contrivers of the two foregoing
procefles feems to have been fomewhat different. In
the firft, the more fubtle and fragrant parts of the bal¬
fam are extraded from the groffer refinous matter,
and alone retained in the fyrup : the other fyrup con¬
tains the whole fubftance of the balfam in larger quan¬
tity. They are both moderately impregnated with the
agreeable flavour of the balfam.
In fome pharmacopoeias, an elegant fyrup of this
kind is prepared from a tindure of balfam of Peru,
with rofe-water and a proper quantity of fugar.
484, b. Syrup of clove-julyflonuers.
Take of clove julyflowers, frefh gathered, and freed
from the heels, three pounds; boiling water, five
pints. Macerate them for a night in aglafs or gla¬
zed earthen veffel ; then ftrain off the liquor, and
diffolve therein its due proportion of fugar to make
it into a fyrup. L.
One pound of the flow’ers is to be infufed in three
pints of water, and the fyrup made as above with¬
out boiling. E.
This fyrup is of an agreeable flavour, and a fine red
colour; and for thefe it is chiefly valued. Some have
fubftituted to it one eafily parable at feafons when the
flowers are not to be procured : An ounce of clove
fpice is infufed for fome days in 12 ounces of white-
wine, the liquor drained, and, with the addition of
20 ounces of fugar, boiled to a proper confidence : a
little cochineal renders tjte colour of this fyrup exa&ly
fimilar to that prepared from the clove-julyflower ;
and its flavour is of the fame kind, though not fo
pleafant. The abufe may be readily dete&ed, by
adding to a little of the fyrup fome alkaline fait or
Vol. VIII. 1
M A C Y. 6049
ley, which will change the genuine fyrup to a green Prepart-
colour; but in the connterfeit, it will make no fuch tl01is’
alteration, only varying the ftiade of the red.
484, c. Syrup of colchicum. E.
Take of the root ot colchicum, cut into thin flices, one
ounce; vinegar, one pint; fine fugar, 26 ounces.
Digeft the root for two days in the vinegar, (baking
the veffel now and then; then ftrain, prefling out the
liquor (lightly. Add the fugar to the (trained liquor,
and boil it gently to the confidence of a fyrup.
485. Syrup of fajfron. L.
Take of faffron wine, one pint; double-refined fugar,
15 ounces. Difiblve the fugar in the wine, fo as to
make a fyrup thereof.
Saffron is very well fitted for making a fyrup, as hi
this form a fufficient dofe of it is contained in a reafon-
able compafs. This fyrup is at prefent more frequent¬
ly prefcribed than the wine from which it is made: it
is a pleafant cordial, and gives a fine colour to juleps.
486. Syrup of quinces* L.
Take of quince-juice, depurated, three pints; cinna¬
mon, one dram; cloves, ginger, each half a dram;
red port wine, one pint; double-refined fugar, nine
pounds. Digeft the juice with the fpices, in the
heat of afhes, for fix hours; then adding the wine,
pafs the liquor through a (trainer; and afterward^
diflblve in it the fugar, fo as to make a fyrup.
If the quinces are kept for fome time in an airy
place before the juice is prefled put, the fyrup proves
rather more elegant, and richer of the fruit than when
they are taken frelh from the tree. In either cafe, the
preparation is a very agreeable, mild, cordial reftrin-
gent; and in fome kinds of loofeneffes and diforders of
the ftomach, may be either taken by itfelf in the quan¬
tity of a fpoonful or two at a time, or employed for
reconciling to the palate and ftomach medicines of the
more ungrateful kind.
487. Syrup of kermes. v
This fyrup, which is brought to us ready made,
from the fouthern parts of France, is of an agreeable
tafte, and a fine red colour. It is accounted cordial
and corroborant, and fuppofed to be particularly fer-
viceable in weakneffes and other diforders of pregnants
women.
488. Syrup of lemon-juice. L. E.
Take of juice of lemons, fuffered to (land till the fasces
have fubfided, and afterwards drained, two pints ;
double-refined fugar, 50 ounces. Difiblve the fugar
in the juice, fo as to make a fyrup thereof. L.
After the fame manner are prepared,
489. Syrup of mulberries. L.
490. Syrup of rafpberries. L.
All thefe are very pleafant, cooling fyrups; and in
this intention are occafionally made ufe of in draughts
and juleps,'for quenching third, abating heat, &c. in
bilious or inflammatory diftempers. They are fome-
times likewife employed in gargarifms for inflamma¬
tions of the mouth and tonfils.
34 C 491' sJruf
6o$o
Prepara-
P H A R
49I, a. Syrup of meconium, or diacodium. L.
Take of white poppy heads, dried and cleared from the
feeds, three pounds and a half; water, fix gallons.
Cut the heads, and boil them in the water, ftirring
them now and then, to prevent their burning, till
only about one third part of the liquor remains,
which will be almoft entirely foaked up by the pop¬
pies. Then remove the vefiel from the fire, ftrongly
prefs out the deco&ion, and boil it down to about
four pints: ftrain it whilfi hot, firlt through a fieve,
and afterwards through a fine woollen cloth ; and
fet it by for a night, that the faeces may fubfide.
Next morning pour the liquor off clear, and boil it
with fix pounds of double-refined fugar, until the
weight of the whole is nine pounds, or a little more
that it may become a fyrup of a proper confiftence.
This fyrup, impregnated with the opiate matter of
the poppy-heads, is given to children in dofes of two
or three drams, to adults from half an ounce to an
ounce and upwards, for obtunding and incraffating a-
crimonious humours, eafing pain, procuring reft, and
anfwering the other intentions of mild opiates. Par¬
ticular care is requifite in its preparation, that it may
be always made, as nearly as poffible, of the fame
ftrength; and accordingly the college has been very
minute in their defcription of the procefs.
491, b. Syrup of white poppies, or of meconium, commonly
called diacodium. E.
Take of white poppy heads, juft ripe, and moderately
dried, two pounds ; boiling-water, three gallons.
Let thefe be fteeped together for a night, and then
boiled until half the liquor is wafted : ftrain, and
. ftrongly prefs out the remainder ; and boil it, with
the addition of four pounds of white fugar, to the
confiftence of a fyrup.
This procefs is confiderably different from the pre¬
ceding. The poppy-heads are not boiled fo long; and
their quantity, in proportion to the produce of fyrup,
is much lefs. How far thefe differences may affe6l the
ftrength of the preparations, we (hall not take upon us
to determine.
M A C Y. Part II.
It is one of the lighteft of the opiate medicines, and Piepara-
in this refpeA fo weak, that fome have doubted of its tions,>
having any anodyne quality.
493. Pettoral fyrup. L. [See 482.]
Take of Englifti maidenhair, dried, five ounces; li¬
quorice, four ounces; boiling-water, five pints. Ma¬
cerate them for fome hours: then ftrain out the li¬
quor, and with a proper quantity of double-refined
fugar make it into a fyrup.
The title of this compofuion expreffes its medicinal
intention: it is fuppofed to foften acrimonious humours,
allay tickling coughs, and promote the expe&oration
of tough. phlegm.
494, a. Solutive fyrup of rofes. L.
Take the liquor that remains after the diftillation
of fix pounds of damaflc rofes; double-refined fu¬
gar, five pounds. Having preffed out the liquor
from the rofes, boil it down to three pints, and fet
it by for a night to fettle : next morning pour it off
clear from the fediment; and adding the fugar, boil
the mixture to the weight of ftven pounds and a
half.
494, b. Syrup of pale rofes: E.
Take of pale rofes, frelh gathered, one pound; boil¬
ing-water, three pints ; white fugar, three pounds.
Macerate the rofes in the water for a night : then
ftrain the liquor; and adding to it the fugar, boil
them into a fyrup. This fyrup may likewife be made
from the liquor remaining after the diftillation of -
rofe-water, depurated from its faeces.
The liquor remaining after the diftillation of rofes
(provided the ftill has been perfe&ly clean) is as pro¬
per for making this fyrup as a frelb infufion ; for the
diftillation only oolle&s thofe volatile parts which are
diffipated in the air, whilft the infufion is boiling to its
confiftence. This fyrup is an agreeable and mild pur¬
gative for children, in the dofe of half a fpoonfu!, or a
fpoonful. It likewife proves gently laxative to adults,
and in this intention may be of fervice in coftive ha¬
bits. Its principal life is in folutive glyftcrs.
492. Syrup of wild poppies. L.
Take of wild poppy flowers, frelh, four pounds; boil¬
ing-water, four pints and a half. Pour the water
on the poppies, fet them over the fire, and frequent¬
ly ftir them, until the flowers are thoroughly moift-
ened: as foon as they have funk under the water,
let the whole be fet by to fteep for a night; next
day pour off, and prefs out the liquor, and fet it by
for anight longer to fettle; afterwardsadd the piw-
per quantity of double-refined fugar to make it into
a fyrup.
The defign of fetting the flowers over the fire, is,
(as Dr Pemberton obferves), that they may be a little
fcalded, fo as to fhrink enough to be all immerged in
the water; without this artifice, they can fcarce be all
ait in : but they are no longer to be continued over
the fire than till this effe& is produced, left the liquor
become too thick, and the fyrup be rendered ropy.
This fyrup has been recommended in diforders of
the breaft, coughs, fpitting of blood, pleurifies, and
ether difeafes, both as an etnollient and as an opiate.
494, c. Syrup of dry rofes. E.
Take of red rofes, dried, feven ounces; white fugar,.
fix pounds; boiling-water, four pints. Infufe the
’rofes in the water for a night; then boil them a little,
ftrain out the liquor, and, adding to it the fugar, boil
them to the confiftence of a fyrup.
This fyrup is foppofed to be mildly aftringent • but
is principally valued on account of its red colour.
495. Syrup of fquills.
Take of vinegar of fquills, a pint and a half; cinna¬
mon, ginger, each one ounce; double-refined fugar,
three pounds and a half. Steep the fpices in the vi¬
negar for three days r then ftrain out the liquor,
and add the fugar fo as to make a fyrup thereof. L.
Take of vinegar of fquills, a pound and an half;
white fugar, three pounds and an half. Make them
into a fyrup, without boiling. E.
The fpices, in the firft of thefe compofitions, fome-
what alleviate the offenfivenefs of the fquills, thouglv
not fo much as to prevent the medicine from bejng
dif-
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- difagreeable. It is ufed chiefly3 in doles of a fpoonful
tionr. or two> for attenuating vifcid phlegm, and promoting
expe&orationj which it does very powerfully.
496. Thefmple fyrup, er fyrup of fugar. E.
Take of white fugar, water, each equal quantities.
Boil them into a fyrup.
This preparation is a plain liquid fweet, void of fla¬
vour or colour. It is convenient for fundry purpofes
where thefe qualities are not wanted, or would be ex¬
ceptionable.
497, a. Syrup of buckthorn.
Take of the juice of ripe and frefti buckthora-berries,
one gallon; cinnamon, ginger, nutmegs, each one
ounce; double-refined fugar, feven pounds. Set the
juice by for fome days to fettle ; then pafs it thro’
a ftrainer, and in fome part thereof macerate the
fpices. Boil the reft of the juice, adding towards
the end that part in which the fpices were macera¬
ted, firft paffed through a ftrainer: this part of the
procefs muft be fo managed, that the whole liquor
may be reduced to four pints. Laftly, put in the
fugar, and make the mixture into a fyrup. L.
Take of the juice of ripe buckthorn-berries, depura¬
ted, fix pounds ; white fugar, three pounds and an
half. Boil them to the confiftence of a fyrup. E.
This fyrup, in dofes of three or four fpoonfuls, ope¬
rates as a brifk cathartic. The principal inconveniences
attending it are, its being very unpleafant, and occa-
fioning a thirft and drynefs of the mouth and fauces,
and fometimes violent gripes: both thefe may be pre¬
vented by drinking liberally of water-gruel, or other
warm liquids, during the operation. The ungrateful-
nefs of the buckthorn is endeavoured to be remedied
by the addition of aromatics, which, however, are
fcarcely fufficient for that purpofe.
M A C Y.
ing water, three pints. Macerate them for fome
hours ; then (train out the liquor, and make it into
a fyrup with a proper quantity of double-refined
fugar. L.
Take of ginger, fliced and bruifed, three ounces; white
fugar, feven pounds and a quarter; boiling-water,
three pints. Steep the ginger in the water, in a clofe
veflel, for a night; then boil them a little, and ha¬
ving (trained out the deco6tion fet it by to fettle.
Pour off the clear liquor, add to it the fugar, and
make them into a fyrup. E.
This is an agreeable and moderately aromatic fyrup,
lightly impregnated with the flavour and virtues of the
ginger.
499. Confection of kermes. L.
Take of juice of kermes-grains, warmed and (trained,
three pounds; damalk rpfe-water, fix ounces by
meafure; oil of cinnamon, half a fcruple ; double-
refined fugar, one pound. Diflblve the fugar in the
rofe-water, by the heat of a water-bath, into a fy¬
rup ; then mix in the juice of kermes, and, after it
has grown cold, the oil of cinnamon. L.
This is a very elegant and agreeable cordial; the
dofe, when taken by itfelf, is from a fcruple to a dram
or more. Particular care ought to be had in the
choice of the sflential oil, which for the mod part is
grievoufly adulterated; it would be convenient to grind
the oil with a little of the fugar, before it is added to
the other ingredients; for by this means, it will mix
more perfectly, and not be apt to feparate in keeping.
500. Rob of elder-berries. E.
Take of the juice of ripe elder-berries, four pounds;
fine fugar, half a pound. Boil them on a gentle fire
to the confiftence of thick honey.
60 Cl
Prepara-
497, b. Syrup of violets.
Take of violets, frefti, and well coloured, two pounds;
boiling-water, five pints. Macerate them fora whole
day in a glafs, or at lead a glazed earthen yeffel ;
then pour out the liquor, and pafs it through a thin
linen-cloth, carefully avoiding even the lighted pref-
fure: afterwards, adding the due proportion of fu¬
gar, make it into a fyrup. L.
Take of March violets, frefh, one pound; boiling wa¬
ter, three pints. Steep them together for a night,
in a glazed earthen veffel clofe covered: then (train
out the liquor, and diflblve in it feven pounds and a
quarter of white fugar, fo as to make a fyrup with¬
out boiling. E.
This fyrup is of a very agreeable flavour; and, in the
quantity of a fpoonful or two, proves to children gent¬
ly laxative. It is apt to lofe, in keeping, the elegant
blue colour, for which it is chiefly valued; and hence
fome have been induced to counterfeit it with materials
whofe colour is more permanent. This abnfe may be
readily difeovered, by adding to a little of the fulpec-
ted fyrup any acid or alkaline liquor. If the fyrup is
genuine, the acid will.change its blue colour to a red,
and the alkali will change it to a green; but if coun¬
terfeit, thefe changes will not happen.
498. Syrup of ginger.
Take of ginger, cut into thin dices, four ounces; boil-
$ 5. Honeys and Oxymels.
The more fixed parts of vegetables, diflblved in
watery liquors, may be thence transferred into honey,
by mixing the honey with the watery decodion or
juice of the plant, and boiling them together till the
aqueous part has exhaled, and the honey remains of its
original confiftence.
501. Honey of rofes.
Take of rofe-buds, freed from the heels, and haftily
dried, four ounces; boiling water, three pints; cla¬
rified honey, five pounds. Steep the rofes in the
water for fome hours: then drain off the liquor,,
mix with it the honey, and boil the mixture to
the confiftence of honey.
This preparation is not unfrequently made life of,
as a mild cooling detergent, particularly in gargarifms
for ulcerations and inflammation of the mouth and
tonfils. The defign of haftily drying the rofes, is that
they may the better preferve their aftringency.
502. Solutive honey, L
Take the liquor remaining after the diftillation of fix
pounds of da made-rofes; cummin feeds, bruifed a
little, one ounce; brown fugar, four pounds; honey,
two pounds. Having prened out the liquor, boil
it to three pints; adding towards the end, the feeds
tied up in a linen cloth. Then pu; in the fugar and
i 34 C 2 ’honey,
P H A R
honey, and boil down the mixture to the confidence
of thin honey.
This compofition is very well contrived for the pur¬
pose expreffed in its title. It is principally employed
in laxative glyfters; and hence brown fugar is here al¬
lowed ; whilft, for all other ufes, the double-refined is
diredted.
503. Oxymel of garlic. L.
Take of garlic, cut in dices, an ounce and a half; ca¬
raway feeds, fweet fennel feeds, each two drams;
clarified honey, ten ounces by weight; vinegar, half
a pint. Boil the vinegar, for a little time, with
the feeds bruifed, in a glazed earthen veflel; then
add the garlic, and cover the veffel clofe ; when
grown cold, prefs out the liquor, and diffolve in it
the honey by the heat of a water-bath.
This oxymel is recommended for attenuating vifcid
juices, promoting expectoration, and the fluid fecre-
tions in general. It is doubtlefs a medicine of confi-
derable efficacy, though very unpleafant, the flavour
of the garlic prevailing, notwithftanding the addition
of the aromatic feeds.
504. Pectoral oxymel.
Take of elecampane roots, one ounce ; Florence orris
roots, half an ounce; gum ammoniacum, one ounce;
vinegar, half a pint; clarified honey, one pound ;
water, three"pints. Let the roots, cut and bruifed,
be boiled in the water till one-third is wafted: then
ft rain off the liquor; let it ftand to fettle; and ha-
ving poured it off clear from the feces, add to it the
honey, and the aramoniacum, previoufly diffolved ia
the vinegar. Mix them together, by boiling them
a little.
This compofition is defigned for thofe diforders of
the breaft that proceed from a load of vifcid phlegm
(which this medicine attenuates and promotes the ex¬
pectoration of) and, obftruCtions of the pulmonary vef-
fels. Two or three fpoonfuls may be taken every
night and morning, and continued for fome time.
505. Oxymel of fquills. L.
Take of clarified honey, three pounds; vinegar of
fquills, two pints. Boil them in a glazed earthen
veffel, over a gentle fire, to the confiftence of a
fyrup.
This is an ufeful aperient, detergent, and expecto¬
rant, and of great fervice in humoural afthmas, coughs,
and other diforders, where thick phlegm abounds. It
is given in dofes of two or three drams, along with
fome aromatic water, as that of cinnamon, to prevent
the great naufea which it would otherwife be apt to ex¬
cite. In large dofes, it proves emetic.
506. Simple oxymel. L.
Take of clarified honey, two pounds; vinegar, one pint.
Boil them to a due confiftence.
This Ample preparation is not inferior in efficacy to
many more elaborate compofitions. It is an agree¬
able, mild, cooling, faponaceous, detergent, and at-
tenuatipg medicine. It it often ufed in cooling deter¬
gent gargarifms, and not unfrequently as an expefto-
rent..
M A C Y. Part II.
507. The boiling of oxymels in glazed earthen vef- Prepara-
fels, is not free from danger. Their glazing is pro- buns.
cured by a vitrification of lead ; and vinegar, by a
boiling heat, may corrode fo much fo much of vitrified
lead, as to receive from it noxious qualities.
Sect. V. Separation and collection of thofe parts
of Vegetable and Animal fubjlances which are
volatile in the heat of boiling water.
508. There are many vegetable, and fome animal
fubftances, whofe virtues refide, whojly or in part, in
a matter which is capable of totally exhaling in the
heat of boiling water. In moft of the proceffts hither¬
to defcribed it is endeavoured, if poffible, to preferve
this volatile matter along with the more fixed parts;
whether thofe fixed parts were themfeives medicinal,
or only fubfervient to the union of the volatile matter
with the fluids employed. The aim, in theprefent fec-
tion, is, to completely feparate this volatile fubtile prin¬
ciple, and colleCt it pure from the groffer fixed parts,
either in a concentrated ftate, or diluted with water
or fpirit of wine. In its concentrated ftate, it appears
commonly an oil; which, from its containing always
the Tpecific odour, and frequently the other medicinal
powers of the fubjeCt, is called effential oil.
§ I. Essential Oils.
509. These are drawn by diftiilation in an alembic,
with a large refrigeratory. A quantity of water
is added to the fubjeCt, fufficient to prevent its
burning; and in this water it is likewife ma¬
cerated a little time before the diftillation. The
oil comes over along with the water; and either
fwims on its furface, or finks to the bottom, ac¬
cording as it is lighter or heavier than that fluid. L.
510. Effential oils are obtained only from odori¬
ferous fubftances; but not equally from all of this
clafs, nor in quantity proportionable to their degree
of odour ; fome, which if we were to reafon from a-
nalogy fhould feem very well fitted for this procefs,
yielding extremely little oil, and others none at all.
Rofes and camomile flowers, whofe ftrong and lading
fmell promifes abundance, are found upon experiment
to contain but a fmall quantity : the violet and jaf-
mine flowers, which perfume the air with their odour,
lofe their fmell upon the gentleft coClion, and do not
afford the leaft perceptible mark of oil upon being di-
ftilled, unlefs immenfe quantities are fubmitted to the
operation at once: while favin, whofe difagreeable
fcent extends to no great diftance, gives out the moft
oil of almoft any vegetable known.
Nor are the fame plants equally fit for this opera¬
tion, when produced in different foils or feafons, or
at different times of their growth. Some yield more
oil if gathered when the flowers begin to fall off than
at any other time ; lavender and rue, for inftanee.
Others, as fage, afford the largeft quantity when
young, before they have fent forth any flowers: and
others, as'thyme, when the flowers have juft appeared.
All fragrant herbs yield a larger proportion of oil
when produced in dry foils and warm fummers, than
in the oppofite circumftances. On the other hand,
fame of the difagreeabk ftrong-feented ones, as worm-
Part II. P H A R
( Prepara- wood, are faid to contain mod in rainy feafons and
tioils mold rich grounds.*
511. With regard to the proportion of water, if
whole plants, moderately dried, are ufed, or the
lhavings of woods; as much of either may be put in¬
to the veflel, as, lightly prefled, will occupy half its
cavity; and as much water may be added, as will
arife up to two thirds its height. 'The water and in¬
gredients, all together, fliould never take up more
than three-fourths of the ftill; there fliould be liquor
enough to prevent any danger of an empyreuma, but
not fo much as to be too apt to boil over into the
receiver.
The maceration fliould be continued fo long, as
that the water may fully penetrate the pores of the
fubjedt. To promote this efledt, woods fliould be
thinly fliaved acrofs the grain, roots cut tranfverfely
into thin Alices, barks reduced into coarfe powder, and
feeds lightly bruifed. Very compadl and tenacious
fubftances require the maceration to be continued a
week or two, or longer ; for thofe of a fofter and
loofer texture, two or three days are fufficient; whilft
fome tender herbs and flowers not only Hand not in
need of any at all, but are even injured by it.
512. The choice of proper inttruments is of great
confequence to the performance of this procefs to ad¬
vantage. There are fome oils, which pafs freely over
the fwan-neck of the head of the common ftill r others,
lefs volatile, cannot eafily be made to rife fo high.
For obtaining thefe laft Dr Lewis recommends a large
low head, having a rim or hollow canal round it ; in
this canal the oil is detained on its firft afcent (and
thence conveyed at once into the receiver), the ad¬
vantages of which are fufficiently obvious.
With regard to the fire, the operator ought to be
expeditious in raifing it at firft, and to keep it up,
during the whole procefs, of fuch a degree, that the
oil may freely diftil ; otherwife, the oil will be expofed
to an unneceflary heat, a circumftance which ought as
much as poffible to be avoided. Fire communicates
to all thefe oils a difagreeable impreflion, as is evident
from their being much lefs grateful when newly di-
ftilled, than after they have flood for fome time in a
cool place ; the longer the heat is continued, the more
alteration it muft produce in them.
The greater number of oils require for their diftilla-
tion the heat of water ftrcngly boiling : but there are
many alfo which rife with a confiderably lefs heat;
fuch as thofe of lemon-peel, citron-peel, of the flowers
of lavender and rofemary, and of almoft all the more
odoriferous kinds of flowers. We have already ob-
ferved, that thefe flowers have their fragrance greatly
injured, or even deftroyed, by beating or bruifing
them: it is impaired alfo by the immerfion in water
in the prefent procefs, and the more fo in proportion
to the continuance of the immerfion and the heat:
hence thefe oils, diftilled in the common manner,
prove much lefs agreeable in fmell than the fubje&s
themfelves. For the diftillation of fubftances of this
clafs, another method has been contrived: inftead of
being immerfed in water they are expofed only to its
vapour. A proper quantity of water being put into
the bottom of the ftill, the odoriferous herbs or flowers
are laid lightly in a bafket, of fuch a fixe, that it may
tqier into the ftill, and reft agaijjft its fides, juft above
M A C Y. 6053
the water. The head being then fitted on, and the Prepara-
water made to boil, the fleam, percolating through tlons*
the fubjedl, imbibes the oil, without impairing its fra- ~
grance, and carries it over into the receiver, pils
thus obtained poflefs the odour of the fubjedt in an ex-
quifite degree, and have nothing of the difagreeable
fcent perceivable in thofe diftilled by boiling them in
water in the common manner.
The water employed in the diftillation of eflen-
tial oils, always imbibes fome portion of the oil; as is
evident from the fmell, tafte, and colour, which it ac¬
quires. It cannot, however, retain above a certain
quantity; and therefore, fuch as has been already ufed
and almoft faturated itfelf, may be advantageoufly
employed, inftead of common water, in a fecond, third,
or any future diftillation of the fame fubjed.
After the diftillation of one oil, particular care
fhould be had to duly cleanfe the worm before it is
employed in the diftillation of a different plant. Some
oils, thofe of wormwood and anifeeds for inftance,
adhere to it fo tenacioufly, as not to be melted out by
heat, or wafhed off by water: the bell way of clean-
fing the worm from thefe, is to run a little fpirit of
wine through it.
513. Effential oils, after they are diftilled, fliould
be fuffered to (land for fome days in veflels loofely
covered with paper, till they have loft their difagree¬
able fiery odour and become limpid: then put them
up in fmall bottles, which are to be kept quite full,
clofely doped, in a cool place: with thefe cautions,,
they will retain their virtues in perfedlion for many
years.
When carelefsly kept, they in time gradually lofe.-
of their flavour, and become grofs and thick. Some
endeavour to recover them again after they have un¬
dergone this change, by grinding them with about
thrice their weight of common fait, then adding a
large proportion of water, and diftflling them afrefli:-
the purer part arifes thin and limpid, pofltfling -a
great degree of the priftine fmell and tafle of the oils,
though inferior in both refpe&s to what the oil was at
firft. The oils, when thus altered, are nearly in the
fame date with the turpentines, and other thickened
oily jtiices, which readily yield their purer oil in
diftillation with water, alone.
514. Eflential-oils, medically confidered, agree in
the general qualities of pungency and heat ; in parti¬
cular virtues, they differ as much as the fubjedls from
which they are obtained, the oil being the dired prin¬
ciple in which the virtues, or part of the virtues, of
the feveral fubjeds refide. Thus the carminative vir¬
tue of the warm feeds, the diuretic of juniper-berries,
the emmenagogue of favin, the nervine of rofemary,
the ftomachic of mint, the antifcorbutic of fcurvy-
grafs, the cordial of aromatics, &c. are concentrated
in their oils.
There is another remarkable difference in effential
oils, the foundation of which is lefs obvious; that of
the degree of their pungency and heat; which are by
no means in proportion, as might be expeded, to
thofe of-the fubjeds they were drawn from. The oil
of cinnamon, for inftance, is excefiively pungent and
fiery ; in its undiluted ftate, it is almoft caultic : where¬
as cloves, a fpice which in fubftance is far more pun¬
gent than the other, yields an oil which is far lefs fo..
This,,
6054
Prepara-
PHARMACY. Part II.
This difftrence feems to depend partly upon the quan¬
tity of oil afforded, cinnamon yielding much lefs than
cloves, and confequently having its aftive matter conr
centrated into a fmaller volume; partly, upon a diffe¬
rence in the nature of the adive parts themfelves: for
though effential oils contain always the fpecific odour
and flavour of their fubjeds, whether grateful or un¬
grateful, they do not always contain the whole pun¬
gency; this refides frequently in a more fixed refinous
matter, and does not rife with the oil. After the
diftillation of cloves, pepper, and fome other fpices, a
part of their pungency is found to remain behind : a
dimple tindure of them in redified fpirit of wine is
even more pungent than their pure effential oils.
415. The more grateful oils are frequently made ufe of
for reconciling to the floroach medicines of themfelves
difguftfol. It has been cuflomary to employ them as
corredors for the refinous purgatives ; an ufe which
they do not feem to be well adapted to. AH the fer-
vice they can here be of, is to make the refin fit eafier
at firft on the ftomach; far from abating the irritating
quality upon which the virulence of its operation de¬
pends, thefe pungent oils fuperadd a frefh ftimulus.
Effential oils are never given alone, on account of
their extreme heat and pungency; which in fome is fo
great, that a fingle drop let fall upon the tongue, pro¬
duces a gangrenous efchar. They are readily imbibed
by pure dry fogar, and in this form may be conve¬
niently exhibited. Ground with eight or ten times
their weight of the fugar, they become foluble in
aqueous liquors, and thus may be diluted to any affign-
ed degree. Mucilages alfo render them mifcible with
water into an uniform milky liquor. They diffolve
likev/ife in fpirit of wine; the more fragrant in an
equal weight, and almoft all of them in lefs than four
times their own quantity: thefe folutions may be ei¬
ther taken on fugar, or mixed with fyrups or the like;
on mixing them with water, the liquor grows milky,
and the oil feparates.
The more pungent oils are employed externally
againft paralytic complaints, numbnefs, pains, and
aches, cold tumours, and in other cafes where particu¬
lar parts require to be heated or ftimulated. The
toothach is fometimes relieved by a drop of thefe al¬
moft cauftic oils, received on cotton, and cautioufly in¬
troduced into the hollow tooth.
516. RJfential oil of the leaves of •vjormiuood. L.
This is one of the more ungrateful oils : it fmells
ftrongly of the wormwood ; and contains its particular
naufeous tafte, but has little or nothing of its brtter-
nefs, this remaining entire in the deco&ion left after
the diftillation : its colour, when drawn from the frefh
herb, is a dark green ; from the dry, a brownifh yel¬
low. This oil is employed chiefly as a vermifuge; and
for this purpofe is both applied externally to the belly,
and taken internally : it is moft conveniently exhibited
in the form of pills, which it may be reduced into by
mixing it with crumb of bread.
517. Effential oil of dill-feeds. L. E.
This is a very warm oil; of a flavour not very agree¬
able, lefs fo than that of the feeds. It is fometimes
given as a carminative, in flatulencies, colicky pains,
hiccups, and the like, from one to three or four drops.
518. EJfential oil of anifeeds. L. E. dons.
This oil pofTeffes the tafte and fmell of the anifeeds-'
in perfection. It is one of the milddl of the diftilled
oils: 15 or 20 drops may be taken at a time without
danger, though common practice rarely goes fo far as
half this number. Its fmell is extremely durable and
diffufive : milk drawn from the breaft. after taking it, is
found impregnated with its odour ; and poffibly this
may be, in part, the foundation of the pedtoral vir¬
tues ufually afcribed to it: in flatulencies and colics, it
is faid by fome to be lefs effectual than the feeds them-
felves.
It is remarkable of this oil, that it congeals, even
when the air is not fenfibly cold, into a butyraceous
confiftence: and hence, in the diftillation of it, the
operator ought not to be over-felicitous in keeping the
water in the refrigeratory too cool: it behoves him
rather to let it grow fomewhat hot, particularly to¬
wards the end of the procefs; otherwife the oil, con¬
gealing, may fo flop up the worm, as to endanger
blowing off the head of the ftill, at leaft a confiderable
quantity of oil will remain in it.
519. Effential oil of caraway feeds. L. E.
This is a very hot and pungent oil; a fingle drop is
a moderate dole, and five or fix a very large one. It
is not unfrequently made ufe of as a carminative ;
and fuppofed by fome to be peculiarly ferviceable for
promoting urine, to which it communicates fome de¬
gree of its fmell.
520. Effential oil of cloves. L. E.
This oil is fo ponderous as to fink in water, and is
not eafily elevated in diftillatibn : if the water which
comes over be returned on the remaining cloves, and
the diftillation repeated, fome more oil will generally
be obtained, though much inferior in quality to the
firft. The oil of cloves is ufually deferibed as being
“ in tafte exceflively hot and fiery, and of a gold yel¬
low colour;” (Boerh.procejf. 27.) Such indeed is the
compofition which we receive under this name from
Holland ; but the genuine oil of cloves is one of the
milder oils: it may be taken with great fafety (duly
diluted) to the quantity of to or 12 drops or more.
Nor is its colour at all yellow, unlefs it has been long
and carelefsly kept, or diftilled by too violent a fire :
when in perfeClion, it is limpid and colourlefs; of a
pleafant, moderately warm and pungent tafte; and of a
very agreeable fmell, much referobiing that of thefpice
itfeif.
521. Effential oil of chamomile flowers. L.
This is a very pungent oil, of a ftrong not ungrate¬
ful fmell, refembling that of the flowers ; its colour is
yellow, with a caft of greenifh or brown. It is fome¬
times given in the dofe of a few drops, as a carmina¬
tive, in hyfteric diforders, and likewife as a vermi¬
fuge ; it may be conveniently made into pills with
crumb of bread.
422. OH of cinnamon. L.
This valuable oil is extremely hot and pungent; of
a moft agreeable flavour, like that of the cinnamon it¬
feif. In cold languid cafes, and debilities of the ner¬
vous fyfteju, it is one of the moft. immediate cordials
and
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- and reftoratives. The dofe is one, two, or three
tions. drops; which muft always be carefully diluted by the
mediation of fugar, &c. for fo great is the pungency
of this oil, that a Angle drop let fall upon the tongue,
undiluted, produces, as Bcerhaave obferves, a gan-
grenous efchar. In the didillation of this oil, a fmart
fire is required ; and the low head, with a channel
round it, above recommended for the diftillation of the
left volatile oils (n° 512.), is particularly neceffary for
this, which is one of the lead volatile, aud which is af¬
forded by the fpice in exceeding fmali quantity.
523. EJfential oil of fund-feeds.
The oil obtained from fweet-fennel feeds fs much
more elegant and agreeable than that of the common
fennel. It is one of the milded of thefe preparations:
it is neatly of the fame degree of warmth with that of
anifeeds; to which it is likewife fitnilar in flavour, tho’
far more grateful. It is given from two or thref drops
to 10 or 12, as a carminative, in cold indifpofitions of
the domach; and in fome kinds of coughs, for promo¬
ting expe&oration.
524. EJfential oil of juniper-berries. L. E.
This oil is a very warm and pungent one ; of a drong
flavour, not unlike that of the berries. In the dofe of
a dro'p or two, it proves a ferviceable carminative arid
ftomachic ; in one of fix, eight, or more, a fbimula-
ting, detergent diuretic and emmenagogue : it feems
to have fomewbat of the nature of the turpentines, or
their diddled oil; like which it communicates a vio¬
lent fmell to the urine.
The oil of thefe berries refides partly in veficles
fpread through the fubftance of the fruit, and partly
in little cells contained in the feeds *, when the berry
is dry, and the oil hardened into a refinotis fubdance,
it becomes vifible, upon breaking the feeds, in form
of little tranfparent drops. In order therefore to ob¬
tain this oil to advantage, we ought, previous to the
didillation, to bruife the berry thoroughly, fo as to
break the feeds, and entirely lay open the oily recep¬
tacles.
525. EJfential oil of lavender-flowers. L. E.
This oil, when in perfeftion, is very limpid, of a
pleafant yellowifh colour, extremely fragrant, pofief-
fing in an eminent degree the peculiar fmell generally
admired in the flowers. It is a medicine of great ufe,
both externally and internally, in paralytic and le¬
thargic complaints, rheumatic pains, and debilities
of the nervous fyflem. The dofe is from one drop to
five or fix.
526. EJfential oil of bay-berries.
The oil of bay-berries is thin and limpid, moderate¬
ly pungent, of a drong and tolerably grateful fmell. It
is given in flatulent colics, hyderic complaints, and for
allaying the pains confequent upon delivery ; the dofe
from two drops to five or fix. It is likewife made an
ingredient in carminative glyders; and in fome hyde¬
ric cafes, is applied externally.
526. EJfence of lemons. L.
This is a pleafant oil, of a fine fmell, very near as
agreeable as that of the frefh peel: it is one of the
lighted and mod volatile oils we have, perfeffly lim¬
pid, and almoft colfturlefs. It is taken in dofes of two
M A C Y. 6055
or three drops, as a cordial, in weaknefs of the do- Prepaw-
mach, &c. though more frequently ufed as a per- tl0n!:'
fume.
528. EJfential oil of mace.
The eflential oil of mace is moderately pungent,
very fubtle and volatile, and of a ftrong aromatic imell
like that of the fpice itfelf: it is thin and limpid, of a
pale yellowifh colour, with a portion of thicker and
darker-coloured oil at the bottom. This oil is cele¬
brated in vomitings, hickups, colicky pains, See. both
given internally from one to four drops, and applied
externally to the domach and umbilical region. It is,
however, but rarely made ufe of, and not often met
with in the (hops.
5 29. EJfential oil of marjoram leaves. L.
This oil is very hot and penetrating, in flavour not
nearfo agreeable as the marjoram itfclf: when in per-
fe&ion, it is of a pale yellow colour ; by long keep¬
ing, it turns reddifh : if diddled with too great a heat,
it arifes of this colour at fird. It is fuppofed to be
peculiarly ferviceable in relaxations, obdruftions, and
mucous difeharges of the uterus : the dofe is one or
two drops.
530, a. EJfential oil of the leaves of common mint.
L. E.
This oil fmells and tades drongly of the mint, but
is in both refpe&s fomewhat left agreeable than the
herb itfelf. It is an ufeful domachic medicine; and
not unfrequently exhibited in want of appetite, weak¬
nefs of the itomach, retchings to vomit, and other
like diforders, when not accompanied with heat or in¬
flammation : two or three drops, or more, are given
for a dofe.
530, b. EJfential oil of the leaves of pepper-mint. L,
This podeffes the fmell, tade, and virtues of the
pepper-mint in perfe&ion ; the colour is a pale greenifh
yellow. It is a medicine of great pungency and
fubtlety 5 and diffufes, almod as foon as taken, a glow¬
ing warmth through the whole fydem. In colics ac¬
companied with great coldnefs, and in fome hyderic
complaints,,it is of excellent ftrvice. A drop or two are
in general a fufficient dofe.
331. EJfential oil of nutmegs. L. E.
The effeotial oil of nutmegs poflefles the flavour and
aromatic virtues of the fpice in an emi,neat' degree. It
is dmilar in quality to the oil of mace, but fomewhat
left grateful.
5 3 2. EJfential oil of the leaves of origanum. L. E..
This oil has a very pungent acrimonious tade, and
a penetrating fmeli. It has been chiefly employed
externally as an errhine, and for, eating pains of the
teeth.
533. EJfential oil of Jamaica pepper. E.
This is a very elegant oil, and may be ufed as a fuc-
cedaneum to thofe of fome of the dearer fpices, It is
of a fine pale colour, in flavour more agreeable than
the oil of cloves, and not far fiiort of that of nut¬
megs. It finks in water, like the oils of fume of the
eadern fpices.
534. EJfential oil of refemary. L. E.
Thre oil of rofemary is drawn from the plant in
flower.
t5oj6 P H A R
prepara- flower. When in perfection, it is very light and thin;
nous. pa]e> ancJ almoft colourlefs ; of great fragrancy, tho’
not quite fo agreeable as the rofemary itfelf.. It is re¬
commended, in the dofe of a few drops, in nervous
and hyrteric complaints. Boerhaave holds it in great
efteem againft epilepfies, and fupprefiions of the ute¬
rine purgations, occafioned by weaknefs and inacti¬
vity.
535. EJfential oil of rue-haves. L.
The oil of rue has a very acrid tafte, and a pene¬
trating fmell, refembling that of the herb, but rather
more unpleafant. It is fometimes made ufe of in hy-
fleric diforders, and as an anthelmintic ; as alfo in
epileptics proceeding from a relaxed ftate of the
nerves.
Rue yields its oil very fparingly. The larged
quantity is obtained from it when the flowers are ready
to fall off, and the deeds begin to thow themfelves :
fuitable maceration, previous to the didillation, is here
extremely neceffary.
536. EJfential oil offavin leaves. L. £.
This oil is a celebrated uterine and e'mmenagogue ;
in cold phlegmatic habits, it is undoubtedly a medi¬
cine of good fervice, though not capable of perform¬
ing what it has been ufually reprefented to do. The
dofe is, two or three drops or more.
537. Effential oil offajfafras. L. E.
This is the mod ponderous of all the known effen¬
tial oils, but rifes in didillation with fufficient cafe: it
appears limpid as water, has a moderately pungent
tafte, a very fragrant fmell, exa&ly refembling that of
the faffafras. It ftands greatly commended as a fudo-
rific, and for purifying the blood and juices: it is like-
wife fuppofed to be of fervice in humoural afthmas and
coughs. The dofe is from one drop to eight or ten ;
though Geoffroy goes as far as 20.
The decodtion remaining after the diftillation of the
oil, affords, by infpiffation, an ufeful extrad, of a mild,
bitterifh, fubaftringent tatte. Hoffman fays, he has
given it with great benefit, in dofes of a fcruple, as a
corroborant in cache&ic cafes, in the decline of in¬
termitting fevers, and for abating hypochondriacal
fpafms.
53-8. Oil of turpentine. L. E.
This is diftilled in the fame manner as the forego¬
ing oils, and is ftriCily an effential one, though not
ufually ranked in this clafs : it is commonly, but im¬
properly, called fpirit of turpentine. It is employed
in large quantities for fome mechanic purpofes, and
hence the diftillation of it is become a particular bufi-
nefs.
This oil is a very hot, ftimulating medicine. It
is fometimes given as a fudorific and diuretic, in the
dofe of two or three drops : in larger dofes, it is apt
to greatly heat the body, occafion pain of the head,
an tffufion of the femen and liquor of the proftate
glands. It has neverthelefs been of late taken in
confiderable dofes (along with honey or other conve¬
nient vehicles) againft the fciatica ; and, as is faid,
with good fuccefs. Some have recommended it againft
venereal runnings: but here it has produced mif-
chievous confequences, inflaming the parts and ag¬
gravating the diforder. Externally it is not unfre-
M A C Y. Part II. .
uently employed againft rheumatic pains, aches, fprains, Prepara-
for difcuffing cold tumours, and reftraining hsemor- tl0ns' .
rhages.
539. After the diftillation of the turpentine, there re¬
mains in the ftill a brittle refinous fubftance, of a
yellow colour, called[L. j
The only ufe of this is in external applications, for
giving confiftence to plafters, and the like pirrpofes.
540. Moft of the foregoing oils are drawn by our
chemifts, and eafily procurable in a tolerable degree
of perfe&ion; thofe of cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and
mace, excepted. Thefe are ufually imported from
abroad; and are for the moft part fo much adulturated,
that it is difficult to meet with fuch as are at all fit for
ufe.
Nor are the adulterations of thefe kinds of prepara¬
tions eafily difcoverable. The groffer abufes indeed
may be readily detected : thus if the oil is mixed with
fpirit of wine, it will turn milky on the addition of
water ; if with expreffed oils, rectified fpirit will dif-
folve the effential, and leave the other behind; if with
oil of turpentine, on dipping a piece of paper in the
mixture, and drying it with a gentle heat, the turpen¬
tine will be betrayed by its fmell. But the more fubtle
artifts have contrived other methods of fophiftication,
which elude all trials of this kind.
Some have looked upon the fpecific gravity of oils,
as a certain criterion of their genuinenefs. This,
however, is not to be abfolutely depended on ; for the
genuine oils, obtained from the fame fubjedt, often¬
times differ in gravity as much as thofe drawn from
different ones. Cinnamon and cloves, whofe oils
ufually fink in water, yield, if (lowly and warily di¬
ftilled, an oil of great fragrancy, which is neverthelefs
fpecifically lighter than the aqueous fluid employed in
the diftillation of it ; whilft, on the other hand, the
laft runnings of fome of the lighter oils prove fome¬
times fo ponderous as to fink in water.
As all effential oils agree in the general properties
of folubility in fpirit of wine, indiffolubility in water,
mifcibility with water by the intervention of certain in¬
termedia, volatility in the heat of boiling water, &c.
it is plain that they may be varioufly mixed with one
another, or the dearer fophifticated with the cheaper,
without any poffibility of difcovering the abufe by
any trials of this kind. And indeed, it would not be
of much advantage to the purchafer if he had infal¬
lible criteria of the genuinenefs of every individual oil.
It is of as much importance, that they may be pood,
as that they may be genuine ; for we have o'ften' feen
genuine oils, from incautious diftillation, and long and
carelefs keeping, weaker both in fmell and tafte than
the common fophifticated ones.
The fmell and tafte feem to be the only certain tefts
that the nature of the thing will admit of. If a bark
fliould have in every refpeft the appearance of good
cinnamon, and- (hould be proved indifputably to be
the genuine bark of the cinnamon tree; yet, if it
wants the cinnamon flavour, or has it but in a low de¬
gree, we rejedft it: and the cafe is the fame with the
oil. It is only from ufe and habit, or comparifon with
fpecimens of known quality, that we can judge of the
goodnefs, either of the drugs themfelves, or of their
oils.
Moft
Fart II. P H A R
Prepara- Moft of the effential oils, indeed, are too hot and
uons. pungent to be tafted with fafety; and the fmell of the
fubjedl is fo much concentrated in them, that a fmall
variation in this refpeft is not eafily diftinguifhed. But
we can readily dilute them to any aflignable degree. A
drop of the oil may be diflblved in fpirit of wine; or
received on a bit of fugar, and diflblved by that inter¬
medium in water. The quantity of liquor which it
thus impregnates with its flavour, or the degree of fla¬
vour which it communicates to a certain determinate
quantity, will be the meafure of the degree of good-
nefs of the oil.
$ 2. SIMPLE Oistilled Waters.
541. The effluvia which exhale in the air from many
vegetables, particularly from thofe of the odorous kind,
confift apparently of principles of great fubilety and
aftivity, capable of ftrongly and fuddenly affedting
the brain and nervous fyftem, efpecially in thofe whofe
nerves are of great fenfibility ; and likewife of opera¬
ting, in a flower manner, upon the fyftem of groffer
vefiels. Thus Boerhaave obferves, that, in hyfterical
and dropfical perfons, the fragrant odour of the In¬
dian hyacinth excites ftrange fpafms, which the ftrong
fcent of rue relieves; that the effluvia of the walnut-
tree occafion head-achs, and make the body coftive;
that thofe of poppies procure fleep ; and that the fmell
of bean-bloflbms, long continued, difqrders the fenfes.
Lemery relates, from his own knowledge, that feve-
ral perfons were purged, by flaying long in a room
where damafk-rofes were drying.
Some of the chemifts have indulged themfelves in
the pleafing furvey of thefe prefiding fpirits, as they
are called, of vegetables; their peculiar nature in the
different fpecies of plants ; their exhalation into the
atmofphere by the fun’s heat, and difperfion by winds;
their rendering the air of particular places medicinal,
or otherwife, according to the nature of the plants
that abound. They have contrived alfo different
means for colleding thefe fugitive emanations, and
concentrating and condenfing them into a liquid form ;
employing either the native moifture of the fubjed, or
an addition of water, as a vehicle or matrix for re¬
taining them.
542. The procefs which has been judged tnoft ana¬
logous to that of nature is the following : The fub-
jed, frefh gathered at the feafon of itsgreateft vigour,
with the morning-dew upon it, is laid lightly and un-
bruifed in a fhallow veffel, to which is adapted a low
head with a recipient: under the veffel a live coal is
placed, and occafionally renewed, fo as to keep up an
uniform heat, no greater than that which obtains in
the atmofphere in fummer, viz. about 85 degrees of
' Fahrenheit’s thermometer. In this degree of heat,
there arifes, exceedingly flowly, an invifible vapour,
which condenfes in the head into dewy drops, and
falls dewn into the receiver, and which has been fup-
pofed to be the very fubftance that the plant would
have fpontaneoufly emitted in the open air.
But on fubmitting to this procefs many kinds of
odoriferous vegetables, liquors obtained by it have
been always found to be very different from the natu¬
ral .effluvia of the refpedtive fubje&s : they had very
little fmell, and no remarkable tafte. It appeared,
Vol. VIII. 1
M A C Y.
that a heat, equal to that of the atmofphere, is inca¬
pable of railing in clofe veffels thofe parts of vegetables
which they emit in the open air. It may therefore be
prefumed, that in this laft cafe fome other caufe con¬
curs to the effedl: that it is not the fun’s heat alone
which raifes and impregnates the air with the odorous
principles of vegetables ; but that the air itfelf, or the
watery humidity with which it abounds, a&ing as a
true diffolvent, extradls and imbibes them ; fo that the
natural effluvia of the plant may be looked upon as an
infufion of the plant made in air. The purgative vir¬
tue of the damaik-rofe, and the aftringency of the wal¬
nut-tree, which, as above obferved, are in fome mea¬
fure communicated to the air, may be totally extrac¬
ted by infufion both in watery and fpirituous menftrua,
but never rife in diftillation with any degree of heat:
and the volatile odours of aromatic herbs, which are
diffufed through the atmofphere in the loweft warmth,
cannot be made to diftil without a heat much greater
than is ever found to obtain in a (haded air.
The above procefs therefore, and the theory on which
it is built, appear to be faulty in two points: (1.) In
fuppofing, that all thofe principles which naturally
exhale from vegetables, may be collefled by diftilla¬
tion ; whereas there are many which the air extrafts
in virtue of its diffolving power, and which are artifi¬
cially feparable alfo by diffolvents only: (2.) In em¬
ploying a degree of heat infufficient for feparating
even thofe parts which are truly exhaleable by heat.
643. The foregoing method of dittillation is com¬
monly called diftillation by the coldJlill; but thofe who
have pradtifed it, have generally employed a confider-
able heat. A (hallow leaden veffel is filled with the
freffl herbs, flowers, &c. which are heaped above it,
fo that, ^yhen the head is fitted on, this alfo may be fill¬
ed a confiderable way : a little fire is made under the
veffel, fufficient to make the bottom much hotter than
the hand can bear, care being taken only not to heat
it fo far as to endanger fcorching any part of the fub¬
jedl. If the bottom of the veffel is not made fo hot as
to have this effedl on the part contiguous to it, it is
not to be feared that the heat communicated to the
reft of the included matter will be great enough to do
it any injury. By this management, the volatile parts
of fever j odorous plants, as mint, are effedlually for¬
ced over; and if the procefs has been (kilfully mana¬
ged, the diftilled liquor proves richly impregnated with
the native odour and flavour of the fubjetff, without
having received any kind of difagreeable impreffion
from the heat made ufe of.
This procefs has been chiefly pradlifed in private fa¬
milies; the (lownefs of the diftillation, and the attend¬
ance and care neceffary for preventing the fcorching of
fome part of the plant fo as to communicate an un¬
grateful burnt flavour to the liquor, rendering it in-
confiftent with the difpatch requifite in the larger way
of bufinefs.
544. Another method has therefore been had re-
courfe to; that by the common (till, called, in diftinc-
tion from the foregoing, the hot dill. Here a quan¬
tity of water is added to the plant, to prevent its burn¬
ing : and the liquor is kept nearly of a boiling heat,
or made fully to boil, fo that the vapour rifes plenti¬
fully into the head, and palling thence into a fpiral pipe
34 or
6057
6058 PHAR
Prepara- or worm, placed in a veffel of cold water, is there con-
tions. denfed, and runs out into drops quickly fmrceeding one
L ^ another, or in a continued ftream. The additional wa¬
ter does not at all weaken the produce : for the moft
volatile parts of the fubjeA rife iirft, and impregnate
the liquor that firil diftils: as foon as the plant has
given over its virtue fufficiently, which is known by
examining from time to time the liquor that runs from
the nofe of the worm, the diftillation is to be ftop-
ped.
This is the method of diftillation commonly prafti-
fed for the officinal waters. It is accompanied with
one imperfe&ion, affe&ing chiefly thofe waters whofe
principal value confifts in the delicacy of their flavour;
this being not a little injured by the boiling heat ufu-
ally employed, and by the coagitation of the odorous
particles of the fubjeft with the water. Sometimes alfo
^ part of the plant fticks to the fides of the ftill, and
is fo far fcorched as to give an ungrateful taint to the
liquor.
545. There is another method of managing this 0-
peration, which we have already recommended for the
diftillation of the more volatile eflential oils, and which
is equally applicable to that of the waters. In this
method, the advantages of the foregoing ones are uni¬
ted, and their inconveniences obviated. A quantity
of water being poured into the ftill, and the herbs or
flowers placed in a balket over it, there can be no pof-
fihility of burning ; the water may be made to boil,
but fo as not to rife up into the baflcet, which would
defeat the intention of this contrivance. The hot va¬
pour of the water paffing lightly through all the inter-
ilices of the fubjed matter, imbibes and carries out
the volatile parts unaltered in their native flavour. By
this means the diftilled waters of all thofe fubftances,
whofe oils are of the more volatile kind, are obtained
in the utmoft perfeftion, and with fufficient difpatch;
for which laft intention the ftill may be filled quite up
to the head.
546. In the diftillation of eflential oils, the water, as
obferved in the foregoing feftion, imbibes always a part
of the oil. The diftilled liquors here treated of, are no
other than water thus impregnated with the eflential
oil of the fubjeft ; whatever fmell, tafte, or virtue, is
here communicated to water, or obtained in the form
of a watery liquor, being found in a concentrated ftate
in the oil. The eflential oil, or fome part of it, more
attenuated and fubtilized than the reft, is the direft
principle on which the title offpiritiu re£iort or prefix
ding fpirit, has been beftowed.
All thefe vegetables therefore which contain an
eflential oil, will give over fome virtue to water
by diftillation: but the degree of the impregnation
of the water, or the quantity of water which a plant
is capable of fatiating with its virtue, are by no means
in proportion to the quantity of its oil. The oil fa-
tiates only the water that comes over at the fame time
with it: if there be more oil than is fufficient for this
fatiation, the furplus feparates, and concretes in its pro¬
per form, not mifcible with the water that arifes after¬
wards. Some odoriferous flowers, whofe oil is in fo
little quantity, that fcarcely any vifible mark of it ap¬
pears, unlefs 50 or too pounds or more are diftilled at
once, give neverthelefs as ftrong an impregnation to
M A C Y. Part II.
water, as thofe plants which abound moft with oil. Prepara-
547. General rules for the diflillation of the officinal
fimple ’waters.
I. Plants and their parts ought to be frefti gathered.
Where they are directed frefti, fuch only muft be
employed; but fome are allowed to be ufed dry, as
being eafily procurable in this ftate at all times of
the year, though rather more elegant waters might
be obtained from them whilft green [A.j]
II. Having bruifed the fubjeft a little, pour thereon
thrice its quantity of fpring-water: this quantity is
to be diminiflied or increafed, according as the plants
are more or lefs juicy than ordinary.
When frelh and juicy herbs are to be diftillcd, thrice
their weight of water will be fully fufficient: but dry
ones require a much larger quantity. In general, there
ftiould be fo much water, that after all intended to be
diftilled has come over, there may be liquor enough
left to prevent the matter from burning to the ftill.
III. The diftillation may be performed in an alembic
with a refrigeratory, the junctures being luted.
IV. The diftillation is to be continued as long as the
water which comes over is perceived to have any
' fmell or tafte of the plant.
Plants differ fo much, according to the foil and fea-
fon of which they are the produce, and likewife ac¬
cording to their own age, that it is impoffibie to fix
the quantity of water to be drawn from a certain weight
of them, to any invariable flandard. The diftillation
may always be continued as long as the liquor runs
well flavoured of the fubjeft, and no longer.
If the herbs are of prime goodnefs, they muft be taken
in the weights prefcribed. But when frefti ones are
fubftituted to dry, or when the plants themfelves are
the produce of unfavourable feafons, and weaker than
ordinary, the quantities are to be varied according
the difcretion of the artift [Z.]
After the odorous water, alone intended for ufe, has
come over, an acidulous liquor arifes, which has fome-
times extradled fo much from the copper-head of the
ftill, as to prove emetic. To this are owing the an¬
thelmintic virtues attributed to certain diftilled waters.
V. If any drops of oil fwim on the furface of the wa¬
ter, they are to be carefully taken off.
VI That the waters may keep the better, about one-
twentieth part their weight of proof-fpirit may be
added to each, after they are diftilled. Z.
548. A great number of diftilled waters were for¬
merly kept in the (hops, and are ftill retained in fo¬
reign pharmacopoeias. The faculty of Paris dired, in
the laft edition of their codex medicamentarius, no lefs
than 125 different waters, and 130 different ingre¬
dients in one Angle water. Near one half of thefe pre¬
parations have fcarcely any virtue or flavour from the
fubjeft, and many of the others are infignificant.
The colleges of London and Edinburgh have rejec¬
ted thefe oftentatious fuperfluities: and given an ele¬
gant and compendious fet of waters, fufficient for an-
fwering fuch purpofes as thefe kinds of preparations
are applied to in praftice. Diftilled waters are em¬
ployed chiefly as grateful diluents, as fuitable vehicles
for medicines of greater efficacy, or for rendering dif-
guftful ones more acceptable to the palate and (to-
mach:
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- mach : few are depended on, in any intentions of con-
t't>os* ftquence, by themfelves.
549. Simple alexeterial water. L.
Take of fpearmint leaves, frefli, a pound and a half:
fea-wormwood tops frefh, angelica-leaves frefh,
each one pound ; water, as much as is fufScient to
prevent an empyreuma. Draw off by diftillation
three gallons.
This water is fufficiently elegant with regard to
tafte and fmell; though few expeft from it (uch vir¬
tues as the title feems to imply. It is ufed occafion-
ally for vehicles of alexipharmac medicines, or in ju¬
leps to be drank after them, as coinciding with the
intention ; but in general this water is not fuppofed to
be itfelf of any confiderable efficacy.
550. Simple'or angered water. L.
Take of yellow peel of Seville oranges, dried, four
ounces; water, as much as is fufficient to prevent
burning. Dittill off one gallon.
This water proves very weak of the orange-peel. It
is defigned for a dilutee, in fevers, and other diforders
where the ftomach and palate are fubjedl to receive
quick difguft ; in which cafes (as the committee ob-
ftrve) cordial waters, efpecially if their ufe is to be
long continued, ought to be but lightly impregnated
with any flavour, however agreeable
551. B/ad cherry water.
Let any quantity of black cherries be bruifed, fo as
the ftones may be broken ; and then diftilled ac¬
cording to art, with only a fmall proportion of-
water.
This is a very grateful water, and has long main¬
tained a place in the fhops. It has frequently been
employed by phyficians as a vehicle, in preference to
the other diftilled waters; and, among nurfes and
others who have the care of young children, has been
the firft remedy againft the convulfive diforders to which
children are fo often fubjeft.
This water has neverthelefs of late been brought in¬
to difrepute; being, in confequence of certain experi¬
ments, looked upon by fome as poifonous, and by moft
as at leaf! fufpicious. Wherefore both the London
and Edinburgh colleges have chofen to lay it afide ;
more efpecially as it has been too often counterfeited
with a water diftilled from bitter almonds, which are
known to communicate a poifonous quality.
552, a. Simple cinnamon-water. L.
Take of cinnamon, one pound; water, as much as will
prevent burning. Diftil off a gallon.
552, b. Cinnamon-water without wine. E.
Take of cinnamon, half a pound; water, one gallon
and a half. Steep them together for two days; and
then diftil off one gallon.
This is a very grateful and ufeful water, pofieffing
in an eminent degree the fragrance and aromatic cor¬
dial virtues of the fpice. Great care fhould be had, in
the choice of the cinnamon, to avoid the too common
impofition of cafia being fubftituted in its room: this
latter yields a water much lefs agreeable than that of
cinnamon,and whofe flavour ismaaifeftly empyreumatic.
M A C Y. 6059
The virtues of all thefe waters depend upon their Prepara-
containing a portion of the oil of the fubjeft. The tl(Tns~
oil of cinnamon is very ponderous, and arifes more dif¬
ficultly than that of any of the other vegetable matters
from which fimple waters are ordered to be drawn.
This obfervation dire£ts us, in the diftillation of this
water, to make ufe of a quick fire, and a low veflel.
For the fame reafon, the water does not keep fo well
as might be wiihed; the ponderous oil parting from it
in time, and falling to the bottom, when the liquor
lofes its milky hue, its fragiant fmell and aromatic
tafte. Some recommend a fmall proportion of fugar
to be added, in order to keep the oil united with the
water.
553. Fennel water. L.
Take of fweet-fennel feeds, one pound; water, as much
as is fufficient to prevent an empyreuma. Diftil off
one gallon.
This water is a fufficiently grateful one. The leaves
fhould be taken before the plant has run into flower;
for after this time, they are much weaker and lefs
agreeable. Some have obferved, that the upper leaves
and tops, before the flowers appear, yield a more ele¬
gant water, and a remarkably finer effential oil, than
the lower ones; and that the oil obtained from the one
fwims on water, whilft that of the other finks. No
part of the herb, however, is equal in flavour to the
feeds.
554. Balm water.
This is prepared by diftilling the green leaves of
balm, as in the foregoing procefs.
In a former edition of the Edinburgh pharmaco¬
poeia, this water was ordained to be cohobated, or
rediftilled from frefh quantities of the herb. This
management feems to have been taken from Boer-
haave, who has a very high opinion of the water thus
prepared : he fays, he has experienced in himfelf, ex¬
traordinary effe&s from it, taken on an empty ftomach;
that it has fcarce its equal in [hypochondriacal and hy-
fterical cafes, the chlorofis, and palpitation of the
heart, as often as thefe difeafes proceed from a dif-
order of the fpirits rather than from any colle&ion of
morbific matter.
But whatever virtues are lodged in balm, they may
be much more perfe&ly and advantageoufly extrafted
by cold infufion in aqueous or fpirituous menftrua : in
this procefs, the liquor fuffers no injury from being
returned on frefh parcels of the herb ; a few repetitions
will load it with the virtues of fubjeft, and render it
very rich. The impregnation here is almoft unlimi¬
ted ; but in diftilled waters it is far otherwife.
555. Mint-water. E.
Take of fpearmint leaves, frefh, any quantity; water,
three times as much. Diftil as long as the liquor
which comes over has any tafte or fmell of the mint.
556. Simple fpearmint-water. L.
Take of fpearmint-leaves, dried, a pound and a half;
water, as much as is fufficient to prevent burning.
Draw off by diftillation one gallon.
Thefe waters fmell and tafte very ftrong of the mint;
and prove in many cafes ufeful ftomachics. Boer-
haave commends them (cohobated) as a prefent and
34 D 2 in-
6o6o
Prepara-
P H A R
Incomparable remedy for ftrengtbing a weak ttomach,
.and curing vomiting proceeding from cold vifcous
phlegm ; as alfo in lienteries.
557. Simple peppermint-water. L. E.
Take of peppermint leaves, dry, a pound and a half;
water, as much as will prevent an empreuyma.
Draw off by diftillation one gallon.
This is a very elegant and ufeful water; it has a
warm, pungent tafte, exaftly refembling that of the
peppermint itfelf. A fpoonful or two, taken at a
time, warm the ftomach, and give great relief in cold,
flatulent colics. Some have fubllituted a plain infufion
of the dried leaves of the plant, which is not greatly
different in virtue from the diftilled water.
55 8. Water of Jamaica pepper. L.
Take of Jamaica pepper, half a pound ; water, as much
will prevent burning. Diftil off one gallon.
This diftilled water is a very elegant one, and has
of late come pretty much into ufe : the hofpitals em¬
ploy it as a fuccedaneum to the more coftly fpice-waters.
It is, however, inferior in gratefulnefs to the fpirituous
water of the fame fpice hereafter direfted, (591.),
559, a. Simple pennyroyal-water. L.
Take of pennyroyal leaves, dry, a pound and a half;
water, as much as will prevent burning. Draw off
by diftillation one gallon.
559. b. Water of pennyroyal. E.
Take of pennyroyal leaves, frefh, a pound and a half;
water, as much as will prevent burning. Diftil off
a gallon.
This water poffeffes, in a confiderable degree, the
fmell, tafte, and virtues of the pennyroyal. It is fre¬
quently taken in hyfteric cafes, and not without good
effefts.
560. Damafk- rofe water.
Take of damafk rofes, frefh gathered, fix pounds ;
water, as much as will keep them from burning,
Diftill off a gallon of the water. L.
Take of rofes, fix pounds; water, a fufficient quantity.
Diftil off one gallon. E.
This water is principally valued on account of its
fine flavour, which approaches to that generally ad¬
mired in the rofe itfelf. The purgative virtue of the
rofes remains entire in the liquor left in the ftill, which
has therefore been generally employed for making the
folutive honey and fyrup, inftead of a decoftion or in¬
fufion of frefh rofes prepared on purpofe : and this
piece of frugality the college have now admitted.
561. Rue-water.
This is to be diftilled from the frefh leaves of rue,
and cohobated on frefh parcels of them, after the
fame manner as the balm-water, (554.)
Rue gives over in this procefs the whole of its fmell,
and great part of its pungency. The diftilled water
Hands recommended in epileptic cafes, the hyfteric
paffion, for promoting perfpiration and other natural
fecretions.
562. Savin-water.
Savin leaves, frefh, any quantity; water, three times
M A C Y. Part II,
as much. Diftil as long as the liquor runs well- Prepara-
flavoured of the plant. tlons’
This water is by fome held in confiderable efleem
for the fame purpofe as the' diftilled oil of favin.
Boerhaave relates, that he found it ( when prepared by
cohobation) to give an almoft incredible motion to the
whole nervous fyflem; and that, when properly ufed,
it proves eminently ferviceable for promoting the men-
fes, and the haemorrhoidal flux.
§ 3. SPIRITUOUS distilled Waters and
Spirits.
563. The flavour and virtues of the diftilled waters
are owing, as obferved in the preceding fe&ion, to their
being impregnated with a portion of the effential oil of
the fubjeft from which they are drawn. Spirit of
wine, confidered as a vehicle for thefe oils, has this
advantage above water, that it is their proper men-
ftruum, and keeps all the oil, that rifes from it, per-
fe&ly diffolved into an uniform limpid liquor.
Neverthelefs, many fubftances, which, on being
diftilled with water, impart to it their virtues in great
perfe&ion; if treated in the fame manner with fpirit
of wine, fcarce give over to it any fmell or tafte. This
difference proceeds from hence; that fpirit is not
fufceptible of fo great a degree of heat as water. ,
Liquids in general, when made to boil, have received
as great a heat as they are capable of fuftaining : now,
if the extent of the heat between freezing and boiling
water, as meafured by thermometers, be taken for a
ftandard, fpirit of wine will be found to boil with lefs
than four-fifths of that heat, or above one-fifth lefs
than the heat of boiling water. It is obvious there¬
fore, that fubftances may be volatile enough to rife
with the heat of boiling water, but not with that of
boiling fpirit.
Thus if cinnamon, for inftance, be committed
to diftillation with a mixture of fpirit of wine and
water, or with a pure proof-fpirit, which is no other
than a mixture of about equal parts of the two; the
fpirit will arife firft, clear, colourlefs, and tranfparent,
and almoft without any tafte of the fpice ; but as foon
as the more ponderous watery fluid begins to arife,
the oil comes freely over with it, fo as to render the
liquor highly odorous, fapid, and of a milky hue.
The proof-fpirits ufually met with in the fliops are
accompanied with a degree of ill flavour ; which, tho’
concealed by means of certain additions, plainly dif-
covers itfelf in diftillation. This naufeous relilh does
not begin to arife till after the purer fpirituous part
has come over; which is the very time that the virtues
of the ingredients begin alfo moft plentifully to djftil:
and hence the liquor receives an ungrateful taint. To
this caufe principally is owing the general complaint,
that the cordials of the apothecary are lefs agreeable
than thofe of the fame kind prepared by the diftiller ;
the latter being extremely curious in re&ifying or
purifying the fpirits (when defigned for what he calls
fne goods) from all ill flavour.
564. Re Hi fed fpirit of wine,
In the former edition of the Edinburgh pharmaco-
pceia, was thus ordered :
Take any quantity of French brandy, and with a very
gentle
Pan II. PHARMACY.
Prepara- gentle heat diftil it to one half.
— This rectified fpirit, being digefted for two days with
one-fourth its quantity of dry fait of tartar in pow¬
der, and then diitilled in a glafs cucurbit, with a
very gentle heat, becomes alcohol.
Spirits diftilled from malt liquors, or other fermented
fubftances, after being redlified in the above method,
require further purification; namely, repeated‘di-
it'llation from an equal quantity of fpring water.
565. French brandy is rather too dear an article in
this country, for diftillation ; nor is the fpirit obtained
from it any ways preferable to one procurable from
cheaper liquors. The coarfer inflammable fpirits may
be rendered perfedlly pure and fit for the niceft pur-
pofes, by the following method.
If the fpirit is exceedingly foul, mix it with a-
bout an equal quantity of water, and diftil with a
flow fire ; difcontinuing the operation as foon as the
liquor begins to run milky, and difcovers, by its
naufeous tafte, that the impure and phlegmatic partis
arifing. By this treatment, the fpirit leaves a con-
fiderable portion of its foul oily matter behind it in the
water, which now appears milky and turbid, and
proves highly difagreeable in tafte. If the fpirit was
not very foul at firft, this ablution is not neceffary; if
extremely fo, it will be needful to repeat it once,
twice, or oftener.
566. As vinous fpirits arife with a lefs degree of
fire than watery liquors, we are hence diredled to em¬
ploy, in the diftillation of them, a heat lefs than that
in which water boils: and if due regard be had to this
circumftance, very weak fpirits may, by one or two
wary diftillations, be tolerably well freed from their
aqueous phlegm ; efpecially if the diftilling veftels are
of fuch a height, that the fpirit, by the heat of a
water-bath, may but juft pafs over them: in fuch cafe,
the phlegmatic vapours, which arife for a little way
along with the fpirit, will condenfe and fall back
again before they can come to the head. Very
pompous inftruments have been contrived for this
purpofe, and carried in a fpiral or ferpentine form
to an extraordinary height. The fpirit, afcending
through thefe, was to leave all the watery parts it
contained, in its pafiage, and come over perfeflly
pure and free from phlegm. But thefe inftruments
are built upon erroneous principles, their extravagant
height defeating the end it was defigned to anfwer :
if the liquor is made to boil, a confiderable quantity
of mere phlegm will come over along with the fpirit ;
and if the beat is not raifed to this pitch, neither
phlegm nor fpirit will diftil. The moft convenient
inftrument is the common ftill, betwixt the body of
which, and its head, an adopter or copper tube may
be fixed.
567. The fpirit being wafhed, as above dire&ed,
from its foul oil, and freed from the greateft part of
the phlegm by gentle diftillation in a water-bath, add
to every gallon of it a pound or two of pure, dry,
fixed alkaline fait. Upon digefting thefe together for
a little time, the alkali, from its known property of
attradling water and oils, will imbibe the remaining
phlegm, and fuch part of the difagreeable un&uous
matter as may ftill be left in the fpirit, and fink with
them to the bottom of the veffel. If the fpirit be
now again gently drawn ever, it will arife entirely free
from its phlegm and naufeous flavour; but fome par¬
ticles of the alkaline fait ate apt to be carried up with
it, and give what the workmen call an urinous relijh :
This may be prevented, by adding, previous to the
laft diftillation, a fmal! proportion of calcined vitriol,
alum, or fal catharticus amarus ; the acid of thefe falls
will unite with and neutralize the alkali, and effetftual-
ly prevent it from arifing ; while no more of the acid
of the falts is extricated than what the alkali abforbs.
The fpirit obtained by this means is extremely
pure, limpid, perfe&ly fljtvourkfs, and fit for the fi-
neft purpofes. It may be reduced to the ftrength
commonly underftood by proof, by mixing 20 ounces
of it (by weight) with 17 ounces of water. The di¬
ftilled cordials made with thefe fpirits, prove much
more elegant and agreeable, than when the common
reftified or proof fpirits of the ftiops are made ufe of.
If the reftified fpirit be diftilled afrefh from dry
alkaline fait with a quick fire, it brings over a con¬
fiderable quantity of the fait ; and in this ftate is
fuppofed to be a more powerful menftruum for cer¬
tain fubftances than the pure fpirit. This alkalized
fpirit is called tartarizedfpirit of wine.
568. The genera] virtues of vinous fpirits have been
already mentioned ; (fee Materia Medic a, the Tails.)
The fpirits impregnated with the volatile oils of vege¬
tables, to be treated of in this feftion, have joined to
thofe the aromatic, cordial, or other virtues which re-
fide in the oils.
Art 1. D filled Spirits.
569. Compound balm-water, commonly called Eau de
carmes.
Take of balm in flower, frefh gathered and cleared
from the (talks, two pounds; lemon peel, frefli, a»
fbon as pared from the fruit, four ounces; corian¬
der feeds, eight ounces ; nutmegs, cloves, cinna¬
mon, each, bruifed, two ounces; angelica roots,
dried and bruifed, one ounce ; fpirit of wine, highly
rectified, ten pints. Steep the feveral ingredients
in the fpirit four or five days ; and then draw off,
in the heat of a water-bath, 10 pints. Rectify the
diftilled liquor by a fecond diftillation in a water-
bath, drawing off. only about eight pints and three
quarters.
This procefs is taken from the Elemens de pharma-
cie of M. Baume, who obferves, that all the aromatic
fpirits ought to be prepared in the fame manner.
When the common fpirits of this kind are rubbed on
the hands, &c. they leave, after the more volatile parts
have exhaled, a difagreeable empyreumat'C fmell; and
when diluted with water, and taken medicinally, they
leave in like manner a naufeous flavour in the mouth.
To remedy thefe imperfeftions, he made many expe¬
riments, which {bowed, that in order to obtain thefs
liquors of the defirable qualities, the fpirit muft not
only be perfedtly pure at firft, but that the liquor
ought alfo to be redified after it has been diftilled from
the fubjeds. In this redification only the more vo¬
latile, fubtle,. aromatic parts of the ingredients arife j.
there remains behind a white liquor, acrid, bitter,
loaded only with the grofler oil, and deprived of all
the fpecific flavour of the fubjeds. Indeed the very
imperfedion complained of naturally points out this
fecond diftillation for the remedy, as it (hows the fpi*
ritt
6o6l
6062 P H A R
Prepara- r!t to contain a grateful and ungrateful matter; the
tions« yyhich exhales, while the other is left behind.
Aromatic fpirituous waters have in general lefs
fmell, when newly diftilled, than after they have
been kept about fix months. M. Baume fufpe&s, that
the preparations of this kind which have been moft
in vogue were fuch as had been thus improved by
keeping ; and found, that the good effeAs of age
might be produced in a fhort time by means of cold.
He plunges quart-bottles of the liquor into a mixture
of pounded ice and fea-falt: the fpirit, after having
fuffered for fix or eight hours the cold hence refult-
ing, proves as grateful as that which has been kept for
feveral years. Simple waters alfo, after being frozen,
prove far more agreeable than they were before ; tho*
they are always lefs fo than thofe which have been
drawn with fpirit, and expofed to a like degree of
cold. This melioration of diftilled waters by froft
was taken notice of by Geoffroy, ffi/i. Acad. 1713.
570. Spirit of r of cm ary. L.
Take of rofemary-tops, frefh gathered, a pound and
a half ; proof fpirit, one gallon. Diftil in the heat
of a water-bath, till five pints are come over.
571. Hungary-'water.
Take of rofemary flowers, juft gathered, two pounds ;
re&ified fpirit of wine, one gallon. Put them to¬
gether, and immediately diftil in a water-bath. It is
generally brought to us from abroad.
This fpirit is very fragrant, infomuch as to be in
common ufe as a perfume: that brought from abroad
is fuperior in fragrance to fuch as is generally made
among us. In order to prepare it in perfe&ion, the
vinous fpirit fhould be extremely pure, the rofemary-
tops gathered when the flowers are full blown upon
them, and committed immediately to diftillation, par¬
ticular care being taken not to bruife or prefs them.
The beft method of managing the diftillation is that
formerly recommended for the diftillation of the more
volatile eflential oils and fimple waters, viz. firft to
place the fpirit in the ftill, and then fet in above the
liquor, either an iron hoop, with a hair-cloth ftretched
over it, upon which the flowers are to be lightly
fpread, or rather a bafket, fupported on three pins,
reaching down to the bottom. A gentle heat being
applied, juft fufficient to raife the fpirit, its vapour,
lightly percolating through the flowers, will imbibe
their finer parts, without making thatdifagreeable al¬
teration which liquors applied to fuch tender fubje&s
in their groffer form generally do. Probably the fu-
periority of the French Hungary water to that pre¬
pared among us, is owing to fome Ikilful management
of this kind, or that recommended for the foregoing
preparation, and employing a perfedly pure fpirit.
572. Simple fpirit of lavender. L.
Take of lavender-flowers, frefh gathered, a pound and
a half; proof fpirit, one gallon. Draw off, by
the heat of a water-bath, five pints.
Take of frelh lavender-flowers, two pounds; reftified
fpirit of wine, one gallon. Diftil off a gallon in a
water-bath. E.
The fame cautions are to be obferved here as in the
diftillation of the foregoing fpirit. Both of them,
M A C Y. Part IT.
when made in perfe&ion, are very grateful and fra- Prepara-
grant : they are frequently rubbed on the temples, &c. tioos-
under the notion of refrelhing and comforting the
nerves ; and likewife taken internally, to the quantity
of a tea-fpoonful, as warm cordials.
573. Compound fpirit of lavender. L. E.
Take of fimple fpirit of lavender, three pints ; fpirit
of rofemary, one pint ; cinnamon, one ounce ;
cloves, nutmegs, each half an ounce ; red faunders,
three drams. Digeft them together for feven days,
and then ftrain out the fpirit for ufe.
The red faunders is of no farther ufe [in thecom-
pofition than as a colouring ingredient. If a yel¬
low fpirit was liked, the yellow faunders would be an
excellent article, as it not only communicates a fine
colour, but likewife a confiderable lhare of medicinal
virtue. A fpirit diftilled from the flowers of lavender
and fage, in due proportion, and digefted in the cold
for a little time with fome cinnamon, nutmegs, and
yellow faunders, proves a very elegant and grateful
one.
This medicine has long been held in greate fteem,
under the name of palfy-drops, in all kinds of lan¬
guors, weaknefs of the nerves, and decays of age.
It may be conveniently taken upon fugar, from ip
to 80 or 100 drops.
574. An odoriferous fpirit, called fweet honey-water.
Take of coriander feeds, honey, each one pound ;
cloves, an ounce and a half; nutmegs, benzoine,
ftorax, each an ounce ; vanelloes, in number four ;
yellow rind of three lemons; French brandy, one
gallon. Digeft thefe ingredients together for forty-
eight hours ; and then diftil off the fpirit in balnea
maria. To one gallon of this fpirit add orange-
flower water, rofe-water, of each one pound and a
half; ambergris, mufk, of each five grains. Firft;
grind the muik and ambergris with fome of the wa¬
ter, and afterwards put all together in a large ma-
trafs; fliake them well, and let them circulate for
three days and nights in a gentle heat ; then fuffer
them to cool, filter the liquor, and keep it clofe
flopped up for ufe.
575. Another.
Take of coriander feeds, one pound ; lemon-peel frefh,
nutmegs, each four ounces; ambergris, mufk, each
five grains; clean melaffes fpirit, two gallons.
Bruife the nutmegs and coriander feeds, and put
them, with the lemon-peel and the fpirit, into a
fmall ftill placed in balneo maria ; tie a thin cloth
over the mouth, and fprinkle thereon the ambergris
and mufk reduced into fine powder: lute on the
head ; let the whole Hand in digeftion for twelve
hours, and then diftil as much as & boiling heat of
the bath can force over. To this add, of rofe-
water, one pint 5 orange-flower water, half a pint.
Thefe compofitions are defigned rather as perfumes
than as medicines; though for fuch as can bear their
fragrance, they might be ufed to advantage in thislaft
intention. The mufk and ambergris do not commu¬
nicate fo much of their fmell as might be expefted ;
and ferve chiefly to heighten the flavour of the other
ingredients; which thefe perfumes excellently do,
when
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- when employed in very fmall proportion, to all the
tions' odoriferous fimples, without imparting any thing per¬
ceptible of their own. Both the foregoing fpirits are
very agreeable ; a few drops of either give a fine fla¬
vour to a large quantity of other liquor. Mr Wilfon,
from whom the firft is taken, (Pratt. Ckem. p. 354.),
tells us, that he often made it for king James II. and
that it gives one of the moft pleafant fcents that can
be fmelt to. The other is formed on the fame plan,
by omitting fuch articles as appeared fuperfluous in
the firft.
576. Spirit of fcurvygrafs.
Take of frelh fcurvy-grafs, bruifed, 10 pounds ; rec¬
tified fpirit of wine, five pints. Steep the herb in
the fpirit for 12 hours; then with the heat of a
water-bath diftil off five pints.
This fpirit is very ftrong of the fcurvy-grafs ; and
may be given, in thofe cafes where the ufe of this herb
is proper, from 20 to 100 drops. The virtues of
fcurvy-grafs refide in a very fubtle volatile oil, which
arifes in diftillation both with water and pure fpirit;
and, if the liquors are expofed to the air, foon exhales
from both. The fpirit, newly diftilled, is extremely
pungent; but if long kept, even in clofe veffels, be¬
comes remarkably lefs fo.
577. Golden or purging fpirit of fcurvy-grafs.
Take of fpirit of fcurvy-grafs, one pound; gamboge,
one ounce. Diffolve the gamboge in the fpirit 5
and if any fediment falls to the bottom, carefully
decant the tinged liquor from it. This fpirit is
otherwife made with fcammony, or refin of jalep,
inftead of gamboge.
This has been in great efteem among the common
people, and ftrongly recommended by the venders, in
all kinds of fcorbutie diforders. It is neverthelefs a
very indifferent medicine, and little deferves the pom¬
pous title given it. It may be taken from 20 to 60
drops, either upon fugar or mixed with fyrup.
Art. 2. Dijiilledfpirituous Waters.
578. 'by difhlledSpirits, are underftood fuch as are
drawn with a fpirit that has been previoufly re&ified,
or which is reduced nearly to that llrength in the ope¬
ration : by fpirituous Waters, thofe in which the fpirit
is only of the proof ftrength, or contains an admix¬
ture of about an equal meafure of water. Thefe laft
have been ufually called compound waters, even when
diftilled from one ingredient only ; as thofe, op the
other hand, which are drawn by common water, tho’
from a number of ingredients, are named ftmple; the
title fimple, here, relating not to fimplicity in refpeft
of compofition, but to the vehicle being plain water.
The Edinburgh pharmacopoeia denominates thofe wa¬
ters fimple which are drawn from a fingle ingredient,
whether the vehicle be common water or fpirituous
water, and all thofe compounds which are diftilled
from more than one.
579. General rules for the difillation offpirituous Wa¬
ters.
I. The plants and their parts ought to be moderately
and newly dried, except fuch as are ordered frefh
gathered.
M A C Y. 6063
II. After the ingredients have been lleeped in the fpi- Prepara-
rit for the time preferibed, add as much water as tions*
will be fufficient to prevent an empyreuma, or ra- ~ '
ther more.
III. The liquor which comes over firft in the diftilla¬
tion, is by fome kept by itfelf, under the title of
fpirit ; and the other runnings, which prove milky,
fined dorim by art. But it is better to mix all
the runnings together without fining them, that
the waters may poffefs the virtues of the plant en¬
tire ; which is a circumftance to be more regarded
than their finenefs or fightlinefs.
IV. In the diftillation of thefe waters, the genuine
• brandy obtained from wine is dire&ed. Where
this is not to be had, take, inftead of that proof fpi¬
rit, half its quantity of a well-redified fpirit pre¬
pared from any other fermented liquors: in this deep
the ingredients, and then add fpring-water enough
both to make up the quantity ordered to be drawn
off, and to prevent burning.
580. By this method more elegant waters may be ob¬
tained than when any of the common proof-fpirits, even
that of wine itfelf, are made ufe of. All vinous fpi¬
rits receive fome flavour from the matter from which
they are extrafted ; and this flavour, which adheres
chiefly to the phlegm or watery part, they cannot be
divelted of without feparating the phlegm, and redu¬
cing them to a re&ified ftate.
581. Spirituous alexeterial water. L.
Take ot fpearmint leaves, frefh, half a pound; ange¬
lica leaves, frefh, fea-wormwood tops, frefh, each
four ounces ; proof-fpirit, one gallon; water, as much
as will prevent burning. Diftil off one gallon.
This is a tolerably pleafant water; it is looked upon
as an alexipharmac and ftomachic, and in thefe inten-
tentions is not unfrequently made ufe of in juleps, &c.
582. Spirituous alexeterial water with vinegar. L.
Take of fpearmint leaves, angelica leaves, each half a
pound; fea-worm wood tops, four ounces; proof-
fpiri|, one gallon ; water, as much as is fufficient
to prevent burning ; vinegar, one pint. Diftil the
frefh herbs with the fpirit and water, drawing off
one gallon ; to which add the vinegar.
Angelica, after trial of fundry other materials, has
been found the moft effectually to remove the difagree-
able flavour which the vinegar would otherwife com¬
municate, and therefore this plant is ordered in a larger
proportion here than in the other alexeterial waters.
Perhaps it would be more eligible to add the vinegar
oecafionally ; for when mixed with the liquor at firft,
it is apt to throw down, upon keeping, fome of the
more valuable parts which the water received from the
herbs.
583. Compound anifeed water. L.
Take of anifeeds, angelica feeds, each half a pound ;
proof-fpirit, one gallon ; water, as much as is fuffi¬
cient to prevent burning. Draw off by diftillation
one gallon.
This is a very elegant anifeed water, the angelica
feeds greatly improving the flavour of the anife : it
is apt to turn out milky, if drawn fo low as here or¬
dered.
584. Spi-
6064
PHARMACY.
584. Spirituous orange-peel water. L.
Take of the outer rind of Seville-orange-peel, dried,
half a pound ; proof-fpirit, one gallon; water, as
much as is fufficient to prevent an empyreuma. Di-
ftill off one gallon.
This is confiderably ftronger of the orange-peel than
the Ample water. It is ufed as a cordial, itomachic,
and carminative.
585. Cardamom-feed water. L.
Take of leffer cardamom feeds, freed from the hulks,
four ounces; proof-fpirit, one gallon; water, as
much as is fufficient to prevent burning. Diftil off
one gallon.
This water is a grateful cordial and carminative, the
cardamom feeds giving over in this procefs.the whole
of their flavour. It is not perhaps very neceflary to
be at the trouble of feparating the hulks, for thefe
communicate nothing difagreeable; the only dilference
is, that if employed unhulked, a proportionably larger
quantity of them muft be taken.
586. Caraway-water. L. E.
Take of caraway feeds, half a pound; proof-fpirit, one
gallon; water, as much as will prevent burning.
Diftil off" one gallon.
This is a cordial in common ufe; it contains the fla¬
vour of the caraway feeds in perfe&ion.
587. Spirituous cinnamon-water. L.
Take of cinnamon, a pound ; proof-fpirit, a gallon;
t water, fo much as will prevent burning. Draw off
by diftillation one gallon.
588. Cinnamon-water with wine. E.
Take of cinnamon, half a pound; proof-fpirit^ one gal¬
lon. Diftil off one gallon.
This is a very agreeable and ufeful cordial water, but
not fo ftrong of the cinnamon as might be expefted ;
for very little of the virtues of the fpice arife till after
the pure fpirituous part has diftilled.
In the pharmacopoeia reformata, it is propofed to
make this water, by mixing the Ample cinnamon wa-
ter (553,rf.) with fomewhatlefs than an equal quantity
of redtifled fpirit: on (baking them together, the liquor
lofes its milky hue, foon becomes clear, and more ele¬
gant than the water diftilled as above ; it is equally
ftrong of the cinnamon, and free from the naufeous
taint which the common proof-fpirits are impregnated
with.
589. Compound juniper-water. L. E.
Take of juniper-berries, one pound; fweet-fennel feeds,
carraway feeds, each an ounce and a half; proof-
fpirit, one gallon; water, as much as is fuflicient to
prevent burning. Diftil off one gallon.
This water, mixed with about an equal quantity of
the rob of juniper-berries, proves an ufeful medicine in
catarrhs, debility of the ftomach and inteftines, and
difficulty of urine. The water by itfelf is a good cor¬
dial and carminative: the fervice which this and other
fpirituous waters do in thefe intentions, is too com-
mpnly known; though the ill confequences that follow
■their conftant ufe, are too little regarded.
Part II.
590, a. Spirituous pepper-mint water. L.
Take of peppermint-leaves, dry, a pound and a half; — 
proof-fpirit, a gallon; water, as much as is fufficient
to prevent an empyreuma. Draw off by diftillation
one gallon.
This water is made nfe of in flatulent colics and
other like diforders; in which it oftentimes gives im¬
mediate relief. It fmells and taftes ftrongly of the
pepper-mint. *
590, b. Spirituous mint-water. L.
Take of fpearmint leaves, dry, a pound and a half;
proof-fpirit, a gallon; water, as much as will pre¬
vent burning. Diftil off one gallon.
This water, if the fpirit be good, turns out a very
elegant one, and preferable, in weaknefs of the fto¬
mach, retching to vomit, and the like, to many more
elaborate preparations. Where the diforder is not ac¬
companied with heat or inflammation, half an ounce of
this water may be given diluted with fome agreeable
aqueous liquor.
59 x. Spirituous Jamaica-pepper water.
Take of Jamaica pepper, half a pound; proof-fpirit,
three gallons; water, a fufficient quantity to prevent
an empyreuma. Draw off by diftillation three gal-,
Ions.
This water is far more agreeable than a Ample wa¬
ter drawn from the fame fpice ; and has long had a
place among the cordials both of the diftiller and apo¬
thecary; though it has not yet been received into any
public pharmacopoeia.
592. Nutmeg water. L.
Take of nutmegs, two ounces; proof-fpirit, a gallon ;
water, as much as will prevent burning. Draw off
by diftillation one gallon.
This water (with the addition only of fome haw¬
thorn flowers, an article of very little Agnificance) was
formerly celebrated in nephritic diforders, under the
name of aqua nephritica. At prefent, it is regarded
only as an agreeable fpirituous liquor, lightly impreg¬
nated with the nutmeg flavour.
593. Spirituous pennyroyal water. L.
Take of pennyroyal leaves, dry, a pound and a half;
proof-fpirit, a gallon; water, as much as will pre¬
vent burning. Diftil off one gallon.
This water has a good (hare of the flavour of the
pennyroyal, and is pretty much in ufe as a carminative
and antihyfteric.
594. Compound horferadijh Water.
Take of garden fcurvygrafs leaves, frefh, four pounds;
horferadifh root frelh, orange-peel frefh, each two
pounds; nutmegs, nine ounces; proof-fpirit, two
gallons; water, a fufficient quantity to prevent burn¬
ing. Draw off by diftillation two gallons. L.
Take of horferadifh root, three pounds; re&ifled fpirit
of wine, four pints. Difiil off four pints in a water-
bath, and to the diftilled liquor add eight pints of
Ample Jamaica-pepper water. E.
Both thefe waters are very elegant ones, and as well
adapted
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- adapted for the purpofes of an antifcorbutic, as any
ticns. th;ng that can well be contrived in this form.
Muftard-feed, though not hitherto employed in thefe
kinds of compofitions, foould feem to be an excellent
ingredient ; it gives over the whole of its pungency,
and is likewife lefs perifhable than moft of the other
fubftances of this clafs; this feed wants no addition,
unlefs fome aromatic material to furnilh an agreeable
flavour.
Sect. VI. Concentration of the medicinal farts of
Juices and Infufions by Evaporation.
595. When vegetable juices, or watery or fpiritu-
ous decodtions or infufions, are expofed to a continued
heat, the fluid, gradually evaporating, carries off with
it fuch volatile matters as it was impregnated with,
and leaves the more fixed united together into one mafs.
As the objedt of the preceding fedion was the collec¬
tion of the volatile principle which exhales along with
the fluid, that of the prefent is this re-union and con¬
centration of the fixed matter. The mafs which re¬
mains from the evaporation of the expreffed juice of a
plant, is called an itifpijfated juice; from watery decoc¬
tions or infufions, an extra ft ; from fpirituous tin&ures,
a ref tii or ejfential extraft. The term extraft is fre¬
quently ufed alfo as a general appellation of all the
three kinds. Infpiflated juices and watery decodions,
particularly the former, when evaporated no further
than to the confiftence of oil or honey, are called rob
or fapa; and fpirituous tindures, reduced to a like
confiftence, are called balfam.
§ 1. Inspissated Juices.
596. What relates to the expreflion of juices, has
already been delivered in Sed. ii. with the moft effec¬
tual means of preferving them in their liquid ftate, and
a general account of what fubftances do or do not
give out their virtues with their juices. In the infpif-
fation of juices, there is further to be confidered the
volatility or fixity of their medicinal parts: if a plant
lofes its virtue, or part of its virtue, in being dried, it
is obvious that the juice muft lofe as much in being in-
fpiffated to drynefs, how gentle foever the heat be
with which the infpiflation is performed. It is likewife
to be obferved, that the medicinal parts of fome juices
are kept in a ftate of perfed folution by the watery
fluid, fo as to be completely retained by it after the
liquor has been made fine by fettling, ftraining, or
other means ; while the medicinal parts of others, not
diffoluble by watery menftrua, are only diffufed through
the liquor in the fame manner as the feculences are,
and feparate along with thefe on (landing.
597. Rob of elder-berries.
Let the depurated juice of elder-berries be infpiflated
with a gentle heat. L.
This preparation, made with or without fugar, keeps
well, and proves a medicine of confiderable importance
as an aperient, generally promoting the natural exe-
cretions by ftool, urine, or fweat. The dofe is from
a dram or two to an ounce or more. A fpoonful, di¬
luted with water, is ufefully taken in common colds at
bed-time.
Vox. VIII. 1
M A C Y.
598. Infpijfatedjuice of floes, or German acacia.
Let any quantity of the juice of unripe floes be infpif-
fated over a gentle fire.
This juice is infpiflated nearly to drynefs, care be¬
ing taken to prevent its burning, as direded in the fol¬
lowing <j,'for making extrads with water. It is a mo*
derately ftrong aftringent, fimilar to the Egyptian aca¬
cia, for which it has been commonly fubftituted in the
(hops. It is given in fluxes and other diforders where
ftyptic medicines are indicated, from a fcruple to a
dram.
599. Extraft of plantane.
Let any quantity of the juice of plantane-leaves be de¬
purated; either by fuffering it to fettle, and then de¬
canting off the clear liquor; or by ftraining; or by
clarification by whites of eggs. Afterwards evapo¬
rate the juice in a fand-heat, to the confiftence of
honey. After the fame manner, extrads may be
made from all acid, cooling, ftyptic, juicy plants.
This is a method of treating plants very little prac-
tifed; but which promifes, if duly profecuted, to afford
medicines of confiderable power. There are many
common and negle&ed herbs, as plantane, chickweed,
chervil, &c. whofe juices in their dilute ftate, as well
as the herbs in fubftance, feem to be altogether infig-
nificant, but which, when the juice is well depurated
from the feculent matter, and concentrated by the eva¬
poration of the fluid, yield extrads which difcover to
the tafte no fmall adivity. Thefe extrads, like thofe
prepared from the juices of moft of the fummer-fruits,
if infpiffated to drynefs, grow moift again in the air.
600. Extraft of hemlock.
See n° 249.
This is the preparation of hemlock lately publiftied
at Vienna by Dr Storck ; who recommends it as a
high refolvent in many obftinate diforders, where the
common remedies avail nothing. He obferves, that
fmall dofes ftiould always be begun with, as two grains,
made into a pill, twice a-day; and that, by gradually
increafing the dofe, it may be given to two, three, or
even four drams a-day, and continued in fuch quanti¬
ties for feveral weeks: that it may be ufed with fafe-
ty, in infancy, old age, and pregnancy: that it nei¬
ther accelerates nor difturbs the circulation ; neither
heats nor cools ; nor affeds the animal-fundions: that
it increafes the fecretions, and renders the mouth
moift ; feldom purges; very rarely vomits; fometimes
augments perfpiration ; often produces a copious dif-
charge of vifcid urine ; but in many patients does not
increafe any of the fenfible evacuations : that it re¬
moves obftrudions and their confequences; relieves
rheumatic pains, though of long continuance ; dif-
cufles fcirrhous tumours, both internal and external ;
and cures dropfies and confumptions proceeding from
fcirrhofities ; that it often diffolves catarads, or flops
their progrefs, and has fometimes removed the gutta
ferena: that inveterate cutaneous eruptions, fcald-
heads, malignant ulcers, cancers, the malignant floor
albus and gonorrhoea of long (landing, obftinate re¬
mains of the venereal difeafe, and caries of the bones,
generally yield to it: that for the moft part it is ne-
34 E ceffary
6065
Prepara-
6o66 P H A R
Prepara- ceffary to continue this medicine for a very confider-
tions. aye time> before the cure is effe&ed, or much benefit
perceived from it: that in fome cafes it failed of gi¬
ving any relief, and that he met with fome perfons
who could not bear its effe&s; and that confequently
there muft be fome latent difference in the habit, the
diagnoftic figns of which are at prefent unknown :
that though it is by no means infallible, any more than
other medicines in their refpeftive intentions, yet the
great number of deplorable cafes that have been hap¬
pily cured by it is fufficient to recommend it to fur¬
ther trials. The efficacy of this medicine is confirmed
by many eminent practitioners abroad ; though the
trials hitherto made of it in this country have not been
attended with much fuccefs. Somewhat, perhaps,
may depend upon the time of the plant’s being gather¬
ed, and the manner of the preparation of the extraCt.
Dr Storck himfelf takes notice of fome miftakes com¬
mitted in this refpeft : fome have left the herb in a
heap for feveral days, whence part of it withered,
part rotted, and the juice became thick and mucila¬
ginous : others have taken a very large quantity of the
juice, and boiled it down in copper veffels with a
great heat, by which means a ftrong fetor was diffu-
fed to a confiderable diftance, and the moft efficacious
parts diffipated : others, with officious care, have cla¬
rified the juice, and- thus obtained a black tenacious
extraft, retaining but a fmall degree of the fpecific
fmell of the plant: the extrad duly prepared, accord¬
ing to the prefcription above referred to, is of a green-
ifh brown colour, and a very difagreeable fmell,like that
of mice. But though there is reafon to believe, that
much of the extraft ufed here had been ill prepared,
we can by no means admit that its general inefficacy
was owing to this caufe; for though there are few in-
ftances of its difcovering any valuable medicinal pow¬
ers, there are feveral of its having a&ivity enough,
even in fmall dofes, to produce alarming fymptoms.
6oi. Elaterium.
Slit ripe wild cucumbers, and having very lightly prefs-
ed out the juice, pafs it thro’ a fine hair-fieve into a
glazed earthen veffeh After (landing for fome
hours, the thicker part will fall to the bottom ;
from which the thinner is to be poured o(f, and what
liquid matter is dill left is to be feparated by filtra¬
tion. The remaining thick part is to be covered
with a linen cloth, and expofed to the fun, or other
gentle heat, till grown thoroughly dry. JL.
Preparations of this kind have been common¬
ly called fceculne. The filtration above direfted, for
draining off fuch part of the watery fluid as can¬
not be feparated by decantation, is not the com¬
mon filtration through paper, for this does not fuc-
ceed here : the groffer parts of the juice, falling to
the bottom, form a vifcid cake upon the paper,
which the liquid cannot pafs through. The reparation
is to be attempted in another manner, fo as to drain
the fluid from the top : this is effefted by placing one
end of fome moiftened drips of woollen cloth, fkains
of cotton, or the like, in the juice, and laying the
other end over the edge of the veffel, fo as to hang
down lower than the furface of the liquor: by this
management the feparation fucceeds in perfe&ion.
Elaterium is a ftrong irritating cathartic, and often-
M A C Y. Part II.
times operates alfo as an emetic. It is never to be Prepara-
ventured on but in indolent phlegmatic habits, as in tlQ,ns‘
droplies, in which it is by fome particularly recom¬
mended. Two or three grains are in general a fuffi-
cient dofe.
§ 2. Extracts with Water.
602. Thefe extrafts are prepared, by boiling the
fubjedt in water, and evaporating the drained decoc¬
tion to a thick confidence.
This procefs affords us fome of the more a&ive parts
of plants, free from the ufelefs indiffoluble earthy
matter, which makes the larged; fhare of their bulk.
There is a great difference in vegetable fubdances,
with regard to their fitnefs for this operation; fome
yielding to it all their virtues, and others fcarce any.
Thofe parts in which the fweet, glutinous, emollient,
cooling, bitter, auftere, aftringent, virtues redde, arc
for the moft part totally extraded by the boiling wa¬
ter, and remain almoft entire upon evaporating it:
whilft thofe which contain the peculiar odour, ftavour,
and aromatic quality, are either not extraded at all,
or exhale along with the menftruum. Thus gentian
root, which is almoft limply bitter, yields an extrad
poffeffing, in a fmall volume, the whole tafte and vir¬
tues of the root: wormwood, which has a degree of
warmth and ftrong davour joined to the bitter, lofes
the two firft in the evaporation, and gives an extrad
not greatly different from the foregoing ; the aroma¬
tic quality of cinnamon, is diffipated by this treat¬
ment, its adringency remaining : whilft an extrad
made from the flowers of lavender and rofemary, dif-
covers nothing either of the tade, fmell, or virtues of
the flowers.
General rules for snaking extraftf ’with fwater.
I. It is indifferent, in regard to the medicine, whether
the fubjed is ufed frefh or dry; fince nothing that can
be preferved in this procefs, will be loft by drying. In
regard to the facility of extradion, there is a very
confiderable difference ; vegetables in general giving
out their virtues more readily, when moderately dried,
than when frefti.
II. Verycompad dry fubdances (hould be reduced
into exceeding fmall parts, previous to the affufion of
the mendruum.
III. The quantity of water ought to be no greater
than is neceffary for extrading the virtues of the fub¬
jed. A difference herein will fometimes occadon a va¬
riation in the quality of the produd : the larger the
quantity of liquor, the longer fire will be requifite for
evaporating it, and confeqnently the more of the vo¬
latile parts of the fubjed will be diffipated. A long-
continued heat likewife makes a confiderable alteration
in the matter which is not volatile : fweet fubdances,
by long boiling with water, become naufeous; and
the dradic purgatives lofe their virulence, tho’ without
any remarkable feparation of their parts.
IV. The decodions are to be depurated by cola-
ture ; and afterwards fuffered to dand for a day or
two, when a confiderable quantity of fediment is ufual-
ly found at the bottom. If the liquor, poured off
clear, be boiled down a little, and afterwards fuffered
to cool again, it will depofit a fredi fediment, from
which it may be decanted before you proceed to finifh
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- the evaporation. The deco&ions of very refinous fub-
tion?- dances do not require this treatment, and are rather
“ injured by it ; the refin fubfiding along with the inac¬
tive dregs.
V. The evaporation is mod conveniently perform¬
ed in broad (hallow vedels: the larger the furface
of the liquor, the fooner will the aqueous parts
exhale : this effeft may likewife be promoted by agi¬
tation.
VI. When the matter begins to grow thick, great
care is neceffary to prevent its burning. This accident,
almod unavoidable if the quantity is large, and the
fire applied as ufual under the evaporating pan, may be
effectually fecured againd, by carrying on the infpiffa-
tion after the common manner, no farther than to the
confidence of a fyrup, when the matter is to be poured
into (hallow tin or earthen pans, and placed in an
oven, with its door open, moderately heated; which
aCting uniformly on every part of the liquid, will foon
reduce it to any degree of confidence required. This
may likewife be done, and more fecurely, in balneo
viaricZy by fetting the evaporating vefiel in boiling wa¬
ter ; but the evaporation is here exceeding (low and
tedious.
VII. Extracts are to be fprinkled with a little fpi-
rit of wine, to prevent their growing mouldy. L.
They fiiould be kept in bladders moidened with fweet
oil. E.
603. Extra ft of nxormnuood.
Boil dried wormwood leaves in water, fupplying frefh
water occafionally till the herb has given out all
its virtues to the liquor. Strain the decoCtion
through a woollen cloth, and evaporate it, in a fand-
heat, to the confidence of honey.
This extraCl is almod Amply bitter; the peculiar
flavour of the wormwood being diffipated in the evapo¬
ration. The chemids ufually prepare the extraCt of
wormwood-from the decoCtion which remains in the dill
after the didillation of the effential oil : and, provided
the dill has been perfectly clean, and the liquor not
dood too long ip it after the didillation, this piece of
frugality is not to be difapproved of; fince, whether
we catch the exhaling vapour, or fuffer it to be diffi-
pated in the .air, the remaining extraCt will be the
fame.
604. Extra ft of lejfer centaury.
This is directed to be prepared in the fame manner
as the preceding. It is the olded extraCt we have any
account of: its preparation is very accurately and cir-
cumftantially fet down in a book ufually afcribed to
Galen, De virtute centaurex. The author of that trea-
tife recommends the extraCt as a medicine of excellent
fervice in many cafes; and looks upon centaury as a
fpecific againd the bite of a mad dog and other veno¬
mous animals. It is doubtlefs an ufeful bitter, poffef-
fingthe general virtues of the fubftances of that clafs;
but cannot well be fuppofed to have any others.
605. Extra ft of chamomile.
This extraCt is prepared from the flowers of cha¬
momile, in the fame manner as thofe of the leaves of
the two preceding plants. Nor is it greatly different
from thofe extracts in quality j the fpecific flavour of
M A C Y. 6067
the chamomile exhaling in the evaporation. The che- Prepaia-
mids commonly prepare it, like that of wormwood, tl0ris.
from the decoCtion remaining after the didillation of
the effential oil.
606. Extraft of elecampane. L.
Boil the roots of elecampane in water, prefs out and
drain the decoCtion, and fet it by to fettle. Then
pour off the clear liquor, and boil it down to a pilu-
lar confidence; taking care, towards the end, to
prevent its burning to the vcffel.
This extraCt retains a confiderable (hare of the vir¬
tues of the root: its tade is fomewhat warm, and not
ungratefully bitterifh. It is given, from a fcruple to a
dram, in a lax date of the fibres of the domach, and
in feme diforders of the bread.
607. Extraft of gentian. L. E.
This extraCt is prepared from the roots of gentian,
in the fame manner as the foregoing extraCls. It is
of a reddifli brown colour, and an intenfcly bitter
tade, being one of the dronged of the vegetable bit¬
ters.
608. Extraft of liquorice. L.
Lightly boil frefh liquorice roots in water, prefs the
decoCtion through a drainer ; and after the faeces
have fubfided, evaporate it until it no longer dicks
to the fingers; taking care, towards the end of the
operation, to prevent an empyreuma.
It is convenient, before boiling the root, to cut it
tranfverfely into fmall pieces, that it may more readi¬
ly give out its virtues by light coClion : if the boiling
is long continued, the rich fweet tade, for which, this
preparation is valued, will be greatly injured. For the
fame reafon, the quantity of water ought to be no lar¬
ger than is abfolutely neceffary to extraCt the virtues
of the root: a quart, or at mod three pints, will be
fully fufficient for a pound of liquorice. It would be
of confiderable advantage to the preparation, and pro¬
bably (when made in quantity) lefs expenfive to the
preparer, to ufe, indead of the decoCtion, juice of li¬
quorice, preffed out betwixt iron rollers, after the
manner praClifed abroad for obtaining the juice of the
fugar-cane.
Large quantities of extraCt of liquorice have been
ufually brought to us from Spain and other foreign
countries ; but it is very rarely met with in the (hops
in perfection ; the makers of this commodity, both at
home and abroad, being either very (lovenly in its pre¬
paration, or defignedly mixing it with fand and other
impurities. When made with due care, it is exceed¬
ing fweet, not at all bitterKh or naufeous, more
agreeable in tade than the root itfelf, of a pleafant
fmell, a reddifli brown colour, and, when drawn out
into firings, of a bright golden colour ; totally foluble
in water, without depofiting any faeces.
This preparation would be very convenient for
many purpofes in the (hops, if kept in a fomewhat fof-
ter confidence than that of an extraft. The only in¬
convenience attending this foft form is, its being apt
in a (hort time to grow mouldy: but this may be effec¬
tually prevented, by the addition of a fmall portion
of fpirit of wine.
34 E 2
609. Ex-
6o68
PHARMACY.
tions." 609. Extrali of black hellebore. L. E.
■ This extraft is prepared from the roots of black hel¬
lebore, in the fame manner as that of elecampane roots
above defcribed. It purges with confiderably lefs vio¬
lence than the hellebore in fubftance; and appears to
be one of the bed preparations of that root, when in¬
tended to a£t only as a cathartic- The dofe is from 8
or 10 grains to 15 or more.
610. Extra!} of logwood. L.
Take of logwood, reduced to powder, one pound.
Boil it in a gallon of water till half the liquor is
confumed, repeating the coftion with frelh water
four times, or oftener : the feveral decoftions are to
be mixed together, palled through a drainer, and
evaporated to a due confidence.
This extraft has an agreeable fweet tafte, with
fome degree of aftringency ; and hence becomes
ferviceable in diarrhoeas, for blunting the acrimony
of the juices, and moderately conftringing the in-
teftines and orifices of the fmaller vefiels: It may
be given from a fcruple to half a dram, and re¬
peated five or fix times a-day to advantage. Du¬
ring the ufe of this medicine, the (tools are frequently
tinged red by it; which has occafioned fome to be
alarmed, as if the colour proceeded from blood : the
prefcriber therefore ought to caution the patient a-
gainft any furpril'e of this kind.
611. Extra!l of Peruvian bark, foft and hard. L.
Boil a pound of powdered bark in five or fix quarts of
water for an hour or two, and pour off the liquor ;
which whilft hot will be red and tranfparent, but
on growing cold becomes yellow and turbid. The
remaining bark is to be boiled again in the fame
quantity of water as before; and this procefs re¬
peated till the liquor remains tranfparent when cold.
All the decoftions, {trained and mixed together,
are to be evaporated over a very gentle fire to a due
confiftence, care being taken to prevent the matter
from burning.
This extradl is diredted to be kept in the Ihops,
both in a foft and a hard form ; the firft of a proper
confiftence for making into pills ; the other fit for be¬
ing reduced into powder.
612. ExtraH of guaiacum wood, foft and hard. L.
Boil a pound of Inavings of guaiacum in a gallon of
water till half the liquor is wafted, repeating the
operation four times, or oftener, with the fame
quantities of frelh water. The Ceveral decodions,
paffed through a ftrainer, are to be mixed and in-
fpiffated together; when the aqueous parts are al-
moft entirely exhaled, a little redified fpirit of wine
is to be added, that the whole may be reduced into
an uniform and tenacious mafs. This extrad is to
be prepared as the foregoing, in a foft and hard
form.
Here the refinous parts of the wood, which were
boiled out with the water, are apt to feparate towards
the end of the infpiffation : Hence an addition of fpi-
tit becomes neceffary to keep them united with the
reft of the matter. The extrad agrees in virtue with
the wood. See Guaiacum.
Part IT.
613. Extra H of rue. L. ^tionsT
This is prepared from the leaves of rue, in the fame- —.
manner ns that of elecampane roots already defcribed.
It retains a confiderable lhare of the warmth and pun¬
gency of the rue ; for though the principal virtues of
rue refide in an effential oil, yet the oil of this plant,
as formerly obferved under the head of thofe prepara¬
tions, is not of a very volatile kind.
614. Extra!! of favin. L.
This extrad is prepared from the leaves of favin in
the fame manner as the preceding. It does not retain
fo much as that extrad does of the virtues of its fub-
jed, the oil of favin being more volatile than that of
rue.
615. Gum and refm of aloes. L.
Boil four ounces of focotorine aloes in two pints of
water till as much as poffible of the aloes is diffol-
ved. The folution fuffered to reft for a night, will
depofit the refin to the bottom of the veffel : after
which, the remaining liquor, ftrained, if needful,
is to be evaporated, that the gum may be left.
The gum of aloes is fomewhat lefs purgative, and
confiderably lefs difagreeable, than the crude juice.
616, The pills or extra!! of Radius.
Take of black-hellebore roots, colocynth, focotorine
aloes, each two ounces ; fcammony, one ounce ;vi-
triolated tartar, two drams; difttlled oil of cloves,
one dram. Bruife the colocynth and hellebore, pour
on them two quarts of water, and boil to the con-
fumption of half the liquor: pafs the decodion
through a ftrainer, and evaporate it to the confift¬
ence of honey, adding the aloes and fcammony re¬
duced into fine powder: when the mafs is taken
from the fire, mix into it the vitriolated tartar and
diftilled oil.
This preparation is a medicine of great importance
as a cathartic.
617. Rob of juniper- berries.
Let juniper-berries, thoroughly bruifed, be boiled i«
a fufficient quantity of water, the liquor ftrained*
and infpiffated to the confiftence of honey.
This preparation may be made alfo from the decoc¬
tion that remains after the diftillation of the effential
oil of the berries. It has a fweet balfamic tafte, ac¬
companied with a greater or lefs bitternefs, according
as the feeds of the berry were more or lefs thoroughly
bruifed. This elegant preparation, though not recei¬
ved in our pharmacopoeias, feems not unworthy of a
place in the fhops. Hoffman has a great opinion of
it in debilities of the ftomach and inteftines, and in
the difficulties of urine familiar to perfons of an ad¬
vanced age.
6x8. Befides the above extra&s, there are ordered,
in the prefent edition of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia,,
one from the heads of puppies; another from the feeds,
of hemlock fcarce come to ftiaturity ; and a third from
the leaves of pulfatilla nigricans. They are to be made
in the fame manner with the extraft of gentian,.
n° 607.
part ir. PHARMACY. 6069
Prepara- $3. EXTRACTS WITH RECTIFIED SPIRITS.
—1121— 619. Rectified fpirit of wine diflblves the effential
oils and refins of vegetables, and does not readily carry
oif the oil in its exhalation, the heat fufficient to ex¬
hale pure fpirit being much lefs than that in which
water confiderably evaporates, or moft efiential oils di-
ftil. Hence a refinous or fpirituous extradt of worm¬
wood, contrary to that made with water, contains the
warmth and flavour as well as bitternefs of the herb ;
one made from cinnamon poflefies its aromatic virtue,
as well as its aftringency ; and one from lavender and
rofemary flowers retains great part of their flavour and
virtues ; the volatile parts, which are carried off by
water in its evaporation, being left behind by fpirit.
The fpirit employed for this purpofe fhould be
perfeftly free from any ill flavour, which would be
communicated in part to the preparation ; and from
any admixture of phlegm or water, which would not
only vary its diflblving power, but, likewife evapora¬
ting towards the end of the infpifiation, would pro¬
mote the diffipation of the volatile parts of the fubjeft.
Hence alfo the fubjedt itfelf ought always to be dry:
thofe fubftances which lofe their virtue by drying, lofe
it equally on being fubmitted to this treatment with
the pureft fpirit.
The infpiflation Ihould be performed from the
beginning in the gentle heat of a water-bath. It is
not needful to fuffer the fpirit to evaporate in the air:
greateft part of it may be recovered by colle&ing the
vapour in the common diftilling veflels. If the diftilled
fpirit is found to have brought over any flavour from
the fubjedl, it may be advantageoufly referved for the
fame purpofes again.
620. It is obfervable, that though verified fpirit is
the proper menftruum of the pure volatile oils and of
the grcfler refinous matter of vegetables, and <K>ater of
the mucilaginous and faline ; yet thefe principles are,
in almoft all plants, fo intimately combined together,
that whichever of thefe liquors is applied at firft, it
will take up a portion of what is diredily foluble only
in the other. Hence fundry vegetables, extremely
refinous, and whofe virtues confift chiefly in their re-
fin, afford neverthelefs very ufeful extradls with water,
though not equal to thofe which may be obtained by
a prudent application of fpirit. Hence, alfo, the ex-
tradis made from moft vegetables by pure fpirit are
not mere refms ; a part of the gummy matter, if the
fubjedl contained any fuch, being taken up along with
the refin, an admixture of great advantage to it in a
medicinal view. The fpirituous extradis of feveral ve-
etable fubftances, as mint-leaves, rhubarb, faffron,
iffolve in water as well as in fpirit.
621. Pure refins are prepared by mixing with fpi¬
rituous tindlures of very refinous vegetables a quantity
of water. The refin, incapable of remaining diffolved
in the watery liquor, feparates and falls to the bottom;
leaving in the menftruum fuch other principles of the
plant as the fpirit might have extradted at firft along
with it.
622. Refin of jalap.
Take any quantity of jalap root very well bruifed ;
pour upon it fo much redtified fpirit of wine as will
cover it to the height of four fingers, and digeft
than together in a fand-heat, that the fpirit may
extradl the virtue of the root. Filter the tindlure Prepara-
through paper, put it into a retort, and diftil oft' tlons‘
one half of the fpirit. Add to the remainder a pro¬
per quantity of water, and the refin will precipitate
to the bottom: divide it into little cakes, and dry
it with a very gentle heat.
This preparation is a pure refin ; fuch gummy parts
as the fpirit might have taken up remaining fufpended
in the liquor. Its indiflblubility in any aqueous fluid,
and its tenacious quality, by which it adheres to the
coats of the inteftines, and occafions great irritation
and gripes, forbid its being ever given by itfelf. It
is fitted for ufe, by thoroughly triturating it with te-
ftaceous powders, by grinding it with almonds or
powdered gum, and making the compound into an
emulfion with water ; or by diffolving it in fpirit of
wine, and mixing the folution with a proper quantity
of fyrup or of mucilage. Six or eight grains, ma¬
naged in either of thefe ways, prove powerfully ca¬
thartic, and generally without griping or greatly dif-
ordering the body.
623. Refin of Peruvian bark.
This refin is made in the fame manner as the fore¬
going, and proves an elegant preparation of the bark,
much ftronger in tafle than the watery extradl, (611.)
It is nearly equivalent to about ten times its quantity
of the bark in fubftance. There does not, however,
appear to be any advantage in feparating the pure
refin by the addition of water, either in this or in the
other articles. In regard to the bark particularly, it
is more advifeable to endeavour to unite into one com¬
pound all that can be extra&ed from it by watery and
fpirituous menftrua: and accordingly the Edinburgh
college has received a preparation of this kind, n° 627.
624. Extraft of faffron.
Digeft faffron in frelh quantities of pure fpirit of wine,
as long as the fpirit extrafts any colour from it.
Mix the feveral tindlures together, and diftil off the
fpirit in a taH glafs veffel by the heat of a water-
bath, till the refiduum appears of the confiftence of
oil or balfam. Pharm. Bran.
This is an elegant and high cordial. Boerhaave
fays it poffcffes fuch exhilarating virtues, that if ufed
a little too freely, it occafions an almoft perpetual and
indecent laughing. He obferves, that it tinges the
urine of a red colour, and that it mingles with wa¬
ter, fpirit, and oils, but is moft conveniently taken
in a glafs of Canary or other rich wine. A few drops
are fufficient for a dofe.
$ 4. Extracts with Spirit and Water.
625. There are fundry vegetables, particularly
thofe of a refinous nature, which are treated, to bet¬
ter advantage;, with a mixture of water and fpirit, than
with either of them fingly. The virtues of refinous.
woods, barks, and roots, may indeed be in great part
extradled by long boiling in frelh portions of water
but at the fame time they fuffer a confiderable injury
from the continued heat neceffary for the extradiion,
and for the fubfequent evaporation of fo large a quanti¬
ty of the fluid. Redlified fpirit of wine is not liable
10 this inconvenience; but the extradis obtained by
it, from the fubftances here intended, being almoft
purely
6070 P H A R
Prepara- purely refmous, are lefs adapted to general ufe than
nons. thofe in which the refin is divided by an admixture
of the gummy matter, of which water is the diredl
menftruum.
There are two ways of obtaining thefe compound
or gummy refinous extra&s: one, by ufing proof-
fpirit, that is, a mixture of about equal parts of
fpirit and water, for the menftruum ; the other, by
digefting the fubjedt firft in pure fpirit, and then in
water, and afterwards uniting into one mafs the parts
which the two menftrua have feparately extracted. In
fome cafes, where a fufficiency of gummy matter is
wanting in the fubjedt, it maybe artificially fupplied,
.by infpiflating the fpirituous tindlure to the confiftence
of a balfam, then thoroughly mixing with it a thick
folution of any fimple gum, as mucilage of gum ara-
bic, and exficcating the compound with a gentle
heat. By this method are obtained elegant gummy
refins, extemporaneouily mifcible with water into milky
liquors.
626. ExtraCl of jalap.
Upon powdere.d jalap pour fome redtified fpirit of
wine, and with a gentle heat extradl a tindlure;
boil the remaining jalap in frefti parcels of water.
Strain the firft tinfture, and draw off the fpirit, till
what remains begins to grow thick ; boil the
ftrained decodf ion aifo to a like thicknefs; then mix
both the infpiftated matters together, and with a
gentle fire reduce the whole to a pilular con¬
fiftence. L.
Take of jalap root, one pound; redli&ed fpirit of
wine, four pints ; water, two pints. Digeft them
together for eight days, and ftrain. Diftil off the
ftrained liquor in a retort to one half. Evaporate
the remainder in a water-bath, keeping the matter
conftantly (tiring towards the end, fo as to make it
into a fmooth extradt. E.
This extract is an ufeful purgative, preferable to
the crude root, as being of more uniform ftrength,
and as the dofe, by the rejedtion of the woody parts,
is rendered fmaller; the mean dofe is twelve grains.
If the fpirituous tindture was infpiflated by itfelf, it
would afford a refinous mafs, which, unlefs thoroughly
divided by proper admixtures, occafions violent gri¬
ping, and yet does not prove fufficiently cathartic; the
watery decodtions yield an extradt, which operates
exceeding weakly: both joined together, as in this
preparation, compofe an effedtual and fafe purge. This
method of making extradts might be advantageoufly
applied to fundry other refinous fubftances, as the dry
woods, roots, barks, &c. A fmall quantity of fpirit
takes up the refin, and much lefs water than would
otherwife be neceflary extradts all the other foluble
parts.
627. ExtraCl of Peruvian lark. E.
The college of Edinburgh has diredted the extradt
of bark to be made with water and fpirit in the fame
manner as the preceding. In the bark we may di-
ftinguifti two kinds of taftes, an aftringent and a bitter
one; the former of which feems to refide in the re-
iinous matter, and the latter chiefly in the gummy. The
watery extradt (n° 6u) is moderately ftrong in point
of bitternefs, but of the aftringency it has only a fmall
M A C Y. Part II.
degree. The pure refill, on the other hand, (n® 623.) Prepari-
is ftrong in aftringency, and weak in the bitternefs. tlous-
Both qualities are united in the prefent extradt; which
appears to be the bed preparation of this kind that
can be obtained from this valuable drug.
728. ExtraCI of logwood. E.
This extra A is diredted in the Edinburgh pharma¬
copoeia to be prepared as the foregoing ; and the fame
treatment isjudicioully ordered for all the refinous drugs
in general.
629. Cathartic extract.
Take of focotorine aloes, an ounce and a half;
colocynth, fix drams; fcammony, lefler cardamoms
hulked, each half an ounce; proof-fpirit, one pint.
Having cut the colocynth fmall, and bruifed the
feeds, pour on them the vinous fpirit, and digeft:
with a gentle heat for four days. Prefs out the
tindiure, and diflblve therein the aloes and fcam¬
mony, firft feparately reduced to powder ; then draw
off the fpirit, and infpiffate the remaining mafs to a
pilular confiftence.
This compofition anfwers very effedlually the inten¬
tion expreffed in its title, fo as to be relied on in
cafes where the patient’s life depends on its taking
place ; the dofe is fifteen grains to half a dram.
530. Cordial confedion. L.
Take of rolemary tops frelh, juniper-berries, each
one pound ; leffer cardamom feeds hulked, zedoary,
faffron, each half a pound. Extradt a tindture from
thefe ingredients with about a gallon and a half
of proof-fpirit: let the tindture be ftrained off, and
reduced by a gentle heat to the weight of about two
pounds and a half; then add the following ingre¬
dients very finely pulverized, and make the whole
into an eledtuary : Compound powder of crabs-
claws, fixteen ounces; cinnamon, nutmegs, each
two ounces; cloves, one ounce; double-refined
fugar, two pounds.
This confedtion is compofed of the more unexcep¬
tionable ingredients of a compofition formerly held in
great efteem, and which was called, from its author,
Confedio Raleighana.
The confeAion is a fufficiently grateful and mo¬
derately warm cordial; and frequently given in that
intention, from eight or ten grains to a fcruple or
upwards, in bolufes and draughts. The extradt re¬
tains a confiderable (hare of the flavour and virtue of
the ingredients, though not near fo much as if a redtified
fpirit had been employed. The operator (hould be
particularly careful to extradt as much from the ingre¬
dients as the fpirit will take up ; otherwife the in-
fpiffated matter turns out fo thin, and of fo little te¬
nacity, that the powders are apt to feparate and fub-
fide from it in keeping. The crabs-claw powder does
not appear to be very neceffary; and is inferted rather
in compliance with the original, than from its contri¬
buting any thing to the intention of the medicine.
Sect. VII. Empyreumatic Oils.
631. Vegetablf and animal fubftances, and mi¬
neral bitumens, on being urged with a red heat, have
their original properties deftroyed, and are refolved or
changed
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- changed into produ&s of a different nature from what
tions. pre-exifted in the fubjeft. By burning them in the
open air, a part is changed into afhes, a part into foot,
' and a part is diffolved by the air. Expofed to the fire
in clofe veflels (as in thofe called retorts, having recei¬
vers adapted to them for detaining the volatile parts),
they are refolved into fetid oils, and different kinds of
faline fubftances which rife into the receiver; and a
black coal which remains behind, and which, though
no farther alterable in clofe vefTels, on admitting air
burns into white alhes. The oils, called from their fe¬
tid burnt fmell empyreumatic, are the objedts of the pre-
fent fedtion. Some of thefe however being obtained
in the fame procefs with certain faline bodies of more
importance than themfelves, are referred to the head of
faline preparations.
632. Oil of box. L.
Diftil pieces of boxwood in a retort, with a fand heat
gradually increafed : the oil will come over along
with an acid fpirit, which is to be feparated by a
funnel.
633. Oil of guaiacum.
Put any quantity, of chips of guaiacum into an earthen
long-neck, or a glafs retort, and diftil either in a fand-
bath or an open fire, increafing the heat by degrees.
At firft an acid liquor will come over; afterwards a
light red oil; and at length, in the utmoft degree of
fire, a thick black oil which finks through the other
liquors to the bottom of the receiver. Oils may be
obtained after the fame manner from every kind of
wood.
The oils obtained by this treatment from different
woods and plants are nearly of the fame qualities: they
Tiave all a very difagreeable acrid tafte, and a burnt
ftinking fmell, without any thing of the peculiar fla¬
vour, tafte, or virtues, of the fubjefl which afforded
them. The prefent praftice rarely employs thofe oils
any otherwife than for external purpofes, as the clean-
fing of foul bones, for the tooth-ach, againft fome kinds
of cutaneous eruptions, old pains and aches, and the
like; and for thefe not very often.
634. Compound oil of balfam of Copaiva. L.
Take two pounds of balfam of Copaiva, and four ounces
of gum guaiacum. Diftil them in a retort, conti¬
nuing the operation till a pint of oil is come over.
The mixture, undiftilled, proves a medicine of con
fiderable efficacy in rheumatic cafes, &c. In diftilla-
tion the guaiacum gives over little. The balfam di-
ftilled in a retort, with or without the gum, yields firft
a light coloured oil, fmelling confiderably of the fub-
jeft ; this is immediately followed by a darker colour¬
ed oil, and afterwards by a blue one, both which have
little other fmell than the empyreumatic one that di-
flinguifhes the oils of this clafs: their tafte is very pun¬
gent and acrimonious. This balfam diftilled with wa¬
ter yields as much effential oil as above of empyreu-
matic.
635. The anodyne, commonly called Guido’s balfam.
Take of tacamahaca in powder, Venice turpentine,
each equal parts. Put them into a retort, whereof
they may fill two-thirds, and diftil with a fire gra¬
dually increafed. Separate, according to art, the
M A C Y. 6071
red oil, or balfam, from the liquor that fwims above Trepara-
it. tions-
This oil is fuppofed to be anodyne and difcutient.
636. Dippers animal-oil.
Take any quantity of the empyreumatic oil diftilled
from animal-fubftances, as that of hartftiorn (the
preparation of which is defcribed along with that of
the volatile fait and fpirit in the following fedlion.
Put it into a glafs retort; and having fitted on a re¬
ceiver, diftil in a fand-heat: the oil will arife paler
coloured and lefs fetid; and a black coaly matter will
remain behind. Repeat the diftillation in frefh re¬
torts, till the oil ceafes to leave any faeces, and till
it lofes its ill fmell, and acquires an agreeable one.
a, The quantity of oil employed in this procefs
ffiould be confiderable : for it leaves fo much black
matter behind in the feveral diftillations, that it is re¬
duced, at laft, to a fmall portion of its original quan¬
tity. The diftillation muft be repeated at leaft 12
times, and frequently the requilite fubtilization will
fcarcely be obtained with lefs than 20 diftillations. It
is faid, that the effedt may be expedited, by mixing
the oil with quicklime into a foft pafte ; the lime
keeping down more of the grofs matter, than would
remain without fuch an addition.
b, Animal-oils thus rectified, are thin and limpid,
of a fubtle, penetrating, not difagreeable fmell and
tafte. They are ftrongly recommended as anodynes
and antifpafmodics, in dofes of from 15 to 30 drops.
Hoffman reports, that they procure a calm and fweet
fleep, which continues often for 20 hours, without be¬
ing followed by any languor or debility, but rather
leaving the patient more alert and cheerful than be¬
fore : that they procure likewife a gentle fweat, with¬
out increafing the heat of the blood : that given to 20
drops or more, on an empty ftomach, fix hours before
the acceffion of an intermittent fever, they frequently
remove the diforder: and that they are likewife a
very generous remedy in inveterate and chronical epi-
lepfies, and in convulfive motions, cfpecially if given
before the ufual time of the attack, and preceded by
proper evacuations.
c, The empyjeumatic oils of vegetables, rectified in
the fame manner by repeated diftillations, fuffer a like
change with the animal ; lofing their dark colour and
offenfive fmell, and becoming limpid, penetrating, and
agreeable : in this ftate they are fuppofed, like the
animal oils, to be anodyne, antifpafmodic, and dia¬
phoretic or fudorific. It is obfervable, that all the
empyreumatic oils diffolve in fpirit of wine ; and that
the oftener they are ratified or re-diftilled, they dif¬
folve the more readily; a circumftance in which they
differ remarkably from effential oils, which, by repeat¬
ed diftillations, become more and more difficult of fo-
lution.
d, How far thefe preparations really poffefs the vir¬
tues that have been afcribed to them, has not yet been
fufficiently determined by experience • the tedioufnefs
and trouble of the reftification having prevented their
coming into general ufe, or being often made. They
are liable alfo to a more material inconvcniency in re¬
gard to their medicinal ufe, precarioufnefs in their
quality : for how perfeftly foever they be re&ified.
6072
Prepara¬
tions.
PHARMACY. Part II.
they generally lofc, in keeping, the qualities they had
,received from that procefs, and return more and more
towards their original fetidnefs.
Sect. VIII. Salts and Saline Preparations.
§ 1. Fixed Alkaline Salts.
637. The afhes of mod vegetables, fteeped or boil¬
ed in water, give out to it a faline fubftance, feparable
in a folid form by evaporating the water. This kind
of fait never pre-exifts in the vegetable, but is always
generated during the burning. It is called fixed alka¬
line fait.
638. Salt of tartar.
Let any kind of tartar be wrapped up in ftrong brown
paper, firft made wet, or included in a proper vefiel,
and expofed to the fire, that its oil may be burnt
out: then boil it in water, filter the folution, and
evaporate it, till there remains a dry fait, which is
to be kept in a veffel clofely (topped. L.
Take of tartar any quantity, and having wrapped it
up in brown paper, or put it into a crucible, let it
be furrounded with a gentle fire, till reduced to a
coal. Having reduced this to powder, calcine it
again in an open crucible, with a fire not fufficient
to melt it till the fait becomes white, or at lead
afh-coloured. Didolve it in water, and drain thro*
a linen cloth ; after which it is to be evaporated in
a dean iron veffel, till all the moidure is exhaled.
Continue to keep it over the fire, till the bottom of
the veffel is almod red. Then put it up in glafs
bottles well (topped. E.
This fait has a pnngent fiery tade; and occafi-
ons in the mouth a kind of urinous flavour, probably
from the refolution which it produces in the faliva. It
readily diffolves in water, and deliquiates in the air;
but is not afted upon by pure vinous fpirits. Inflead
of being diffolved by vinous fpirits, if a faturated fo¬
lution of it in water be dropt into the pure fpirit, it
will not mix therewith, but fall diflinft to the bottom:
if water be mixed with the fpirit, the addition of fixed
alkaline fait will imbibe the water, and form with it,
as in the other cafe, a didinft fluid at the bottom; this
property affords a commodious method of dephlegma-
ting vinous fpirits, or feparating their watery part, as
we have already feen.
639. Salt of tartar, or folutions of it in water, raife
an effervefcence on the admixture of acid liquors, and
deflroy their acidity, the alkali and acid uniting to¬
gether into a compound of new qualities called neu¬
tral: earthy fubftances, and moft metallic bodies, pre-
vioufly diffolved in the acid, are precipitated from it by
the alkali. The alkaline fait changes the colours of
the blue flowers of plants, or their infufions, to a green:
it has the fame effeA on the bright red flowers, and
on the eolourlefs infufions of white ones; but in many
of the dark red, as thofe of the wild poppy, and of
the yellow ones, it produces no fuch change.
640. Solutions of this fait liquefy all the animal
juices, except milk; corrode the flefhy parts into a
kind of mucous matter; concrete with animal fats, and
vegetable oils, into foap; and diffolve fulphur into a
red liquor; efpecially if affifted by a boiling heat, and
mingled with quicklime, which greatly promotes their
aftivity. On pure earths and ftones, thefe liquors have Prepara-
no fenfible a&ion; but if the earth or ftones be mixed tl0n^
with four or five times the weight of the dry fait, and
urged with a ftrong fire, they melt along with it, and
become afterwards perfe&Iy foluble both in water
and by the moifture of the air: with a fmaller propor¬
tion of the fait, as an equal weight, they run into an
indiffoluble glaffy matter.
641. The medical virtues of this fait are, to attte-
nuate the juices, refolve obftru&ions, and promote the
natural fecretions. A dilute folution of it, drank warm
in bed, generally excites fweat: if that evacuation is
not favoured, its fenfible operation is by urine. It is
an excellent remedy in coftive habits, efpecially if a
few grains of aloes be occafionally interpofcd; with
this advantage above other purgatives and laxatives,
that when the complaint is once removed, it is not apt
to return. Where acidities abound in the firft paf-
fages, this fait abforbs the acid, and unites with it
into a mild aperient neutral fait. As one of its prin¬
cipal operations is to render the animal fluids more
thin, it is obvious, that where they are already colli-
quated, as in fcurvies, and in all putrid diforders in ge¬
neral, this medicine is improper. The common dofe
of the fait is from two or three grains to a fcruple; in
fome circumftances it has been extended to a dram, in
which cafe it muft always be largely diluted with wa¬
tery liquors.
642. Salt of nuormouood.
Let aflies of wormwood (which the (hops are ufually
fupplied with from the country) be put into an
iron pot, or any other convenient veffel; and kept
red-hot over the fire for fome hours, often ftirring
them, that what oily matter remains may be burnt
out; then boil the alhes in water, filter the ley-
through paper, and evaporate it till a dry fait re¬
mains ; which is to be kept in a veffel clofe ftopt.
L. After the fame manner a fixed alkaline (till may
be prepared from all thofe vegetables which yield
this kind of fait, L. as bean-ftalks, broom, &c. E.
Thefe falls are obtained to greater advantage from
dry plants than from green ones; they muft not,
however, be too dry, or too old ; for in fuch cafe,
they afford but a fmall quantity of fait. The fire
fliould be fo managed, as that the fubjeft may burn
freely, yet not burrt into violent flame; this laft cir-
cumftance would greatly leffen the yield of the fait;
and a very clofe fmothering heat would have this effect
in a greater degree : hence the aflies of charcoal fcarce
yield any fait, whilft the wood it was made from#
if burnt at firft in the open air, affords a large quan¬
tity.
Tachenius, Boerhaave, and others, have entertain¬
ed a very high opinion of thefe oily falls, and endea¬
vour as much as poffible to retain the oil in them.
They are neverthelefs liable to a great inconvenience,
uncertainty in point of ftrength, without promifing
any advantage to counterbalance it; if the common
alkalies are required to be made milder and lefs acri¬
monious (which is the only point aimed at in the ma¬
king of thefe medicated falls as they are called), they
may be occafionally rendered fo by fuitable additions.
Pure alkalies, united with a certain quantity of ex-
preffed oil, compofe (as we fhall fee hereafter) a per-
Part II.
Prepara- feft foap, in which the pungent tafte of the alkaline
tlons- fait is totally fupprefled : it is obvious, therefore, that
on the fame principle the pungency may be covered in
part, and this proportionably to the quantity of oily
matter-combined.
643. Fixed nitre.
Take of powdered nitre, four ounces ; charcoal in
powder, five drams. Mix them thoroughly toge¬
ther, by rubbing them in a mortar, and injeft the
mixture, by a little at a time, into a red-hot cru¬
cible. A deflagration, or a bright flame with a
hilling noife, happens on each inje&ion ; the whole
quantity being thus deflagrated, continue the fire
llrong for half an hour.
Nitre is compofed of the common vegetable fixed al¬
kaline fait, and a peculiar acid. In this procefs, the
acid is deftroyed, or changed to another nature; and
the remaining fait proves merely alkaline, not diffe¬
rent in quality from the fait of tartar, except that a
very minute portion of the nitre generally remains un¬
changed; the fait is purified by folution in water, fil¬
tration, and evaporation.
644. The alkaline fait of fea-falt.
Take of cubical nitre (prepared as hereafter defcribed
in § 6.) four ounces ; charcoal, five drams. Mix and
. deflagrate as in the preceding procefs.
a, Cubical nitre is compofed of the nitrous acid
united with the alkaline bafis of fea-falt: the acid
being here feparated in the deflagration, that alkali re¬
mains nearly pure. It pofleffes the general properties
of the foregoing preparation ; changing blue flowers,
green ; diflblving oils, falls, and fulphur ; bringing
earths and Hones intofufion, and forming with them,
according to its quantity, either a vitreous, or a fo-
luble compound; effervefcing with acids,precipitating
earths, and metals difiblved in them, and uniting with
the acid into a neutral fait. It differs from the fore¬
going alkalies, in being much milder in tafte ; not fo
readily diffolving in w'ater ; not at all deliquiating in
the air; eafily affuming, like neutral falls, a cryftal-
line form ; and yielding, with each of the common
acids, compounds very fenfibly different, both in their
form and qualities, from thofe which refult from the
coalition of the vegetable alkalies with the refpeftive
acids. The cryftals of this fait itfelf are prifmatic,
greatly refembling thofe of the fait called fal mirabile ;
(fee § 6.) Expofed to a warm air, they fall into a
porous, friable mafs, and lofe above two-thirds of
their weight.
b, How far this fait differs in medical virtue from
the other alkalies, is not well known. It apparently
poffeffes the fame general virtues; and, as it is far
milder, may be given in more confiderable dofes.
f. A fait of the fame nature with this, but lefs
pure, as containing an admixture of the common ve¬
getable alkali, is prepared at Alicant, and fome other
places, from the allies of certain marine plants, called
Jali; which plants are fuppofed to have given rife to
the name alkali. The fait of the kali plants is called
fda, or lariglia: it has been long ufed medicinally in
France, and begins now to be introduced into prac¬
tice in this country; but the above pure alkali extrac¬
ted from fea-falt is doubtlefs preferable to it*
Voi. VIII. 2
6'073
645. Ley of tartar, or oitof tartar per deliquium. ^tions™
Put any quantity of fait of tartar in a flat glafs difh,
and expofe it to the air, for fome days, in a moift:
place : it will run into a liquor, which is either to
be filtered through paper, or feparated from the fae¬
ces by decantation. The higher the fait has been
calcined, the more readily will it relent in the
air.
The folutions of fixed alkaline falls, efftfled by ex-
pofing them to a moift air, are generally looked upon
as being purer than thofe made by applying water di-
reftly : for though the fait be repeatedly diffolved in
water, filtered, and exficcated ; yet, on being liquefied
by the humidity of the air, it will ftill depofit a por¬
tion of earthy matter : but it muft be obferved, that
the exficcated fait leaves always an earthy matter on
being diflblved in water, as well as on being deliquia-
ted in the air. The deliquiated lixivium is faid to con¬
tain nearly one part of alkaline fait to three of an aque¬
ous fluid. It is indifferent, in regard to the lixivium
itfelf, whether the white afhes of tartar, or the fait
extra&ed from them, be ufed: but as the allies leave
a much greater quantity of earth, the feparation of
the ley proves more trqublefome.
646. Purified potafb. E.
Take of the lixivial fait, commonly called pearl-njhes,
any quantity ; and let it be made red-hot in a cru¬
cible, that the oily’ matter, if any is contained in
it, may be burnt out. Then powder and mix it
with an equal quantity of water; let the liquor
fettle, and pour it off from the feces. Evaporate to
drynefs in an iron veffel. The fait is known to be
perfeftly purified, when it totally diffolves in an
equal weight of water into a liquor without fmell or
tafte.
647. Soap leys.
Take of Ruflia potalh, quicklime, of each equal
weights. Gradually fprinkle on them as much wa¬
ter as will flake the lime; then pour on more wa¬
ter, ftirring the whole together, that the fait may
be diffolved: let the ley fettle, pour it off into an¬
other veffel, and, if there is occafion, filter it. A
wine pint of this ley, meafured with the greateft ex-
aftnefs, ought .to weigh juft 16 ounces Troy. If
it proves heavier, for every dram that it exceeds this
weight, add to each pint of the'liquor an ounce and
a half of water by meafure: if lighter, boil it till
the like quantity is wafted, or pour it upon frelh
lime and afhes. L.
Take of quicklime, eight ounces ; purified potafli, fix
ounces. Put the lime into a glazed earthen or iron
veffel, with 28 ounces of warm water. Add the potafli
as foon as the lime is flaked; and having mixed them
well together, let the veffel be covered till it cools.
When the mixture has become cold, pour the whole
into a glafs funnel, having the pipe flopped with a
clean linen rag. Cover the upper part of the fun¬
nel, and infert its pipe into another glafs veffel, that
the ley may drop from it. When it has ceafed to
drop, pour fome ounces of water cautioufly into the
funnel, that it may lie above the thick matter. The
ley will again begin to drop : and this operation is
to be repeated till 32 ounces by meafure, or 36 by
34 F weight,
PHARMACY.
6074s
Prepara- weight, have pafled through; which will take up
lions. the fpace of two or three days. Then mix the up¬
per and under parts of the ley together by (baking
the veffel, and keep it in a glafs bottle well (lop¬
ped. E%
Quicklime greatly increafes the ftrength of alkaline
fahs ; and hence this ley is much more acrimonious,
and afts more powerfully as a menftruum on oils, fats,
&c. than a folution of the pota(h alone ; the lime
(hould be ufed frefh from the kiln ; by long keeping,
even in clofe veffels, it lofes of its ftrength ; fuch
(hould be made choice of as is thoroughly burnt or
calcined, which may be known by its comparative
lightnefs.
AH the inftruments employed in this procefs (hould
be either of wood, earthen ware, or glafs: the com¬
mon metallic ones would be corroded by the ley, fo as
either to difcolour, or communicate difagreeable qua¬
lities to it. If it (hould be needful to filter or drain
the liquor, care muft be taken that the filter or drainer
be of vegetable matter ; woollen, filk, and that fort of
filtering paper which is made of animal fubftances, are
quickly corroded and diflblved by it.
The liquor is moft conveniently weighed in a nar¬
row-necked glafs bottle, of fuch a fize, that the mea-
fure of a wine-pint may arife fome height into its
neck; the place where it reaches to, being marked
with a diamond. A pint of the common leys of our
foft-foap makers weighs more than 16 ounces; it has
been found that their foap-ley will be reduced to the
itandard here propofed, by mixing it with fomething
lefs than an equal meafure of water.
648. The feptic Jlone> or potential cautery. E.
Fake any quantity of foap-ley; evaporate it over a
gentle fire in a very clean iron veflel, till the ebul¬
lition ceafes, and the matter flows fmooth like oil,
which will happen before it is red-hot. Then pour
it out on a clean iron plate, and cut it into flips be¬
fore it grows cold; then keep it in a glafs well
Hopped.
This preparation is a ftrong and a fudden cauftic.
It has an inconvenience of being apt to liquefy too
much upon the part to which it is applied, fo that it
is not eafily confined within the limits in which it is
intended to operate : and indeed the fuddennefs of its
action depends on this difpofition to liquefy.
649, a. The Jlronger comvion cauflic. L.
Boil any quantity of the foap-leys above defcribed, to
one-fourth part: then, whilft it continues boiling,
lome lime, that has been kept forfeveral months in
a glafs veflel flopped with a cork, is to be fprinkled
in by little and little, till it has abforbed all the li¬
quor, fo as to form a kind of pafte ; which keep for
ufe in a veflel very clofely flopped.
Here the addition of lime in fubftance renders the
preparation lefs apt to liquefy than the foregoing, and
confequently more eafiiy confineable within the intend¬
ed limits, but propOrtionably flower in its operation.
The defign of keeping the lime is, that its acrimony
may be fomewhat abated.
649, b. The milder common cauflic. L.
Take of frelh quicklime, foft foap, of each equal parts.
Part II.
Mix them well together at the time of ufing. Prepara-
This cauftic, notwithftanding the lime is ufed frefli,—
proves much milder than the former; the acrimony of
the fait being here covered by the oil and tallow by
which it is reduced into foap. The mild cauftic of
the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia is only foap-ley made
into a pafte with quicklime.
$ 2. Volatile Alkaline Salts.
650. As fixed alkalies are produced in the burning
of vegetables, and remain behind in the afties ; vola¬
tile ones are produced by a like degree of heat from
animal fubftances, and rife in diftillation along with
the other volatile principles; the admiffion of air, ne-
ceflary for the produ&ion of the former, is not need¬
ful for the latter. Thefe falts are obtainable alfo from
fome vegetable matters ; and from vegetable and ani¬
mal foot. Though a ftrong fire is requifite for their
produ&ion, yet when once completely formed, they
are diflipated by the gentled warmth : in diftillation,
they rife fooner than the moft highly reftified fpirit of
wine. They are produced in urine, by putrefaftion,
without fire ; and without fire alfo they exhale from it.
651. Spirit, fait, and oil of hartjhorn. L.
Diftil pieces of hartftiorn by a fire gradually raife^
almoft to the higheft : a fpirit, fait, and oil, will
afcend.
If the oil be feparated, and the fpirit and fait di-
ftilled again together with a very gentle heat, they
will both arife more pure. If this be carefully re¬
peated feveral times, the fait will become exceeding¬
ly white, the fpirit limpid as water, and of a grate¬
ful odour.
The fait, feparated from the fpirit, and fublimed
firft from an equal weight of pure chalk, and after¬
wards from a little re&ified fpirit of wine, becomes
the fooner pure.
Calcined hartftiorn is generally made by burning
the horns left after this diftillation.
After the fame manner; a fpirit, fait, and oil,
may be obtained from every kind of animal fub¬
ftance.
652. In the former edition of the Edinburgh difpen-
fatory the following dire&ions were given.
Put pieces of hartftiorn into a large iron pot furniflied
with an earthen head ; and having fitted on a capa¬
cious receiver, and luted the jumflures, diftil in an
open fire gradually increafed. At firft a phlegm
arifes, then a fpirit, and afterwards a volatile fait,
accompanied with an oil : the oil that comes over
firft is of a yellowifli colour, but on protra&ing the
diftillation, there fucceeds a reddifti one verging to
black. In the bottom of the iron pot there remains
a black coal, which being burnt to whitenefs in the
open air, is called calcined hartjhorn.
Having poured out of the recipient all the diffe¬
rent matters which have come over into it, they
may be feparated from one another in the following
manner ; the oil feparates from the phlegm and fpi¬
rit in filtration: the latter two will pals through, and
the oil regain on the'filter.
The phlegm may be feparated from the fpirit by
diftilla-
PHARMACY.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- diftillation in a tall veflel, with a gentle heat; the
fpirit will come over into the recipient, and the
phlegm remain at the bottom of the diftilling veflel.
The fpirit may be divided into a volatile fait and
phlegm, by diftilling it in a very tall and narrow cu¬
curbit ; the fait will arife, and adhere to the head
in a dry form ; the phlegm remaining behind.
The fait may be freed from the oil, by fubliming
it from twice its quantity of potafh ; for the oil is
kept down by the potafh, whilft the fait arifes.
The fpirit alfo is rendered purer, by adding, to
every pint, two ounces of potafh, and diftilling in a
glafs retort.
The remaining potafh may be again purified for
life, by calcining it in an open fire, fo as to burn
out the oil it had abforbed from the fait or fpirit.
A fpirit, fait, and oil, may be obtained in the
fame manner from all the folid parts of animals.
653. The wholefale dealers have very large pots for
the diftillation of hartftiorn, with earthen heads almoft
like thofe of the common ftill: for receivers, they ufe
a couple of oil-jars, the mouths of which are luted
together; the pipe that comes from the head enters
the lowermoft jar, through a hole made on purpofe
in its bottom. When a large quantity of th« fubjeft
is to be diftilled, it is cuftomary to continue the ope¬
ration for feveral days fucceffively ; only unluting the
head occafionally to put in frefh materials.
When only a fmall quantity of fpirit or fait is want¬
ed, a common iron pot, fuch as is ufually fixed in fand
furnaces, may be employed, an iron head being fitted
to it. The receiver ought to be large, and a glafs,
or rather tin adopter, inferted betwixt it and the pipe
of the head.
The diftilling veflel being charged with pieces of the
horn, a moderate fire is applied, which is flowly in-
creafed, and ra.ifed at length almoft to the utmoft de¬
gree. At firft a phlegmatic liquor arifes ; the quan¬
tity of which will be lefs or greater according as the
horns were more or lefs dry: this is fucceeded by the
fait and oil; the fait at firft diflblves as it comes over
in the phlegm, and thus forms what is called fpirit :
when the phlegm is faturated, the remainder of the
fait concretes in a folid form to the fides of the reci¬
pient. If it is required to have the whole of the fait
folid and undifiblved, the phlegm fhould be removed
as foon as the fait begins to arife, which may be
known by the appearance of white fumes: and that
this may be done the more commodioufly, the receiver
fhould be left unluted till this firft part of the procefs
is finiftied. The white vapours which now arife fome-
times come with fuch vehemence as to throw off or
burft the receiver: to prevent this accident, it is con¬
venient to have a fmall hole in the luting, which may
be occafionally flopped with a wooden peg, or opened
as the operator (hall find proper. After the fait has
all arifen, a thick dark-coloured oil comes over : the
procefs is now to be difcontinued, and the veflels,
when grown cold, unluted.
All the liquid matters being poured out of the re¬
ceiver, the fait which remains adhering to its fides is
to be waftied out with a little water, and added to the
reft. It is convenient to let the whole ftand for a few
hours, that the oil may the better difengage itfelf
from the liquor, fo as to be firft feparated by a fun-
M A C Y. 6075
nel, and afterwards more perfe&ly by filtration thro’ Prepara-
wetted paper. The fait and fpirits are then to be Ear- tlons'
ther purified as above direfted.
654. The fpirit of hartftiorn met with in the fhops
is extremely precarious in point of ftrength ; the
quantity of fait contained in it (on which its efficacy
depends) varying according as the diftillation in refti-
fying it is continued for a longer or fliorter time. If
after the volatile fait has arifen, fo much of the phlegm
or watery part be driven over after it as is juft fufti-
cient to diffolve it, the fpirit will be fully faturated,
and as ftrong as it can be made : if the procefs is not
at this inftant flopped, the phlegm continuing to
arife muft render the fpirit continually weaker and
weaker. The diftillation therefore ought t6 be dif¬
continued at this period, or rather whilft fome of the
fait ftill remains undiflblved : the fpirit will thus prove
always equal, and the buyer be furniftied with a cer¬
tain criterion of its ftrength. Very few have taken
any notice of the above-mentioned inconvenience of
thefe kinds of fpirits ; and the remedy is firft hinted
at in the pharmacopeia reformata. The purity of the
fpirits is eafily judged from its clearnefs and grateful
odour.
655. Volatile alkaline falts, and their folutions
called fpirits, agree in many refpe&s with fixed alkalies
and their folutions or leys ; as in changing the colour
of blue flowers to a green ; effervefeing with and neu¬
tralizing acids ; liquefying the animal juices, and cor¬
roding the fleftiy parts, fo as, when applied to the (kin,
and prevented from exhaling by a proper covering, to
aft as cauftics ; diffolving oils and fulphur, though lefs
readily than the fixed alkalies, on account probably
of their not being able to bear any confiderable heat,
by which their aftivity might be promoted. Their
principal difference from the other alkalies feems to
confift in their.volatility : they exhale or emit pungent
vapours in the coldeft ttate of the atmofphere ; and by
their ftimulating fmell, they prove ferviceable in lan¬
guors and faintings. Taken internally, they difeo-
ver a greater colliquating as well as ftimulating power;
the blood drawn from a vein, after their ufe has been
continued for fome time, being found to be remark¬
ably more fluid than before: they are likewife more
difpofed to operate by perfpiration, and to adt on the
nervous fyftem. They are particularly ufeful in le¬
thargic cafes ; in hyfterical and hypochondriacal dif-
orders, and in the languors, headachs, inflations of
the ftomach, flatulent colics, and other fymptoms
which attend them: they are generally found more
ferviceable to aged perfons, and in phlegmatic habits,
than in the oppofite circumftances. In fome fevers,
particularly thofe of the low kind, accompanied with
a cough, hoarfenefs, redundance of phlegm, and fizi-
nefs of the blood, they are of great utility ; liquefy¬
ing the vifeid juices, raifing the vis. vita, and exciting
a falutary diaphorefis ; but in putrid fevers, feurvies,
and wherever the mafs of blood is thin and acrimo¬
nious, they do harm. As they are more powerful than
the fixed in liquefying fizy blood and tenacious hu¬
mours, fo they prove more hurtful where the fluids
are already in a colliquated ftate. In vernal intermit-
tents, particularly thofe of the flow kind, and where
the blood is denfe or fizy, they are often the moft ef¬
ficacious remedy. Mr Biflet obferves, in his Effay
2 34 F 2 on
6076
PHARMACY.
on the medical conftitution of Great Britain, that tho*
.many cafes occur which will yield to no other medi¬
cine than the bark, yet he has met with a pretty many
that were only'fupprefled from time to time by the
bark, but were completely cured by alkaline fpirits:
that thefe fpirrts will often carry off vernal intermit-
tents without any previous evacuation ; but that they
are generally more effe&ual if a purge is premifed :
and in plethoric or inflammatory cafes, or where the
fever perfonates a remittent, ventefeftion.
Thefe falts are moft commodioufly taken in a liquid
form, largely diluted ; or in that of a bolus, which
fhould be made up only as it is wanted. The dofe is
from a grain or t wo to ten or twelve. Ten drops of
a well made fpirit, or faturated folution, are reckon¬
ed to.contain about a grain of the fait. In intermit-
tents, fifteen or twenty drops of the fpirit are given
in a tea-cup full of cold fpring-water, and repeated
five or fix times in each intermiffion.
656. The volatile falts and fpirits prepared from
different animal fubftances, have been fuppofed capable
of producing different effefts upon the human body,
and to receive fpecific virtues from the fubjefff. The
fait of vipers has been efteemed particularly fervice-
able in the diforders occafioned by the bite of that
animal ; and a fait drawn from the human fcull, in
difeafes of the head. But modern pra&ice acknow¬
ledges no fuch different effects from thefe prepara¬
tions, and chemical experiments have Ihewn their iden¬
tity. There is indeed, when not fufficiently purified,
a very perceptible difference in the fmell, taffe, degree
of pungency, and volatility of thefe falts ; and in this
ftate their medicinal virtues vary confiderably enough
to deferve notice ; but this difference they have in
common, according as they are more or lefs loaded
with oil, not as they are produced from this or that
animal fubftance. As firft diflilled, they may be
looked uopn as a kind of volatile foap, in which the
oil is the prevailing principle ; in this ffate they have
much lefs of the proper alkaline acrimony and pun¬
gency than when they have undergone repeated diftil-
lations, and fuch other operations as difengage the oil
from the fait ; for by thefe means they lofe their fa-
ponaceous quality, and, acquiring greater degrees of
acrimony, become medicines of a different clafs. Thefe
preparations, therefore, do not differ near fo much
from one another as they do from themfelves in differ¬
ent Hates of purity. To which may be added, that
when we confider them as loaded with oil, the virtues
of a diitilled animal-oil itfelf are likewife to be brought
into the account.
Theie oils, as firft diftilled, are highly fetid and
offenfive, of an extremely heating quality, and of fuch
activity, that, according to Hoffman’s account, half
a drop, diffolved in a dram of fpirit of wine, is fuffi-
eient to raife a copious fweat. By repeated rectifica¬
tions, they lofe their offenfivenefs, and at the fame
time become mild in their medicinal operation : the
rectified oils may be given to the quantity of twenty
or thirty drops, and are faid to be anodyne and an-
tifpafmodic, to procure a calm fleep and gentle fweat,
without heating or agitating the body. It is ob¬
vious, therefore, that the falts and fpirits muft dif¬
fer, not only according to the quantity of oil they
contain, but according to the quality of the oil itfelf
Part II.
in its different ftatfiS. Prepara-
The volatile falts and fpirits, as firft diftilled, are tl0ns-
of a brown colour, and a very offenfive fmell : by re¬
peated rectification, as direCted in the proceffes above
fet down, they lofe great part of the oil on which
thefe qualities depend, the fait becomes white, the
fpirit limpid as water, and of a grateful odour; and
this is the mark of fufficient rectification.
It has been objected to the repeated rectification of
thefe preparations, that by feparating the oil, it ren¬
ders them fimilar to the pure fait and fpirit of fal am¬
moniac, which are procurable at an eafier rate. But
this is by no means the cafe. The intention is not to
purify them wholly from the oil, but to feparate the
grpffer part, and to fubtilize the reft, fo as to bring
it towards the fame ftate as when the oil is rectified
by itfelf. Dr Lewis has repeated the rectification of
fpirit of hartfhorn twenty times fucceffively, and found
it ftill to participate of oil, but of an oil very differ¬
ent from what it was in the firft diftillation.
The rectified oils, in long keeping, become again
fetid. The falts and fpirits alfo, however carefully
rectified, fuffer, in length of time, the fame change ;
refuming their original brown colour and ill fmell; a
proof that the rectification is far from having divefted
them of oil.
657. Spirit, fait, and oil of foot. L.
Diftil foot after the fame manner as direCted above for
hartfhorn : but here more labour is required to ren¬
der the fpirit and fait pure.
The volatile fait and fpirit of foot are, when fuffi¬
ciently purified, not different in quality from thofe of
animal fubftances ; though fome have preferred them
in nervous complaints, particularly in epileptic cafes.
658. The volatile fait and fpirit offal ammoniac.
Take a pound and a half of any fixed alkaline fait, a
pound of fal ammoniac, and four pints of water.
Diltil off, with a gentle heat, two pints of fpirit.
The volatile fait is made from a pound of fal am¬
moniac mixed with two pounds of pure chalk, and
fet to fublime in a retort with a ftrong fire. L.
Take fal ammoniac, and purified potaflies, each one
pound ; water, a pint and an half j diftil to dry-
nefs. E.
The volatile fait and fpirit of fal ammoniac are
the pureft of all the medicines of this kind. They
are fomewhat more acrimonious than thofe produced
direCtly from animal-fubftances, which always contain
a portion of the oil of the fubjeft, and receive from
thence fome degree of a faponaceous quality. Thefe
laft may be reduced to the fame degree of purity, by
combining them with acids into ammoniacal fahs;
and afterwards recovering the volatile alkali from thefe
compounds by the proceffes above direfted.
659. The matter which remains in the retort, after
the diftillation of the fpirit, and fublimation of the
fait of fal ammoniac, is found to confift of marine
acid united with the fixed alkali or chalk employed.
When fixed alkaline fait has been ufed as the interme¬
dium, the refiduum, or caput mortuum, as it is called,
yields, on folution and cryllallization, a fait exaftly
fimilat to the coagulated fpint of fea fait hereafter
deferibed. And hence we may judge of the ex-
traor-
I Part II. P H A R
q Prepara- traordinary virtues formerly attributed to this fait,
L tlons' under the names of fal antihyjlericum, antihypochon-
driacum, fibrifugum, digejlivurn fylvii, &c.
660. The caput mortuum of the volatile fait, where
chalk is employed as an intermedium, expofed to a
moift air, runs into a pungent liquor, which proves
I nearly the fame with a folution of chalk made diredUy
in the marine acid : it is called by fome oleum cretee,
“ oil of chalk.” If calcined (hells, or other animal-
limes, be mingled with fal ammoniac, a mafs will be
obtained, which likewife runs in the air, and forms
a liquor of the fame kind. This liquor feems to be
the fecret of fome pretenders to a diffolventof the cal¬
culus.
661. Volatile cauftic fpirit.
Take of fal ammoniac, one pound; quicklime, a
pound and a half; water, four pints. Quench the
lime in the water ; and having put this mixture in¬
to a retort, add to it the powdered fait. Immedi¬
ately adapt a recipient, and with a very gentle heat
draw off two pints.—The Edinburgh college order
a pound of quicklime, with only eight ounces of fal
ammoniac, and as much water. The lime is flaked
with the water ; then ground with the fait, and
diltilled.
This fpirit is commonly called, from the interme¬
dium, fpirit of fal am?noniac ‘with quicklime. The effe&
of the quicklime on the fal ammoniac, is very diffe¬
rent from that of the chalk and fixed alkali in the
foregoing procefls. Immediately <Sn mixture, a very
penetrating vapour exhales; and in diftillation, the
whole of the volatile fait arifes in a liquid form ; no
part of it appearing in a concrete (late, how gently
foever the liquor be rediftilled. Thh fpirit is far more
pungent tban the other both in fmell and tafte; and,
like fixed alkalies rendered cauttic by the fame inter¬
medium, it raifes no eifervefcence on the admixture of
acids.
This fpirit is held too acrimonious for internal ufe,
and has therefore been chiefly employed for fmelling
to in faintings, &c. though, when properly diluted,
it may be given inwardly with fafety. It is an ex¬
cellent mentlruum for fome vegetable fubdances, as
Peruvian bark, which the other fpirit extra&s little
Eg from.
$ 3. Combination of Alkalies with Oils and in¬
flammable Spirits.
662. Almondfoap. L.
Take any qantity of frefh-drawn oil of almonds, and
thrice its quantity by meafure of the foregoing foap
leys. Digeft them together in fuch a heat, that
they may but juit boil or fimmer, and in a few hours
they will unite ; after which, the liquor in boiling,
will foon become ropy, and in good meafure tranf-
parent; a little of it fuffered to cool, will appear
like gelly. When this happens, throw in by little
and little fome common fait, till the boiling liquor
lofes it ropinefs; and continue the co&ion, till, on
receiving fome drops on a tile, the foap is found to
coagulate, and the water freely feparates from it.
The fire being then removed, the foap will gra¬
dually arife to the furface of the liquor; take it off
before it grow cold, and put it into a wooden
mould or frame, which has a cloth for its bottom ;•
M A C Y. 6077
afterwards take out the foap, and fet it by till fuf- Prepara-
ficiently dried. After the fame manner, a foap tion?-
may likewife be made with oil-olive; but the pureft
oil muft be ufed, that the foap may be as little un¬
grateful as pofiible either to the palate orftomach.
This procefs is fo folly defcribed, as to render any
further dtre&ions unneceflary. The general virtues of
foap have been already mentioned in the Table of Ma¬
teria Medica ; that prepared after this manner is
not different in quality from the hard fort there men¬
tioned.
663. Purified foap.
Slice one pound of dry, hard, Genoa, Alicant, or
any other oil-foap, into a clean pewter veffel, and
- pour upon it two gallons of rectified fpirit of wine.
Place the vefitl in a water-bath, and apply fuch a
degree of heat as may make the fpirit boil, when it
will foon diflblve the foap. Let the veflel (land
clofe covered in a warm place, till the liquor has
grown perfe&ly clear; if any oily matter fwittv '
upon the furface, carefully feum it off. Then de¬
cant the limpid liquor from the faeces, and diftfl’ofF
from it all the fpirit that will arife in the heat of a
water-bath. Expofe the remainder to a dry air
for a few days, and it will become a white, opake,
and fomewhat friable mafs.
Soap thus purified has little or no fmell; and proves,
upon examination, not in any degree acrimonious, but
quite mild and foft, and confequently well fitted for
medicinal purpofes.
664, a. Saponaceous lotion. L.
Take of rofe-water, three quarters of a pint; oil-olive,
one quarter of a pint; ley of tartar, half an ounce
by meafure. Grind the ley of tartar and the oil to¬
gether, until they unite ; then gradually add the
rofe water.
This is defigned for external ufe, as a detergent
wafh ; and, like other foapy liquors, anfwers this pur-
pofe very effedtually. Where it is required to be more
deterfive, it may be occafionally rendered fo by the
addition of a fmall quantity of a folution of any fixed
alkaline fait.
664, b. Saponaceous liniment. L.
Take of fpirit of rofemary, one pint; hard Spanifh
foap, three ounces ; camphor, one ounce. Digeft'
the foap in the fpirit of rofemary, until it is dif-
foived ; then add the camphor.
Thiscompofition a'lfo is employed chiefly for exter¬
nal purpofes, againft rheumatic pains, fprams, bruifes,
and other like complaints. Soap adls to much better
advantage, when thus applied in a liquid form, than
in the folid one of a pkfter.
665. Anodyne balfam, commonly called Bates’s
balfam. E.
Take of white foap, five ounces ; crude opium, an
ounce ; camphor, two ounces; effential oil of rofe¬
mary, half an ounce ; re&ified fpirit of wine, two
pints. Digeft the fp'rit with the foap and opium,
in a gentle fand-heat, for three days; then drain-
the liquor, and add to it the camphor and efien-
tial oil.
This
6078 P H A R
Prepara- This compofition Is greatly commended for allaying
tions. pains, and it is faid to have been fomctimes ufed with
benefit even in the gout; a cloth dipt in it being laid
on the part. It is fometimes likewife dire&ed to be
taken inwardly in the fame diforder, as alfo in ner¬
vous colics, jaundice, &c. from twenty to fifty drops
or more; though furely, in gouty cafes, the ufe of
opiate medicines requires great caution. One grain
of opium is contained in about ninety drops of the
balfam.
666. Saponaceous balfam, commonly called opodeldoc.
This is exadtly the fame with the foregoing; omit¬
ting only the opium. E.
667. Dulcified fpirit of fal ammoniac. L.
Take half a pound of any fixed alkaline fait, four
ounces of fal ammoniac, and three pints of proof-
fpirit of wine. Diftil off, with a gentle heat, a'fint
and a half.
This fpirit has lately come much into efteem, both
as a medicine and a menftruum. It is a folution of
volatile fait in redlified fpirit of wine ; for though
proof-fpirit is made ufe of, its phlegmatic parts does
not arife in the diftillation, and ferves only to facilitate
the aftion of the pure fpirit upon the ammoniacal fait.
Reftified fpirit of wine does not diffolve volatile alka¬
line falls by fimple mixture : on the contrary, it pre¬
cipitates them, as has been already obferved, when
they are previoufly diflblved in water ; but by the pre-
fent procefs, a confiderable proportion of the volatile
alkali is combined with the fpirit. It might perhaps,
for fome purpofes, be more advifable, to ufe in this in¬
tention the volatile fpirit made with quicklime ; for
this may be mixed at once with the redlified fpirit of
wine, in any proportions, without the lead danger of
any feparation of the volatile alkali: And accordingly
the Edinburgh college have now ordered this fpirit to
be made by mixing four ounces cauftic fpirit of fal
ammoniac with eight of fpirit of wine.
668. T"ke volatile fetid fpirit. L.
Take of any fixed alkaline fait, a pound and a half;
fal ammoniac, one pound; afafoetida, four ounces;
proof-fpirit of wine, fix pints. Draw off with a
gentle heat, five pints.
M A C Y. Part II.
Volatile falls thus united with aromatics, are not Prepara-
only more agreeable in flavour, but likewife more ac- tloni' ,
ceptable to the ftomach, and lefs acrimonious, than
in their pure ftate. Both the foregoing compofitions
turn out excellent ones, provided the oils are good,
and the diftillation (kilfully performed. The dofe is
from five or fix drops to fixty or more.
§. 4. Acid Spirits.
672. Weak fpirit and the Jlrong fpirit (pr oil,) cf vi¬
triol, and coleotbar. L.
Let calcined vitriol be diftilled in earthen veffels, with
reverberatory fire, for three days without intermif-
fion. What remains in the veffels is called colcothar
of vitriol. Put the diftilled liquor into a glafs retort,
and place it in a fand furnace: the weak fpirit will
come over, the ftrong (improperly called oil of vi¬
triol) remaining behind.
This procefs, was never pra&icable to advantage
without a very large apparatus, and is now entirely
fuperfeded by the much cheaper method of preparing
the acid from fulphur.
The acid fpirit, as it arifes in the firft diftillation,
appears of a dark or blackiih colout, and contains a
confiderable portion of phlegm. In the fecond diftil¬
lation, the phlegmatic parts arife firft, together with
the lighter acid, which are kept apart under the name
of weak fpirit: at the fame time, the remaining ftrong
fpirit, or oilit is called, lofes its black colour, and
becomes clear; and this is the ufual mark for difeon-
tinuing the diftillation.
673. The fpiritof vitriolis themoftponderousof all the
liquids we are acquainted with; and the moft powerful
of the acids. If any other acid be united with a fixed
alkaline fait or earth; upon the addition of the vitri¬
olic, fuch acid will be diflodged, and arife on applying
a moderate heat, leaving the vitriolic in poffclflon of
the alkali; though without this addition it would not
yield to the moft vehement fire. In medicine it is em¬
ployed chiefly as fubfervient to other preparations: it
is likewife not unfrequently mixed with juleps and the
like, in fuch quantity as will be fuflicient to give the
liquor an agreeable tartnefs in the intentions of a cool¬
ing antifeptic, reftringent, and ftomachic.
669. Fetid volatile fpirit. E.
Take of vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, eight ounces;
afafeetida, half an ounce. Digeft 12 hours in aclofe
veffel; then diftil eight ounces in a water-bath.
This fpirit is defigned aS an antihyfteric, and is un¬
doubtedly a very elegant one.
670. Volatile aromatic fpirit. L.
Take of eflential oil of nutmegs, effence of lemons,
each two drams ; eflential oil of cloves, half a dranr;
dulcified fpirit of fal ammoniac, one quart. Diftil
them with a very gentle fire.
674. Sulphurated water, commonly called g
1 fulphu-
Take a quart of water, and half a pound of fulphur.
Let part of the fulphur be fet on fire in an iron ladle,
and fufpended over the water in a clofe veffel: as
foon as the fumes fubfide, fome more of the fulphur
is to be fired in the fame manner; and this repeated
till the whole quantity is burnt.
This preparation is faid to give relief in fits of the
convulfive afthma. It is taken to the quantity of a
fpoonful or half an ounce, two or three times a day,
in any fuitable vehicle.
671. Volatile oily fpirit, commonly called faline aromatic
fpirit. E.
Take of vinous fpirit of fal ammoniac, eight ounces ;
eflential oil of rofemary, one dram and a half;
effence of lemon-peel, a dram. Mix the whole to¬
gether. Draw off by diftillation, in the heat of a
water-bath, near one gallon.
675. Glauber's fpirit of nitre.
Take three pounds of nitre, and one pound of the flrong
fpirit or oil of vitriol. Mix them cautioufly and
gradually together under a chimney; and then diftil
at firft with a gentle, and afterwards with a ftronger
heat. L.
Put two pounds of nitre into a glafs retort; and add
by
PHARMACY.
fait, fends over fome of the marine along with the n
II,
Prepara- by degrees one pound of oil of vitriol diluted with
rion$* an equal quantity of warm water. Diftil in a fand-
heat, gradually increafed, till the matter remains dry.
—This fpirit is rectified by a fecond diftillation with
the heat of a water-bath, in a glafs cucurbit, with
its head and receiver; the phlegm arifes, leaving the
fpirit behind. E.
The acid of nitre is next in ftrength to the vitriolic,
and diflodges all but that from alkaline falls or earths.
It differs from all the other acids in deflagrating with
inflammable matters: if a folution of any inflammable
fubftance, as hartfhorn, &c. in this acid be fet to eva¬
porate ; as foon as the matter approaches to drynefs,
a violent detonation enfues. The chief ufe of this acid
is as a menftruum for certain minerals, and as the bafis
of fome particular preparations, of which hereafter.
It has been given likewife diluted, with any convenient
vehicle, as a diuretic, from to to 50 drops.
676. Glauber's fpirit of feafalt.
Two pounds of fea-falt, and the fame quantity of ftrong
fpirit or oil of vitriol. Dilute the acid fpirit with a
pint of water, and pour this mixture, by little and
little, on the fait under a chimney; then diftil, at
firft with a gentle, and afterwards with a ftronger
fire. L.
The fpirit of fea-falt is the weakeft of the mineral
acids, but ftronger than any of the vegetable ; it re¬
quires a greater fire to diftil it than that of nitre, yet
is more readily diflipated by the aftion of the air. It
is ufed chiefly as a menftrnum for the making of other
preparations; fometimes likewife it is given, properly
diluted, as an antiphlogiftic, aperient, and diuretic,
from to to 6c or 70 drops.
677. Aquafortis. L.
Take of nitre, green vitriol uncalcined, each three
pounds; the fame vitriol calcined, one pound and a
half. Mix them well together, and diftil with a very
ftrong fire, as long as any red vapour arifes. L.
Here the dire&ion of thoroughly mixing the ingre¬
dients ought to be well attended to, for if this is ne-
gle&ed, or but (lightly performed, the due quantity
of acid will not be obtained. The produce of thefe
procefles is a fpirit of nitre containing fo much more
phlegm, or watery moifture, than Glauber’s fpirit, as
the vitriol employed in its preparation does more than
an equivalent quantity of oil of vitriol.
The great demand which there is in fundry bufineffes
for aquafortis has occafioned the preparation of it to
become a trade by itfelf. Hence larger and lefs ex-
enfive inftruments than thofe mentioned above, have
een contrived. The common dittilling veflcl is a
large iron pot, with an earthen, or ftone-ware ftill-
head, to which is adapted a large glafs globe, or elfe
a jar made of the fame kind of clay as the head. The
workmen are not at the trouble either of drying the
vitriol, or pounding the nitre, but throw them both
promifeuoufly into the pot, where the fire foon liquefies
and mixes them together. The aquafortis prepared
after this manner is extremely impure, and utterly un¬
fit for many purpofes, fuch in particular are the folu-
tions of mercury and of filver; the violence of the fire,
employed in the operation, never fails to elevate fome
of the metallic parts of the vitriol; the nitre is ufed
rough or unrefined, which containing a portion of fea-
trous acid; nor are the ingredients free from bits of
wood, or other vegetable matters, which burning in
the procefs foul the fpirit with an empyreumatic oil,
giving it, at the fame time, an high colour. If there¬
fore common aquafortis be employed in any medicinal
preparation, it ought to be previoufly purified ; the
moft efte&ual method of doing which is the following.
678. Purified aquafortis.
Drop into the aquafortis a drop or two of folution of
filver. If it becomes miky or cloudy, drop in a little
more of the folution, till a frefti addition occafions
no further change; allowing proper intervals for the
white matter to fettle, that theeffeft of a new addi¬
tion may be the better perceived. Then pour the
liquor into a glafs retort, and diftil in a fand-heat to
drynefs.
The milkinefs produced by the folution of filver is a
certain mark of marine or vitriolic acid in the aqua¬
fortis ; the filver abforbing thofe acids, and forming
with them a concrete which the liquor is incapable of
holding diflblved. If the aquafortis is not made at all
cloudy by this folution, we may be certain of its ha¬
ving been previoufly free from the lead admixture of
thofe heterogeneous acids ; and when it ceafts to be¬
come milky from a frefh addition, we may be equally
certain, that how much foever it might have contained
of them at firft, they are now perfe&ly feparated.
The folution of filver is to be made in aquafortis al¬
ready purified. Where this cannot be had, the little
quantity generally fufficient for the prefent purpofe,
may be made in the common impure fort of aquafor¬
tis, which will be purified'during the difiblution itfelf.-
Put a thin bit of filver into a little of the aquafortis,
and fet the vial in a fand-heat; if the aquafortis is pure,
numerous minute bubbles will iflue from the filver on
all fides, and the metal will gradually diflblve without
altering the tranfparency of the liquor; but if- the a-
quafortis contains marine or vitriolic acid, it will quick¬
ly become milky, thofe acids uniting with the filver,
as in the above procefs, as fall as the nitrous acid dif-
folves it. As the white matter precipitates upon, and
adheres to, the furface of the filver, fo as to impede the
further a&ion of the menftruum ; the liquor muft be
filtered, and treated in the fame manner with a bit of
frefh filver : if any milkinefs ftill enfues, the operation
muft be repeated with another piece of the metal, till
all the foreign acids are feparated, and the filver is
found to diflblve clear. Good aquafortis takes up a-
bout half its own weight of filver.
Inftead of all thefe operofe preparations, however,
the Edinburgh college now order only a weak nitrous
acid, compofed of equal parts of ftrong fpirit of nitre
and water.
679. Difiilled vinegar^ or fpirit of vinegar.
Let vinegar be diftilled with a gentle heat as long as
the drops fall free from an empyreuma. If fome part
of the fpirit which comes over firft be thrown away,
the reft will be the ilronger. Z.
Diftil a gallon of vinegar in glafs veffels, throwing
away the firft two pounds of produce. The next
four pounds are to be kept as fpirit of vinegar; and
the remainder, as being empyreumatic, kept for
other purpofes. E.
680. This procefs may be performed either in a com¬
mon
6079
Prepara-
6o8o
Prepara- m0n ftill with its head, or in a retort. The better kinds
ti°ns. Qf wjne.v;negar fhould be made ufe of: thofe pre¬
pared from malt-liquors, however fine and clear they
may feem to be, contain a large quantity of a vifcous
fubftance, as appears from the fliminefs and ropinefs
to which they are very much fubjedt ; this not only
hinders the acid parts from arifing freely, but likewife
is apt to make the vinegar boil over into the recipient,
and at the fame time difpofes it to receive a difagree-
able imprefiion from the fire. And indeed, with the
beft kind of vinegar, if the diftillation be carried on to
any great length, it is extremely difficult to avoid an
erapyreuma. The bed method of preventing this in¬
convenience is, if a retort be made ufe of, to place the
fand but a little way up its fides; and, when fomewhat
more than, half the liquor is come over, to pour on the
remainder a quantity of freffi vinegar equal to that of
the liquor drawn off: this may be. repeated three or
four times; the vinegar fupplied at each time being
previoufly made hot: the addition of cold liquor would
not only prolong the operation, but alfo endanger
' breaking the retort. If the common ftill is employed.
It fhould likewife be occafionally fupplied with frefh
vinegar, in proportion as the fpirit runs off; and this
continued, until the procefs can be conveniently car¬
ried no farther: the diftilled fpirit mud be re&ified by
a fecond diftillation in a retort; or glafs alembic; for
though the head and receiver be of glafs or done-ware,
the acid will contraft a metallic taint from the pewter
worm.
The refiduum of this procefs is commonly thrown
away as ufelefs, though, if fkilfully managed, it might
be made to turn to good account; the mod acid parts
of the vinegar dill remaining in it. Mixed with about
three times its weight of fine dry fand, and committed
to didillation in a retort, with a well-regulated fire, it
yields an exceeding drong acid fpirit, together with
an empyreumatic oil, which taints the fpirit with a dif-
agreeable odour. This acid is neverthelefs, without
any reftification, better for fome purpofes (as a little
of it will go a great way) than the pure fpirit; parti¬
cularly for making the fal diureticus of the London
difpenfatory ; for there the oily matter, on which its
ill flavour depends, is burnt out by the calcination.
681. The fpirit of vinegar is a purer and ftronger
acid than vinegar itfelf, with which it agrees in other
refpefts. The medical virtues of thefe liquors may be
feen in the Table of Materia Medica. Their prin¬
cipal difference from the mineral acids confids in their
being milder, lefs dimulating, lefs difpofed to affedt the
kidneys and promote the urinary fecretions, or to
coagulate the animal juices.
£ 5. Combination of Acid with Vinous Spirit.
682. All the mineral acids, on being mixed with
fpirit of wine, raife a great ebullition and heat. If the
.acid is in a fmall quantity, it unites intimately with the
vinous fpirit, fo as to arife with it in didillation. The
tade and all the charadfers of acidity are dedroyed;
and the mixture acquires a grateful flavour, which nei¬
ther of the ingredients had before.
683. Vitriolic ether. E.
Take of redfified fpirit of wine, 32 ounces by weight;
oil of vitriol, one pound. Put the fpirit into a glafs
Part II.
retort capable of bearing a fudden heat, and pour in Prepara-
the acid in a continued dream. Mix the two together
by agitating them gently, but frequently; didil im¬
mediately in a fand-bath previoufly'made hot, into a
receiver cooled with water or fnow. The fire in the
mean time mud be regulated in fuch a manner that
the liquor mud begin to boil as foon as poffible, and
continue to do fo till 16 ounces by weight have
come over. To the diftilled liquor add two drams
of the fharped common cauftic ; then diftil again out
of a very high retort, and with a very gentle heat,
into a very cold receiver, till to ounces by weight
have come over.
684. Dulcifiedfpirit of vitriol.
Mix two parts by weight of redtified fpirit of wine
with one part of vitriolic ether. E.
Take of the ftrong fpirit or oil of vitriol, one pound;
of redlified fpirit of wine, one pint. Cautioufly mix
them together by little and little at a time, and di¬
ftil the mixture, with a very gentle heat, till a black
froth begins to arife: then immediately remove the
whole from the fire, left this froth (hould pafs over
into the recipient, and fruftrate the operation. L.
When the method of making this fpirit recommen¬
ded by the London pharmacopoeia is adopted, a good
deal of caution is requifite in mixing the two liquors.
Some diredt the fpirit of wine to be put firft into the
retort, and the oil of vitriol to be poured upon it all
at once ; a method of procedure by no means advife-
able, as a violent heat and ebullition always enfue,
which not only diffipate a part of the mixture, but ha¬
zard alfo the breaking of the veffel, to the great dan¬
ger of the operator. Others put the oil of vitriol into
the retort firft ; then by means of a funnel, with a
long pipe that may reach down juft to the furface of
the acid, pour in the fpirit of wine: if this is done with
fufficient caution, the vinous fpirit fpreads itfelf on the
furface of the oil of vitriol, and the two liquors appear
diftindl: on ftanding for a week or two, the vinous fpi¬
rit is gradually imbibed without any commotion, and
the veffel may then be fafely fliaken, to complete the
mixture ; but if the fpirit is poured in too haftily at
firft, or if the veffel is moved before the two liquors
have in fome degree incorporated, the fame effedt en-
fues as in the foregoing cafe. The moft fecure way is,
to add the oil of vitriol to the fpirit of wine by a little
quantity at a time, waiting till the firft addition is in¬
corporated before another quantity is put in: by this
management, the heat thatenfues is inconfiderable, and
the mixture is effedted without any inconvenience.
The diftillation {hould be performed with an equable
and very gentle heat, and not continued fo long as till
a black froth begins to appear; for before this time a
liquor will arife of a very different nature from the fpi¬
rit here intended. The feveral produdls are moft com-
modioufly kept apart by ufing a tubulated receiver, fo
placed, that its pipe may convey the matter which (hall
come over into a vial fet underneath ; the jundlure of
the retort and recipient is to be luted \vith a pafte
made of linfeed meal, and further fecured by a piece of
w’et bladder: the lower junfture may be clofed only
with fome foft wax,vthat the vial may be occafionally
removed with eafe.
The true ducified fpirit arifes in thin fubtile vapours,
which
PHARMACY.
Part II. P H A R
Prepaia- which condenfe upon the fides of the recipient in ftraight
tions. , ftn'ae. It is colourlefs as water, very volatile, inflam¬
mable, of an extremely fragrant fmell, in tafte fome-
what aromatic.
After the fire has been kept up for fome time, white
fumes arife, which either form irregular ftrise, or are
colledted into large round drops like oil: on the firft
appearance of thele, the vial (or the receiver, if a com¬
mon one is made ufe of) muft be taken away. If an¬
other be fubftituted, and the diftillation continued, an
acid liquor comes over of an exceeding pungent fmeH,
like the fumes of burning brimftome. At length a
black froth begins haftily to arife, and prevents our
carrying the procefs Further.
On the furface of the fulphureous fpirit is found
fwimming a fmall qunatity of oil, of a light yellow co¬
lour, a ftrong, penetrating, and very agreeable fmell.
This oil feems to be nearly of the fame nature with
the effential oils of vegetables. It readily and totally
difiblves in re&ified fpirit of wine, and communicates
to a large quantity of that menftruum the tafte and
fmell of the aromatic or dulcified fpirit.
The matter remaining after the diftillation is of a
dark blackilh colour, and (till highly acid. Treated
with frefh fpirit of wine, in the fame manner as before,
it yields the fame produftions; till at length, all the
acid that remains unvolatilized being fatiatbd with the
inflammable oily matter of the fpirit, the compound
proves a bituminous, fulphureous mafs: which, expo-
fed to the fire in open veflels, readily burns, leaving a
confiderable quantity of fixed afhes; in clofe ones, ex¬
plodes with violence; and with fixed alkaline falls,
forms a compound searly fimilar to one compofed of
alkalies and fulphur.
Dulcified fpirit of vitriol has been for fome time
greatly efteemed both as a menftruum and a medicine.
It difiblves fome refinous and bituminous fubftances more
readily than fpirit of wine alone, and extrafts elegant
tinftures from fundry vegetables; efpecially if rectified,
from a little fixed alkaline fait, to feparate any redundant
acidity. As a medicine, it promotes perfpiration and
the urinary fecretion, expels flatulencies, and in many
cafes abates fpafmodic driftures, eafes pains, and pro¬
cures fleep: the dofe is from 10 to 80 or 90 drops in
any convenient vehicle. It is not efientially different
from the celebrated anodyne liquor of Hoffman ; to
which it is, by the author himfelf, not unfrequently di-
refted as a fuccedaneum.
The ether or ethereal fpirit is the lighted, moft vo¬
latile, and inflammable, of all known liquids. It is
lighter than the mod highly reftified fpirit of wine, in
the proportion of about feven to eight: a drop let
fall on the hand evaporates almoft in an inftant, fcarcely
rendering the part moift. It jloes not mix, or only
in a fmall quantity, with water, fpirit of wine, alka¬
line lixivia, volatile alkaline fpirits, or acids ; but is a
powerful diflblvent for oils, balfams, refins, and other
analogous fubftances. Its medical effefts are not as
yet much known, though it is not to be doubted that
a fluid of fo much fubtlety muft have confiderable ones.
It has often been found to give eafe in violent head-
achs, by being applied externally to the part; and to
relieve the toothach, by being laid on the affliftedjaw.
It has been given alfo internally, with benefit, in
Vol. VIII. 1
M A C Y.
whooping coughs and hyfterical cafes, from
three drops to five and twenty, in a glafs of
water, which ftiould be. fwallovved as quick
Able, as the ether fo fpeedily exhales.
685. Dulcified fpitre of nitre.
Take a quart of reftified fpirit of wine, and half a
pound of Glauber's fpirit of nitre. Mix them, by
pouring the nitrous fpirit into the other ; and diftil
with a gentle heat, as long as the liquor which
comes over does not raife any effervefcence with
lixivial falls. L.
Put three parts of reftified fpirit of wine into a large
bolt-head, and gradually add thereto one part of
fpirit of nitre. Digeft them together for feven days,
and then diftil in a water-bath as long as any fpirit
comes over. E.
Here the operator muft; take care not to invert the
order of mixing the two liquors, by pouring the vinous
fpirit into the acid ; for if he fhould, a violent effer¬
vefcence and heat would enfue, and the matter be dif-
perfed in highly noxious red fumes. The moft con¬
venient and fafe method of performing the mixture
feems to be, to put the inflammable fpirit into a large
glafs body with a narrow mouth, placed under a chim¬
ney, and to pour upon it the acid by means of a glafs
funnel, in very fmall quantities at a time ; ftiaking the
veffel as foon as the effervefcence enfuing upon each
addition ceafes, before a frelh quantity is put in : by
this means the glafs will heat equally, and be prevented
from breaking. During the aftion of the two fpirits
upon one another, the veffel ftiould be lightly covered ;
if clofe flopped, it will burft ; and if left entirely open,
fome of the more valuable parts will exhale.
The liquors, mixed together, (hould be fuffered to
reft for at leaft twelve hours, that the fumes may en¬
tirely fubfide, and the union be in fome meafure com¬
pleted. The diftillation ftiould be performed with a
very flow and well regulated fire; otherwife the va¬
pour will expand with fo much force as to burft the
veffels. Wilfon feems to have experienced the juftnefs
of this obfervation ; and hence direfts the junfture of
the retort and receiver not to be luted, or but (lightly;
if a tubulated recipient, with its upright long pipe, be
made ufe of, and the diftillation performed with the
heat of a water-bath, the veflels may be luted without
any danger. This method has likewife another advan¬
tage, as it afcertains the time when the operation is
finiftied. Examining the d>(tilled fpirit every now and
then with alkaline _falts, as direfted above, is fuffi-
ciently troublefome ; whilft in a water-bath we may
fafely draw over all that will arife, for this heat will
elevate no more of the acid than what is dulcified by
the vinous fpirit.
Dulcified fpirit of nitre has been long held, and not
undefervedly, in great efteem. It quenches third,
promotes the natural fecretions, expels flatulencies,
and moderately ftrengthens the ftomach: it may be
given from twenty drops to a dram in any convenient
vehicle. Mixed with a fmall quantity of fpirit of hartf-
horn, the fpiritus volaiilis aromaticus, or any other
alkaline fpirit, it proves a mild yet efficacious diapho¬
retic, and often notably diuretic; efpecially in fome
febrile cafes, where fuch a falutary evacuation is want-
34 G ed.
6o8l
two Or Prepara-
wine.or tioni;-
as pof-
6082
JPfepara-
tions.
PHARMACY.
Part II.
ed. A fmall proportion of tbis fpirit added to malt-
fpirits, gives them a flavour approaching to that of
French brandy.
§ 6. Neutral Salts.
686. When any acid and any alkaline falls are
mixed together, in fuch proportion that neither of
them may prevail, they form by their coalition a new
compound, called neutral. In all the combinations of
this kind, (except fome of thofe with vegetable acids),
the alkali and acid are fo ftrongly retained by one
another, that they are not to be difunited by any de¬
gree of fire. How volatile foever the acid was by it-
felf, if combined with a fixed alkali, it proves almoft
as fixed as the pure alkali: if the alkali is of the vo¬
latile kind, the compound proves alfo volatile, fubli-
ming in its whole fubftance, without any reparation of
its parts. There are, however, means’ of procuring
this difunion by the intervention of other bodies, as
we have already feen in the feparation of the volatile
alkali of fal ammoniac, and of the acids of nitre and
fea-falt: but in all cafes of this kind, only one of the
ingredients of the neutral fait can poflibly be obtained
by itfelf, the feparation of this happening folely in
virtue of the fuperadded body uniting with the other.
There is another kind of compound falls, formed
by the coalition of acids with earthy and metallic bo¬
dies. Thefe falls differ from the true neutral ones in
feveral obvious properties ; fome of them change blue
vegetable juices to a green like alkalies, and others to
a red like acids, while neutral falls make no change
in the colour: mixed with boiling milk, they coagu¬
late it, while neutral falls rather prevent its coagula¬
tion : from moft of them the acid is difunited by fire,
without the intervention of any additional matter, of
which we have feen an inftance in the diftillation of
the acid of vitriol : but the moft diftinguifhing and
univerfal charafter of thefe falls is, that folutions of
them, on the addition of any fixed alkali, grow tur¬
bid, and depofit their earth or metal. It were to be
wifhed, that cuftom had appropriated fome particular
name to the falls of this clafs, to prevent their being
confounded, which feveral of them have often been,
with the perfedf neutral falls.
The following table exhibits, at one view, the fe¬
veral compound falls refulting from the union of each
of the pure acids with each of the common alkalies
and foluble earths; the acids being placed on the top,
the alkalies and earths on the left hand, and the com¬
pound falts in the refpedtive interfeftions ; and is thus
to he underftood. In the upright columns, under
each of the acids, are feen the feveral compound falts
refulting from the union of that acid with the refpec-
tive alkalies and earths on the left fide. In the tranf-
verfe columns, oppofite to each particular alkali and
earth, are feen the compound falts refulting from the
union of that alkali or earth with the refpe&ive acids
on the top ; and converfely of each of the compound
falts exprefled in the table, the component parts are
found on the top of the upright column, and on the
left fide of the tranfverfe column, in whole interfedion
that particular fait is placed.
687. Cryjlallization of falts.
This is a general operation on neutral and moft of
the other compound falts. It depends upon thefe
principles : that water, of a certain degree of heat,
diflblves, of any particular fait, only a certain deter¬
minate quantity : that, on increafing the heat, it dif-
folves more and more (except only in one inftance,
common fait) till it comes to boil ; at which time,
both its heat and diflblving power are at their height :
that, in returning to its firft temperature, it throws off
again all that the additional heat had enabled it to
diflblve : that, independently of any increafe or dimi¬
nution of heat, a gradual evaporation of the fluid it¬
felf will occafion a proportional feparation of the fait ;
and that the particles of the fait, in this feparation
from the water, unlefs too haftily forced together by
fudden cooling or Itrong evaporation, or difturbed by
external fcaufes, generally concrete into tranfparent
and regularly figured maffes, called cryjlals. The fe¬
veral falts affume, in cryftallizatibn, figures peculiar
to each: thus the cryftals of nitre are hexagonal
prifms; thofe of fea-falt, cubes ; thofe of alum, oftohe-
dral mafles ; while fal ammoniac ftioots into thin fi¬
brous plates like feathers.
The ufe of preparing falts in a cryftalline form, is
not merely in regard to their elegance, but as a mark
of, and the means of fecuring, their purity and per-
fedfion. From fubftances not diflbluble in water, they
are purified by the previous folution and filtration ; by
cryftallization, one fait is purified from an admixture
of fuch other faline bodies as diflblve either more ea-
fily or more difficultly than itfelf. For if two or more
falls be diflblved together in a certain quantity of hot
water, the fait which requires the greated heat for its
folution in that quantity of water, will firft begin to
feparate
Part II.
PHARMACY.
6083
Prepara-
feparate in cooling; and if the water is kept evapora¬
ting in an uniform heat, the fait which requires mod
'water in that heat will be thefirft in cryftallizing. In
all cafes of this kind, if the procefs is duly managed,
the firft (hootings are generally well figured and pure;
the fucceeding ones, fooner or later, according to the
quantity of the other falls in the liquor, retain an ad¬
mixture of thofe falls, which they betray by their
fmallnefs and by their figure.
In order to the cryftallization of faline folutions, it
is cuftomary to boil down the liquor till fo much of
the fluid has exhaled, as that the fait begins to con¬
crete from it even while hot, forming a pellicle upon
the furface expofed to the air ; when this mark ap¬
pears, the whole is removed into a cold place. This
method feldom affords perfeft cryftals ; for when wa¬
ter is thus faturated with the fait in a boiling heat,
and then fuddenly cooled, the particles of the fait run
haftily and irregularly together, and form only a con-
fufed femitranfparent mafs. It is by flow concretion
that mod falls affume their cryftalline form in perfec¬
tion. The evaporation fhould be gentle, and conti¬
nued no longer than till fome drops of the liquor, in
a heat below boiling, being let fall upon a cold glafs
plate, difcover cryftalline filaments : the liquor is then
immediately to be removed from the fire into a lefs
warm, but not a cold place; and the veffel covered
with a cloth, to prevent the accefs of cold air, and
the formation of a pellicle, which, falling down thro’
the fluid, would difturb the regularity of the cryftalli¬
zation. This is the moft effe&ual method for moft
falls; though there are fome whofe cryftallization is
to be effeded, not by an abatement of the heat, but
by a continued equable evaporation of the fluid ; fuch
in particular is fea falt.
Salts retain in cryftallization a portion of the aqueous
fluid, without betraying any marks of it to the eye :
on this their cryftalline form appears in great meafure
to depend. The quantity of phlegm or water varies
in different falls: dry cryftals of nitre were found, on
feveral careful trials, to contain about one twentieth
of their weight; thofe of alum, one fixth; fea-falt, one
fourth ; borax, green vitriol, and the purging-falts,
no lefs than one half. The fame fait appears always
to retain nearly the fame quantity.
Some falls diffolve in fpirit of wine : and here alfo,
as in water, the folution is limited, though the fait is
not eafily recovered in a cryftalline form. Such in
particular are combinations of the nitrous acid with
volatile alkalies, and with calcareous earths; of the
marine acid with all the foluble earths; of the ace¬
tous with fixed and volatile alkalies. Scarce any of
the compound falls, whofe acid is the vitriolic, are af-
fedfed by vinous fpirits.
Salts differ greatly in their difpofition to affume and
retain a cryftalline form. Many, even of the com¬
pound kind, imbibe humidity like fixed alkalies, fo as
to cryftallize with difficulty; and whencryftallized, or ■
exficcated by heat, todeliquiate again in the air. Such
are the combinations of the nitrous and marine acid
with all the foluble earths, and of the acetous both
with earths and alkalies. The vitriolic acid, on the
other hand, forms, with all the fubftances it difiblves,
permanent cryftals; as do likewife the other mineral
acids with all alkalies.
The cryftallization of thofe falls, which are not dif- Prepara-
foluble in fpirit of wine, is generally promoted by a tl0n*-
fmall addition of that fpirit; which, abforbing the
water, or weakening its diffolving power on the fait,
difpofes the fait to part from it more freely. The o-
perator muft be careful, however, not to add too much
of the fpirit, efpecially where the fait is compofed of
an earthy or metallic body united with the acid ; left
it abforb the acid as well as the water, and, inftead of
a gradual and regular cryftallization, haftily precipi¬
tate the earth or metal in a powdery form.
Mr Rouelle, of the French Academy of Sciences,
has examined with great attention the phenomena of
the cryftallization of falls, and publiftied the refult of
his obfervations in different volumes of the Memoirs of
that academy. Among other curious particulars, he
has given a general diftribution of falts, in regard to
their cryftallization, which will be of practical utility
to the artift.
He divides evaporation into three degrees : infen-
Jible evaporation, or that effefted by the natural warmth
of the atmofphere, from freezing, up to the heat of the
fummer’s fun ; mean evaporation, commencing with
the fun’s heat, and extending to that in which the ex¬
haling fteam is vifible to the eye, and the liquor too
hot to be endured by the hand; and fir ong evaporation,
reaching from this period to boiling. He divides falts
into fix claffes; the diftinftions of which are taken
from the degree of evaporation in which they cryftal¬
lize moft perfectly, from the figure of their cryftals,
their difpofition to remain Angle or unite into clufters,
and their receiving an increafe from a continuance of
the cryftallization.
I. The firft clafs confifts of falts which cryftal-'
lizeinto fmall plates or very thin fcales. The
cryftals are Angle. They are, of all falts,
thofe which cryftallize moft frequently on
the furface of their folutions, which retain
leaft water in their cryftals, and require moft
to diffolve in. They cryftallize moft perfedly
by infenfible evaporation.
II. Salts whofe cryftals are cubes, cubes with"
the angles truncated, or pyramids of four or
fix fides. They form fingle, and change their
figure by new accretions. By infenfible eva¬
poration they cryftallize at the bottom, by
mean evaporation at the furface, and by both
kinds they prove perfect and regular: by
ftrong evaporation the liquor contrafts a pel¬
licle, and in cooling yields few cryftals, and
thofe ill figured.
III. Salts whofe cryftals are tetrahedral, pyra¬
midal, parallelepipeds, rhomboidal, and
rhomboidal parallelepipeds; with the angles
varioufly truncated according to different cir-
cumftances. They form fingle (except that
fome few unite by the bafes), and change their
figure by new accretions. They cryftallize at
the bottom, moft perfectly by infenfible eva¬
poration : by mean and ftrong evaporation
the liquor contracts a pellicle, and in cooling
the cryftals adhere to the pellicle, and prove
confufed and ill formed. They retain a large
quantity of water.
3+ G 2 IV
Salts
6084
Prepara-
P H A R
IV. Salts whofe eryftalsare flattened paiallelo-'
pipeds, with the extremities terminating in
two furfaces inclined to one another, fo as to
form a point and acute angles with the large
fides. They clufter together, uniting by the
bafes into tufts. The cryftals are largeft and
xnoft regular by infenfible evaporation: by
mean and hafty evaporation, a pellicle is
formed, and in cooling the cryftals prove very
fmall. They retain a large quantity of water in
cryftallization, and require little to diflblve in.a
V. Salts whofe cryftals are very long, in form
of needles, prifms, or columns of different
furfaces. They (hoot at the bottom, and clu¬
fter together into tufts of regular figures. By
infenfible evaporation they fcarce ever cry-
ftallize well. By mean and ftrong evaporation
they give a pellicle; and in flow cooling, if
the evaporation was not carried too far, they
yield perfeftly well formed cryftals, which
at firft fwim, but foon fall to the bottom. If
the evaporation was too long continued, the
cryftals prove confufed and ill formed.
VI. S ilts whofe cryftals are in very fmall needles,'
or of other indeterminate figures. None of
them cryftallize by infenfible evaporation, and
few of them by the mean degree. They re¬
quire to be reduced by ftrong evaporation to
a thick confiftence: they then contraft a pel¬
licle, and cryftallize with confufion. If the
cryftals are wanted regular, fpirit of wine muft
be ufed, or fome other medium if the fait is
foluble in fpirit. They readily diffolve in wa¬
ter, and liquefy in the air.
688. Purified nitre. L.
Boil nitre in water till it is diffolved ; filter the folu-
tion through paper ; and then, after due evapora¬
tion, fet it by in a cold place, that the nitre may
fhoot into cryftals.
Common nitre contains ufually a confiderable propor¬
tion of fea-falt; which in this procefs is feparated, the
fea-falt remaining diffolved after greateft part of the
nitre has cryftallized. The cryftals which ftioot after
the firft evaporation, are large, regular, and pure :
but when the remaining liquor is further evaporated,
and this repeated a fecond or third time, the cryftals
prove at length fmall, imperfeft, and lipped with little
cubical glebes of fea-falt.
When rough nitre, in the ftate wherein it is firft ex-
tra&ed from the earths impregnated with it, is treated
in this manner, there remains at laft a liquor, called
■mother-ley, which will no longer afford any cryftals.
This appears to participitate of the nitrous and ma¬
rine acids, and to contain an earthy matter diffolved
by thofe acids. On adding alkaline lixivia, the earth
is precipitated; and, when thoroughly waflied with wa¬
ter, proves infipid. If the liquor may be evaporated
to drynefs, a bitteriftr faline matter is left; which be¬
ing ftrongly calcined in a crucible, parts with the
acids, and becomes, as in the other cafe, infipid.
This earth has been celebrated as an excellent pur¬
gative, in the dofe of a dram or two ; and, in fmaller
dofes, as an alterant in hypochondriacal and other dif-
orders. This medicine was for forae time kept a great
M A C Y. Part II.
fecret, under the names of magnefta alba, nitrous pa- Prepara-
nacea, count Palmer's powder, ilpolverc albo Romano, tioiiS-
podre de Sentinelli, See. till Lancili made it public in
his notes on the Metallotbeca Vaticana. It has been
fuppofed that this earth is no other than a portion of
the lime commonly added in the elixation of nitre at
the European nitre-works : but though the fpecimens
ofmagnefia examined by Neumann, and fome of that
which has lately been brought hither from abroad,
gave plain marks of a calcareous nature ; yet the true
magnefia muft be an earth of a'different kind, calca¬
reous earths being rather aftringent than purgative.
The earthy bafis of the fal catharticus amarus, is found
to have the properties aferibed to the true magnefia of
nitre, and appears to be the very fame fpecies of earth:
from that fait therefore this medicine is now prepared,
as will be feen hereafter.
689. Purified fal am7)ioniac. L.
This fait is purified by iolution in water, filtration,
and cryftallization, after the manner above direfted
for nitre.
The impurities of fal ammoniac are commonly fuch
as will not diffolve in water ; and hence the purifica¬
tion is effefted by the folution and filtration. The
very laft cryftals feldom betray an admixture of any
other fait.
690. Purified white vitriol, comtnonly called gilla of
vitriol. E.
Take eight ounces of white vitriol, half an ounce of
filings of zinc ; water, one pound. Digeft with a
gentle heat for fome hours; then filter the liquor,
and fet it to cryftallize.
691. Salt of vitriol. L.
Take of white vitriol, one pound ; ftrong fpirit (call¬
ed oil) of vitriol, one ounce by weight; water, as
much as is fufficient. Boil them together till the vi¬
triol is diffolved; then filter the liquor; and af¬
ter due evaporation, fet it by in a cold place tocry-
ftallize.
Here the intention is not to feparate the ochery
matter of the vitriol, but to prevent its feparating and
colouring the cryftals. This is effe&ually anfwered
by the addition of the acid, by which it is kept dif¬
folved.
692. Burnt alum. L. E.
Let alum be calcined in an iron or earthen veffel, fo
long as it bubbles and fwells up.
The bubbling or bliftering proceeds from the phlegm
retained in the cryftals: after that is expelled, the fait
cannot be made liquid by any degree of fire. Alum
is compofed of vitriolic acid and an earth ; and it is
remarkable, that combinations of that acid with all
earths, with moft metals, and even with vegetable fix¬
ed alkalies, are unfufible.
The alum, thus deprived of its phlegm, proves con-
fiderably ftronger, and more acrid, infomuch as to be
iometimes employed for confuming fungous flefti: it is
faid to have an inconvenience of leaving a hardnefs up¬
on the part.
693. Calcined vitriol.
Let green vitriol be calcined in an earthen veffel, with
aa,
'Part II. P H A R
I'repara- an open fire, till it becomes tborougbly dry; then
ft tions- breaking the ve-ffel, take out the vitriol, and fet it
| by for ufe, well clofed from the air. The vitriol is
fufficiently calcined, if it has acquired a red colour
at the fides and bottom of the veffel. L.
This procefs fucceeds tolerably well for fmall quan¬
tities, but does not anfwer fo perfe&ly for larger. As
the a&ion of the fire is exerted firft on the external
parts of the mafs, thefe will be calcined firft, and,
where the quantity is large, exhibit the mark of fuf-
ficient calcination, whillt the internal part remains
almoft unchanged : and even if the procefs is ftill far¬
ther continued, the effeft required will not be produ¬
ced ; for the outfide growing firft hard, prevents the
evaporation of the aqueous parts from within.
Expofe any quantity of powdered green vitriol, in an
unglazed earthen veffel, to the aftion of a moderate
fire, till it becomes white. E.
This method is fufficiently troublefome : for unlefs
the heat be very gentle, and the matter fpread very
thin over the bottom of a broad (hallow veffel, it is al¬
moft impoffible to avoid melting it, which makes it
adhere to the fides of the pan, and renders the pre¬
vious pulverifation an ufelefs labour.
The method ufually pra&ifed by the chemifts is, to
place a deep earthen pan, with fome vitriol in it, upon
a gentle fire ; the vitriol foon liquefies, boils up, and
by degrees incruftates to the fides of the veffel: fome
more vitriol is then thrown in and fuffered to incruftate
in the fame manner; and this procedure repeated till
the pan is nearly full of the concreted matter, which
proves of a whitilh colour, except on the outfide next
the pan (which muft be broken to take it out), where
it appears yellowifh or reddifh, according to the con¬
tinuance and degree of fire. If the vitriol be defired
ftill farther dephlegmated, this may be commodioufty
e(Feded, by reducing the roafs into a grofs powder
(which will now no longer melt); and then calcining
it over a ftrong fire, in a (hallow iron pan, till it has
gained the degree of drynefs required, which may be
known from its colour.
694. Vitriolated tartar.
Difiblve eight ounces of green vitriol in four pints of
boiling water : and whilft the liquor continues boil¬
ing, throw into it fait of tartar, or any other alka¬
line fait, till no farther effervefcence arifes upon a
frefti addition ; which generally happens when four
ounces, or a little more, of the fait have been ufed.
Filter the liquor thro’ paper, and after due evapo¬
ration fet it by to cryftallize. E.
Here the acid of the vitriol'forfakes the iron which
it was before in pofleffion of, to unite with the alka¬
line fait: particular care ought to be had that the
quantity of alkali be Efficient to fully faturate the
acid, ctherwife it will not depofite all the metal. It is
convenient, even after the faturation feems, from the
effervefcence ceafing, to be completed, to throw in a
little more of the alkali : for by this means the pre¬
paration is fecured from containing any metallic mat¬
ter; whilft the fuperfluous quantity of alkali can do
no prejudice, as it remains uncryftallized.
It is remarkable, that although the vitriolic acid
and fixed alkaline fait do each readily unite with wa.
M A C Y. G085-
ter, and ftrongly attrad moifture even from llie air; Prepara-
yet the neutral fait refulting from the combination of tl01is-
thefe two, vitriolated tartar, is one of the falts mod dif¬
ficult of (blution, very little of it being taken up by
cold water. Hence fome have direded the liquor in
this procefs to be filtered whilft very hot, fufpeding,
that if it was fuffered to cool, great part of the fait
would be thrown off and left upon the paper. The
college, however, have avoided this inconvenience, by
ordering a quantity of water which is found to be
fufficient for keeping the fait diffolved in the cold or
at lead in a moderate warmth.
Take oil of vitriol diluted with equal its quantity of
warm water; put it into a large glafs veffcl, and
gradually drop into it a folution of purified potafh
in twice its quantity of water, till the effervefcence
ceafes. Then filter the liquor, evaporate it till a
pellicle appears upon the furface, and fet it by in a
cold place to cryftallize. E.
This an elegant, and one of the lead troublefome
ways of preparing this fait. The Edinburgh college,
in former editions, ordered the acid liquor to be drop-
pe4 into the alkaline; by the converfe procedure,,
now received, it is obvioufly more eafy to fecure againd
a redundance of acidity : for the greater certainty in
this point, it may be expedient, as in the foregoing
procefs, to drop in a little more of the alkaline ley
than the ceffation of the effervefcence feems to require.
But though the manner of preparation, here direc¬
ted, appears to be the mod commodious, there is one
imperfe&ion in the procefs, a deficiency in the quan¬
tity of water. There is not near water enough to
keep vitriolated tartar diffolved;, and of confequence,
as fad as the alkaline fait is neutralized by the acid,
great part falls to the bottom in a powdery form. In
the Leyden pharmacopoeia, this inconvenience is judi-
cioufly provided againd: The oil of vitriol is diluted
with four times its quantity of water; and the alkaline
ley being gradually dropped into it till the point of
faturation is obtained, four times the quantity of wa¬
ter is added, and the mixture boiled, that fuch part
of the fait as had precipitated may be diffolved : the
liquor is then filtered while hot, and fet by to crydal-
lize. In order to obtain perfeA and well-formed cry-
dais, the liquor (Itould not be fet in the cold, but con¬
tinued in a moderate heat, fuch as the hand can fcarce-
ly bear, that the water may (lowly evaporate.
Vitriolated tartar, in fmall dofes, as a fcruple or
, half a dram, is an ufeful aperient ; in larger ones, as
four or five drams, a mild cathartic, which does not
pafs off fo haftily as the fal catharticus atnarus, or
Glauber's fait) and feems to extend its a&ion further.
The wholefale dealers in medicines have commonly
fubdituted to it an article otherwife almod ufelefs in.
their fhops, the refiduunr of Glauber’s fpirit of nitre.
The purchafer ought, therefore, to infid upon the fait
being in a crydalline form. The crydals, when per-
fedH are oblong, with fix flat (ides, and terminated at
each end by a fix-fided pyramid; fome appear com-
pofed of two pyramids joined together by the bafes,
and many are irregular.
595. Vitriolated nitre. L.
Diffolve in warm water the mafs which remains after
the diftillatioa of Glauber’s fpirit of nitre : filter
th&
6o86 P H A R
Prepara* the folution through paper, and cryftallize the fait.
   This fait is not different from the vitriolated tartar,
being compofed of the vitriolic acid, and the alkaline
bafis of nitre; which alkali is no other than the common
vegetable fixed alkaline fait, as fait of tartar or pot-
afh : it is, ineffeft, from the aihes of vegetables, that
the nitre prepared in Europe receives its alkaline ba¬
fis. If any unchanged nitre remains in the mafs, it
is left diffolved in the water while the vitriolated alkali
cryftallizes.
696. Salpolychrejlum, or fait of many virtues.
Take of nitre in powder, flowers of fulphur, of each
equal parts. Mingle them well together, and inje&the
mixture, by little and little at a time, into a red-
hot crucible : after the deflagration ceafes, keep the
crucible in the fire for an hour. The fait may be
purified by diflblving it in warm water, filtering the
1 lution, and exhaling it to drynefs; or by cryllal-
lization.
This is another method of uniting the vitriolic acid
with the common vegetable fixed alkali. Both the nitre
and the fulphur are decompounded in the operation :
the acid of the nitre, and the inflammable principle
of the fulphur, detonate together, and are diffipated ;
while the acid of the fulphur remains combined with
the alkaline bafis of the nitre. The /hops according¬
ly have fubftituted to the fal polychreft the foregoing
preparation.
697. Sal pruntlhe. E.
Take of pure nitre, reduced to powder, two pounds;
flowers of fulphur, one ounce. Melt the nitre in a
crucible, and fprinkle into it the fulphur by little
at a time. When the deflagration is over, pour out
the melted fait upon a clean, dry, and warm brafs
plate, fo as to form it into cakes.
Thofe who prepare fal prunell in large quantities,
make ufe of a clean iron pot inftead of a crucible; and,
when the nitre is melted, and the fulphur deflagrated,
take out the fait with an iron ladle, and pour it into
brafs moulds kept for this purpofe. The previous
pounding of the nitre, direfted above, may be as well
omitted, as occafioning a needlefs trouble.
This preparation was formerly in great efteem, and
is fometimes ftill ordered in prefcription.
698. the cathartic fait of Glauber, commonly called
fal mirabile. L. E.
Diffolve in warm water the mafs which remains after
the diftillation of fpirit of fea-falt: filter the folu¬
tion, and cryftallize the fait.
The title of this fait expreffes its medical virtues.
Taken from half an ounce to an ounce or more, it
proves a mild and ufeful purgativeand in fmaller
dofes, largely diluted, a ferviceable aperient and diure¬
tic. The- (hops frequently fubftitute to it the fal ca-
tharticus amarus, which is nearly of the fame quality,
but fomewhat more unpleafant, and, as is faid, lefs
mild in operation: They are very eafily diftinguifh-
able from one another, by the effe& of alkaline falls
upon folutions of them. The folution of Glauber’s
fait fuffers no vifible change from this addition, its
own bafis being a true fixed alkali; but the folution of
M A C Y. . Part II.
the fal catharticus amarus grows inftantly white and Prepara- |
turbid ; its bafis, which is an earth, being extricated 3
copioufly by the alkaline fait: as in the following <9
procefs.
699, a. Magnefta alba, or White magnefia. E.
Diffolve fal catharticus amarus in a fufficient quantity
of water. Filter the folution ; and add to it a fil¬
tered ley of potafli, fo long as a frefli addition con¬
tinues to occafion any milkinefs. A white powder
will precipitate; which, being feparated from the
liquor is to be boiled for fome time in water, and af¬
terwads dried.
This powder appears to be the fame fpecies of earth
with that obtained from the mother ley of nitre
(fee n° 688.) which was for feveral years a cele¬
brated fecret in the hands of fome particular perfons
abroad. Hoffman, who defcribes the preparation of
the nitrous magnefia, gives it the character of an ufe¬
ful antacid, a fafe and inoffenfive laxative io dofes of
a dram or two, and diaphoretic and diuretic when
given in fmaller dofes of fifteen or twenty grains. ♦ |
Since this time it has had a confiderable place in the
pra&ice of foreign phyficians, and now begins to come
into efteem among us, particularly in heartburns, and
for preventing or removing the many diforders which
children are fo frequently thrown into from a redun¬
dance of acid humours in the firft paffages : it is pre¬
ferred, on account of its laxative quality, to the com¬
mon abforbents, which (unlefs gentle purgatives are
given occafionally to carry them off ) are apt to lodge
in the body, and occaficn a coftivenefs very detri¬
mental to infants.
Though the preparation of this medicine is now
commonly known, its nature and properties are very
little underftood : whilft fome fuppofe it to poffefs un- - 9
common virtues, others affirm, that, when duly edul¬
corated, it is in no refpeft different from calcined
hartlhorn, or any other Ample animal or vegetable
earth. The following obfervations of its real proper¬
ties will be fufficient to determine this point.
Magnefia alba, when prepared in perfe&ion, is a
white and very fubtile earth, perfe&ly void of fmell
or tafte, of the clafs of thofe which diffolve in acids.
It diffolves freely, even in the vitriolic acid ; which, in
the common way of making folutions, takes up only
an inconfiderable portion of other earths. Combined
with this.acid, it forms a bitter fait, very eafily foluble
in water; while the common abforbents form with the
fame acid almoft infipid concretes, very difficult of fo¬
lution. Solutions of magnefia in all acids are bitter
and purgative ; while thofe of the other earths are
more or lefs auftere and aftringent. A large dofe of
the magnefia, if the ftomach contains no acid to dif¬
folve it, does not purge or produce any fenfible effeft:
a moderate one, if an acid is lodged there, or if acid
liquors are taken after it, procures feveral ftools;
whereas the common abforbents, in the fame circum-
ftances, inftead of loofening, bind the belly. It is
obvious, therefore, that magnefia is fpecifically diffe¬
rent from the other earths, and that it is applicable to
ufeful purpofes in medicine.
699, b. Burnt magnefia. E.
Let any quantity of magnefia be put into a crucible,
and
!
;Part II. P H A R
repara- and heated hot, in which ftate keep it for two
tions, hours; then take it out, and prefcrve it in a glafs
I "" bottle well flopped.
700. Cubical nitre.
Diflblve chalk or lime in purified aquafortis ; and add
the folution by degrees to a folution of Glauber’s
fait in water, fo long as a frefh addition produces
any milkinefs : a white powder will precipitate ;
after which the liquor is to be filtered, and, after
due evaporation, fet to cryftallize.
In this procefs, both the folutions are decom¬
pounded, and two new compounds produced. The
vitriolic acid of the Glauber’s fait unites with the
chalk; and forms with it an indiffoluble felenitic con¬
crete, which of courfe precipitates; while the alkali
of the Glauber’s fait, and the nitrous acid, unite in¬
to a neutral fait, which is feparated from the liquor
by cryftallization; the cryftals are rhomboidal, of a
cooling tafte, greatly refembling that of common nitre.
How far this fait differs from common nitre in its me¬
dical virtue, is not known. T}ie procefs is here in-
ferted, partly as being a very inftruftive one in re¬
gard to the tranfpofitions which happen on the mix¬
ture of different faline bodies, and partly as affording
the moft convenient means of obtaining the pure alka¬
line bafis of fea-falt. In the dift.illation of fpirit of
fait, that bafis was difunited from its own acid, and
combined with the vitriolic: it is here transferred from
the vitriolic to the nitrous; and in n° 644, we have
given a method of diflipating or deftroying the nitrous
acid, and leaving the alkali, that was combined with
it, pure.
701. Spirit of fea-falt coagulated. L.
Drop, into Glauber’s fpirit of fea-falt, a ley of fixed
alkaline fait, till all effervefcence ceafes ; then eva¬
porate the mixture to drynefs.'
This preparation is inferted, under the fame title,
in the Wirtemburg pharmacopoeia. It has been com¬
monly called regenerated fea-falt, though with little
propriety, as it differs from that fait in its bafi*; the
common vegetable alkali being here fubftituted to the
mineral alkali of fca-falt. How far it differs from fea-
falt in its medicinal qualities, hath not yet been de¬
termined: it is manifeftly fharper in tafte, and fome-
what more difficult both of folution in water and of
fufion in the fire.
702. Regenerated tartar. E.
Put any quantity of dry fait of tartar, powdered, into
a large glafs veffel ; and pour thereon, by little and
little, as much diftilled vinegar as is neceffary to fa-
turate it. Filter the liquor; and exhale it, over a
very gentle fire, to drynefs, taking great care that
the matter contraft not an empyreuma. On the
fait which remains, pour as much more fpirit of
vinegar as will faturate it; then depurate the liquor
again, and carefully exficcate it into a dry fait.
If the common alkalies are made ufe of for this
procefs, they fhould be previoufly purified, by folu¬
tion and cryftallization, from the neutral fait which
they generally contain. The diftilled vinegar may be
perfedly free from any empyreumatic taint: it is not
neceffary to dephlegmate it, or throw away the firft
M A C Y.
runnings in the diftillation, fince thefe contain a por¬
tion of the acid (the part here wanted) as well as the
phlegm.
It is difficult to hit the point of faturation betwixt
the acetous acid and the alkaline fait. After about
fourteen parts of ftrong diftilled vinegar have been
gradually poured upon one of the fixed fait, the ad¬
dition of a little more of the acid will notoccafion any
further effervefcence in the cold; but if the mixture
be now ftrongly ftirred and well heated, the effervef¬
cence will appear afreffi; upon which fome-mpre vine¬
gar is to be added, till it again ceafes. The fatura¬
tion is not as yet complete; for upon exhaling the
aqueous parts, the remaining fait ftill effervefees with
freffi vinegar. When fo much of the acid has now
been added, that no marks of fermentation any longer
appear, a little more of the vinegar may be poured in
before you proceed to the laft evaporation ; by this
means, the faturation of the alkali will be fecured,
whilft, if the acid prevails, the fuperfluous quantity of
it will exhale.
The fait thus prepared, is of a dark-brown colour,
a peculiar, not ungrateful odour, a penetrating, fa-
ponaceous, faline tafte, in nowife alkaline or acid.
Its brown colour and faponaceous quality proceed
from the oily parts of the vinegar ; the depuration of
the fait from this oil, is not in the foregoing procefs
infifted on. In the London pharmacopoeia, the fait
is ordered to be purified to perfect whitnefs, under
the title of
703. Diuretic fait. L.
Take a pound of any fixed alkaline fait; and boil it,
with a very gentle heat, in four or five times its
weight of diftilled vinegar. When the fermentation
ceafes, add more diftilled vinegar; and procerd
with frefh additions thereof, until, the vinegar be¬
ing almoft evaporated, frefh vinegar will no longer
raife any fermentation; which generally happens by
the time that twenty pounds of diftilled vinegar
have been ufed. Then flowly exhale to drynefs.—
Melt the remaining impure fait for a little time,
but not too long, over a gentle fire ; then diffolve
it in water, and filter the folution through paper.
If the melting has been duly performed, the filtered
liquor will be limpid and'colourlefs as water; but
if otherwife, of a brown colour.—Evaporate the
limpid folution, with an exceeding gentle heat, in
a fhallow glafs veffel ; occafionally ftirring the fait
as it dries, that its moifture may be the fooner ex¬
haled'. Afterwards keep it for ufe in a veffel very
clofely ftoped; for it will liquefy by the air.
This fait ought to be of perfeft whitenefs; and fhould
totally diffolve both in water and in fpirit of wine,
without leaving any faeces. If the fait, though
ever fo white, depofites any faeces in fpirit of wine ;
the whole of it muft be diffolved in that fpirit,
the folution filtered, and exficcated again.
The purification of this fait is hot a little trouble-
fome. The operator muft be particularly care¬
ful in melting it, not to ufe too great a heat, or to
keep it liquefied too long : a little fhould be occa¬
fionally taken out, and put into water; and as foon
as it begins to part freely with its black colour, the
whole is to be removed from the fire. In the laft
drying,
6087
6o8$ P H A R
Prepara- drying, the heat muft not be fo great as to melt it;
riQn?. other wife it will not prove totally foluble. If the fo-
lution in fpirit of wine be exficcated, and the remain¬
ing fait liquefied with a very foft fire, it gains the
leafy appearance which has procured it the name of
terra filial a.
Thefe falls are medicines of great efficacy, and may
be fo dofed and managed as to prove either mildly ca¬
thartic, or powerfully diuretic: few of the faline de-
obftruents come up to them in virtue. The dofe is
from half a fcruple to a dram or two. A bare mix¬
ture of alkaline fait and vinegar without exficcation,
is not perhaps much inferior as a medicine to the more
elaborate fait.
704. Spirt of Mindererus. E.
Take any quantity of the volatile alkaline fait of fal
ammoniac, and gradually power upon it diftilled
vinegar, till the effervefcence ceafea; occafionally
ftirring the mixture, to promote the adtion of the
vinegar on the fait.
This is an excellent aperient faline liquor. Taken
warm in bed, it proves commonly a powerful diapho¬
retic or fudorific ; and as it operates without heat, it
has place in febrile and inflammatory diforders, where
medicines of the warm kind, if they fail of procuring
fweat, aggravate the diftemper. Its action may like-
wife be determined to the kidneys, by walking about
in a cool air. The common dofe is half an ounce,
either by itfelf, or along with other medicines adapted
to the intention. Its ftrength is not a little precarious,
depending in great meafure on that of the vinegar;
an inconvenience which cannot eafily be obviated, for
the faline matter is not reducible to the form of a con¬
crete fait.
5 7. Anomalous Salts.
705. Cryftals of tartar.
Let powdered white tartar be boiled in twenty times
its quantity of water, till perfectly diflblved ; and
the folution, whilft it continues hot, paffed through
filtering paper, or a woollen cloth, and received in
a wooden veflei: then expofe it for a night or longer
to the cold air, that cryftals may form themfelves,
and (hoot to the fides of the veflei : the water being
now poured off, the cryftals are to be collefted and
dried for ufe.
The filtration of the folution of tartar through pa-
per fucceeds very flowly; and unlefs managed with a
ood deal of addrefs, not at all : for as foon as the
oiling liquor begins to grow fenfibly lefs hot, it de-
pofitts much of the tartar afl over the furface of the
paper, which hinders the remainder from paffing
through. Zwelffer, in his animadverfions on this pro-
cefs in the Augultan pharmacopoeia, direfts the folu¬
tion to be clarified with whites of eggs, and drained
only through a linen cloth. He likewifejudicioufly or¬
ders the veflei to be clofe covered, and the cryftalliza-
tion performed in a warm place : for if the folution be
fuffered to cool very faft, it is in vain to expect any
appearance of cryftals ; the tartar will inevitably be
precipitated to the bottom of the veflei in the form of
fand. And indeed, the bufinefs of refining and cryftal-
lizing tartar is fo very troubleforoe, and requires fo large
M A C Y. Part II.
an apparatus, that fcarce any of the apothecaries, or Prepara-
even of the trading chemifts, are at the trouble of it; tions>
but either import it ready refined from Holland, or
purchafe it from fome people here who make it their
foie bufinefs.
706. Cream of tartar.
Take any quantity of folution of tartar, made as in
the foregoing procefs, and pafled through a filter.
Boil it over the fire, till a thick cuticle appears on
the furface, which is to be taken off with a wooden
fkimmer bored full of holes; continue the boiling till
a frefh cuticle arifes, which is to be taken off as the
foregoing, and the operation repeated till the whole
quantity of liquor is thus confumed. Afterwards
dry all the cuticles together in the fun.
The preparation of this in no refpeft differs from
cryftals of tartar reduced to powder. Indeed the pur-
chafer ought always to prefer the cryftals; for the
powder is often fophifticated with faline fubftances of
another kind.
707. Soluble tartar. L. E.
Diffolve a pound of any fixed alkaline fait in a gallon
of boiling water ; and gradually throw in cryftals
of tartar, as long as a frefh addition thereof raifea
any effervefcence; which generally ceafes before
three pounds of the cryftals have been ufed. Then
filter the liquor ; and, after due evaporation, fet it
by to cryftalize, or evaporate it to drynefs, and
keep the remaining faline mafs for ufe.
Common white tartar is perhaps preferable for this
operation to the cryftals ufually met with. Its impu¬
rities can here be no objeftion; fincc it will be fuffici-
ently depurated by the fubfequent filtration.
Soluble tartar, in dofes of a fcruple, half a dram, or
a dram, is a mild cooling aperient; two or three drams
commonly loofen the belly; and an oupce proves pretty
ftrongly purgative. Malouin fays it is equal in pur¬
gative virtue to the cathartic fait of Glauber. It is
an ufeful addition to the purgatives of the refirtous
kind, as it promotes their operation, and at the fame
time tends to correft their griping quality. But it
muft never be given in conjumftion with any acid : for
all acids decompound it; abforbing its alkaline fait,
and precipitating the tartar.
708. Rochelle fait. Ph. Par.
Let the fait extraded from the afhes of the kelp or
kaliof Alicant be calcined till it melts; then diflblve
in water, the folution filtered, and after due eva¬
poration fet by, that the fait may ffioot into pure
white cryftals. Diffolve cryftals of tartar in boiling
water, and faturate the folution with the cryftals of
kali: the proportions neceffary for this purpofe will
be, about fixteen ounces of the latter to twenty of
the former. Duly exhale the liquor in the heat of
a water-bath; and after filtration, fet it in the cold
to cryftalizc.
This is a fpecies of foluble tartar, made with the
fait of kali or foda, with the mineral alkali or bafis of
of fea-falt: It cryftallizes far more eafily than the pre¬
ceding preparation, and does not, like it, grow moift
in the air. It is alfo confiderably lefs purgative, but
is equally decompounded by acids. It appears to be
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- a very elegant fait, and begins now to come into efteem
t‘on5’ in this country, as it has long been in France.
709. EfJ'ential fait of forrel.
Let the juice of forrel, after fettling and decantation
from the faeces, be evaporated, till only one-third
remains; then ftrained through a flannel-bag, and
exhaled again till a pellicle appears upon the furfacc.
Put the liquor into a glafs veflel; and, a little oil
olive being poured upon the top, fet it by in a cel¬
lar till plenty of cryftals are formed: thefe are to be
gently wafhed with water, and afterwards dried.
After the fame manner, eflential falts are obtained from
all acid, auftere, aftringent, and bitterilh plants that
contain but a fmall quantity of oil.
Herbs of a dry nature are to be moiftened, in the
bruifing, with a little water, that the juice may be
the more eafxly prefled Out
The waters of thefe plants, which are in vain en¬
deavoured to be drawn over by diftillation, may be
obtained by diflblving a fuitable quantity of their
eflential falts in common water.
713. The procefs for obtaining thefe falts is very
tedious, infomuch as fcarce to be completed in lefs than
feven or eight months; and the quantity of fait which
the juices afford, is extremely fmall: hence they are
hardly ever made or expefted in the fliops.
714. The virtues of the eflential falts have not been
fufficiently determined from experience.
71 o. Flowers of henzoine.
Put fome powdered benzoine into an earthen pot pla¬
ced in fand ; and with a gentle heat fublime the
flowers into a conical paper-cap fitted to the pot.
—Or the fublimation may be performed in a retort;
the flowers will arife with a foft heat into the neck.
—If the flowers have any yellow tinge, mix them
with tobacco-pipe clay, and fublime again. L.
The fublimation is to be performed in a glazed earth¬
en pot, and repeated in the fame inftruments with
freih parcels of benzoine, till the paper-cap be¬
comes foul with oil. E.
Benzoine, expofed in a retort to a gentle fire, melts
and fends up into the neck white fhining cryftalline
flowers, which are followed by an oily fubftance. On
railing the heat a little, (a recipient being applied to
the neck of the retort), a thin yellowifh oil comes
over, intermingled with an acid liquor, and afterwards
a thick butyraceous fubftance: this laft, liquefied in
boiling water, gives out to it a confiderSble quantity
of faline matter, (feparable by filtration and proper
exhalation), which appears in all refpe&s fimilar to
the flowers.
It appears, therefore, that the whole quantity of
flowers which benzoine is capable of yielding, cannot
be obtained by the above procefles, fince a confider-
able portion arifes after the time of their being difcon-
tinued : the greateft part of the flowers arifes with a
lefs degree of heat than what is neceffary to elevate the
oil ; but that if the operation is haftily conduced, or
if the fire is not exceeding gentle, the oil will arife
along with the flowers, and render them foul. Hence
in the way of trade, it is extremely difficult to prepare
them of the requifite whitenefs and purity: the heat
which becomes neceffary when large quantities of the
Vol. VIII. 2
M A C Y. 6089
benzoine are employed, being fog/eat as to force over Prepara-
fome of the oil along with them. tions. _
In order therefore to obtain thefe flowers in perfec¬
tion, only a fmall quantity of benzoine fhould be put
into the veffel at a time : and that this may not be any
impediment to the requifite difpatch, a number of
(hallow, flat-bottomed, earthen difhes may be em¬
ployed, each fitted with another veffel inverted over it.
With thefe you may fill a fand-furnace, having freflt
difhes charged in readinefs to replace thofe in the fur¬
nace as foon as the procefs (hall appear finiflied in
them : the refiduum of the benzoine fhould be fcraped
out of each of thefe veffels before a frefh parcel is put in.
Thefe flowers, when made in perfection, have an
agreeable tafte and fragrant fmell. They totally dif-
folve in fpirit of wine, and likewife by the affillance
of the heat in water; but feparate again from the lat¬
ter upon the liquor’s growing cold, (hooting into fa-
line fpicula, which unite together into irregular maffes.
By the mediation of fugar, they remain fufpended in
cold water, and thus form an elegant balfamic fyrup.
Some have held them in great efteem, as peclora! and
fudorific, in the dofe of half a fcruple or more: but
the prefent pra&ice rarely makes ufe of them, on ac¬
count of the offenfive oil which, as ufually prepared,
they are tainted with, and from which a frefh fubli¬
mation from tobacco-pipe clay does not free them fo
effeftually as might be wifhed. The obfervations
above related point out a method of depurating them
more perfeftly, viz. by folution, filtration, and cry-
ftallization.
711. Salt of borax, called fedative fait.
Put eight ounces of powdered borax into a wide¬
necked retort; pour thereon three ounces of water,
and then add three ounces of oil of vitriol. Place
the retort in a proper furnace, adapt to it a recei¬
ver, and increafe the fire till the veffel becomes red-
hot. The fedative fait will arife into the neck in
form of thin fhining plates, which are to be fwept
out with a feather ; and a little liquor will pafs into
the receiver. When the matter in the retort is
grown cool, pour back upon it the diftilled liquor,
and fublime again. Repeat this procefs fo long as
the borax continues to yield any confiderable quan¬
tity of faline^owers. Or,
Diffolve the borax in a fufficient quantity of warm
water, and add thereto the oil of vitriol. Evapo¬
rate this mixture till thin plates begin to appear
upon the furface ; then fiiffer the fire to decay, and
let the veffel ftand unmoved till plenty of cryftals
are formed, which are to be well rinfed with cold
water, and then dried for ufe.
In the preparation of this fait by fublimation, the
fire muft be expeditioufly railed when the matter be¬
gins to grow dry ; for it is only at this period that
the fait fublimes. The fublimed fait itfelf, in a per¬
fectly dry ftate, proves fixed in the fire ; if moiftened
with water, and then expofed to a fmart heat, part of
it continues to rife til) the moifture is wholly exhaled ;
after which, nothing more can be forced up by heat
till the fait is again moiftened. Hence the ufe of re¬
turning the diftilled liquor, and repeating the fubli-
mations. Lemery fays, he found flowers continue to
rife till the thirty-fixth fublimation; and that the
34 H quantity
6090
Prepara-
PHARMACY. Part II
quantity obtained by all thefe fublimations' amounted
to half an ounce and thirty-five grains from two ounces
of borax.
The procefs of cryftallization is lefs troublefome than
that by fublimation ; but the fait proves generally lefs
white, and is apt likewife to retain a part of the
Glauber’s fait, efpecially if the evaporation is too
long protva&ed.
The fedative fait appears to thetafte a neutral fait;
but, examined with alkalies, has the properties of an
acid, effervefcing, uniting, and cryftallizing with them,
and deftroying their alkaline quality. It diffolvesboth
in water and in fpirit of wine, though not very readily
in either. As to its virtue, it is fuppofed to be a mild
anodyne (whence its name) to calm the heat of the
blood in burning fevers, to prevent or remove deli¬
rious fymptoms, and allay fpafmodic affe&ions, whe¬
ther hypochondriacal or hyfterical, at leaft for a time.
The dofe is from two to eighteen grains in any pro¬
per liquor.
712. Spirit, fait, and oil, of ami er. E.
Mix powdered white amber with thrice its weight of
clean fand, and put them into a glafs retort, of
which the mixture may fill one half: then adapt a
large receiver, and diftil in a fand-furnace, with a
fire gradually increafed. At firft a fpirit will come
over with fome yellow oil; then more yellow oil
along with a little fait; and upon raifing the heat,
more of the fait, with a reddifh coloured oil. 
When the diftillation is finifhed, empty the liquor
out of the receiver ; and having collected together
the fait which adheres to the fides, dry it by gentle
prefiure between the folds of fome fpongy paper.—
The oil may be feparated from the fpirit by filtra¬
tion, and afterwards re&ified by four diftillations,
ufing very clean retorts, and leaving an eighth part
of the oil each time, which is to be thrown away as
ufelefs.—The fait is to be purified by folution in
water and cryftallization.
In the diftillation of amber, the fire muft for fome
time be continued gentle, fcarce exceeding the degree
at which water boils, till the aqueous phlegm and thin
oil have arifen ; after which it is to be flowly increa¬
fed. If the fire was urged haftily, the amber would
fwell up, and rife in its whole fubftance into the re¬
ceiver, without undergoing the required decompofi-
tion or feparation of its parts. When fand or other
like intermedia are mixed with it, it is lefs fubjeft to
this rarefa&ion, and the fire may be raifed fomewhat
more expeditioully ; though this little advantage is
perhaps more than counterbalanced by the room which
the fand takes up in the retort.
Our cheraifts generally leave the receiver unluted,
that it may be occafionally removed as the fait rifes
and concretes in the neck of the retort ; from whence
it is every now and then feraped out, to prevent the
oil from carrying it down into the receiver. When a
grofs thick oil begins to arife, and no more fait ap¬
pears, the diftillation is flopped, though it might per¬
haps be continued longer to advantage.
713. The fpirit of anther, fo called, is no more than
a folution of a fmall portion of the fait in phlegm or
water; and therefore is very properly employed for
diftblving the fait in order to its cryftallization.
721. Pure fait of amber has a penetrating, fuba- Prepara-
ftringent acid tafte. It diflblves both in water and tlon!:—1
in re&ified fpirit, though not readily in either, and
fcarcely at all in the latter without the affiftance of
heat: of cold water in fummer, it requires for its fo¬
lution about twenty times its own weight; of boiling
water, only about twice its weight. Expofed in a glafs
veffel, to a heat a little greater than that of boiling
water, it firft melts, then rifes in a white fume, and
concretes again in the upper part of the glafs into fine
white flakes, leaving, unlefs it was perfe&ly pure, a
little coaly matter behind. It effervefees with alkalies
both fixed and volatile, and forms with them neutral
compounds, greatly refembling thofe compofed of the
fame alkalies and vegetable acids. Mixed with acid
liquors, it makes no fenfible commotion. Ground
with fixed alkaline falls, it does not exhale any uri¬
nous odour. By thefe characters, it is conceived this
fait may be readily diftinguilhed from all the other
matters that have been mixed with or vended for it.
With regard to its virtue, it is accounted aperient,
diuretic, and, on account of its retaining fome portion
of the oil, antihyfteric. Boerhaave gives it the cha¬
racter of diureticorum et antibyfericorum princeps. Its
great price, however, has prevented its coming much
into ufe ; and perhaps its real virtues are not equal to
the opinion generally entertained of them.
714. The rectified w'/has a ftrong bituminous fmell,
and a pungent acrid tafte. Given in a dofe of ten or
twelve drops, it heats, ftimulates, and promotes the
fluid fecretions: it is chiefly celebrated in hyfterical
diforders, and in deficiencies of the uterine purgations.
Sometimes it is ufed externally in liniments for weak
or paralytic limbs, and rheumatic pains. This oil
differs from all thofe of the vegetable kingdom, and
agrees with the mineral petrolea, in not being foluble,
either in its reftified or unreCtified ftate, by fpirit of
wine, fixed alkaline lixivia, or volatile alkaline fpirits;
the oil, after long digeftion or agitation, feparating as
freely as common oil does from water.
Sect. IX. Preparations of fulphur.
715. Flowers of Sulphur. L.
Sublime fulphur in proper veffels; and reduce the
flowers that concrete into powder, either in a wood¬
en mill, or in a marble-mortar with a wooden
peftle.
This procefs is rarely attempted by the apotheca¬
ries, a large apparatus being neceffary for performing
it to advantage. Thofe who prepare the flowers of
brimftone in quantity, ufe for the fubliming veffel a
large iron pot, capable of holding two or three hun¬
dred weight; this communicates with an arched cham¬
ber, lined with glazed tiles, which ferves for the re¬
cipient.
This preparation of fulphur makes no change in its
qualities; only feparating its impurities, and at the
fame time reducing it into a finer powder than it can
eafily be brought to by other means. At the bottom
of the fubliming vefiel there remains a ponderous grey-
coloured mafs, compofed of fand, earth, ftony and
fometimes metallic matters, with a fmall portion of
fulphur that has efcaped the fubliming heat. This is
ufually broken in pieces, and vended in the (hops un¬
der
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- der the name offulpbur vivum.
k-—-~S— 716. Wajhed /lowers of fulphur. L.
Pour upon the flowers as much water as will arife to
the height of four fingers above them, and boil them
for fome time : then pouring off this water, let
fome cold w'ater be added, and thoroughly wafh the
flowers ; after which they are to be dried for ufe.
As the flowers of fulphur are generally fublimed
into very capacious rooms, which contain a large
quantity of air, or in veflels not perfe&ly clofe ; fome
of tbofe that arife at firft are apt to take fire, and
thus are changed into a volatile acid vapour, which
mingling with the flowers that fublime afterwards,
communicates to them a notable degree of acidity.
In fuch cafe the ablution here dire&ed is for the ge¬
neral ufe of the medicine abfolutely neceflary ; for the
flowers, thus tainted with acid, fometimes occafion
gripes, and may in other refpe&s be produdtive of
effedts different from thofe of pure fulphur.
717. Thick lalfam of fulphur. E.
Take eight ounces of olive-oil, andone ounce of flow¬
ers of fulphur. Boil them together over a gentle
fire, keeping them continually ftirring, till they
come to the confiftence of a balfam.
Linfeed oil more readily diflTolves fulphur than oil-
olive, and a preparation made with it is reckoned
fomewhat lefs difagreeable. The veffel they are boil¬
ed in ought to be capable of holding at leaft three
times the quantity of the ingredients. As foon as the
oil begins to aft upon the fulphur, which happens
nearly at the point of ebullition, the mixture ratifies
very much, fo as, if not prudently removed from the
fire, to run over into the furnace ; and as the matter is
very fufceptible of flame, dangerous confequences may
enfue, efpecially ifrhe quantity is large. The operator
ought therefore to be upon his guard in the manage¬
ment of this procefs.
718. Balfam of fulphur with Barladoes tar. L.
This is made after the fame manner as the foregoing,
by ufing Barbadoes tar inftead of the oil.
719. Balfam of fulphur with oil of turpentine.
Take two ounces of walked flowers of fulphur, and fix
ounces of oil of turpentine. Digeft them together
in a fand-heat, till the oil is faturated with the ful¬
phur.
720. Balfam of fulphur with oil of anifeed.
Take two ounces of walked flowers of fulphur; fix
ounces of oil of turpentine ; and four ounces of ef-
fential oil of anifeeds. Digeft them together as in
the preceding procefs.
Thefe preparations are more conveniently and fafe-
ly made in a tall glafs body, with the mouth at leaft
an inch in diameter, than in the circulatory or clofe
vefiels in which they have commonly been dirtfted to
be prepared : for when the fulpbur and oil begin to
aft vehemently upon each other, they not only rarify
into a large volume, but likewife throw out impetu-
oully great quantities of an elaftic vapour, which, if
the vcflels are clofed, or the orifices not fufficient to
allow it a free exit, infallibly burft them : Hoffman
relates a very remarkable hiftory of the effefts of an ac-
M A C Y. 6091
cident of this kind. In the vdTel above recommend- Prepara-
ed, the procefs may be completed, without danger, in tlon*•
four or five hours, by duly managing the fire ; which
Ihould be very gentle for fome time, and afterwards
increafed fo as to make the oil juft bubble or boil, in
which ftate it Ihould be kept till all the fulphur ap¬
pears to be taken up.
Effential oils, employed as menftrua for fulphur, un •
dergo a great alteration from the degree of heat ne-
ceffary for enabling them to diffolve the fulphur ; and
hence the balfams have not near fo much of their fla¬
vour as might be expefted. It ftiould therefore feem
more eligible to add a proper quantity of the effential
oil to the Ample balfam : thefe readily incorporate by
a gentle warmth, if the veffel be now and then (haken.
Sixteen parts of effential oil, and fix of the thick hal~
fam, compofe a balfam more elegant than thofe made
in the foregoing manner, and which retains fo much
of the flavour of the oil as is in fome meafure fuffi¬
cient to cover the tafte of the fulphur and render it
fupportable.
Balfams of fulphur have been ftrongly recommend¬
ed in coughs, confumptions, and other diforders of
the bread and lungs. But the reputation which they
have had in thefe cafes does not appear to have been
built upon any fair trial or experience of their vir¬
tues. They are manifeftly hot, acrimonious, and ir¬
ritating; and therefore fhould be ufed with the utmoft
caution. They have frequently been found to injure
the appetite, offend the ftomach and vifeera, parch the
body, and occafion third and febrile heats. The dofe
is from 5 to 20 drops. Externally, they are employ¬
ed for cleanfing and healing foul runhing ulcers:
Boerhaave conjeftures, that their ufe in thefe cafes
gave occafion to the virtues aferibed to them when
taken internally.
721. Precipitatedfulphur. L.
Boil flowers of fulphur in water, with thrice their
weight of quicklime, till the fulphur is diffolved.
Filter the folution, and drop into it fome of the
weak fpirit of vitriol: this will throw down a pre¬
cipitate, which is to be walked in frefli portions of
water, till it becomes infipid.
722. Lac fulphur is.
Boil the hepar fulphuris, reduced to powder, in four
times its quantity of water for three hours; adding
more water if there is occafion. Then filter the
folution whilft hot; and drop it into fpirit of vitriol,
till the effervefcence ceafes; a powder will be preci¬
pitated to the bottom, which is to be vvafhed with hot
water, and afterwards dried for ufe.
The method of preparing this lac, as it is called,
with hepar fulphuris, is the mod expeditious, and leaft
troublefome, provided the hepar f be well made ; and,, ^
on the other hand, quicklime gives the preparation a -Z6
more faleable whitenefs. Some have been accuftomed”o 3^’,,
to add to the quicklime a portion of alkaline fait, with
a view to promote its diffolving ppwer.
The medicine is nearly the fame in both cafes. It
would be exaftly the fame, if the precipitation was
performed with any other acid than the vitriolic: for
this acid forms with the diffolved lime a felenitic con¬
crete, which precipitates along with the fulphur, and
is not afterwards feparable by any ablution; whilft the
34 H 2 neu-
6o$2
Prepara- neutral fait, which that acid forms with the fixed al-
ticns. ka]; 0f the hepar, may be totally diffolved and wafh-
ed off by repeated ablution with hot water, and the
combinations of all the other acids, both with the lime
and alkali, are feparated by cold water. It is pro¬
bably to the admixture of the white felenitic matter,
refulting from the vitriolic acid and lime, that the
finer colour of the preparation made with lime is ow-
Pure lac fulphuris is not different in quality from
pure fulphur itfelf; to which it is preferred in un¬
guents, &c. only on account of its colour. The
whitenefs does not proceed from the fulphur having
loft any of its parts in the operation, or from any new
matter fuperadded : for if common fulphur be ground
with alkaline falls, and fet to fublime, it arifes of a
like white colour, the whole quantity of the alkali re¬
maining unchanged ; and if the lac be melted with a
gentle fire, it returns into yellow fulphur again.
It may beobferved, that the name lac fulphuris, or
“ milk of fulphur,” applied among us to the precipi¬
tate, is by the French writers confined to the white
liquor before the precipitate has fallen from it.
723. Volatile tintture of fulphur.
Take of flowers of fulphur, fix ounces; fal ammoniac,
one pound ; quicklime, a pound and a half. Sprinkle
fome water on the lime; and, when flaked and fallen
into powder, grind it firft with the fulphur, and af¬
terwards with the fal ammoniac, in fmall quantities
at a time : then diftil the mixture in a retort, with
a fire gradually increafed. The diftilled liquor is to
be kept, in a bottle clofe flopped, for ufe.
This liquor has a ftrong offenfive fmell: the vapour
fpreads to a confiderable diftance, changes filver or
copper utenfils to a brown or blackifh colour, and pro¬
duces difagreeable alterations in many medical prepa¬
rations : to this circumftance, therefore, due regard
ought to be had in the performance of that procefs,
and in the keeping of this tinfture. If a piece of paper,
written upon with a faturated folution of lead in vege¬
table acids, and gently dried, be placed in the middle
of a quire of paper, or of a pretty thick book, and
brought near the unftopped orifice of the bottle con¬
taining this tin&ure, the vapour will quickly reach it,
and change the colourlefs writing to a legible black.
Hoffman has a great opinion of the virtues of this
preparation. He fays, a mixture of one part of the
tinfture with three of fpirit of wine, in a dofe of 30
or 40 drops, proves a moft powerful diaphoretic; and
that a liquor compofed of this and camphor, takes off
the pain of the gout, by bathing the feet with it.
This tinflure may be a powerful medicine, but it is
certainly a very unpleafant one.
Sect. X. Metallic Preparations.
§ 1. Preparations of Gold.
724. Gold is the moft ponderous and perfeft of the
metals: it abides fixed and unaltered in the ftrongeft
fire ; and is not afted upon by alkaline, or any fimple
acid menftruum. It dilfolves in aqua regia alone, into
a yellowifh tranfparent fluid : this folution ftains the
fkin, &c. purple; the ethereal fpirit of wine, and
fome effential oils, take up the gold from it: alkalies
Part II,
precipitate the metal in form of a yellowifh mud, Prepara,
which exficcated, and expofed to a fmall heat, violent- tlons‘
ly explodes.
As to the medicinal virtues of this metal, expe¬
rience has fufficiently fhown, that it is not poflefied of
any valuable ones. In its metallic form, however fine¬
ly comminuted, it proves inactive ; when fatiated with
acid, corrofive; and in the intermediate ftates, either
infignificant orunfafe.
725. Potalle gold.
Difiblve with a moderate heat, half a dram of fine
gold, in two ounces of aqua regia ; and add to the
folution one ounce of the effential oil of rofemary.
Shake them together, and then fuffer them to reft :
the acid lofes its gold yellow colour; and the oil,
which arifes to the furface, becomes richly impreg¬
nated therewith. Separate the oil by decantation,
and add to it four or five ounces of rectified fpirit
of wine: digeft this mixture for a month, and it
will acquire a purplifh colour.
There have been many preparations of this kind
contrived by the defigning pretenders to alchemy, and
impofed upon the credulous and unwary, as cordials
and diaphoretics of ineftimable value. The above
feems to be one of the beft and fafeft of them ; though
it would be equally ferviceable as a medicine, if made
without the ingredient which it receives its name
from. The gold is indeed taken up from the acid, and
kept for a time diflblved by the oil; but on {landing,
it totally feparates, in form of fine yellow films, like
leaf-gold. The effeft is the fame, whether the oil or
the vinous fpirit be mixed with the folution of the gold
in aqua regia : the only difference is, that the gold is
thrown off from the oil to the fides of the glafs; whilft
the fpirit revives it into fuch fubtle films, as to float
upon the furface of the liquor. No means have yet
been found of permanently combining gold v\ith either
oils or vinous fpirits.
$ 2. Preparations of Silver.
726. Silver is the moft permanent in the fire of all
the metals after gold. It diflblves in the pure nitrous
acid, into a colourlefs tranfparent liquor, intenfely bitter
and corrofive. This folution exficcated, furnifhes the
fliops with an ufeful cauftic ; which has likewife been
taken internally, in fmall dofes, and mixed with other
fubftances, as an hydragogue : it ftains the fkin black.
727, a. 77;e lunar caujlic. L.
Let pure filver be diflblved in about twice its weight of
aquafortis, upon warm fand ; then gently increafe
the heat, until a dry mafs is left. Melt this in a
crucible, that it may be poured into proper moulds,
carefully avoiding overmuch heat, left the matter
fhould grow too thick.
727, b. The lunar caujlic, or infernal fione. E.
Take four ounces of well-cupelled filver, flatted into
plates, and cut in pieces. Difiblve it, by the heat of
a fand-bath, in a mixture of eight ounces of weak
fpirit of nitre, and four ounces of water. Evapo¬
rate the folution to drynefs, and put the remaining
calx into a large crucible. Let the fire at firft be
gentle, and augment it by degrees, until the mafs
flows like oil, and ceafes to fume: then pour it in¬
to
PHARMACY.
PHARMACY.
Part II.
'repara- to iron pipes made for this purpofe, previoufly heat-
tl0ns- ed and greafed : laftly, let it be dried and kept for
ufe in a glafs veffel clofely ftopped.
The crucible ought to be large enough to hold five
or fix times the quantity of the dry matter; for it bub¬
bles and fwells up greatly, fo as otherwife to be apt to
run over: during this time, alfo, little drops are now
and then fpirted up, whofe caufticity is increafed by
their heat, and which the operator ought therefore to
be on his guard againft. The fire mud be kept mo¬
derate till this ebullition ceafes, and till the matter be¬
comes confident in the heat that made it boil before:
then quickly increafe the fire till the matter flows thin
at the bottom, like oil; on which it is to be immediate¬
ly poured into the mould, without waiting till the
fumes ceafe to appear; for when this happens, the
preparation proves not only too thick to run freely into
the mould, but likewife lefs jcorrofive than it is expec¬
ted to be.
In want of a proper iron mould, one may be formed
of tempered tobacco-pipe-clay, not too moifl, by ma¬
king in a lump of it, with a fmooth dick fird greafed,
as many holes as there is occafion for; pour the liquid
matter into thefe cavities, and, when congealed, take
it out by breaking the mould. Each piece is to be
wiped clean from the greafe ; and wrapt up in dry
foft paper, not only to keep the air from a&ing upon
them, but likewife to prevent their corroding or dif-
colouring the fingers in handling.
This preparation is a firong caudic, and frequently
employed as fuch for confuming warts and other flelhy
excrefcences, keeping down fungous flefh in wounds
or ulcers, and other like ufes. It is rarely applied
where a deep efchar is required) as in the laying open
of impodhumations and tumours; for the quantity ne-
ceffary for thefe purpofes, liquefying by the moidure
of ;he Ikin, fpreads beyond the limits in which it is in¬
tended to operate.
728. The luna r pills.
Diflblvc pure filver in aquafortis; and after due evapo¬
ration, fet the liquor to cryfiallize. Let the cryf-
tals be again difiblved in common water, and min¬
gled with a folution of equal their weight of nitre.
Evaporate this mixture to drynefs, and continue the
exficcation with a gentle heat, keeping the matter
condantly dirring till no more fumes arife.
Here it is neceffary to continue the fire till the fumes
entirely ceafe, as more of the acid is required to be
diffipated than in the preceding procefs. The prepa¬
ration is, neverthelefs, in tafie very (harp, intenfely
bitter, and naufeous ; applied to ulcers, it adfs as a cau-
ftic, but much milder than the foregoing. Boerhaave,
Boyle, and others, greatly commend it in hydropic
cafes. The former affures us, that two grains of it
made into a pill, with a crumb of bread and a little
fugar, and taken on an empty domach, (fome warm
water, fweetened with honey, being drank immediately
after), purge gently without griping, and bring away
a large quantity of water, almod without the patient’s
perceiving it: that it kills worms, and cures many in¬
veterate ulcerous diforders. He neverthelefs cautions
againd ufing it too freely, or in too large a dofe; and
obferves, that it always proves corrofive and weakening,
efpecially to the ftomach.
$. 3. Preparations of Iron. f
729. Iron calcines by fire the mod eafily, and melts
the mod difficultly of all the metals. Sulphur pro¬
motes its fufion, and changes it into a fubdance not
greatly dilfimilar to a combination of the metal with
acid. All acids diflblve this metal; even the air cor¬
rodes it into a rud or calx.
Iron, in its metallic form, or lightly calcined, or com¬
bined with vegetable or with mineral acids, adfs in the
human body in the fame manner (but with different
degrees of power) by condringing the fibres. In all
thefe dates, it promotes or redrains fecretions, where
the deficiency or excefs proceed from a laxity and debi¬
lity of the veffels; and, in general, raifes the pulfe, and
quickens the circulation. The calces feem to be the
lead aftive preparations; the crude metal duly com¬
minuted, is more eafily foluble in the animal fluids, and,
if acefcent juices are lodged in the primas vise, foon
manifeds its operation by nidorous eruftations, and the
black colour of the alvine fa:ces; if previoufly combi¬
ned with faline bodies, it fcarce ever fails of takine ef-
feft. 6
735. As the calces x>f iron are fcarcely diffoluble in
acids, it has been concluded that they are not folpble
in the human body, and that therefore they are to be
looked upon no otherwife than as a mereinaftive earth.
But admitting the abfolute indiffolubility of iron while
it continues a calx, it mull be obferved, that the calces
of this metal are remarkably eafy of revival into their
metallic date. Mr Beaume relates, that calx of iron, di-
geded for an hour or two in oil-olive, refumes its per¬
fect metallic nature, fo as to be attrafted by the mag¬
net, and totally foluble in acids; from whence he in¬
fers, that a like revival of the metal happens in the hu¬
man body. It is matter of common obfervation, that
calces of iron tinge the excrements black, a fure mark
of their taking effeft : though their effeft appears to
be neither fo (peedy nor fo great as that of iron in fome
other forms.
730. Rujl of Jleelprepared. L.
Expofe filings of deel to the air, frequently moidening
them with vinegar or water, until they change into
rud: then grind them in a mortar; and, pouring on
water, wa(h over the more fubtle powder. The re¬
mainder is to be expofed afrefh to the air, and moid-
ened as at fird; then triturated and wafhed again;
and the powders that have been waflied over, dried
and kept for ufe.
The rud of iron is preferable as a medicine to the
calces, or croci, made by a drong fire. Hoffman re¬
lates, that he has frequently given it with remarkable
fuccefs in obflinate chlorotic cafes, accompanied with
exceffive headachs and other violent fymptoms ; and
that he uiually joined it with pimpinella, arum root,
and fait of tartar, with a little cinnamon and fugar.
The dofe is from four or five grains to 20 or 30: fome
have gone as far as a dram ; but all the preparations
of this metal anfwer bed in fmall dofes, which Ihould
rather be often repeated than enlarged.
731. Scales of iron prepared. E.
The feales beat off from pieces of iron when hammer¬
ed on the anvil are to be cleanfed by a magnet; thofe
which the magnet attrafta being kept for ufe.
733. Mar-
6093
6094 P H A R
Prepara- 732. Martial ethiops.
tlons‘ Put filings of fteel into an unglazed earthen vefiel, with
fo much water as will ftand above them about four
inches; the whole is to be well ftirred every day,
and more water fupplied as that in the veffel exhales,
fo that the filings may remain always covered: con¬
tinue this procedure for fevtral months, till they
lofe their metallic afpe<5f, and are reduced to a fine
powder of an inky blacknefs.
This preparation is defcribed by Lemery in the me¬
moirs of the French academy. But the tedioufnefs of
the procefs has prevented its coming into ufe; efpeci-
ally as it does not promife any advantage above the
common chalybeate preparations, to counterbalance
that inconvenience.
733. Steel prepared'with fulphur. L.
Heat the fteel with a very fierce fire to a ftrong white
heat, and in this ftate apply it to a roll of fulphur
held over a veflel of water: the fteel will melt, and
fall down in drops, which are to be picked out from
the fulphur that runs down with them, and ground
into an impalpable powder.
The fhops have been generally fupplied with a pre¬
paration of fteel with fulphur made at an eafier rate in
the following manner.
734. Sulphurated iron.
Mix filings of iron with twice their weight of.powder¬
ed fulphur, and as much water as is fufficient to make
them into a pafte; which on (landing at reft for fix
hours, will fwell up. The matter is then to be pul¬
verized, put by degrees into a hot crucible to defla¬
grate, and kept continually ftirring with an iron fpa-
tula till it falls into a deep black powder.
If the quantity of this mixture is confiderable, and
ftrongly preffed down, it will not only fwell on (land¬
ing for fome hours, but will heave up very weighty
obftacles, -and burft out into flame.
735. Opening crocus of iron.
This is made by keeping the foregoing preparation
longer over the fire, till it affumes a red colour.
736. Afringent crocus of iron.
This is made from the opening crocus of iron, by re¬
verberating it for a long time in the mod extreme
degree of heat.
Thefe preparations differ from one another in virtue;
though the difference is not of fuch a kind as the titles
they have been ufually diftinguifhed by import. All
the preparations of fled a<St by an aflringent quality;
that above, denominated ajiringent, feems to have the
leaft effeft. They may be given in form of bolus, elec¬
tuary, or pill, from fix grains to a fcruple.
In fome foreign pharmacopoeias, the croci of iron
are prepared from pure green vitriol. This ftrongly
calcined {or the colcothar remaining after the diftilla-
tion of oil of vitriol), is the afringent crocus ; when
lefs calcined, it is called aperient. Thefe preparations
differ little, if at all, from thofe above diftinguifhed by
the fame appellations: and accordingly the Edinburgh
college has now allowed the fubftitution of colcothar
of vitriol to both the croci.
737. Soluble or tartarized feel. E.
Mix equal parts of iron filings and cryftals of tartar,
M A C Y. Part II.
with as much water as is fufficient to reduce them Prepara- i
intoamafs: this mafs is to be dried in a fand-heat; ,ion!• |
then powdered, moiftened, and dried again ; and
this procefs repeated, till fuch time as the matter
will eafily grind into an impalpable powder.
This is a very elegant and ufeful preparation of (led.
It may be given either in a liquid form, or in that of
a bolus, &c. in dofes of four five grains, or half a
fcruple. Dr Willis is faid to have been the inventor of
this preparation, and by his name it has been ufually
diftinguifhed in the (hops.
738. Martial flowers. L.
Take of colcothar of green vitriol wafhed, or filings of
iron, one pound; fal ammoniac, two pounds. Mix
and fublime in a retort. Grind the flowers with the
matter which remains in the bottom of the retort,
and repeat the fubliraation until the flowers arife of
a beautiful yellowifh colour. To the refiduum you
may add half a pound of frdh fal ammoniac, and
fublime as before; repeating this as long as the flow¬
ers arife well coloured.
This preparation is fuppofed to be highly aperient
and attenuating; though no otherwife fo than the reft
of the chalybeates, or at mod only by virtue of the
faline matter joined to the iron. It has been found of
good fervice in hyfterical and hypochondriacal cafes, and
in diftempers proceeding from a laxity and weaknefs
of the folids, as the rickets. It may be conveniently
taken in the form of a bolus, from two or three grains
to ten: it is naufeous in a liquid form (unlefs in fpiri-
tuous tindlure), and occafions pills to fwell and crumble
except fuch as are made of the gums.
739. Salt offeel. L.
Take of (Irong fpirit or oil of vitriol, eight ounces;
iron filings, four ounces; water, two pints. Mix
them together; and after the ebullition ceafes, let the
mixture ftand for fome time upon a warm fand ;
then pour off' and filter the liquor; and after proper
exhalation fet it by to cryflallize.
The fait of (leel is one of the mod efficacious pre¬
parations of this metal; and not unfrequently made
ufe of in cacheftic and chlorotic cafes, for exciting the
uterine purgations, ftrengthening the tone of the vif-
cera, and deftroying worms. It may be conveniently
taken in a liquid form, largely diluted with aqueous
fluids. Boerhaave dire&s it to bediffolved in an hun¬
dred times its quantity of water, and the folution to be
taken in the dofe of 12 ounces, on an empty ftomacb,
walking gently after it.; thus managed, he fays, it
opens the body, purges, proves diuretic, kills and ex¬
pels worms, tinges the excrements black, or forms them
into a matter like clay, ftrengthens the fibres, and
thus cures many different diftempers. The quantity of
vitriol in the above dofe of the folution is 57 grains
and a hajf: but in common practice, fuch large dof s
of this ftrong chalybeate are never ventured on. Four
or five grains, and in many cafes half a grain, are fuf¬
ficient for the intentions in which chalybeate medicines
are given. Very dilute folutions, as that of a grain of
the fait in a pint of water, may be ufed as fuccedanea
to the natural chalybeate waters, and will in many
cafes produce fimilar effedls.
’art II, P H A R
-tlons• § 4. Preparations of Copper.
740. Copper is lefs eafy of folution than iron; and
in its metallic (late, does not appear to be acted on by
the animal fluids, or to have any confiderable effeft in
the body. Diffolved, it proves externally an efcharo-
tic; internally, a violent purgative and emetic. Acids
of every kind diflblve it, and likewife volatile alkalies.
With the vegetable and marine acids, it forms a green
folution ; with the vitriolic acid and volatile alkalies,
a blue.
741. Volatile tinciure of copper.
Take of copper filings, one dram ; fpirit of fal ammo¬
niac, 12 drams. Let them ftand together in a clofe
veflel, frequently lhaking it, until the liquor is tin¬
ged of a beautiful violet colour.
This tin&ure, or folution, of copper has been given
internally, in the dofe of a few drops, as a diuretic.
Boerhaave direfts at firft three drops to be taken in a
morning falling, with a glafsof mead; and this dofe to
be daily doubled till it comes to 24 drops; which lalt
quantity is to be continued for fome days: he fays,
that by this means he cured an hydropic perfon labour¬
ing under a confirmed afcites, and that the medicine
procured furprifing difcharges of urine; that neverthe-
lefs, on trying it in another cafe of the fame kind, it
did not anfwer.
742. Ammoniacal copper. E-
Take of blue vitriol, two ounces; difiblve it in fix
ounces of boiling water, gradually drop in as much
fpirit of fal ammoniac as will firll precipitate, and
then entirely diflblve the metal. Evaporate the li¬
quor with a very gentle heat, and keep the blue fa-
hne mafs in bottles well flopped.
§ 5. Preparations of Lead.
743. Lead readily melts in the fire, and calcines
into a dulky powder; Which, if the flame is reverbera¬
ted on it, becomes at firft yellow, then red, and at
length melts into a vitreous mafs. This metal diflblves
eafily in the nitrous acid, difficultly in the vitriolic, and
in fmall quantity in the vegetable acids ; it is alfb fo-
luble in exprefled oils, efpecially when calcined.
Lead and its calces, wliilft undiflblved, have no con¬
fiderable effe&s as medicines. Diflblved in oils, they
are fuppofed to be (when externally applied) anti-in¬
flammatory and deficcative. Combined with vegetable
acids, they are notably fo; and taken internally, prove
a powerful but dangerous ftyptic.
744. Minium^ or red lead.
Let any quantity of lead be melted in an unglazed
earthen veflel, and kept ftirring with an iron fpatula,
till it falls into a powder, at firft blackifti, after¬
wards yellow, and at length of a deep red colour, in
which laft Hate it is called minium; taking care not
to raife the fire fo high as to run the calx into a vi¬
treous mafs.
Thefe calces are employed in external applications,
for abating inflammations, cleanfing and healing ul¬
cers, and the like. Their effeCts, however, are not very
confiderable.; nor are they perhaps of much farther
M A C Y. 6095
real ufe, than as they give confidence to the plafter, Piepara-
unguent, &c. tl01is‘
745. Cerujfe, or ’white lead. E.
Put fome vinegar into the bottom, of an earthen veflel,
and fufpend over the vinegar very thin plates of lead,
in fuch a manner that the vapour which arifes from
the acid may circulate about the plates. Set the
containing veflel in the heat of horfe-dung, for three
weeks: if at the end of this time the plates are not
totally calcined, fcrape off the white powder, and
expofe them again to the fleam of vinegar, till all the
lead is thus corroded into powder.
In this operation the lead is fo far opened by the
acid, as to difcover, when taken internally, the malig¬
nant quality of the metal ; and to prove externally,
when fprinkled on running fores, or ulcers, moderately
cooling, drying, and aftridive.
746. Sugar of lead.
Boil ceruffe with diftilled vinegar in a leaden veflel, un¬
til the vinegar becomes fufficiently fweet; then filter
the vinegar through paper, and after due evapora¬
tion fet it to cryftallize. L.
Put any quantity of cerufle into a cucurbit, and pour
thereon diftilled vinegar to the height of four inches.
Digeft them together for fome days in a fand-heat,
till the vinegar has acquired a fweetifti tafte; when
it is to be fuffered to fettle, and then poured off.
Add frefh vinegar to the remainder, and repeat this
procefs till the menftruum no longer extrads any
fweet tafte. Let all the impregnated liquors reft for
fome time ; and after they have been poured from
the faeces, evaporate them in a glafs veflel, to the
coniiftence of thin honey; fo that upon being fet in
a cool place, the fugar may ftioot into cryftals, which
are afterwards to be dried in the (hade. Exhale the
remaining liquor to a pellicle, fet it again in the cold,
and more cryftals will ftioot; repeat this operation
till no cryftals can any longer be obtained. E.
The fugar of lead is much more efficacious than the
foregoing preparations, in the feveral intentions which
they are applied to. Some have ventured upon it in¬
ternally, in dofes of a few grains, as a ftyptic, in hae¬
morrhages, profufe colliquative fweats, feminal fluxes,
the fluor albus, &c. nor has it failed their expeda-
tions. It very powerfully reftrains the difcharge; but
almoft as certainly as it does this, it occafions fymp-
toms of another kind, often more dangerous than thofe
removed by it, and fometimes fatal. Violent pains in
the bowels or through the whole body, and obftinate
conftipations, fometimes immediately follow, efpecially
if the dofe has been confiderable ; cramps, tremors,
and weaknefs of the nerves, generally, fooner or later
enfue.
§ 6. Preparations of Tin.
747. Tin eafily melts in the fire, and calcines into
a dufky powder, which by a farther continuance of the
heat becomes white. A mafs of tin heated till it is
juft ready to melt proves extremely brittle, fo as to fall
in pieces from a blow, and by dextrous agitation into
powder. Its proper menftruum is aqua regia; though
the other mineral acids alfo may be made to diffolve it,
and the vegetable ones, in fmall quantity. It cryftal-
lizes;
6096 P H A R
Prepara- Hzes with the vegetable and vitriolic acids; but with
111111 s' the others, deliquiates.
The virtues of this metal are little known. It has
been recommended as an antihyfteric, antihecfic, &c.
At prefent it is chiefly ufed as an anthelmintic.
748. Powdered tin. L.
Melt the tin, and pour it into a wooden box rubbed
in the infide with chalk : then immediately let the
box be nimbly fhaken, and a part of the tin will fall
into powder. The remainder is to be melted a fe-
cond time, and treated in the fame manner, till the
whole of the metal is thus reduced into powder.
This preparation has been ufed for fome time as a
remedy againft worms, particularly the flat kinds, which
too often elude the force of other medicines. The ge¬
neral dofe is from a fcruple to a dram; fome confine it
to a few grains. But Dr Alfton allures us, in the E-
dinburgh Eflays, that its fuccefs chiefly depends upon
its being given in much larger quantities: he gives an
ounce of the powder on an empty ftomach, mixed with
four ounces of mclafles ; next day, half an ounce; and
the day following, half an ounce more; after which, a
cathartic is adminiftered: he fays the worms are ufually
voided during the operation of the purge, but that
pains of the ftomach occafioned by them are removed
almoft immediately upon taking the firft dofe of the tin.
§ 7. Preparations of Mercury;
749. Mercury, or quickfilver, is a ponderous me¬
tallic fluid, totaly volatile in a ftrong fire, and cal¬
culable by a weaker one (tho’ very difficultly) into a
red powdery fubftance. It diffolvesin the nitrous acid,
is corroded by the vitriolic, but not a&ed on by the
marine in its liquid ftate : it neverthelefs may be com¬
bined with this laft, if Ikilfully applied in the form of
fume. Qinckfilver unites, by trituration, with earthy,
undluous, refinous, and other like fubftances, fo as to
lofe its fluidity : triturated with fulphur, it forms a
black mafs, which by fublimation changes to a beau¬
tiful red one.
The general virtues of the mercurial preparations
are, to fufe the juices, however vifcid, in the mi*
nuteft and remotelt veffels ; by this means they prove
eminently ferviceable in inveterate chronical diforders,
proceeding from a thicknefs and fluggilhnefs of the
humours, and obftinate obftruclions of the glands.
Crude mercury has no effect this way. Refolved into
fume, or divided into minute particles, and prevented
from re-uniting by the interpofition of other fubftan¬
ces, it operates very powerfully ; unlefs the dividing
body be fulphur, which reftrains its a&ion. Combined
with a fmall quantity of the mineral acids, it a£ls ef-
fe&ually, though in general mildly ; with a larger, it
proves violently corrofive.
750. Purification of quickfilver. L.
Diftil quickfilver in a retort; and afterwards wa(h it
with water and common fait, or with vinegar.
If a glafs retort is made ufe of for this operation,
it ought to have a low body, and a long neck ; and
the neck (hould be confiderably inclined downwards,
fo as to allow the elevated mercury a quick defcent:
the receiver ftiould be filled almoft to the neck of the
retort with water; the ufe of this is not to condenfe,
M A C Y. Part II.
but to cool, the diftilling quickfilver, left falling hot Prepara-
upon the bottom it fhould crack the glafs. The di- tlons: . 1
ftillation may be more conveniently performed in an
iron retort, or an iron pot fitted with a head.
The fire fhould be raifed no higher than is fufficient
to elevate the mercury; for certain mineral fubftances,
which are faid to be fometimes mixed with it, prove in
part volatile in a degree of heat not much greater
than that in which mercury diftiis. Mr Boyle relates,
that he has known quickfilver carry up with it a por¬
tion even of lead, fo as to have its weight very fenfibly
increafed thereby; and this happened tho’ only a mo¬
derate fire was ufed.
751. Sugared mercury.
Take pure quickfilver, brown fugar-candy, of each
half an ounce. EtTential oil of juniper-berries, 16
drops. Grind them together in a glafs mortar, un¬
til the mercury ceafes to appear.
The eflential oil, here added, is faid to be a very
ufeful ingredient ; not only promoting the extinftion.
of the quickfilver (which, however, is (fill not a little
difficult and tedious), but likewife improving the me¬
dicine. The intention is only to divide the mer¬
cury by the interpofition of other bodies; for when
thus managed, it has very powerful effeds; tho’ whilft
undivided, it feems to be altogether ina&ive. Sugar
alone apparently anfwers this intention ; but on the
commixture of aqueous fluids, the fugar diflblves by
itfelf, leaving the mercury to run together again in its
original form : the addition of the oil is faid in great
meafure to prevent this inconvenience. Thedofeof this
medicine, as an alterative, is from two or three grains
to a fcruple.
752. Ethiops ?nineral.
Take purified quickfilver, flowers of fulphur, unwafh-
ed, of each equal weights. Grind them together
in a glafs or ftone mortar, until they are united. L.
Take of purified quickfilver, flowers of fulphur, each
equal weights. Grind them together in a glafs
mortar, with a glafs peftle, till the mercurial glo¬
bules totally difappear. E.
An ethiops is made alfo with a double quantity of
mercury.
The union of the mercury and fulphur might be
greatly facilitated by the affiftance of a little warmth.
Some are accuftomed to make this preparation in a
very expeditious manner, by melting the fulphur in an
iron ladle, then adding the quickfilver, and ftirring
them together till the mixture is completed. The fmall
degree of heat here fufficient, cannot reafonably be
fuppofed to do any injury to fubftances which have
already udergone much greater fires, not only in the
extraflion from their ores, but likewife in the purifi¬
cations of them direded in the pharmacopoeia. In the
following procefs, they are expofed in conjundion to a
ftrong fire, without fufpicion of the compound recei¬
ving any ill quality from it. Thus much is certain,
that the ingredients are more perfedly united by heat,
than by the degree of triture ufually beftowed upon
them. From the ethiops prepared by triture, part of
the mercury is apt to be fpued out on making it into
an eleduary or pills : from that made by fire, nofepa-
ration is obferved to happen.
Ethiops-
Part IT.
P H A R M A C Y.
Prepara- Ethiops mineral is- one of the moft inadive of the
liona. mercurial preparations. Some praditioners have boldly
alferted its pofleffing extraordinary virtues ; and moft
people imagine it a medicine of feme efficacy. But
what benefit is to be expeded from it in the common
dofes of eight or ten. grains, or a fcruple, may be
judged from hence, that it has been taken in dofes of
feveral drams, and continued for a confiderable time,
without producing any remarkable effed. Sulphur
eminently abates the power of all the more adive mi¬
nerals, and fee ms to be at the fame time reftrained by
them from operating in the body itfelf. Boerhaave,
who. is in general fufficiently liberal in the commenda¬
tion of medicines, difapproves the ethiops in very
vftrong terms. “ It cannot enter the abforbent veffds,
the ladteals, or lymphatics ; but paffes diredly through
the inteftinal tube, where it may happen to deftroy
worms, if it operates luckily. They are deceived
who exped any other effcds from it ; at leaf! I myfelf
could never find them. I am afraid, it is unwarily
given, in fuch large quantities, to children and per-
fons of tender conflitutions ; as being a foreign mafs,
unconquerable by the body, the more to be fufpeded,
as it continues fring, fluggilh, and inadive. It does
not raife a falivation, becaufe it cannot come into the
blood. Who knotvs the effeds of a fubftance, which,
fo long as it remains compounded, feems no more adive
than any infipid pondefous earth !” The ethiops with a
double proportion of mercury, received into the for¬
mer edition of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, has a
greater chance for operating as a mercurial; and pro¬
bably the quantity of mercury might be ftill further
increafed to advantage.
753. Artificial cinnalar. E.
Take of purified quickiilver, three ponnds and a half;
flowers of fulphur, wafhed, one pound. Melt the
fulphur in a large iron veffel, overa gentle fire; and
add to it by degrees the quickfifver previoufly heat¬
ed, ftirring them conftantly together with an iron
fpatula that they may be perfedly mixed. Imme¬
diately fit upon the vefiel a wooden cover, to prevent
the mixture from taking fire: before the matter is
grown cold, grind it into po.wder, and fublime ac¬
cording to art.
It has been cuftomary to order a larger quantity of
fulphur than here direded : but this fmaller propor¬
tion anfwers better; for the lefs fulphur, the finer
coloured is cinnabar.
The principal ufe of cinnabar is as a pigment. It was
formerly held in great eileem as a medicine, in cuta¬
neous foulnefles, gouty and rheumatic pains, epileptic
cafes, &c. but of late it has loft much of its reputa¬
tion. It appears to be nearly fimilar to the ethiops,
already fpoken of. Cartheufer relates, that having
given cinnabar in large quantities to a dog, it produ¬
ced no fenfible effed; but was partly voided along
with the fasces unaltered, and partly found entire in
the ftomach and inteftines, upon opening the animal.
The celebrated Frederick Hoffman, after beftowing
high encomiums on this preparation, as having in
many inftances within his own knowledge perfedly
cured epilepfies and vertigoes from contufions of the
bead (where it is probable, however, that the cure did
sot fo much depend upon the cinnabar, as on the fpon-
Von. VIII. 1
taneous recovery of the parts from the external injury)
obferves, that the large repeated dofes, neceffary for
having any effed, can be borne only where the firft
paffages are ftrong ; and that if the fibres of the fto¬
mach and inteftines are lax and flaccid, the cinnabar,
accumulated and concreting with the niucuous matter
of the parts, occafions great oppreffion : Which feems
to bean acknowledgment that the cinnabar is not fub-
dued by the powers of digeftion, and has no proper
medicinal adivity. There are indeed fome inftances
of the daily ufe of cinnabar having brought on a fali-
vation ; perhaps from the cinnabar, made ufe of in
thofe cafes, having contained a lefs proportion of ful¬
phur than the forts commonly met with. The regu-
1-us of antimony, and even white arfenic, when com¬
bined with a certain quantity of common fulphur, feem
to have their deleterious power deftroyed: on feparating
more and more of the fulphtir, they exert more and
more of their proper virulence. It does not feem un-
reafonable to prefume, that mercury may have its ac¬
tivity varied in like manner; that when perfedly fa-
tiated with fulphur, it may be inert; and that when
the quantity of fulphur is more and more leffened, the
compound may have greater and greater degrees of the
proper efficacy of mercurials.
Cinnabar is fometimes ufed in fumigations againft
venereal ulcers in the nofe, mouth, and throat. Half
a dram of it burnt, the fume being imbibed with the
breath, has occafioned a violent falivation. This effed;
is by no means owing to the medicine as cinnabar:
when fet on fire, it is no longer a mixture of mercury
and fulphur; but mercury refolved into fume, and
blended in part with the volatile vitriolic acid ; in ei¬
ther of which circumftances, this mineral, as already
obferved, has'very powerful effeds.
754. Calcined mercury. L.
Put purified quickfilver into a broad-bottomed glafs
veffel, having a (mail hole open to the air, and keep
it in a couftant heat, in a fand-furnace, for fe¬
veral months, until it is calcined into a red powder.
This tedious procefs might, in all probability, be
greatly expedited, by employing, inftead of a veffel
with a fmail aperture, a very wide-mouthed, flat-bot¬
tomed glafs body, of fuch a height that the mercury
may not efcape; by this means, the air, which is ef-
fentially neceffary to the calcination of all metallic fub-
ftances, wull be more freely admitted. A veffel might
be fo contrived, as to occafion a continual flux of air
over the furface of the mercury.
This preparation is by fome highly efteemed in ve¬
nereal cafes, and fuppofed to be the moft efficacious
and certain of all the mercurials. It may be advan-
tageoufly given in conjundion with opiates; a bolus
or pill, containing from half a grain to two grains of
this calx, and a quarter or half a grain or more of
opium, with the addition of fome warm aromatic in¬
gredient, may be taken every night. Thus managed,
it ads mildly, though powerfully, as an alterative
and diaphoretic : given by itfelf in larger dofes, as
four or five grains, it proves a rough emetic and ca¬
thartic.
755. Solution tif mercury.
Take equal quantities of pure qnickfilver, and good
34 I aT'a-
6o()7
Prepara-
6098
PHARMACY.
Part II.
aquafortis. Digeft them together in a phial placed
in a fand furnace, that a limpid folution may be
made.
Aquafortis diflblves mercury more eafily, and in
larger quantity, than any other acid: 16 ounces, if
the menftruum is very ftrong and pure, will take up
11 or 12. As the liquor grows cold, a confiderable
part concretes, at the bottom of the veffd, into a cry-
ftalline form. If the whole is wanted to remain fuf-
pended, a proper quantity of water fhould be added
after the folution is completed.
This procefs is given only as preparatory to fomeof
the following ones. The folution is highly cauftic, fo
as fcarce to be fafely touched. It ftains the flcin purple
or black.
756. Calx of mercury.
Take any quantity of the folution of mercury, and eva¬
porate it over a gentle fire, till a white dry mafs re¬
mains.
This calx, or rather fait, of mercury, is violently
corrofive. It is rarely made ufe of any otherwife than
for making the following preparation and the corro¬
five fublimate.
757. Red calx of mercury, commonly called red preci¬
pitate. E.
Take any quantity of the calx of mercury, and rever¬
berate it in a crucible with fucceffive degrees of
heat. Its white colour will change firft into a
brown, and afterwards a yellow; at length, upon
increafing the fire, it paffes into a deep red.
758. The red mercurial corrofive. L.
Take of purified quickfilver, compound aquafortis (a),
of each equal weights. Mix, and fet them in a broad-
bottomed veffel, in a fand-heat, till all the humi¬
dity is exhaled, and the mafs has acquired a red co¬
lour.
The marine acid In the compound menftruum order¬
ed in this laft procefs, difpofes the mercurial calx to
affume the bright fparkling look admired in it; which,
though perhaps no advantage to it as a medicine,
ought neverthelefs to be infifted on by the buyer as a
mark of its goodnefs and ftrength. As foon as the
matter has gained this appearance, it fhould be imme¬
diately removed from the fire, otherwife it will foon
lofe it again. The preparation of this red precipitate,
as it is called, in perfection, is ftippofed by fome to be
a fecret not known to our chemifts; infomuch that
we are under a neceffity of importing it from abroad.
This reflection feems to be founded on mifinformation:
we fometimes indeed receive confiderable quantities
from Holland; but this depends upon the ingredients
being commonly cheaper there than with us, and not
upon any fecret in the manner of the preparation.
This precipitate is, as its title imports, an efcharo-
tic; and in this intention is frequently employed by
thefurgeons, with bafilicum, and other drefiings, for
confuming fungous flefli in ulcers, and the like pur-
pofes. It is fubjeCt to great uncertainty in point of
ftrength ; more or lefs of the acid exhaling, according
to the degree and continuance of the fire. The beft
criterion of its ftrength, as already obferved, is its
brilliant appearance; which is alfo the mark of its Prepara-
genuinenefs: if mixed with minium, which it is fome- K0"5.
times faid to be, the duller hue will difcover the abufe.
This admixture may be more certainly detected by
means of fire: the mercurial part will totally evapo¬
rate, leaving the minium behind.
Some have ventured to give this medicine internally,
in venereal, fcrophulous, and other obftinate chronic
diforders, in dofes of two or three grains and more.
But certainly, the milder mercurials, properly mana¬
ged, are capable of anfwering all that can be expec¬
ted from this; without occafioning violent anxieties,
tormina of the bowels, and other ill confequences,
which the beft management can fcarcely prevent this
corrofive preparation from fometimes doing.
759. The ^nhite mercurial corrofive, or corrofive mercury
fublimate.
Take of purified quickfilver, forty ounces; fea-falt,
thirty-three ounces; nitre, twenty-eight ounces;
calcined green vitriol, fixty-fix ounces. Grind the
quickfilver, in a wooden or (tone mortar, with an
ounce or more of corrofive mercyry fublimate already
made, until the quickfilver is divided into fmall
grains: this mixture is to be ground with the nitre,
and afterwards with the fea-falt; then add the cal¬
cined vitriol, continuing the triturc only for a little
time longer, left the quickfilver fhould run together
again. Laftly, proceed to fublimation, in a glafs
matrafs ; to which you may adapt a head, in order
to fave a little fpirit that will come over. L.
Take of quickfilver, and weak fpirit of nitre, of each
four ounces; calcined fea-falt and calcined vitriol,
of each five ounces; diffolve the quickfilver in the
acid, and let the mixture be evaporated almoft to
drynefs; then add the vitriol and fea-falt, and fub-
lime the mixture in a proper veflel. E.
The fublimate made by this method is the fame
with the foregoing; but as the quantity of fixed
matter is fmall, it difficultly aflumes the form of a cake.
It requires indeed fome fkill in the operator, to give
it this appearance when either procefs is followed.
When large quantities are made, this form may be
eafily obtained, by placing the matrafs no deeper in
the fand than the furface of the matter contained in it;
and removing a little of the fand from the fides of the
glafs, as foon as the flowers begin to appear in the
neck; when the heat fhould likewife be fomewhat
lowered, and not at all railed during the whole pro¬
cefs. The fublimation is known to be completed by
the edges of the cryftalline cake, which will form up¬
on the furface of the caput mortuum, appearing fmooth
and even, and a little removed from it.
Sublimate is a moft violent corrofive, prefently
corrupting and deftroying all the parts of the body it
touches. A folution of it in water, in the proportion
of about a dram to a quart, is made ufe of for keeping
down proud flefh, and cleanfing foul ulcers ; and a
more dilute folution, as a cofroetic and for deftroying
cutaneous infefls. But a great deal of caution is re-
quifite even in thefe external ufes of it.
Some have neverthelefs ventured to give it inter¬
nally, in the dofe of one-tenth or one-eighth of a
grain. Boerhaave relates, that if a grain of it be dif-
folved
4a) Compound aquafortis is made by diftilling a pound of the common fort from a dram of fea-falt.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- folved in an ounce or more of water, and a dram of
tioni. th[8 folution, foftened with fyrup of violets, taken
twice or thrice a day, it will perform wonders in many
reputed incurable diftempers ; but he particularly cau¬
tions us not to venture upon it, unlefs the method of
managing it is well known.
Sublimate diflblved in vinous fpirits has of late been
given internally in larger dofes; from a quarter of a
grain to half a grain. This method of ufing it was
brought into vogue by baron Van Swieten at Vienna,
particularly for venereal maladies ; and feveral trials
of it have been made in this kingdom alfo with fuccefs.
Eight grains of the fublimate are diffolved in fixteen
ounces of re&ified fpirit of wine or proof-fpirit ; the
re&ified fpirit diflblves it more perfe&ly, and feems to
make the medicine milder in its operation than the
proof-fpirit of the original prefcription ofVan Swieten.
Of this folution, from one to two fpoonfuls, that is,
from half an ounce loan ounce, are given twice a day,
and continued till all the fymptoms are removed ; ob-
ferving to ufe a low diet, with plentiful dilution,
otherwife the fublimate is apt to purge and gripe
feverely. It generally purges more or lefs at the be¬
ginning, but afterwards feems to operate chiefly by
urine and perfpiration.
Sublimate confifls of mercury united with a large
quantity of marine acid. There are two general
methods of deflroying its corrofive quality, and ren¬
dering it mild ; combining with it fo much frefh mer¬
cury as the acid is capable of taking up, and fepara-
ting a part of the acid by means of alkaline falls, and
the like. On the firft principle, dulcified mercury
fublimate is formed; on the latter, •whiteprecipitate.
760. Dulcified mercury fublimate.
Take of corrofive mercury fublimate, one pound;
purified quickfilver, nine ounces. Having pow¬
dered the fublimate, add to it the quickfilver, and
digeft them together in a matrafs, with a gentle
heat of fand, until they unite ; then, increafing the
heat, let the mixture be fublimed. The fublimed
matter, freed from the acrimonious part at top and
and fuch mercurial globules as happen to appear di-
ftinct in it, is to be reduced into powder, and fub¬
limed again ; and this fublimation repeated fix
times. L.
Take of corrofive mercury fublimate, reduced to pow¬
der in a glafs mortar, four ounces and a half; pure
quickfilver, three ounces. Mix them well together,
"by long trituration in a glafs or marble mortar, un¬
till the quickfilver ceafes to appear; taking care to
avoid the finer powder that flies off. Put the pow¬
der into an oblong phial, of fuch a fize, that only
one-third of it may be filled ; and fet the glafs in a
fand-furnace, fo as that the fand may reach up to
one half of its height. By degrees of fire fuccef-
fively applied, almoft: all the mercury will fublime,
and adhere to the upper part of the veflel. The
glafs being then broken, and the red powder which
is found in its bottom, with the whitifli one that
flicks about the neck, being thrown away, let the
white mercury be fublimed again three or four
, times. E.
The trituration of corrofive fublimate with quick'
filver is a very noxious operation : for it is almoil im-
M A C Y. 60
poflible, by any care, to prevent the lighter particles Prfp
of the former from arifing, fo as to affeA the opera- tio
tor’s eyes and mouth. It is neverthelefs of the utmoft ~
confequence, that the ingredients be perfectly united
before the fublimation is begun; and this may be
moft commodioufly effedled by the digeftion or¬
dered by the firft of the above proceffes. It is
indeed ftill neceflary to pulverize the fublimate, before
the mercury is added to it : but this may be fafely
performed, with a little caution ; efpecially if, during
the pulverization, the matter be now and then
fprinkled with a little fpirit of wine ; this addition
does not at all impede the union of the ingredients,
or prejudice the fublimation : it will be convenient
not to clofe the top of the fubliming veflel with a cap
of paper at firft (as is ufually pradifed) but to defer
this till the mixture begins to fublime, that the fpirit
may efcape.
The rationale of this procefs dtferves particular
attention ; and the more fo, as a miftaken theory
herein has been produftive of feveral errors with re¬
gard to the operation of mercurials in general. It is
feppofed, that the dulcificatisn, as it is called, of the
rnercurius corrojivus, is owing to the fpicula or fharp
points, on which its corrofivenefs depends, being
broken and worn off by the frequent fublimations. If
this opinion was juft, the corrofive would become mild,
without any addition, barely by repeating the fubli¬
mation ; but this is contrary to all experience. The
abatement of the corrofive quality of the fublimate is
entirely owing to the combination of fo much frefli
mercury with it as is capable of being united ; and
by whatever means this combination is effedted, the
preparation will be fufficiently dulcified. Triture and
digeftion promote the union of the two, whilft fubli¬
mation tends rather to difunite them. The prudent
operator, therefore, will not be folicitous about fepa-
rating fuch mercurial globules as appear diftind after
the firft fublimation; he will endeavour rather to com¬
bine them with the reft, by repeating the triture and
digeftion.
The college of Wirtemberg require their mer-
curius dulcis to be only twice fublimed, and the Au-
guftan but once ; and Neumann propofes making it
diredly by a Angle fublimation, from the ingredients
which the corrofive fublimate is prepared from, by
only taking the quickfilver in a larger proportion. If
the medicine, made after either of thefe methods,
fhould prove in any degree acrid, water, boiled on it
for fome time, will diflblve and feparate that part ia
which its acrimony confifts. The marks of the pre¬
paration being fufficiently dulcified, are, its being
perfedly infipid to the tafte, and indiflbluble by long
boiling in water. Whether the water, in which it has
been boiled, has taken up any part of it, may be
known by dropping into the liquor a ley of any fixed
alkaline fait, or any volatile alkaline fpirit: if the de*
codion has any mercurial impregnation, it will grow
turbid on this addition ; if otherwife, it will continue
limpid. But here care muft be taken not to be de¬
ceived by an extraneous faline matter in the water
itfelf: moft of the common fpring waters turn milky
on the addition of alkalies; and therefore, for expe¬
riments of this kind, diftilled water, or rain water,
ought to be ufed.
34 I 3
Mercurius
6ioo
Prepara- Mercurlus dulcis, feven times fublimec], has been
iigns. commonly called calomelas, and aquila alba; names
which are now dropped both by the London and
Edinburgh colleges. Calomelas is indeed a very im¬
proper appellation, the word implying a black co¬
lour: by grinding mercurius dulcis with volatile fpi-
rits, it becomes blackifh; and this perhaps is the true
calomel.
Mercurius dulcis appears to be one of the beft and
fafeft preparations of this mineral for general ufe,
whether intended to aft as a fialogogue, diaphoretic,
or alterant. Many of the more elaborate proceffes
are no other than attempts to produce from mercury
fuch a medicine as this really is. The dofe, for
railing a falivation, is ten or fifteen grains, taken in
the form of a bolus or pills, every night or oftener,
till the ptyalifm begins. As an alterant and dia¬
phoretic, it is given in doles of five or fix grains; a
purgative being occafionally interpofed, to prevent its
alfedting the mouth. It anfwers, however, much bet¬
ter when given in fmaller quantities, as one, two,
or three grains every morning and evening, in conjunc¬
tion with fuch fubftances as determine its aftion to the
Ikin, as the extraA or refin of guaiacum ; the patient
at the fame time keeping warm, and drinking libe¬
rally of warm diluent liquors. By this method of
managing it, obftinate cutaneous and venereal diftem-
pers have been fuccefsfully cured, without any re¬
markable increafe of the fenfible evacuations.
761. White precipitate of mercury.
Difiblve fublimate corrofive mercury in a fufficient
quantity of hot water, and gradually drop into
the folution fome fpirit of fal ammoniac, as long
as any precipitation enfues. Walh the precipitated
powder upon a filter, with feveral frelh quantities of
warm water. IL.
This preparation is ufed chiefly in ointments, in
which intention its fine white colour is no fmall re¬
commendation to it.
Take fublimate corrofive mercury, fal ammoniac, of
each equal weights. Diffblve them both together
in water; filter the folution, and precipitate it with
a folution of any fixed alkaline fait. Wafh the pre¬
cipitated powder till it is perfe&ly fweet, (that is,
infipid or void of acrimony.) L.
Here the fal ammoniac, befides its ufe in the capital
intention, that of fnrnilhing a volatile alkali to make a
while precipitation, promotes the folution of the fub¬
limate; which of itfelf is difficultly and fcarce at all
totally fpluble by repeated boiling in water: for how¬
ever fkilfully it is prepared, fome part of it will have
an under proportion of acid, and confequently approach
to the ftate of mercurius dulcis. A good deal of care
is requifite in the precipitation ; for, if too large a
quantity of the fixed alkaline folution be imprudently
added, the precipitate will lofe the elegant white co¬
lour for which it is valued.
A precipitate of a different nature from the prece¬
ding has been commonly diftinguifhed by the fame
name mercurius pracipitatus alius. But it is a prepara¬
tion very rarely made ufe of among us; notwithftand-
ing the charadfer given of it by Boerhaave, of being
“ perhaps the bell remedy hitherto afforded by mer-
Part II.
cury.” Mercury dulcis produces the good effeds which Prepara-
this is'fuppofed to do with a greater degree of certain¬
ty, and without difordering the conftitution, occafion-
ing vomiting, &c. which this precipitate, in a dofe of
two or three grains, frequently does.
762. The yellow mercurial emetic. L.
Upon purified quickfilver, contained in a glafs veflVl,
pour double its weight of the ftrong fpirit or oil of
vitriol. Heat the liquor by degrees, fo as at length
to make it boil, till a white mafs remains, which is
to be thoroughly dried with a ftrong fire. This
mafs on the affiifion of warm water grows yellowifb,
and falls into powder, which is to be diligently ground
with the water in a glafs mortar: then fuffer it to
fettle, pour off the water, and wadi the powder in
feveral parcels of frdh water, until it is fufficiently
dulcified.
763. Yellow precipitate of mercury, or turbith mi¬
neral. E.
Take four ounces of pure quickfilver, and eight ounces
of oil of vitriol. Cautioufly mix them together; and
diftii, in a retort placed in a fand-furnace, to dry-
nefs; the white calx which is left at the bottom be-
ing ground to powder, and thrown into warnr wa¬
ter, immediately grows of a yellow colour: walh
this in frelh waters renewed ft-veral times, until it
has loft all its acrimony { then dry it for ufe.
Boerhaave direfts this preparation to be made in an
open glafs flowly heated, and then placed immediately
upon burning coals ; care being taken to avoid the
fumes, which are extremely noxious. This method will
fucceed very well with a little addrefs, when the in¬
gredients are in fmall quantity: but where the mixture
is large, it is better to ufe a retort, placed in a fand-
furnace, with a recipient, containing a fmali quantity
of water, luted to it. Great care fhould be taken, when
the oil of vitriol begins to bubble, to fteadily keep up
the heat, without at all increafing it, till the ebullition
ceafes, when the fire Ihould be augmented to the utmoft
degree, that as much as poffible of the redundant acid
may be expelled.
If the matter be but barely exficcated, it proves a.
cauftic fait, which in the ablution with water will al-
moft diffolve, leaving only a little quantity of turbith:.
the more of the acid has been diffipated, the kfs of the
remaining mercury will diffolve, and confequently the
yield of turbith will be the greater; fire expelling only
the acid, [viz. fuch parts of the acid as are not com¬
pletely fatiated with mercury), while water takes up
always along with the acid, a proportionable quantity
of the mercury itfelf. Even when the matter has been
ftrongly calcined, a part will ftill be foluble: this evi¬
dently appears upon pouring into the walhings a little
folution of fixed alkaline fait, which will throw down
a confiderable quantity of yellow precipitate, greatly
refembling the turbith, except that it is lefs violent in
operation.
From this experiment it appears, that the beft me¬
thod of edulcorating this powder is, by impregnating
the water intended to be ufed in its ablution, with a
determined proportion of fixed alkaline fait; for by
this means the walhed turbith will not only turn out
greater in quantity, but, what is of more confequence^
always
PHARMACY.
Part II. P H A R
llfpara- always have an equal degree of ftrength ; a circum-
tions, fiance which deferves particularly to be confidered,
efpecially in making fuch preparations as, from an er¬
ror in the procefs, may prove too violently corrofive
to be ufed with any degree of fafety.
Turbith mineral is a ftrong emetic, and in this in¬
tention operates the moft powerfully of all the mercu¬
rials that can be fafely given internally. Its a&ion
however is not confined to the primx vitc; it will fome-
times excite a ptyalifm, if a purgative is not taken
foon after it. This medicine is. ufed chiefly in viru¬
lent gonorrheas, and other venereal cafes where there
is a great flux of humours to the parts; it is faid like-
wife to have been employed with good fuccefs in ro-
buft conftitutions, againtt leprous diforders, and obfti-
nate glandular obftruftions: the dofe is from two grains
to fix or eight. It may be given in dofes of a grain
or two as an alterative and diaphoretic, after the fame
manner as the red precipitate.
This medicine has been of late recommended as the
moft effedlual prefervative againft the hydrophobia.
There are feveral examples of its preventing madnefs
in dogs that had been bitteu ; and fbme, of its per¬
forming a cure after the madnefs was begun; from fix
or feven grains to a fcruple may be given every day,
or every'other day,' for a little time, and repeated at
the two or three fucceeding fulls and changes of the
moon. Some few trials have iikewife been made on
human fubje&s bitten by mad dogs; and in thcfe alfo
the turbith, ufed either as an emetic or alterative, feem-
ed in fome cafes to have good effeds. See Medicine,
n° 425.
§ 8. Preparations of Antimony.
764. Antimony is compofed of a metal united with
fulphur or common brimftone.
If powdered antimony be expofed to a gentle fire, the
fulphur exhales; the metallic part remaining in form
of a white calx, reducible by proper fluxes into a
whitifh brittle metal, called regulus. This is readily
diftinguifhed from the other bodies of that clafs, by
its not being foluble in aquafortis; its proper men-
ftruum is aqua regis.
If aqua regis be poured upon crude antimony, the
metallic part will be difiblved, and the fulphur
thrown out, partly to the fides of the veflel, and
partly to the furface of the liquor, in form of a grey-
ifh yellow fubftance. This, feparated and purified
by fublimation, appears on all trials the fame with
pure common brimftone.
The metal, freed from the fulphur naturally blend¬
ed with it, and afterwards fufed with common brim¬
ftone, refumes the appearance and qualities of crude
antimony.
765. The antimonial metal is a medicine of the
greateft power of any known fubftance: a quantity too
minute to be fenfible on the tendereft balance, is ca¬
pable of producing virulent effe&s, if taken diflblved
or in a foluble ftate. If given in fuch a form as to be
immediately mifcible with the animal fluids, it proves
violently emetic ; if fo managed as to be more (lowly
a&ed on, cathartic ; and in either cafe, if the dofe is
extremely fmall, diaphoretic. Thus, though vegetable
acids extraft fo little from this metal, that the remain¬
der feems to have loft nothing of its weight, the tine-
M A C Y. 6101
tures prove in no large dofes ftrongly emetic, and in Prepara-
fmaller ones powerfully diaphoretic. The regulus has tionf‘
been call into the form of pills, which ailed as viru¬
lent cathartics, though without fuffering any fcnfible di¬
minution of weight in their paflage through the body;
and this repeatedly, for a great number of times.
This metal, diverted of the inflammable principle
which it has in common with other metallic bodies,
that is, reduced to a calx, becomes indiffoluble and in¬
active. The calx neverthelefs, urged with a ftrong
fire, melts into a glafs, as eafy of folution (partially),
and as virulent in operation, as the regulus itfelf: the
glafs thoroughly mingled with fuch fubftances as pre¬
vent its folubility, as wax, refins, and the like, is again
rendered mild.
766. Vegetable acids, as already obferved, diflolve
but an extremely minute portion of this metal; the fo¬
lution neverthelefs proves powerfully emetic and cathar¬
tic. The nitrous and vitriolic acids only corrode it in¬
to a powder, to which they adhere fo (lightly as to be
feparable in good meafure by water, and totally by fire,
leaving the regulus in form of a calx fimilar to that
prepared by fire alone. The marine acid has a very-
different effeCt: this reduces the regulus into a violent
corrofive, and tho’ it difficultly unites, yet very clofely
adheres to it, infomuch as not to be feparable by any
ablution, nor by fire, the regulus arifing along with it.
The nitrous or vitriolic acids expel the marine, and
thus reduce the corrofive into a calx fimilar to the fore-
going.
767. Sulphur remarkably abates the power of this
metal: and hence crude antimony (in which the regu¬
lus appears to be combined with from one-fourth
to one half its weight of fulphur) proves altogether
mild. If a part of the fulphur be taken away by
fuch operations as do not deftroy or calcine the me¬
tal, the remaining ma(s becomes proportionably more
aftive.
The fulphtir of antimony may be expelled by defla¬
gration with nitre: the larger the quantity of nitre, to
a certain point, the more of the fulphur will be diffi-
pated, and the preparation will be the more a&ive. If
the quantity of nitre is more than fufRcient to confume
the fulphur, the reft of it deflagrating with the inflam¬
mable principle of the regulus itfelf, renders it again
mild.
The fulphur of antimony is Iikewife abforbed, infu-
fion, by certain metals, and by alkaline falls. Thefe
laft, when united with fulphur, prove a menftruum for
all the metals, (zinc excepted), and hence, if the fu-
fion is long continued, the regulus is taken up and ren¬
dered foluble in water.
76S. Crocus of antimony, commonly called Crocus metal-
lorum, and by foreign writers Hepar antimonii or
liver of antimony.
Take antimony, nitre, of each equal weights. Reduce
them feparately into powder; then mix, and injeft
them into a crucible heated to a white heat, that
the mixture (after deflagration) may melt. Then
pour it out, feparate the fcoriae, and referve the mat¬
ter underneath them for ufe : it proves different in
colour, according to the continuance of the heat :
the longer it has been kept in fufion, the yellower
it will be. L.
The mixture of antimony and nitre, made as above,-
is-
6102
Prepara-
PHARMACY.
is to be inje&ed into a red-hot crucible ; when the
detonation is over, feparate the reddifh metallic mat¬
ter from the whitilh cruft, and edulcorate it by re¬
peated walhings with hot water. E.
Here the antimonial fulphur is almoft totally confu-
med, and the metallic part left divefted of its corretfor.
Thefe preparations, given from two to fix grains, a£l
as violent emetics, greatly difordering the conftitution.
Their principal ufe is in maniacal cafes, as the bafis of
fome other preparations; and among the farriers, who
frequently give to horfes an ounce or two a-day, divi-
vided into different dofes, as an alterative : in thefe and
other quadrupeds, this medicine afts chiefly as a dia¬
phoretic.
769. Wajhed crocus of antimony. L.
Reduce the crocus into a very fubtile powder, and boil
it in the water : then, throwing away this water,
wafh the powder fevtral times in frdh warm water,
until it becomes perfe&ly infipid.
This procefs is defigned chiefly to fit the crocus for
the preparation of emetic tartar, of which hereafter,
and of the antimonial emetic wine. If th,e crocus
was employed for thofe purpofes without walhing, the
alkaline fale, which it is in fome degree impregnated
with from the deflagration of the nitre, would in part
fatiate the acids of the tartar and of the wine, and
thus, impeding their aftion on the metallic part of the
antimony, render the medicines very precarious in
ftrength : that uncertainties of this kind may be the
more effe&ually guarded againft, the glafs, or rather
the pure regulus, of antimony, is by fome preferred to
the crocus, both for the emetic tartar and wine.
770. Medicinal regulus of antimony. E.
Take of antimony, five ounces; fea-falt, four ounces;
fait of tartar, one ounce. Grind them into powder;
and throw the mixture, by little at a time, into a
red-hot crucible; occafionally breaking, with an
iron rod, the cruft that forms on the furface. When
the fufion is completed, pour out the matter into a
heated cone, gently ihaking it now and then, or
ftriking it on the Tides, that the regulus may fettle
to the bottom: when grown cold, beat off the fco-
rias, and grind the regulus into a powder, which is
to be kept in a clofe-flopped vial.
This preparation is greatly celebrated by Hoffman,
and other German phyficians, in fundry obttinate
chronical diforders, and efteemed one of the beft anti-
monials that can be given with fafety as alterants : it
operates chiefly as a diaphoretic, and fometimes, tho’
rarely, emetic. The dofe is from three or four grains
to 20.
This regulusj reduced into a fubtle powder, is the
genuine febrifuge powder of Craanius (Pharm, Borujfo
Brandenburg, edit. 1734. p. 107.),and has been great¬
ly commended in all kinds of fevers both of the in¬
termittent and continual kind {Pharm. Argent. 1725.
p. 252.) It is faid that a dofe or two have frequent¬
ly removed thefe diforders, by occafioping either a fa-
lutary diaphorefis, or a&ing mildly by ftool or vomit.
> 77I* Simple regulus of antimony.
The moft advantageous procefs for obtaining this
regulus appears to be the following.
Part II.
Let powdered antimony be calcined or roafted over a Prepara- |
gentle fire, as directed hereafter for making, the d0115- ^
glafs. Mix the calx with about equal its weight of ;
fome reducing flux, fuch as the black flux. Melt
the mixture in a crucible, with a quick fire, and
when in thin fufion pour it into a cone heated over
a fmoky flame : the pure regulus will fall to the
bottom, the fcoriae floating on the top.
772. Precipitated fulphur of antimony. L.
Take ofantimony, 16 ounces; tartar, a pound; nitre,
half a pound. Let thefe be reduced feparately in¬
to powder; then mixed, thrown by degrees into a
red-hot crucible, and melted with a ftrong fire.
Pour out the matter into a conical mould ; the me¬
tallic part, commonly called regulus of antbnony, will
fink to the bottom, the fcoriae fwimming about it.
Diffolve thefe fcoriae in water, filter the folution
through paper, and precipitate the fulphur by drop¬
ping in fomefpint of fea-falt: laftly, wa(h the ful¬
phur from the falts, and dry it for ufe.
773. Golden fulphur of antimony. E.
Boil in an iron pot, four pints of foap-leys diluted
with three pints of water, and throw in by degrees
two pounds of powdered antimony ; keeping them
continually ftirring, with an iron fpatula, for three
hours, over a gentle fire; and occafionally fupplying
more water. The liquor, loaded with the fulphur
of antimony, being then drained through a double
linen cloth, drop into it gradually, whilft it con¬
tinues hot, fo much fptrit of nitre, diluted with an
equal quantity of water, as (hall be fufficient to
precipitate the fulphur, which is afterwards to be
carefully wafhed with hot water.
The foregoing preparations prove emetic when ta¬
ken on an empty ftomach, in a dofe of four, five, or
fix grains: but in the prefent practice, they are fcarce
ever preferibed in this intention ; being chiefly ufed as
alterative deobftruents, particularly in cutaneous dif¬
orders. Their emetic quality is eafily blunted, by ma¬
king them up into pills with refins or extradts, and gi¬
ving them on a full ftomach: with thefe cautions,they
have been increafed to the rate of 16 grains a-day, and
continued for a confiderable time, without occafioning
any difturbance upwards or downwards. As their
ftrength is precarious, they fhould be taken at firft in
very fmall dofes, and increafed by degrees according
to their effedt.
A compofition of the golden fulphur with mercurius
dulcis, has been a powerful, yet fafe, alterative in cu¬
taneous diforders ; and has completed a cure after fa-
livation had failed ; in venereal cafes likewife, this me¬
dicine has produced excellent effedts. A mixture of
equal parts of the fulphur and calomel (well triturated
together, and made into pills with extradls, &c.) may
be taken from four to eight or ten grains, morning
and night; the patient keeping moderately warm, and
drinking after each dofe a draught of a decodtion of
the woods or other like liquors. This medicine ge¬
nerally promotes perfpiration, fcarce occafioning any
tendency to vomit or purge, or affedting the mouth.
See the Edinburgh ejfays, vol. i-. and the A ft a natur.
curiof. vol. v.
773—789. Kermes mineral. See Kernes {Mine¬
ral), in the order of the alphabet.
2 790. Pa-
I
lipart II.
Jdons.2 79°* Panacea of antimony.
  ^Take of antimony, fix ounces; nitre, two ounces;
common fait, an ounce and a half; charcoal, an
ounce. Reduce them into a fine powder, and put
the mixture into a red-hot crucible, by half a fpoon-
ful at a time, continuing the fire a quarter of an
hour after the laft inje&ion : then either pour the
matter into a cone, or let it cool in the crucible,
which when cold mull be broken to get it out. In
the bottom will be found a quantity of regulus;
above this a compaft liver-coloured fubftance ; and
on the top, a more fpongy mafs: this laft is to be
reduced into powder, edulcorated with water, and
dried, when it appears of a fine golden colour.
(This preparation is ftippofed to have been the ba-
fis of Lockyer’s pills, which were formerly a celebra¬
ted purge. Ten grains of the powder mixed with an
ounce of white fugar-candy, and made up into a mafs
with mucilage of gum tragacanth, may be divided in¬
to an hundred fmall pills; of which one, two, or
three, taken at a time, are faid to work gently by ftool
and vomit.
791. Glafs of antimony. E.
- Take of antimony reduced to powder, one pound.
Calcine it over a gentle fire, in an unglazed earthen
veflel, keeping it continually ftirring with an iron
fpatula, until the fumes ceafe, even when the mat¬
ter is red-hot. Melt'thecalx in a crucible, with an
intenfe fire, and pour out the liquid matter into a
heated brafs difh.
The calcination of antimony, to fit it for making a
tranfparent glafs, fucceeds very flowly, unlefs the ope¬
rator be very wary and circumfpeA in the management
of it. The moft convenient velfel is a broad (hallow
difh, or a fmooth flat tile, placed under a chimney.
The antimony fhould be of the purerfort,fuchas is ufual-
ly found at the apex of the cones: this, grofsly pow¬
dered, is to be evenly fpread over the bottom of the
pan, fo as not to lie above a quarter of an inch thick
on any part. The fire fhould be at firft no greater
than is juft fufficient to raife a fume from the antimo¬
ny, which is to be now and then ftirred : when the
fumes begin to decay, increafe the heat, taking care
not to raife it fo high as to melt the antimony, or run
the powder into lumps: after fome time the vefltl may
be made red-hot, and kept in this ftate until the mat¬
ter will not, upon being ftirred, any longer fume. If
this part of the procefs be duly conduced, the anti¬
mony will appear in an uniform powder, without any
lumps, and of a grey colour.
With this powder, fill two-thirds ^of a crucible,
which is to be covered with a tile, and placed in a
wind-furnace. Gradually increafe the fire, till the
calx is in perfeft fufion, when it is to be now and then
examined by dipping a clean iron wire into it: if the
matter, which adheres to the end of the wire, appears
fmooth and equally tranfparent, the vitrification is
completed, and the glafs may be poured out upon a
hot fmooth ftone or copper plate, and fuffered to
cool by (low degrees to prevent its cracking and fly¬
ing in pieces. It is of a tranfparent yellowi(h-red co¬
lour.
The calcined antimony is faid by Boerhaave to be
6io3
violently emetic. Experience has fhown that the glafs Prepara-
is fo, infomuch as to be unfafe for internal ufe. It is tlon!:-l
employed chiefly, in the prefent praftice, as being
fubfervient to fome other preparations, particularly the
emetic tartar and antimonial wine; and in combination
with wax, and fome other fubftances, by which its
power is obtunded.
792. Ceratedglafs of antimony. E.
Take of yellow wax, a dram ; glafs of antimony, re¬
duced into powder, an ounce. Melt the wax in an
iron veflel, and throw into it the powdered glafs :
keep the mixture over a gentle fire for half an hour,
continually ftirring it; then pour it out upon a pa¬
per, and when cold grind it into powder.
The glafs melts in the wax, with a very foft heat :
after it has been about 20 minutes on the fire, it be¬
gins to change its colour, and in 10 more comes near
to that of Scotch fnuff, which is a mark of its being
fufficiently prepared: the quantity fet down above,
lofes about one dram of its weight in the procefs.
This medicine has for fome time been greatly efteem-
ed in dyfenteries: feveral inftances of its good effeda
in thefe cafes may be feen in the fifth volume of the
Edinburgh efiays, from which the above remarks on
the preparation are taken. The dofe is from two or
three grains to twenty, according to the age and
ftrength of the patient. In its operation, it makes
fome perfons fick and vomit; it purges almoft every
one; though it has fometimes effeded a cure without
occafiontng any evacuation or ficknefs.
793. The antimonial cauftic. L. E.
Take of crude antimony, one pound; corrofive mer¬
cury fublimate, two pounds. Reduce them fepa-
rately into powder; then mix, and diftil them in a
wide-necked retort, with a gentle fand-heat. The
matter which arifes into the neck of the retort
is to be expofed to the air, that it may run into a
liquor.
This is intended for confuming fungous flefh and
the callous lips of ulcers.
794. Cinnabar of antimony.
Is compofed of the fulphur of the antimony, and
the mercury of the fublimate, which are perfedly the
fame with the common brimftone and quickfilver, of
which the artificial cinnabar is made. The antimonial
cinnabar therefore, whofe ingredients are laborioufly
extraded from other fubftances, is not different from,
the common cinnabar made with the fame materials
procured at a much cheaper rate.
795. Emetic tartar.
Take of wafhed crocus of antimony, cryftals of tar¬
tar, each half a pound; water, three pints. Boil
them together for half an hour; then filter the li¬
quor, and after due evaporation fet it by to cryftal-
life. L.
Take of powdered cream of tartar, four ounces; levi¬
gated glafs of antimony, fix ounces. Mix, and
throw them by little and little into a gallon of wa¬
ter boiling in a glafs veffel fet in a fand-heat. Let
the whole boil gently for fix hours; conftantly fup-
plying the water confumed by evaporation; then
let the liquor be ftrained when cold, and evaporated
to
PHARMACY.
6104 P H A R
Prepara- to a proper'pitch thatcryftals maybe formed. Tar-
tl0BS* tar emetic may be made after the fame manner from
crocus metallorum, provided this has been properly
prepared, which is known by its being of a yellow
colour when powdered. E.
The title of this medicine exprefles its principal
operation. It is one of the belt of the antimonial
emetics, a£ting more powerfully than the quantity of
crocus contained in it would do by itfelf, though it
does not fo much ruffle the conftitution.
The dole of emetic tartar, when defigned to pro¬
duce the full effeft of an emetic, is from four to fix
or eight grains. It may likewife be advantageoufly
given in fmaller dofes, half a grain, for inftance, as a
diaphoretic and alterative in cutaneous diforders ; and
added in the quantity of a grain as a ftimulus to ipe¬
cacuanha, &c.
$ 9. Preparations of Bismuth.
796. This metal refembles in appearance the regu-
lus of antimony, but differs greatly from it in its
pharmaceutical properties and medical qualities. It
melts in a very fmall heat long before ignition; and to¬
tally diffolves, with great effervefcence, in aquafor¬
tis, which only corrodes the antimonial metal. As a
medicine, it feems, when pure, to have little or no ef-
feft ; though fome preparations of it were formerly
accounted diaphoretic. At prefent only one prepa¬
ration comes under the notice of the apothecary or
chemift, and that defigned for external ufe.
797. Magijlery of hifmuth.
Diffolve bifmuth in a proper quantity of aquafortis,
without heat, adding the bifmuth by little and little
at a time. Pour the folution into fixteen times its
quantity of fair water: it will grow milky, and on
ftanding for fome time, depofit a bright white pre¬
cipitate : the addition of fpirit of wine will expe¬
dite the precipitation. Wafh the powder in frelh
parcels of water, and dry it in a ihady place be¬
twixt two papers.
This preparation is of fome efteem as a cofmetic,
which is the only ufe it is now applied to.
§ »o. Preparations of Zinc.
_ 798. This metal melts in a red heat; and, if the
air is admitted, flames, and fublimes into light, white,
downy flowers : if the air is excluded, it arifes by a
ftrong fire in its metallic form. Sulphur, which unites
with or feorifies all the other metals except gold,
does not adf on zinc. Acids of every kind diffolve it.
Zinc, its flowers or calces, and folutions, taken in¬
ternally, prove ftrong and quick emetics ; in fmall
dofes, they are faid to be diaphoretic. Externally, they
are cooling, aftringent, and deficcative.
799. Purification of zinc.
Melt zinc with a heat no greater than is juft fufficient
to keep it fluid. Stir it ftrongly with an iron rod;
and throw in alternately pieces of fulphur and of
tallow, the firft in largeft quantity. If any confift-
tnt matter or fcoria forms on the top, take it off,
and continue the procefs until the fulphur is found
to burn freely and totally away on the furface of the
fluid zinc.
M A C Y. Part If.
Zinc ufually contains a portion of lead, which this - epara-i
procefs effeiSually feparates. Sulphur united with lead Uons*
forms a mafs, which does not melt in any degree of ”~
fire that zinc is capable of fuftaining.
800. Flowers of zinc.
Let a large and very deep crucible, or other deep
earthen veffel, be placed in a furnace, in an inclined
fituation, only half upright. Put a fmall quantity
of zinc into the bottom of the veflcl, and apply a
moderate fire, no greater than is neceffary to make
the zinc flame; white flowers will arife, and adhere
about the fides of the vefiel like wool. When the
zinc ceafes to flame, flir it with an iron rod, and
continue this operation till the whole is fublimed.
Thefe flowers fhould feem preferable for medicinal
purpofes, to tutty, and the more impure fublimates of
zinc which are obtained in the brafs-works ; and like¬
wife to calamine, the natural ore of this metal, which
contains a large quantity of earth, and frequently a
portion of heterogeneous metallic matter.
801. Salt or vitriol of zinc.
Diflblve purified zinc by a gentle heat of fand in a
mixture of one part of oil of vitriol and four of wa¬
ter. Filter the folution; and after due evaporation,
fet it to cryftallize.
This fait is an elegant white vitriol. It differs from
the common white vitriol and the fal vitriol's of the
fliops, only in being purer, and perfectly free from any
admixture of copper, or fuch other foreign metallic
bodies as the others generally contain.
$ 11. Compound Metallic Preparations.
802. The medicinalftone.
Take of litharge, bole armenic, or French bole, alum,
each half a pound ; colcothar of green vitriol, three
ounces; vinegar, a quarter of a pint. Mix and
dry them till they grow hard.
This preparation is employed externally as an aftrin-
ent for faftening loofe teeth, preferving the gums,
ealing and drying up ulcers and wounds, and repref-
fing defluxions of thin acrid humours upon the eyes.
It is fometimes ufed in inje&ions for checking a go¬
norrhoea, after the virulence is expelled.
803. An ajlringent preparation taken from MaeiZy
which has been fold under the name of Colbatch’s
ftyptic powder.
Take any quantity of iron-filings, and as much fpirit
of fait as will rife above them three or four inches.
Digeft them together with a gentle heat till the
fpirit ceafes to ad on the metal; then pour off the
liquor, evaporate it to one half, and add thereto an
equal weight of fugar of lead. Continue the eva¬
poration with a frnall heat, until the matter remains
dry, and affumes a red colour. If the procefs is
flopped as foon as it becomes dry, it has exadly the
appearance of Colbatch’s powder. It muft be kept
clofe from the air, otherwife it deliquiates.
This is faid to be the ftyptic with which fo much
noife was made fome time ago, iTy the author of the
Novum lumen chirurgix, and for the fale of which a
patent was procured : only in that was ufed oil of vi¬
triol, inftead of the fpirit of fait in this; a difference
. not
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- not very material. The preparation {hands recom*
mended in all kinds of haemorrhages and immoderate
fluxes, both internally and externally : the dofc is
from four grains to twelve. It is undoubtedly an ef¬
ficacious ftyptic, bnt for internal ufe a dangerous one.
804. Antimonial ethiops.
Let equal quantities of antimony and fea-falt be melted
together in a crucible for an hour: when grown
cold, a regulus (improperly fo called) will be found
in the bottom ; which is to be feparated from the
fcoriae that lie above it, and ground with an equal
weight of purified quickfilver until they are uni¬
ted.
This medicine is faid to be of remarkable efficacy
in venereal cafes of long Handing, in cancerous tu¬
mours, fcorbutic and fcrophulous diforders, obftinate
glandular ob'ftru&ions, and fundry other chronical
diftempers which elude the force of the common me¬
dicines. A few grains may be given at firft, and the
dofe gradually increafed, according to its operation,
to a fcruple or more. It ads chiefly by promoting
perfpiration : in fome oonftitutions it proves purga¬
tive ; and in others, if the dofe is confiderable,
emetic.
CHAP. II.
Medicinal Compositions.
Sect. I. Po-wders.
805. This form receives fuch materials only as are
capable of being fufficieptly dried to become pulver-
able, without the lofs of their virtue. There are many
fubftances, however, of this kind, which cannot be
conveniently taken in powder: bitter, acrid, fetid
drugs, are too difagreeable: emollient and mucila¬
ginous herbs and roots are too bulky ; pure gums co¬
here, and become tenacious in the mouth ; fixed alka¬
line falts liquefy upon expofing the compofuion to the
air ; and volatile alkalies exhale.
The dofe of powders, in extemporaneous prefcrip-
tion, is generally about half a dram ; it rarely exceeds
a whole dram, and is not often lefs than a fcruple.
Subftances which produce powerful effeds in fmailer
dofes are not trufted to this form, unlefs their bulk is
increafed by additions of lefs efficacy : thofe which re¬
quire to be given in larger ones, are better fitted for
other forms.
The ufual vehicle for taking the lighte/ powders in,
is any agreeable thin liquid. The ponderous powders,
particularly thofe prepared from metallic fubftances,
require a more confiftent vehicle, as fyrups ; for from
thin ones they foon fubfide. Refmous fubftances like-
wife are moft commodioufly taken in thick liquors :
jn thin ones, they are apt to run into lumps, which
are not eafily again diflbluble.
806. General rules for making powders.
I. Particular care ought to be taken that nothing ca¬
rious, decayed, or impure, be mixed in the com-
pofition of powders : the ftalks and corrupted parts
of plants are to be feparated.
II. The dry aromatics ought to be fprinkled, during
Vol. VIII. j
M A C Y. 6105
their pulverization, with a ftvv drops of any proper Prepara,
water. tions.
III. The moifteraromatics may be dried with a very
gentle heat before they are committed to the mor¬
tar.
IV. Gums, and fuch other fubftances as are difficultly
pulverable, ftiould be pounded along with the drier
ones, that they may pafs the fieve together.
V. No part fhould be feparated for ufe until the whole
quantity put into the mortar has pafled the fieve,
and the feveral fiftings been mixed together; for thofp
parts of one and the fame fubjeft which powder
firft, may prove different, at leaft in degree of ef¬
ficacy, from the reft.
VI. Powders of aromatics are to be prepared only in
fmall quantities at a time, and kept in glafs veffek
very clofely flopped.
If powders are long kept, and not carefully fecured
from the air, their virtue is in great meafure deftroyed,
although the parts in which it confifts (hould not in
other circumftances prove volatile. Thus, though the
virtues of ipecacoanha are fo fixed as to remain entire
even in extra&s made with proper menftroa, yet if
the powdered root be expofed for a length of time to
the air, it lofes its emetic quality.
807. Pulvis Antilyjfus, or Powder againjl the life of
a mad dog. L. E.
Take of afh-coloured ground-liverwort, two ounces ;
black pepper, one ounce. Beat them together into
a powder.
The virtue which this medicine has been celebrated
for, is expreffed in its title : the dofe is a dram and a
half, to be taken in the morning fading in half a pint
of cows milk warm, for four mornings together.
808. Compound powder of arum. L.
Take of arum-root, frefh dried, two ounces; yellow
water-flag roots, burnet faxifrage-roots, each one
ounce; crabs-eyes prepared, cinnamon, each half
an ounce ; fait of wormwood, two drams. Beat
them into a powder, which is to be kept in a clofe
veffel.
The compound powder of arum was originally in¬
tended as a ftomachic; and in weakuefles and relaxa¬
tions of the ftomach, accompanied with a furcharge of
vifcid humours, it is doubtlefs a very ufeful medicine.
It frequently alfo has good effefts in rheumatic cafes.
The dofe may be from a fcruple to a dram, two or
three times a-day, in any convenient liquor. It {hould
be ufed as frerti as poffible, for its virtue fuffers greatly
in keeping.
809. Compound powder of hole without opium.
Take of bole armenic, or French bole, half a pound;
cinnamon, four ounces; tormentil root, gum ara-
bic, each three ounces; long pepper, half an ounce.
Reduce thefe ingredients into powder.
810. Compound powder of bole with opium. L.
Take of opium drained, three drams. Dry it a little,
fo as to render it eafily pulverable ; and add it to the
foregoing fpecies, that they may all beat into a
powder together.
This powder with opium is an elegant reform of the
_34 K fpecies
6ig6
Prepara- fpecies of Fracaftorius’s confe&ion, commonly called
tlons- diaCcordium s confifting only of fuch of the ingredients
of that compofition as are moft conducive to the in¬
tention for which it is at prefent prefcribed. Forty-
five grains of the powder contain one of opium.
The powder is dire&ed to be kept in the fliops
without opium, for cafes where the afiiftance of that
drug is not wanted. It is a warm glutinous aftrin-
gent; and is given in fluxes, or other diforders where
medicines of this clafs are proper, in dofes of a fcruple
or half a dram.
811. Co?npound powder of cerujfe. L.
Take of cerufle, five ounces ; farcocolla, an ounce and
a half; gum tragacanth, half an ounce. Beat them
together into a powder.
This compofition is the trochifcialbi of Razi, brought
back to its original fimplicity with regard to the in¬
gredients, and without the needlefs trouble of making
it into troches. It is employed for external purpofes,
as in collyria, lotions, and inje&ions, for repelling
acrimonious humours, and in inflammations.
812. Compound powder of crabs~claws. L.
Take of the tips of crabs claws prepared, one pound ;
pearls prepared, red coral prepared, each three
ounces. Mix them together.
813. Corvpound tefaceous powder.
Take of oylter- (hells prepared, one pound; white
chalk, half a pound. Mix them together.
This cheap abforbCnt powder is at lead equally va¬
luable as a medicine with the more coftly and com¬
pounded crabs-claw and bezoardic powders of the
(hops. Thefe kinds of preparations are given from
half a fcruple to half a dram, for abforbing or deftroy-
ing acidities in the firft paflages; which feems to be
the only good effe£t that can be reafonably expe&ed
from thefe ftmple antacid earths. If they meet with
bo acid to diflblve them, they promife to be injurious
rather than beneficial.
It may here be proper to take notice of a quality
hitherto little expe&ed from thefe kind of fubftances,
that of ftrongly promoting putrefaftion. Flefh mixed
with a fmall proportion of chalk, and expofed to a
heat equal to that of the human body, not only cor¬
rupts fooner than without this addition, but likewife
in a far greater degree, refolving in a few days into a
perfeft mucus. This quality of the abforbent pow¬
ders (for the difcovery of which, with many other cu¬
rious experiments on the fame fubjeft, the public are
obliged to Dr Pringle) feems to forbid their ufe in all
thofe kinds of fevers where the animal-juices are al¬
ready too much difpofed to a putrefa&ive ftate. In¬
deed, in fevers of any kind, though frequently em¬
ployed, they are at bed unferviceable; and perhaps
their ill effeds would be oftener feen, if it was not for
the quantity of acids ufually given in acute difeafes.
814. Bezoardic powder. L.
Take of compound powder of crabs claws, onepound;
Oriental bezoar prepared, one ounce. Mix them
together.
Bezoar has hitherto been an ingredient in the fore¬
going compofition, which was then called Gafcoign’s
Part II.
powder; though, notwithftanding the addition which Prepara,
this article made to the price, it added nothing to the tions.
virtue of the medicine. The college of London have
therefore very prudently diredted an abforbent powder
without this cotlly article ; and compofed another,
diftinguiflted by its name, for the ufe of thofe who
expedt any particular virtues from it.
815,3. Compound powder of contrayerva.
Take of compound powder of crabs-claws, a pound
and a half} contrayerva root, five ounces. Make
them into a powder. L.
Take of contrayerva root, fix drams ; Virginian fnake-
root, two drams ; Englifli faffron, one dram ; com¬
pound powder of crabs-claws, two ounces. Make
them into a powder. E.
Thefe medicines have a much better claim to the
title of an alexipharmic and fudorific than the two
foregoing compofitions. The contrayerva, fnakeroot,
and lalfron, by themfelves are fuch, and prove very
ferviceable in low fevers, where the vis vitte is weak,
and a diaphorefis to be promoted. It is poflible that
the crabs-claw powders are of no farther fervice than
as they divide thofe powerful ingredients, and render
them fupportable to the ftomach.
815, b. Powder of chalk. E.
Take of white chalk prepared, four ounces ; nutmegs
and cloves, of each half a dram. Mix them to¬
gether into a powder, which fupplies the place of
the troches againft the heartburn.
8x6. Epileptic powder.
Take wild valerian root, peony root, of each equal
parts. Make them into a powder.
This powder may be looked on as a medicine of
fome importance for the purpofes exprefl'ed in its title,
far fuperior to thofe of fimilar intention in other phar¬
macopoeias. The dofe is from ten grains to half a
dram for children, and from half a dram to two drams
for adults.
817. Compound powder of myrrh. L.
Take of rue leaves dried, dittany of Crete, myrrh,
each an ounce and a half; afafetida, fagapenum,
Ruflia caftor, opopanax, each one ounce. Beat
them together into a powder.
This is a reformation of the troches of myrrh, a
compofition contrived by Razi againft uterine obftruc-
tions. It may be taken in any convenient vehicle, or
made into bolufcs, from a fcruple to a dram or more
two or three times a day.
818. Powder to promote delivery.
Take of borax, half an ounce ; caftor, faffron, each
a dram and a half; oil of cinnamon, eight drops;
oil of amber, fix drops. Beat the fpecies together
into a powder, to which add the oils, and mix the
whole well together.
1 his medicine has long been held in efteem for the
purpofe expreflcd in its title ; neverthelefs, its real effi¬
cacy, and what (hare thereof is owing to each of the
ingredients, has not been fufficiently determined: the
borax, though by fome thought to be of little im¬
portance, does not perhaps contribute leaft to its vir¬
tue.
PHARMACY.
Part II. P H A R
Prepara- tue. The <3ofe is from a fcruple to a dram, or fo
tiQns- much as can be conveniently taken up at once on the
point of a knife. It ihould be kept in a very clofe
veffel, otherwife it will foon lofe a confiderable deal of
its more valuable parts.
819. Compound powder of [cammony.
Take of fcammony, four ounces ; calcined hartfhorn
prepared, three ounces. Grind them diligently to¬
gether into a powder. L.
Take of fcammony, cryftals of tartar, of each two
ounces ; mix and rub them together into a very
fine powder. E,
Here the fcammony is divided by the earthy calx
and fait, and thus rendered fomewhat more foluble,
and lefs adhefive ; hence its purgative quality is pro¬
moted, at the fame time that it becomes lefs griping.
The dofe of the compound is from fifteen grains to half
a dram.
820. Compound powder of fsna. L.
Take of cryftals of tartar, fena, each two ounces ;
fcammony, half an ounce ; cloves, cinnamon, gin¬
ger, each two drams. Powder the fcammony by
itfelf, and all the other ingredients together; then
mix them.
This powder is given as a cathartic, in the dofe of
two fcruples or a dram. The fpices are added, not
only to divide, but to warm the medicine, and make
it fit eafier on the ftomach. The fcammony is ufed as
a ftimulus to the fena ; the quantity of the latter ne-
ceflary for a dofe, when not affifted by fome more
powerful material, being too bulky to be conveniently
taken in this form.
821. Sternutatory powder. L.
Take of afarum, marjoram, marum-fyriacum leaves
dried, lavender flowers dried, each equal weights.
Rub them together into a powder.
822. Cephalic powder. E.
Take of the leaves of afarum, three parts ; of mar-
* joram, one part. Beat them together into a
powder.
The titles of thefe powders fufficiently exprefs their
intention. They are both agreeable and efficacious
errhines, and fuperior to moft of thofe ufually fold
under the name of herb-fnuff.
823. Styptic powder. E.
Take of alum, an ounce and a half; gum kino, three
drams. Make them into a powder.
This powder is a very powerful aftringent.
824. Compound powder of amler. L.
Take of amber prepared, gum arabic, each ten drams;
juice of hypociftis, balauftines, Japan earth, each
five drams ; olibanum, half an ounce ; drained
opium, one dram. Beat them together into a
powder.
This medicine may be looked upon as an ufeful,
and tolerably elegant aftringent; though pofiibly the
ingredient which it receives its name from, contributes
little to its virtue. Two fcruples of the compofition
contain one grain of opium.
M A C Y. 6107
825. Compound powder of gum tragacanth. L. Prepara-
Take of gum tragacanth, gum arabic, marihmallow tl0ns‘
root, each an ounce and a half; ftarch, liquorice,
each half an ounce; double-refined fugar, three
ounces. Grind them into a powder.
This powder is a mild emollient ; and hence be¬
comes ferviceable in he&ic cafes, tickling coughs,
ftrangury, fome kinds of alvine fluxes, and other dif-
orders proceeding from a thin acrimonious date of the
humours, or an abrafion of the mucus of the in-
teftines : it foftens and gives a greater degree of con-
fiftency to the former, and defends the latter from be¬
ing irritated or excoriated by them. The dofe is from
half a dram to two or three drams, which may be fre¬
quently repeated,
826. Hiera pier a.
Take of gum extrafted from focotorine aloes, one
pound; canella alba, three ounces. Beat them
fepparately into powder, and then mix them to¬
gether. L.
Take focotorine aloes, four ounces ; Virginian fnake-
root, ginger, each half an ounce. Mix, and beat
them into a powder. E.
Thefe compofitions were originally direcled to be
made into an ele&uary : with us, they have been
rarely ufed in that form, and not often in this of a
powder, on account of their great naufeoufnefs. They
are chiefly employed as the balls of a tin&ure called
tinftura facra. See n° 376.
827, a. Aromatic fpecies. L.
Take of cinnamon, two ounces; lefler cardamom feed
hufleed, ginger, long pepper, each one ounce. Beat
them together into a powder.
827, b. Aromatic powder. E.
Take of nutmegs, lefler cardamon feeds, ginger, each
two ounces. Beat them together into a powder,
to be kept in glafs veflels well flopped.
Both thefe compofitions are agreeable, hot, fpicy
medicines; and as fuch may be ufefully taken in cold
phlegmatic habits and decayed conftitutions, for warm¬
ing the ftomach, promoting digeftion, and ftrengthen-
ing the tone of the vifeera. The dofe is from ten
grains to a fcruple and upwards. The firft is confi-
derably the warmed.
828. Species offcordiu7n without opium. L.
Take of bole armenic, or French bole, four ounces ;
fcordium, two ounces; cinnamon, an ounce and a
half; ftorax ftrained, tormentil root, biftort root,
gentian, dittany of Crete, galbanum ftrained, gura
arabic, red rofes, each one ounce ; long pepper,
ginger, each half an ounce. Reduce them into
powder.
829. Species of fcordium with opium. L.
Take of ftrained opium, three drams. Dry it a little,
that it may eafily pulverize ; and add it to the
foregoing fpecies in the beating, that they may be all
reduced into a powder together.
This is the fpecies of Fracaforius's confeSlion, or
diafcordim/it which has been hitherto kept in the
(hops in the form of an eledluary only, but is now ju-
34 K 2 dicioufly
6io8
Prepara-
P H A R M A C Y.
Part IT.
dicioufly direfled in that of a powder alfo, both with
and without the opium: when made into an ele&uary,
the medicine, in keeping, lofes of its aftringency, in
which confifts great part of its virtue. As this com-
pofition has in common pra&ice beeen looked upon as
a medicine of great confequence, and its effects de¬
termined by long experience ; the college have made
no farther alteration in its ingredients, than fubltitu*
ting red rofes themfelves to the fugar of rofes, omit¬
ting forrel feeds, which are certainly infignificant,
and fupplying the Lemnian earth, which with us is
fcarce ever met with genuine, by a proper increafe of
the bole.
830. Saline cathartic powder.
Take of vitriolated tartar, cryftals of tartar, each one
dram; fal prunel, or purified nitre, one ferupie.
Make them into a powder.
This is an ufeful cathartic in inflammatory diforders
and a vifcid impure ftate of the juices. The quantity
above dire&ed is intended for one dofe, which fhould
be accompanied with plentiful dilution.
831. Carminative powder.
Take of anifeed, fweet-fennel feed, each two fcruples;
ginger, one fcruple; nutmegs, half a fcruplej fine
fugar, half a dram. Reduce them into a powder,
for four dofes.
This powder is employed for expelling flatulencies
arifing from indigeftion, particularly thofe to which
hypochondriacal and hyfterical perfons are fuhjedt.
It is likewife ufefully given in the gripes of young
children, either mixed with their food or otherwife.
832. Diuretic powder.
Take of fal prunel, ten grains; fait of amber, four
grains ; oil of turpentine, three drops; fine fugar,
one fcruple. Drop the oil upon the fugar, then
add the falts, and grind the whole together.
This powder is a very efficacious diuretic, and may
be given to advantage in cafes where the affiftance of
fuch forcing medicines is required. The fahs fome-
what abate the heating quality of the oil, and at the
fame time cool and relax the paflages.
833. Strengthening powder.
Take of extract of Peruvian bark, 12 grains ; fait of
Heel, two grains; oil of cinnamon, one drop ; fipe
fugar, half a dram. Having mixed the oil with the
fugar, add the other ingredients, and grind the
.whole well together for two dofes.
This medicine has a much better title to the appel¬
lation of a Jlrengthener, than thofe ufiially met with un¬
der that name iu difpenfatories. In lax habits, debi¬
lities of the nervous fyftem, the weaknefles peculiar to
either fex, it has generally good effedts.
834. Powder againjl the king’s evil.
Take of burnt fponge, one fcruple ; nitre, coralline*
fine fugar, each half a fcruple. Reduce them into
powder.
This powder is recommended in fcrophulous difor¬
ders and obftru&ions of the glands: it is fuppofed to
open and deterge the minute veffels, and carry off the
offending matter by urine. Dr Mead informs us, in
bis Moxita M.edica, that he very frequently experien¬
ced its. good effe&s; he ufed to give the quantity above
preferibed, twice a day, with three or four glaffes of
the lefs compounded lime-water along with each dofe:
if the patient was much emaciated, the lime-water was
mixed with about.an equal quantity of milk.
835. Vermifuge powder.
1. Take of tanfy flowers, worm-feed, each three drams;
fait of fleel, one dram. Make them into a powder.
2. Take of tin reduced into fine powder, two drams;
ethipps mineral, half a dram; fine fugar, one fcruple.
Mix them well together.
•3. Take of choice rhubarb, three drams; fcammony,
calomel, each one dram. Mix, and make them into
a powder.
All thefe compofitions are well calculated for the
purpofe expreffed in the title. The firft is given in ho-
fpitals, in dofes of half a dram twice a day; which
quantity contains about four grains and a half of the
fait of tteel. The fecond is divided into three or four
dofes, one of which is taken every mornhig, and a ca¬
thartic on the day following. The third, which is a
brifk purgative, is ufed in the quantity of half a dram,
after the others have been premifed; or it is taken once
or twice a week without their aflittance.
836. Compound powder of jalap. E.
Take of jalap root, one ounce ; cryftais of tartar, two
ounces. Mix, and rub them together into a very
fine powder. E.
837. Dover’s fweating powder.
Take of vitriolated tartar, four ounces and an half j
opium, powdered ipecacuanha root, of each half an
ounce. Mix, and rub them well together into a fine
powder.
Sect. II. Troches and Lozenges.
836. Troches and lozenges arc compofed of powders
made up with glutinous fubftances into little cakes, and
afterwards dried. This form is principally made ufe of
for the more commodious exhibition of certain medicines,
by fitting them to difiblve flowly in the mouth, fo as
to pafs by degrees into the ftomach ; and hence thefe
preparations have generally a confiderable proportion of
fugar or other materials grateful to the palate. Some
powders have likewife been reduced into troches, with
a view to their prefervation ; though pofiibly for no
very good reafons: for the moiftening, and afterwards
drying them in the air, mull in this light be of greater
injury than/any advantage accruing from this form can
counterbalance.
General rules for making troches.
I. The three firft rules laid down for making powders,,
are alfo to be obferved in the powders for troches.
II. If the mafs proves fo glutinous as to flick to the
fingers in making up, the hands may be anointed
with any convenient fweet or aromatic oil; or elfe
fprinkled with powder of ftarcb, or with that of li¬
quorice.
III. In order to thoroughly dry the troches, put them
on an inverted fieve, in a fiiady, airy place, and fre¬
quently turn them.
IV. Troches are to kept in glafs veffels, or in earthen
ones well glazed.
838. Whits
Parc II. P H A R
JPrepara- 838, a. White ptfioral troches.
| tions. Take of double-refined fogar, a paqnd and a half;
ftarcb, an punce and a haSfj liquorice, fix drams;
Florence orris root, half an ounce. Reduce thefe in¬
gredients into powder, winch is to be made up into
troches with a proper quantity of mucilage of gum
tragacanth. L.
Take of white fugar, one pound ; gum arabic, two
ounces; ftarch, one ounce; Florentine orrice root,
one ounces. Make them into troches with rofe-wa-
ter. E.
Thefe compofitions are very agreeable pe&orals, and
may be ufed at plea lure. They are calculated forfoft-
ening acrimonious humours, and allaying the tickling
in the throat which provokes coughing.
838, b. Black pettoral troches.
Take of extraft of liquorice, gum arabic, each four
ounces ; white fugar, eight ounces. Boil the extract
and gum in a fufficient quantity of water till they
are diffolved : then having (trained the liquor, add
to it the fugar, and evaporate the mixture over a
gentle fire, till it is of a proper confiftence for being
formed into troches. E.
This compofition is defigned for the fame purpofes
as the white pe&oral troches above defcribed.
838, c. Peft oral troches •with opium. E. **
Take of opium, balfam of Peru, of each one dram ;
fine fugar, two drams; of the mafs for black pedlo-
ral troches, feven ounces. Rub the opium very well
with the balfam and fugar; then gradually add the
mafs of troches well foftened with warm water.
When all is very accurately mixed, form it into
troches, each weighing 15 grains.
839. Red-lead troches.
Take of red-)ead, half an ounce ; corrofive mercury
fublimate, one ounce ; crumb of the fineft bread,
four ounces. Make them up with rofe-water into
oblong troches.
Red-lead troches are employed only for external pur¬
pofes as efcharotics: they are powerfully fuch, and re¬
quire a good deal of caution in their ufe.
840. Troches of nitre.
Take of nitre purified, four ounces; double-refined fu¬
gar, one pound. Make them into troches with mu¬
cilage of gum tragacantb. L.
Take of nitre, three ounces ; fine fugar, nine ounces.
Powder them together, and make them into troches
with mucilage of gum tragacanth. E.
This is a very agreeable form for the exhibition of
nitre; though, when the fait is thus taken without any
liquid (if the quantity is confiderable) it is apt to oc-
cafion uneafinefs about the ftomach, which can only be
prevented by large dilution with aqueous liquors.
841. Troches of fquills. L.
Take of baked fquills, half a pound; wheat flour, four
ounces. Beat them together, and form the mafs in¬
to troches, which are to be dried with a gentle heat.
This preparation is ufed only as an ingredient in the
theriaca.
MAC Y. 6109
843. Troches of fulphur. Prepara-
Take of flowers of fulphur, walhed, two ounces; double- tlons’ - -
refined fugar, four ounces. Beat them together; and,
adding fome mucilage of quince feeds, form them
into troches. L.
Take of flowers of fulphur, two ounces; flowers of ben¬
zoin, one fcruple; white fugar, four ounces; fafti-
tious cinnabar, half a dram. Mucilage of gum tra¬
gacanth, as much as is fufficient. Mix, and make
them into troches, according to art.
Thefe compofitions are to be confidered only as a-
greeable forms for the exhibition of fulphur, no altera¬
tion or addition being here made to its virtue ; unlefs
that by the flowers of the benzoin in the fecond pre-
fcription, the medicine is fuppofed to be rendered more
efficacious as a pectoral.
843. Troches of Japan earth. L.
Take of Japan earth, gum arabic, each two ounces ;
fugar of rofes, 16 ounces. Beat them together; and
dropping in fome water, make them into troches.
A preparation of this kind, with the addition of am¬
bergris and mulk, which are here more prudently omit¬
ted, has long been in fome elteem as a mild reftringent,
&c. under the title of catechu. Thefe troches are fuf-
liciently palatable, and of confiderable fervice in fome
kinds of coughs, thin acrid defluxions, diarrhoeas,
&c.
844. Cardialgic lozenges. L.
Take of chalk prepared, tour ounces; crabs-claws pre¬
pared, two ounces ; bole armenic, or French bole,
half an ounce ; nutmegs, one fcruple ; double-refi¬
ned fugar, three ounces. Reduce thde ingredients
into powder, and make them into troches with water.
This compofition is calculated againft that' uneafy
fenfation at the ftomach, improperly called the heart¬
burn; in which it oftentimes gives immediate relief, by
abforbing and neutralizing the acid juices that occafion
this difprder. The abforbent powders here made ufe of
are of the moft powerful kind, though there does not
feem to be any occafion for ufing more than one of
them.
It is, however, to be obferved, that abforbent com¬
pofitions, though very effe&ual for the intention, are
accompanied with an inconvenience, which is frequently
complained of in their ufe ; their binding the belly.
The following is free from this inconvenience.
845. Laxative antacid lozenges.
Take of magnefia alba, fix ounces; double-refined fu¬
gar, three ounces; nutmegs, one fcruple. Mix them
well together,, and form them into troches with mu¬
cilage of gum tragacanth.
846. Sugar of rofes. L.
Take of red-rofe buds, freed from the heels, and ha-
flily dried, one ounce ; double-refined fugar, one
pound. Reduce them feparateiy into powder; then
mix, and moiften them with water, that they may
be formed into troches, which are to be dried by a
gentle heat.
This preparation is chiefly valued for its agreeable-
n.efa to the eye and palate. Some likewife elleem it.
medi-
6iio
Prepara- medicinally, as a light reftringent; and look upon it,
tl0‘1S• not undefervedly, as an excellent addition to milk in
phthifical and heflic cafes.
847. Anthebnintic fugar cakes.
1. Take of powdered tin, half a dram ; fine fugar, half
an ounce; rofe-water, a fufficient quantity to make
them into a mafs for tablets.
2. Take of fcammony, mercurius dulcis, each four
grains; fine fugar, half an ounce; rofe-water, a fuf¬
ficient quantity to make them into tablets.
Thefe compofitions are calculated for children, who
are not eafily prevailed upon to take anthelmintic me¬
dicines in lefs agreeable forms. If the firft is made ufe
of, it muft be repeated three or four mornings fuccef-
fively, after which a purge is to be taken; the fecond,
if it requires a repetition, is to be given only every o-
ther morning. The proportions of the ingredients are
to be varied, according to the age and ftrength of the
patient.
848. Nerve troches.
Take of compound fpirit of lavender, 60 drops; oil of
cinnamon, oil of rofemary, each four drops; Flo¬
rence orrice root, two drams; fine fugar, one ounce;
mucilage of gum tragacanth, as much as will reduce
them into a mafs, which is to be formed into troches
of about half a fcruple each.
One or two of thefe troches taken occafionally, and
fullered to diflblve in the mouth, prove ferviceable to
thofe who are fubjeft to paralytic and other nervous
diforders. Warm aromatic medicines, given in this
form and manner, are fuppofed, from their flow diffo-
lution in the mouth, to affeft the nervous fyftem more
immediately than if received at once into the ftomach.
849. Purging tablets.
Take of cryftals of tartar, half an ounce; fcammony,
three drams; oil of cinnamon, four drops; double-
refined fugar, eight ounces. Make them up with
rofe-water into troches, weighing each about a dram.
This is a fufficiently elegant form for purgative
troches. Each of the tablets contains two grains and
a half of fcammony.
850. Rhubarb troches.
Take of creme of tartar, rhubarb, each two drams;
frelh lemon peel, half a dram; fine fugar, four ounces.
Make them into troches with rofe-water.
Two drams of thefe troches contain about feven
grains of rhubarb, and as much creme of tartar.
851. Kunckel's antimonial tablets.
Take of the bell Hungarian antimony, levigated into
an impalpable powder, three drams and a half; fweet
almonds peeled, frelh pine-nuts, each half an ounce;
cinnamon, one dram ; lefler cardamom feeds hulk¬
ed, half a dram; double-refined fugar, four ounces.
Diflblve the fugar in equal quantities of cinnamon-
water and rofe-water; then mix therewith the other
ingredients, and form the whole into tablets weigh¬
ing one dram each.
Thefe tablets were brought into efteem by Kunckel,
at a time when the internal ufe of crude antimony was
almoft univerfally reckoned poifonous. He had re-
Part
courfe to them as a defperate medicine, in violent pains Prepar
and contraftions of the arms, after all the common me- tions,
thods of cure had been ufed without any relief; and 
being happily, in a Ihort time, perfedtly freed from his
complaints, he made trial of them in feveral other cafes
with remarkable fuccefs. He feems to have begun with
dofes of four or five grains, (that is, one of the tablets
above preferibed); which were repeated thrice a day, and
gradually increafed to a dram or mere of the antimony
every day.
852. Sialagogue troches.
Takeof pellitory of Spain, half an ounce; maftich, two
drams; oil of cloves and marjoram, each one dram ;
yellow wax, a fuflicient quantity. Make them into
troches or pellets.
One of thefe troches is to be occalionally held in the
mouth, and chewed, to promote a difeharge of faliva;
which they effeft by warming and ftimulating the fa-
lival glands.
853. Stomachic troches.
Take of hard extraft of Peruvian bark, one dram; oil
of cinnamon, oil of mint, each ten drops; fine fugar,
four ounces. Make them into troches, with muci¬
lage of gum tragacanth.
Thefe troches are of fervice for warming and ftrength-
ening the ftomach, expelling flatulencies, and promo¬
ting digeftion; for thefe purpofes they are as effectual
as any thing that can well be contrived in this form.
Sect. III. Pills.
854. To this form are peculiarly adapted thofe
drugs which operate in a fmall dofe; and whofe nau-
feous and offenfive tafte or fmell require them to be
concealed from the palate.
Pills diflblve the molt difficultly in the ftomach, and
produce the moft gradual and lafting effedfs, of all the
internal forms. This is, in fome cafes, of great advan¬
tage; in others, it is a quality not at all defirable;
and fometimes it may even be of dangerousconfequence,
particularly with regard to emetics, which if they pafs
the ftomach undiflblved, and afterwards exert thera-
felves in the inteftines, operate there as violent ca¬
thartics.
Hence emetics are, among us, fcarce ever given in
pills. And hence to the refinous and difficultly folublc
fubftances, faponaceous ones ought to be added, in or¬
der to promote their folution.
Gummy refins and infpiflated juices, are fometime*
foft enough to be made into pills, without addition :
where any moifture is requifite, fpirit of wine is more
proper than fyrups or conferves, as it unites more rea¬
dily with them, and does not fenfibly increafe their
bulk. Light, dry powders, require fyrup or mucila¬
ges ; and the more ponderous, as the mercurial and
other metallic preparations, thick honey, conferve, or
extra&s.
Light powders require about half their weight of
fyrup ; of honey, about three-fourths their weight; to
reduce them into a due confidence for forming pills.
Half a dram of the mafs will make five or fix pills of
a moderate fize.
General rules for making pills.
I. The three firft rules, formerly laid down for ma¬
king
PHARMACY.
>artH. PHARMACY. oiii
repara- king powders, are here alfo to be carefully ob-
ferved.
II. Gums and infpifiated juices are to be firft foften-
ed with the liquid prefcribed : then add the pow¬
ders, and continue beating them all together till
they are perfectly mixed.
III. The mafles for pills are belt kept in bladders,
which fhould be moiftened now and then with fome
kind of liquid that the mafs was made up with, or
with fome proper aromatic oil.
855. Ethiopia pills. E.
Take of quickfilver, fix drams; honey, half an ounce;
golden fulphur of antimony, gum guaiacum in
powder, of each half an ounce. Having robbed
the quickfilver with the honey in a glafs mortar,
till the globules ceafe to appear, add the fulphur of
antimony ; then with mucilage of gum arabic make
them into a mafs of a proper confidence for pills.
Thefe pills refemble Dr Plummer’s, defcribcd in
the Edin. Effays, (fee n° 773. fupra;) to which they
are preferable in one refpeft, that they are lefs apt to
run off by ftool. They are an ufeful alterative both
in cutaneous and venereal diforders. One-fourth part
of the quantity above prefcribed may be made into 60
pills ; of which from one to four may be taken every
night and morning, the patient keeping moderately
warm during the whole time that this courfe is conti¬
nued.
836. Aromatic pills. L.
Take of focotorine aloes, an ounce and a half; gum
guaiacum, one ounce ; aromatic fpecies, balfam of
Peru, each half an ounce. Reduce the aloes and
gum guaiacum feparately into powder ; then mix
them with the reft, and make the whole into a mafs
with a fufficient quantity of fyrup of orange-peel.
Thefe pills, taken in fmall dofes, as half a fcruple
or little more, and occafionally repeated, warm the
ftomach, and by degrees the whole habit, and promote
perfpiration and all the natural fecretions. If the dofe
is confiderable, they operate gently by ftool: and if
continued for fome time in fmaller dofes, they prove
at length purgative, or introduce a falutary loofenefs.
857. Aloe tic pills.
Take of focotorine aloes in powder, extraft ofgentian,
of each two ounces; fal polychreft in powder, half
an ounce. Mix, and make them into a mafs of
pills with limple fyrup.
858. Jalap pills. E.
Take of extraft of jalap, two ounces ; aromatic fpe¬
cies, half an ounce ; fimple fyrup, a fufficient quan¬
tity. Beat them into a mafs.
This compofition was firft received into the former
edition of the pharmacopoeia. One of the fame kind,
with powdered jalap in fubftance inftead of the extraft,
is ufed in fome of the London hofpitals, as a cheap and
effe&ual purge.
859. Pills of fcammony with aloes.
Take of focotorine aloes, one dram ; aromatic fpecies,
half a dram ; fcammony, one fcruple ; foft extract
of liquorice, as much as is fufficient to reduce them
into a mafs of a due confiftence for being formed in- Prepara-
to pills. —tlon?'—
This warm purgative is recommended for removing
the crudities, &c. after a furfeit or debauch, and for
preventing arthritic and other complaints incident to
thofe who live high. The quantity above prefcribed
may be made into 30 pills, of which five or fix are to
be taken for a dofe.
860. The more fnnple colocynthpills. L.
Take of pith of colocynth, fcammony, each two oun¬
ces; oil of cloves, two drams. Pulverize the colo-
quintida and fcammony by themfelves, then mix in
the oil, and make the whole into a mafs with fyrup
of buckthorn.
The operator ffiould be careful, in pulverifing the
colocynth, to avoid the finer particles that fly off from
it; which, though they do not confiderably affedl the
mouth or fauces, have fometimes been obferved to oc-
cafion violent purging. The drug fhould firft be well
dried, cut with fheers into fmall pieces, and freed from
the feeds ; then rub it in an oiled mortar, adding a
few drops of fweet oil occafionally during the tritura¬
tion : afterwards mix this powder with the powdered
fcammony, add the effential oil prefcribed, and make
the mixture into a mafs, as above direfted. The com¬
pofition is apt to grow ftiff and dry in keeping, and
therefore ought to be made pretty foft at firft: the
pills fhould be formed as they are wanted ; for when
long kept,, they become fo hard, as to have fometimea
paffed through the inteftines undiffolved.
Thefe pills (formerly called piluU de duobus, or pills
of two ingredients) are very ttrong cathartics, and
ought not to be ventured upon in cafes where lefs vio¬
lent medicines will take effetff. They have been often
made ufe of in large dofes, along with large dofes alfo
of mercurials, in venereal complaints, both in recent
gonorrhoeas, and in the fwellings and inflammations
which fometimes follow from the fuppreffion of the dif-
charge ; but in both thefe cafes they are apparently
impioper, as they generally injure the conftitution,
and as the latter complaint is for the moft part aggra¬
vated by them. The dofe is from 15 grains to half a
dramt fome have imprudently gone as far as two
fcruples.
861. The pills called cochiae. E.
Take of coloquintida, one ounce ; fcammony, foco¬
torine aloes, each two ounces; vitriolated tartar,
two drams ; oil of cloves, two drams; mucilage of
gum arabic, a fufficient quantity. Powder the aloes,
fcammony, and fait, together; then add the colo¬
cynth in very fine powder, and the oil; laftly, with
the mucilage make the whole into a mafs of pills.
This compofition, like the foregoing, is ftrongly
cathartic ; not lefs effe&ual, though fomewhat lefs ir¬
ritating.
862. Colocynth pills with aloes. L.
Take of focotorine aloes, fcammony, each two ounces;
pith of colocynth, one ounce ; oil of cloves, two
drams. Let the dry fpecies be feparately reduced
to powder; then mix in the oil, and make the
whole into a mafs with fyrup of buckthorn.
By
6i 12 P H A R
Prepara- By the diminution of coloquintida in this prelcrip-
licns. t;onj ingredients are reduced to the proportions
"■ wherein they are fet down in the original of Galen ;
and what is of greater confequence, the medicine be¬
comes lefs ungrateful to the Itomach, and lefs virulent
in its operation.
863. Deolflrnent pills. L.
Take of the aromatic pills, three ounces ; rhubarb,
extraft of gentian, fait of fteel, each one ounce;
fait of wormwood, half an ounce. Beat them to¬
gether into a mafs, with folutive fyrup ofrofes.
It is difficult to bring this mafs into the due con-
fiftence, the two falls adting upon one another fo as
to make it fwell and crumble. Notwithftanding the
alkaline fait employed, the pill does not prove at all
alkaline; for the acid of the fait of fteel forfakes its
metal, and unites with the alkali into a vitriolated
tartar: whence fome have propofed ufing, inftead of
the two falls here diredled, an ounce of vitriolated tar¬
tar already made, and half an ounce of any of the cal¬
ces of iron : this, they obferve, prevents the inconve-
niency abovementioned, without making any apparent
alteration in the quality of the medicine.
864. Chalybeate ecphrattic pills.
Take of the mafs of common pills, called Rufus'1 s pills
defcribed hereafter, one ounce and a half; gum
ammoniacum, refin of guaiaCum, each half an ounce;
fait of fteel, five drams; fyrup of orange-peel, as
much as is fufficient to reduce the wdiole into a
mafs.
Both thefe and the foregoing pills are very well cal¬
culated for anfwering the intention exprefled in the
title. A dram of the mafs may be made into 12
pills, and two or three of thefe taken every night, or
oftener, in chlorotic, or other cafes, where warm, ape¬
rient, or deobftruent medicines are proper.
865. Purging deobjlruent pills.
Take of focotorine aloes, extraft of black hellebore,
fcammony, each one ounce ; gum ammoniacum, re¬
fin of guaiacum, each half an ounce ; vitriolated
tartar, two drams; eflential oil of juniper-berries,
one dram. Beat them into a mafs, with a fufficient
* quantity of fyrup of buckthorn.
This compofition may be given from eight or ten
grains to a fcruple or half a dram, according as it is
intended to keep the belly open or to purge. Half a
dram of the mafs contains about fix grains of each of
the capital purgative ingredients ; aloes, fcammony,
and extraQ: of hellebore.
866. Fetid pills.
Take of afafetida, Ruffia caftor, each one dram and a
half; camphor half a dram; oil of hartffiorn, 24
drops. Beat the camphor with the afafetida, then
add the caftor and oil of hartfhorn, and make the
whole into a mafs.
867. Gum pills.
Take of galbanum, opopanax, myrrh, fagapenum,
each one ounce ; afafetida, half an ounce. Make
them into a mafs with fyrup of faffron. L.
Take of afafetida, galbanum, myrrh, of each two
ounces; reftified oil of amber, one dram. Mix
.
MAC Y. Fart II.
and make them into a mafs with common fyrup. E. Prepa«i-|
tions.
All thefe pills are defigned for antihyfterics and em- ^
menagogues, and very well calculated for anfwering
thofe intentions : half a fcruple, a fcruple, or more,
may be taken every night or oftener.
The following compofitions are calculated for the
fame intentions as the foregoing deobftruent, fetid, and
gum pills.
1. Take of afafetida, wood-foot, myrrh, each two
ounces; oil of amber, one dram and a half; fyrup
of fugar, a fufficient quantity. Mix, and make them
into a mafs, according to art.
2. Take of afafetida, one dram; martial flowers, half
a dram; oil of amber, eight drops; balfam of Pe¬
ru, a fufficient quantity to reduce them into a mafs. !
3. Take of afafetida, gum ammoniacum, myrrh, aloes,
ruft of fteel prepared, ext raft of gentian, each one
fcruple; fyrup of ginger, asv much as will make
the other ingredients into a m&s.
4. Take of galbanum, one dram ; fait of fteel, half a
dram; afafetida, aromatic fpecies, each one fcruple;
tinftnre of myrrh, as much as will make them into
a mafs.
A dram of either of the maffes is to be made into
12 pills, one or two of which may be taken for a dofe
twice or thrice a-day.
868. Mercurial pills.
Take of purified quickfilver, honey, each one ounce ;
crumb of bread, two ounces. Grind them toge¬
ther iq a glafs-mortar till the mercurial globules
ceafe to appear; then add a fufficient quantity ot
common fyrup, and make the whole into a mafs ac¬
cording to art. E.
Take of quickfilver, five drams; Strafburgh turpen¬
tine, two drams ; cathartic extraft, four fcruples ;
rhubarb powdered, one dram. Grind the quickfil¬
ver with the turpentine until they are perfeftly in¬
corporated ; then let the other ingredients be beat
up with this mixture into a mafs. If the turpen¬
tine happens to be too thick, foften it with a little
oil-olive. L.
869. Laxative mercurial pills.
Take of pure quickfilver, one ounce ; refin of guaia¬
cum, extraft of hellebore, powdered rhubarb, each
half an ounce; common fyrup, a fufficient quan¬
tity. Grind the quickfilver with the refin of guaia¬
cum until they are perfeftly incorporated; then
add the other ingredients, and beat the whole into
a mafs according to art.
The three foregoing compofitions are ufeful mercu¬
rial pills ; the firft as an alterative, the other two as
purgative mercurials. They are all, however, liable
to an inconvenience, uncertainty in regard to their
ftrength: for the mercury is but Icjofely united with
the other ingredients, and very apt to feparate and run
together in its original form ; in which ftate it never
exerts its proper virtue : though it appears perfeftly
extinguiihed by the matters it is ground with at firft,
part of it is apt to be fpued out on beating up the
mixture with the other ingredients into a mafs.
*- 870. Gamboge pills.
Take of focotorine aloes, extraft of black hellehortf,
gamboge,
Part II. P H A R
Compofi- gamboge, mercurlus dulcis, each two drams; ef-
tions. fential oil of juniper-berries, half a dram ; fyrup of
" buckthorn, a fufficient quantity. Beat them into a
mafs.
This is a ftrong mercurial purgative, in which the
mercurial preparation is not liable to the uncertainty
which the crude quickfilver is accompanied with in the
foregoing compofnions. The dofe is from 10 or 15
grains to half a dram.
871, a. Thebaic, commonly called the pacific pills. E.
Take of opium, half an ounce; extradl of,liquorice,
two ounces ; Caftile foap, an ounce and a half; Ja¬
maica pepper, one ounce. Soften the opium and
extradf feparately with water ; then mix them toge¬
ther, and add the foap and pepper in powder ; af¬
ter which beat all well together into a mafs.
M A C Y. 6113
mafs with a proper quantity of fyrup of orange- Compofi-
peel. E. tions‘
The pills,j given to the quantity of half a dram
or two fcruples, prove confiderably cathartic; but they
anfwer much better purpofes in fmaller dofes as laxa¬
tives or alteratives.
874. Squill pills.
Take of Spaniih foap, one ounce • gum ammoniacum,
millepedes prepared, frefh fquills, each half an
ounce ; balfam of Copaiba, as much as is fufficient.
Reduce them into a mafs according to art.
^ This is an elegant and commodious form for the ex¬
hibition of fquills, whether for promoting expe&ora-
tion, or in the other intentions to which that medicine
is applied.
871, b. Saponaceous pills. L.
Take of almond-foap, four ounces; {trained opium,
half an ounce ; eflence of lemons, one dram. Soft¬
en the opium with a little wine; and then beat it
with the reft, until they are perfectly mixed.
Thefe are introduced in the room of thofe former¬
ly fo much celebrated under the name of Starkey's or
Matthews's pills. The foap promotes the folution of
the opium in the ftomach, and thus occafions it to
aft the more quickly. The eflence of lemons, in the
laft of thefe prefcriptions, gives an agreeable flavour,
makes the medicine fit eafier on the ftomach, and pre¬
vents a naufea, which it would otherwife be apt to oc-
cafion. Ten grains of the pill contain nearly one
grain of opium.
871,0. St or ax pills. L.
Take of ftrained ftorax, two ounces; faffron, one
ounce ; ftrained opium, five dram*. Beat them to¬
gether till perfeftly united.
Thefe are contrived for diflblving more flowly in the
ftomach than the faponaceous pills, and confequently
producing more gradual and lafting effefts.
875. Pills againjl the dyfentery.
Take of yellow wax, half an ounce ; fpermaceti, Ja¬
pan earth, each one dram ; oil of cinnamon, twelve
drops. Make them into a mafs.
This medicine has often been of great benefit for
the purpofe exprefled in its title ; at the fame time
ftrengthening the inteftines, and covering them with a
foft mucus, which defends them from being irritated
by the acrimony of the humours. Each half dram of
the mafs may be formed into five or fix pills for one or
two dofes.
876. Spermaceti pills.
Take of fpermaceti, one dram ; white fugar-candy
in powder, two drams; balfamic fyrup, as much as
is fufficient. Grind the fpermaceti with the fugar
till they are perfeftly mixed ; then adding the fy¬
rup, rub them with a warm peftle into an uniform
mafs.
Where fpermaceti cannot be commodioufly exhibi¬
ted in any other form, three or four moderate-fized
pills, made from this mafs, may be taken two or three
times a-day, in erofions of the vifcera by acrimonious
humours, tickling coughs, and other like diforders.
871, d. Olibanum pills. E.
Take of olibanum, two ounces; myrrh, one ounce;
opium, five drams; balfam of Peru, two drams;
common fyrup, a fufficient quantity. Make them
into a mafs; which fupplies the place of the ftorax
pills.
872. Pe floral pills.
Take of gum ammoniacum, half an ounce ; balfam of
Tolu, two drams ; flowers of benzoin, Englifli faf¬
fron, each one dram ; common fyrup, a fufficient
quantity. Make them into a mafs according to art.
This compofition is very well contrived for promo¬
ting expeftoration ; and may be ufefully given in com¬
mon colds, and in difficulty of breathing proceeding
from vifcid phlegm : the dofe is from fix or eight
grains to a fcruple or more.
873. Rufus's pills. L.
Take of focotorine aloes, two ounces ; myrrh, faf¬
fron, each one ounce. Make them into a mafs with
fyrup of faffron. L.
Take of focotorine aloes, two ounces; myrrh, one
ounce ; faffron, half an ounce. Beat them into a
Vot. VIII. 2
877. Plummer's pills. E.
Take of fweet mercury, golden fulphur of antimony,
of each fix drams ; extraft of liquorice, half an
ounce; rub the mercury with the fulphur till they
are thoroughly incorporated ; then add the extraft,
and with mucilage of gum arabic make the whole
into a mafs.
Sect. IV. Bolufes.
878. Boluses differ little in confiftence from elec¬
tuaries, being only fomewhat differ, fo as to retain
their figure without fpreading or falling flat.
This form is very convenient for the exhibition of
the more powerful medicines, which require their do¬
fes to be exaftly adjufted, as the ftronger alexiphar-
macs, cathartics, and opiates. As bolufes are chiefly
intended for immediate ufe, volatile falls, and other
materials, which, if the mafs was to be kept, would
exhale or fwell it, are frequently admitted into them.
The quantity of a bolus very feldom exceeds a dram:
if the ingredients are of the lighter kind, even this
will be too bulky to be commodioully fwallowed down.
The lighter powders are made up with fyrup; a
fcruple or 26 grains of the powder, with as much fy-
34 L rup
6ii4
Com poll- rup as will bring it to a due confidence, makes a fac¬
tions- ]us fuffieiently large.
  The more ponderous powders, as the mercurial
ones, are commonly made up with conferve, fyrups
fcarce holding them together. For the teftaceous
powders alfb an addition of conferve is ufed; though,
if made up with this alone, they would be too bulky.
Both the light and ponderous powders may be con¬
veniently made up witb mucilage, which increafes the
bulk lefs than th£ other additions, and occafions them
to pafs down more freely.
The officinal pharmacopeeias have no formula of this
kind : moft of the following compofuions are taken
from our hofpitals.
879. Alextpbarmac bolus.
r. Take of compound powder of contrayerva, half a
fcruple ; fyrup of wild poppies, a fufficient quan¬
tity to make it into a bolus.
2. Take of contrayerva root, half a fcruple; fyrnp
of faffron, as much as is fufficient. Make them
into a bolus.
3. Take of Virginian fnakeroot, half a fcruple ; con-
fe&ion of kermes, as much as is fufficient. Mix
and make them into a bolus.
4. Take of Virginian fnakeroot, contrayerva root,
each eight grains ; faffron, three grains; fyrup of
meconium, a fufficient quantity to reduce them into
a bolus.
5. Take of camphor, two grains ; faffron, five grains;
cordial confection, one fcruple. Mix and make
them into a bolus.
6. Take of camphor, two grains; nitre, contrayerva
root, each ten grains; fyrup of clove-julyflowers,
as much as will make them into a bolus.
7. Take of muflc, ten grains; fait of hartihorn, or
of fal ammoniac, five grains; Thebaic extraCt, half
a grain; fyrup of faffron, a fufficient quantity.
Make them into a bolus.
Thefe bolufes are defigned for low depreffed fevers,
in which medicines of this kind are generally prefcri-
bed, for keeping up the vis vitae, raifing the pulfe,
and promoting a diaphorefis. The compofitions differ
in ftrength, nearly according to the order in which
they ftand. The laft is of great power, and defigned .
chiefly for cafes accompanied with convulfive fymp-
toms, which are often abated by it.
880. Cajlor bolus.
Take of caftor, one fcruple ‘r fait of hartfhorn, five
grains ; or oil of hartfhorn, five drops ; Ample fy¬
rup, a fufficient quantity. Make them into a bolus.
This medicine is given in hyfterical and hypochon¬
driacal diforders, and likewife as an alexipharmac in
fevers. Its virtues, which are great and unqueftion-
able, feem to depend more on the fetid animal-oil, or
volatile fait, than on the drug from whence it takes
its name.
881. Diaphoretic bolus.
Take of compound powder of contrayerva, crude fal
ammoniac, each one fcruple; fimple fyrup, a fuffi¬
cient quantity to form them into a bolus.
This bolus is given in fevers, and other cafes where
a diaphorefis is to be promoted. Sal ammoniac is for
this purpofe one of the moft efficacious of the neutral
Part II.
falls. It requires, however, when thus given in a fo- Compofi-
lid form, to be affifted by warm diluents, frequently
repeated ; which not only promote its a&ion, but
likewife prevent its fitting uneafy on the ftomach.
882. Diuretic bolus.
Take of frefli fquills, fix grains ; compound powder
of arum, ten grains; ginger, five grains ; fyrup of
orange-peel, a fufficient quantity. Make them into
a bolus.
This compofition is recommended by Dr Mead, to
be taken every morning in hydropic cafes, for promo¬
ting urine. He obferves, that in thefe diforders, diu¬
retic medicines vary greatly in their effe&s, thofe which
anfwer fufficiently in one perfon failing in another ;
and that the fquill and its preparations are of all others
thofe which moft generally fucceed.
883. Bolus againjl the dyfentery.
Take of the cordial confe&ion, French bole, each one
fcruple; thebaic extraft, one grain. Make them
into a bolus.
This compofition is excellently well calculated for
the purpofe exprefled in its title. Dr Mead affures us,
that he has never found any one medicine more effec¬
tual, either for reftraining the flux, or healing the ex-
ulcerated membranes. Previous to the ufe of this or
other like medicines, the firft paffages mud be clean-
fed by mild emetics and cathartics, as ipecacoanha and
rhubarb.
884. Emmenagogue bolus.
Take of focotorine aloes, eight grains j faffron, four
grains; Guinea pepper, two grains ; oil of favin,
two drops ; conferve of rue, as much as is fufficient
to reduce them into a due Confiftence.
Take of black hellebore root, eight grains; freff*
fquills, four grains; eflential oil of pepper-mint,
two drops; conferve of orange-peel, as much as is
fufficient to make them into a bolus.
Thefe are medicines of great power for promoting
or exciting the menftrual flux. The firft is calculated
for lax phlegmatic habits ; the other for perfons of a
fanguine temperament, where chalybeate medicines
cannot be borne.
885. Febrifuge bolus.
Take of Peruvian bark, one fcruple ; cafcarilla, half
a fcruple : mucilage of quince feeds, a fufficient
quantity to make them into a bolus.
This elegant compofition is excellently well adapted
to the cure of intermittent fevers, and may be given
in cafes where the Peruvian bark by itfelf would be
lefs proper. Where aromatics, chalybeates, bitters,
&c. are alfo requifite, they are either to be premifedj
or occafionally interpofed.
886. Hyfl-eric bolus.
Take of mufk, afafetida, each fix grains; caftor,
half a fcruple; fyrup of faffron, as much as is fuffi¬
cient to make them into a bolus.
This medicine is a very well contrived one for the
purpofe expreffed in its title. It is of great fervice
both in hyfterical and hypochondriacal diforders; and
often gives relief in the depreffions, faintings, ftatu-
lenfc
PHARMACY.
Part II. P H A R
Cqmpofi- lent colics, headachs, and other fymptoras attending
Hons, them. It may be taken twice a-day along with any
fuitable liquor.
887. Iliac bolus.
Take of cathartic extradt, one fcruple ; thebaic ex-
traft, one grain. Make them into a bolus.
This bolus is prefcribed by Dr Mead for eafmg the
pain and procuring ftools in the iliac-paffion and dry
belly-ach ; where the irritating cathartics, exhibited
by themfelves, are thrown up by vomit. The ufe of
this medicine is to be preceded by plentiful bleeding,
and accompanied with purgative glyfters of the more
acrid kind ; and its operation promoted by isfufion of
fena mixed with a little of the elixir of health, or tindlure
of fena.
888. Mercurial bolus.
Take of calomel, from five to fifteen grains ; conferve
of rofes, half a dram. Mix, and make them into a
bolus.
This bolus is given every night, or oftener, for rai-
fing a falivation in venereal and other diforders, which
require that Herculean operation.' It is likewife taken
at night as ati alterative, to be carried off next morn¬
ing by a cathartic : mercurials exhibited in this man¬
ner, have generally better effefts than when joined
with purgatives dire&ly.
889. Pettoral bolus.
Take of fpermaceti, fifteen grains; gum ammonia-
cum, ten grains; fait of hartihorn, five grains;
Ample fyrup, as much as is fufficicnt. Mix, and
make them into a bolus.
In colds of long Handing, old coughs, afthmas, and
beginning confumptions, this bolus generally gives re¬
lief; efpecially if bleeding is premil'ed, and repeated,
if neceffary, at proper intervals.
890. Bolus of rhubarb nuith mercury.
Take of choice rhubarb, twenty five grains; calomel,
five grains ; fimple fyrup, as much as will form them
into a bolus.
This is a very mild mercurial purgative. It is gi¬
ven to deftroy worms, and in cachedtic, chlorotic, and
other like diforders.
891. Rheumatic bolus.
Take of extraft of guaiacum, half a dram; fait of
hartfhorn, feven grains ; fimple fyrup, a fufficient
quantity. Make them into a bolus.
In chronical rheumatifms, whether the remains of
a rheumatic fever, or a continuation of pains that pro¬
ceeded at firft from neglefted colds, this bolus has
been given with good effects once a-week, or oftener,
the patient keeping warm, and drinking warm li¬
quors to promote its operation as a cathartic and
diaphoretic. Its ufe ought to be accompanied by ve-
naefeftion, which is to be repeated every eight or ten
days as long as the blood is fixy.
892. Sudorific bolus.
Take of camphor, five grains; thebaic extraft, one
grain ; fyrup of orange-peel, a fufficient quantity
to reduce them into a bolus.
M A C Y. 6115
This medicine is one of the mofteffeftual fudorifics, Compofi-
generally exciting a copious fweat. tl0iu'
Sect. V. Eleftuaries.
893. Electuaries are compofed chiefly of pow¬
ders mixed up with fyrups, &c. into fuch a confid¬
ence that the powders may not feparate in keeping,
that a dofe may be eafily taken up on the point of a
knife, and not prove too fliff to fwallow.
Eleffuaries receive chiefly the milder alterative me¬
dicines, and fuch as are not ungrateful to the palate.
The more powerful drugs, as cathartics, emetics,
opiates, and the like, (except in officinal ele&uaries
to be difpenfed by weight), are feldom trufted in this
form, on account of the uncertainty of the dofe; dif-
guftfulones, acrids, bitters, feetids, cannot be conve¬
niently taken in it; nor is the form of an eledluary
well fitted for the more ponderous fubdances, as mer¬
curials, thefe being apt to fubfide in keeping, unlefs
the compofition is made too diff.
The lighter powders require thrice their weight of
honey, or fyrup boiled to the thicknefs of honey, to
make them' into the confidence of an eledluary ; of
fyrups of the common confidence, twice the weight
of the powders is fufficient.
Where the common fyrups are employed, it is ne¬
ceffary to add likewife a little conferve, to prevent the
compound from drying too foon. Eledtuaries of Pe¬
ruvian bark, for indance, made up with fyrup alone,
will often in a day or two grow too dry for taking.
Some powders, efpecially thofe of the lefs grateful
kind, are more conveniently made up with mucilages
than with fyrups, honey, or conferve. The three lat¬
ter dick about the mouth and fauces, and thus occa-
fion the tade of the medicine to remain for a confider-
able time ; whild mucilages pafs freely, without lea¬
ving any tade in the mouth. A little foft extradf of
liquorice, joined to the mucilage, renders the compo¬
fition fufficiently grateful, without the inconveniences
of the more adhefive fweets.
The quantity of an eledluary diredled at a time, in
extemporaneous prefeription, is rarely lefs than an
ounce, or more than three ounces.
*• General rules for making elettuaries.
I. The rules already laid down for decodlions and
powders in general, are likewife to be obferved in
making decodlions and powders for eledluaries.
II. Gums, infpiffated juices, and fuch other fubdan-
ces as are not pulverable, fhould be diffolved in the
liquor prefcribed : then add the powders by little
and little, and keep the whole briflily dirring, fo
as to make an equable and uniform mixture.
III. Adringent eledluaries, and fuch as have pulps of
fruits in their compofition, fliould be prepared only
in fmall quantities at a time: for adringent medi¬
cines lofe greatly of their virtues on being kept in
this form, and the pulps of fruits are apt to become
four.
IV. The fuperfluous moidure of the pulps fhould he
exhaled over a gentle fire before the other ingre¬
dients are added to them.
V. Eledluaries, if they grow dry in keeping, are to
be reduced to the due confidence, with the addition
of a little Canary wine, and not with fyrup or ho-
34 L 2 ney;
6116 P H A R
Compofi- ney : by this means the dofe will be the lead uncer-
tions. ta;n . a circumftance deferving particular regard, in
thofe efpecially which are made up with fyrup, and
contain a large quantity of opium, as the confeftion
called paulina and philoniuni, n° 902. & 904.
894. Elettuary of cafia. L.
Take of folutive fyrup of rofes, pulp of caffia, frefh
extracted, each half a pound ; manna, two ounces;
pulp of tamarinds, one ounce. Grind the manna in
a mortar, and with a gentle heat diffolve it in the
fyrup : then add the pulps, and continue the heat
until the whole is reduced to a due confidence.
895. Diacafia. E.
Take of pulp of caffia, fix ounces; pulp of tamarinds,
Calabrian manna, of each an ounce and a half; fy¬
rup of pale rofes, fix ounces. Diffolve the manna,
beat in a mortar, in the fyrup with a gentle heat 5 then
mix in the pulps, fo as to make the whole into an
uniform eleduary, according to art.
Thefe compofitions are very convenient officinals to
ferve as a bafis for purgative eleftuaries, and other
like purpofes; as the pulping a fmall quantity of the
fruits, for extemporaneous prefcription, is fufficiently
troublefome. The tamarinds give them an agreeable
tafte, and do not fubjedt them, as might be expefted, to
turn four : after {landing for four months, the compo-
fition was found no fourer than when firlt made up.
They are likewife ufually taken by themfelves, in the
quantity of two or three drams occafionally, for gently
loofening the belly in coftive habits.
896. Lenitive elettuary.
Take of figs, one pound ; fena, eight ounces ; pulp of
tamarinds, pulp of caffia, pulp of French prunes,
each half a pound ; coriander feeds, four ounces ;
liquorice, three ounces; double-refined fugar, two
pounds and a half. Pulverife the fena along with
the coriander-feeds, and lift out ten ounces of the
powder ; the remainder is to be boiled with the figs
and liquorice, in four pints of water to one half;
then Itrain and prefs out the liquor, and evaporate
it to the weight of a pound and a half, or fome-
what lefs : in this diffolve the fugar, fo as to make
it into a fyrup ; and add this fyrup, by little and
little, to the pulps: laftly, mix in the powder be¬
fore feparated by the fieve. L.
This elediuary may be occafionally taken to the
quantity of a nutmeg or more, for loofening the
belly in coilive habits. It is frequently employed in
glyiters, though for that ufe the following is rather
more convenient.
Take of fena, eight ounces; coriander-feeds, four
ounces ; pulp of prunes, two pounds. Powder the
leaves and feeds ; then add the pulps, and mix the
whole well together, fo as to make them into an
eleftuary. E.
897. Pettaral elettuary.
Take of rob of elder-berries, two ounces; fpermaceti
diffolved in a fufficient quantity of yolk of eggs,
half an ounce ; flowers of benzoine, one dram ; bal-
famic fyrup, as much as is fufficient to make the
other ingredients into an eleftuary.
This is a very ufeful medicine in tickling coughs
M A C Y. Part II.
and common colds, calculated both to obtund acrimo- Compofi-
ny and promote expeftoration. It may be ufed two dons,
or three times a-day, in dofes of about the quantity of
a fmall nutmeg. Taken to the bulk of a large nut¬
meg, at bed-time, it generally not only relieves the
bread, but tends to procure a falutary diaphorefis or
fweat in the night.
898. Elettuary offcammony. L.
Take of fcammony, an ounce and a half; cloves, gin¬
ger, each fix drams; eflential oil of caraway-feeds,
half a dram; honey, half a pound. Let the fpices
be ground together, and mixed with the honey ;
then add the powdered fcammony, and afterwards
the oil.
This eleftuary is a warm brifk purgative. It is a
reform of the elettuarium caryocofinum of our preceding
difpenfatories; a compofition which was greatly com¬
plained of, as being inconvenient to jtake on account
of the largenefs of its dofe. A dram and a half of
this, which contains fifteen grains of fcammony, is
equivalent to half an ounce of the other.
899. fa panic confettion. E.
Take of Japan earth, four ounces; gum kino, three
ounces ; nutmeg, and cinnamon, each one ounce ;
opium diffolved in a fufficient quantity of white-wine,
half a dram ; fyrup of dry rofes, boiled to the
thicknefs of honey, thrice the weight of the pow¬
ders. Mix and make them into an eleftuary, which
fupplies the place of diafcordium.—It is a mode-
ratlely warm aftringent and opiate.
900. Locatelli ’/ half am.
Take of oil-olive, one pint; Strafburg turpentine, yel¬
low wax, each half a pound ; red faunders, fix drams.
Melt the wax over a gentle fire, with fome part of
the oil ; then add the rdl of the oil, and the tur¬
pentine ; afterwards mix in the faunders, and keep
them flirring together, until the mixture is grown
cold. L.
Take of yellow wax, one pound ; oil of olive, a pint
and a half; Chio or Strafburgh turpentine, a pound
and a half; balfam of Peru, two ounces; dragons
blood, in powder, one ounce, Melt the wax in
the oil over a gentle fire, then add the turpentine ;
and having taken them from the fire, mix in the
balfam of Peru and dragons blood, keeping them
continually ilirring till grown cold.
Dragons blood gives a more elegant colour to this
compofition than red faunders; though on another ac¬
count it is fomewhat lefs proper, having been found,
when diffolved in oil, to communicate fome degree of
heat and pungency, qualities quite foreign to the in¬
tention of the medicine. This balfam is ufed in in¬
ternal bruifes and haemorrhages, erofions of the in-
teflines, dyfenteries, and in fome kinds of coughs
and afthmas: the dofe is from two fcruples to two
drams: it may be commodioufly taken with about
double its weight of conferve of rofes, as direfted
hereafter. Some have likewife applied it externally,
for deterging and incarnating recent wounds and
ulcers.
901. Cordial confettion. E.
Take of conferve of rofemary flowers, three ounces ;
candied
Part II.
iCompofi-
I dons.
P H A R
candled nutmegs, one ounce and a half; candied
ginger, fix drams ; cinnamon in fine powder, half
an ounce; fyrup of orange-peel, as much as is fuffi-
cient. Mix them into an ele&uary, acccording to
art.
Particular care ought to be had in the choice of the
efiential oil; for on its goodnefs, that of the medicine
in great meafure depends.
902. The confettion called paulina. L.
Take of coftus, or (in its ftead) zedoary ; cinnamon,
long pepper, black pepper; ftorax, galbanum, opi¬
um, (trained ; each two ounces: Ruffia caftor, two
ounces 5 Ample fyrup, boiled to the confittence
of honey, thrice the weight of the other ingre¬
dients. Warm the fyrup, and carefully mix with
it the opium firft difiblved in wine : gradually add
this mixture, whilft it continues warm, to the
ftorax and galbanum previoufly melted together;
and afterwards fprinkle in the other fpecies reduced
into powder.
This is a warm opiate medicine, and as fuch is
fometimes made ufe of in practice : thirty-two grains
contain one grain of opium.
903, a. Mithridate, or the confettion ofDamocrates. L.
Take of cinnamon, fourteen drams; myrrh, eleven
drams; agaric, Indian nard, ginger, faffron, feeds
of Mithridate-muftard, frankincenfe, Ohio turpen¬
tine, each ten drams; camels hay, coftus or (in its
ftread) zedoary, Indian leaf or (in its ftead) mace,
ftoechas, long pepper, hartwort feeds, hypociftis,
ftorax (trained, opopanax, galbanum drained, opo-
balfam or (in its ftead) expreffed oil of nutmegs,
Ruflia caftor, each one ounce; mountain poley,
fcordium, carpobalfam or (in its ftead) cubebs,
white pepper, Candy carrot feed, bdellium (trained,
each feven drams; Celtic nard, gentian root, dit¬
tany of Crete, red rofes, Macedonian parfley feed,
lefler cardamom feeds hulked, fweet-fennel feed,
gum arabic, opium (trained, each five drams ; cala¬
mus aromaticus, wild valerian root, anifeed, faga-
penum (trained, each three drams; meum athaman-
ticum, St John’s wort, acacia or (in its ftead) terra
Japonica, bellies of (kinks, each two drams and a
half; clarified honey, thrice the weight of all the
ether ingredients. Warm the honey, and mix
with it the opium diflblved with wine ; melt the
ftorax, galbanum, turpentine, and cpobalfam (or
exprefled oil of nutmegs) together in another vefl'el,
continually ftirring them about to prevent their
burning; with thefe fo melted, mix the hot honey,
at firft by fpoonfnls, and afterwards in larger quan¬
tities at a time; when the whole is grown almoft
cold, add by degrees the other fpecies reduced into
powder.
903, b. Theriaca Jndromachi, or Venice treacle. L.
Take of troches of fquills, half a pound:—long pep¬
per, opium drained, vipers dried, each three oun¬
ces :—cinnamon, opobalfarp, or (in its ftead) ex¬
prefled oil of nutmegs, each two ounces:—agaric,
Florence orris root, fcordium, red rofes, navew
feeds, extraft of liquorice, each an ounce and a
half:—Indian nard, faffron,amomum, myrrh, coftus
or (in its ftead) zedoary, cagaels hay, each one
M A C Y. 6117
ounce :—cinquefoil root, rhubarb, ginger, Indian Compofi-
leaf or (in its ftead) mace, dittany of Crete, hore- tioilS~
hound leaves, calamint leaves, ftoechas, black pep¬
per, Macedonian parfley feed, olibanum, Chio tur¬
pentine, wild valerian root, each fix drams:—gen¬
tian root; Celtic nard ; fpignel; leaves of poley
mountain, St John’s wort, groundpine; german¬
der tops, with the feed; carpobalfam, or (in its
ftead) cubebs; anifeed; fweet-fennel feed; lefler-
cardamom feeds, hulked; feeds of biftiops-weed,
hartwort-treacle, muftard ; hypociflis; acacia, or
(in its ftead) Japan earth ; gum arabic; ftorax
(trained ; fagapenum drained ; terra Lemnia,or (in
its ftead) bole armenic or French bole ; green vitriol
calcined; each half an ounce:—fmall or (in its
ftead) the long birthwort root; leffer centaury top ;
Candy carrot feed ; opopanax ; galbanum (trained ;
Ruflia eaftor; Jews pitch, or (in its ftead) white
amber prepared ; calamus aromaticus ; each two
drams:—clarified honey, thrice the weight of all
the other ingredients. Let thefe ingredients be
mixed together, after the fame manner as dire&ed
in making the mithridate.
Thefe celebrated eledtuaries are almoft the only
remains, which the late reformation has left in the
(hops, of the wild exuberance of compofition, which
the fuperftition of former ages brought into vogue.
The theriaca is a reformation of mithridate, made by
Andromachus, phyfician to Nero: the mithridate it-
felf is faid to have been found in the cabinet of Mi-
thridates king of Pontus. The firft publiftiers of this
pompous arcanum were very extravagant in their com¬
mendations of its virtues ; the principal of which was
made to confift in its being a mod powerful preferva-
tive againft all kinds of venom ; whoever took a pro¬
per quantity in a morning, was infured from being
poifoned during that whole day : this was confirmed
by the example of its fuppofed inventor ; who, as Cel-
fus informs us, was, by its conftant ufe, fo fortified
againft tlte commonly-reputed poifons, that none of
them would have any effect upon him when he wanted
their afliftance. But the notions of poifons which
prevailed in thofe ruder ages, were manifeftly erro¬
neous. Before experience had furniftied mankind with
a competent knowledge of the powers of fimples they
were under perpetual alarms from an apprehenfion of
poifons, and bufitd themfelves in contriving compofi-
tions which (hould counteraft their effe&s, accumula-
ting together all thofe fubftances which they imagi¬
ned to be poffeffed of any degree of alexipharmic
power. Hence proceed the voluminous antidotes
which we meet with in the writings of the ancient
phyficians : yet it does not appear that they were ac¬
quainted with any real poifon, except the cicuta, aco-
nitum, and bites of venomous beads; and to thefe they
knew of no antidote whatever. Even admitting the
reality of the poifons, and the efficacy of the feveral
antidotes feparately, the compofitions could no more
anfwer the purpofes expe&ed from them, than the ac¬
cumulating of all the medicinal fimples into one form
could make a remedy againft; all difeafes.
Yet notwithftanding the abfurdity in the original
intention of thefe medicines, and their enormity in
point of compofition, as they contain feveral powerful
materials, whofe virtues, though greatly prejudiced,
yet
6u8
Compofi- yet are not deftroyed, by their multiplicity and con-
tions. trariety ; the compounds have been found, from re¬
peated experience, to produce very confiderable ef-
fe&s, as warm opiate diaphoretics.
The college of Edinburgh, paying very little defe¬
rence to antiquity or common prejudice, ventured at
length to difcard thefe venerable reliques; and fubfti-
tuted in their room an elegant and Ample form, equi¬
valent to them both in efficacy, under the title of
903, c. Edinburgh theriaca.
Take of Virginian fnake-root, ten ounces; contrayerva
root, Ax ounces; refin of guaiacum, four ounces;
lefler cardamom feeds, two ounces; myrrh, Engliffi
faffron, opium, each one ounce; rob of elderber¬
ries, thrice the weight of the powders ; Canary
wine, as much as is fufficient to diflblve the opium.
Make them according to art into an ele&uary.
This compofition confifts of very powerful ingre¬
dients, and is doubtlefs capable of anfwering every
thing that can be reafonably expedted from the more
voluminous theriaca of Andromachus. The London
college alfo had formerly their theriaca, compofed of
the lefs exceptionable ingredients of Andromachus’s.
But as thefe medicines have for a long time been chief¬
ly employed for external purpofes, by way of cata-
plafm, the London theriaca is now omitted; and its
place fupplied by a cataplafm compofed of a few
well-chofen articles, under the name of cataplafma
e cymino, or il cataplafm of cummin.” For in*
ternal ufe, none of the theriacas are at prefent fo
much regarded as they have been heretofore ; practi¬
tioners having introduced in their room extempora¬
neous bolufes of Virginian fnakeroot, camphor, con¬
trayerva, and the like; which anfwer all their inten¬
tions, with this advantage, that they may be given
either with or without opium, an ingredient which
renders the others prejudicial in cafes where they might
otherwife be proper. The prefent edition of the E-
dinburgh pharmacopoeia has alfo rejected the theriaca
•Edinenfis, and in its room adopted the following com-
pofition under the title of
903, d. Thebaic eleftuary.
Take of aromatic fpecies, fix ounces; Virginian fnake¬
root in powder, three ounces ; opium diffolved in
white-wine, three drams; clarified honey, thrice
the weight of the powders. Mix all together into
an eleduary.
904. London philoniuvt.
Take of white pepper, ginger, caraway feeds, each
two ounces ; drained opium, fix drams ; fyrup of
meconium, boiled to the confidence of honey, thrice
the weight of the other ingredients. Heat the fy¬
rup, and carefully mix it with the opium, previouf-
ly didblved in wine; then add the other ingredients,
reduced into powder. L-
This is a reformation of the philonium defcribed by
Galen, which was received in our preceding pharma¬
copoeias with the addition of fome fuperfluous ingre¬
dients, and didinguidied, but not very properly, by the
epithet Romanum. The additional articles, and fome
unneceffary ones that were in the original, are here
omitted, and the quantities of the others varied, fo as
Part It.
to preferve the fame proportion of opium to the whole, Compofi-
as in the lad L. pharmacopoeia. Thirty-fix grains of_
the compofition contain one grain of opium.
905. The mithridate, theriaca, diafcordium, con-
feftio Paulina, and philonium, are the only compofi-
tions now remaining, of what have been called the of*
ficinal capitals. They are all medicines of great
powerj: and as, on the one hand, they are applicable,
by the judicious phyfician, to excellent purpofes ; fo,
on the other, their imprudent ufe has often been pro¬
ductive of mifchievous confequences. It has been cu-
ftomary among nurfes and others, to give diafcordium
to children, to eafe their complaints, and to procure
fleep : intentions which it effectually anfwers ; but at
the fame time never fails to bring on a codive habit,
the foundation of many difeafes : this medicine has like-
wife been too unwarily given for redraining fluxes;
whofe fuppreffion was afterwards followed by more
dangerous fymptoms. The celebrated alexipharmacs,
mithridate and theraica, have oftentimes aggravated
the diforders they were intended to remedy, have con¬
verted a common cold into a high fever, and have raifed
flight febrile complaints into a malignant^fever. How¬
ever drongly, therefore, thefe kinds of medicines are
recommended for eafing pain, warming, promoting
fweat, expelling malignity, &c. the utmod caution is
requifite in the ufe of them ; the cafes which demand
their affidance are much lefs frequent than is gene¬
rally fuppofed.
906. Acid eleftuary.
Take of conferve of wood-forrel, one ounce; pulp of
tamarinds, half an ounce ; weak fpirit of vitriol, as
much as is fufficient to give a grateful acidity : fy-
rup of lemon-juice, as much as will reduce the
whole into the confidence of a foft eleCtuary.
This grateful acid compofition is an ufeful refrige¬
rant and antifeptic in different kinds of inflammatory
and putrid diforders.
907. Alexeterial elettuary.
Take of confeCtion of kermes, one dram; candied
ginger, fix drams; contrayerva root,Virginian fnake¬
root, each one dram ; fyrup of orange-peel, as much
as is fufficient to make the other ingredients into
the confidence of an eledtuary.
This is a moderately warm eleftuary, contrived by
Boerhaave for raifing and recruiting the drength in
low fevers, where the pulfe is funk, and the patient
languid and dejefted. It may be taken to the quanti¬
ty of a fmall nutmeg every four or five hours, with any
proper julep.
908. Anti-epileptic eleftuary.
Take of Peruvian bark, one ounce ; wild valerian
root, two drams ; fyrup of orange-peel, a fuffi¬
cient quantity to reduce the others into an eleftuary.
This medicine has been frequently preferibed by
Dr Mead, in epileptic cafes, with fuccefs : he direfts
one dram to be taken every morning and evening, for
three months together; after which, to confirm the
cure and prevent a relapfe, the fame dofe is to be re¬
peated for three or four days before every new and full
moon for a confiderable time.
909. Anti-
PHARMACY.
^Part II. P H A R
Ptions0.'1 9°9- dnti-dyfcnterlc elefluary.
I— ■■■ Take of yellow wax, three drams ; fpermaceti, two
drams ; conferve of red rofes, an ounce and a half;
oil of almonds, half an ounce ; balfamic fyrup, a
fufScient quantity. Let the wax and fpermaceti be
melted in the oil, over a gentle fire, and then mix¬
ed with the conferve and fyrup.
Where lharp irritating humours have eroded the in-
teftines, and laid open the mouths of the blood-veffels,
this foft healing elefluary is often of great ufe. It is
faid that fluxes of long (landing, contracled in the In¬
dies, which had yielded nothing to medicines of the
reltringent kind, have been removed by this, which
fupplies the natural mucus of the bowels that the flux
has carried off, heals the excoriations, and obtunds the
acrimonious humours.
91 o. Aromatic elettuary.
Take of the aromatic fpecies, one dram and a half;
conferve of lavender, two ounces; fyrup of orange-
peel, a fufficient quantity. Make them into an
eledluary.
This warm cordial medicine is of ufe in nervous
complaints and decays of conftitution. The bulk of a
fmall nutmeg may be taken two or three times a-day
with a glafs of wine or any other proper liquor af¬
ter it.
911. Balfataic ekSluary.
Take of conferve of rofes, two ounces; Locatelli’s
balfam, one ounce; diffolve the balfam in the yolk
of an egg, and then mix therewith the conferve.
This eleftuary is ufed in fome coughs, and diforders
of the bread; as alfo in the vomica, or fuppuration in
the ftomach, which fometimes happens after dyfente-
ries; and where there is an etofion or rupture of the
blood-veffels, as in haemoptbes. In thefe cafes, the
bulk of a nutmeg may be taken for a dofe twice or
thrice a-day.
912. Chalyleate eleauary.
1. Take of fait of fteel, one dram ; candied nutmegs,
candied ginger, each half an ounce ; oil of cinna-
mon, five drops; conferve of orange-peel, one
ounce ; balfamic fyrup, as much as is fufficient to
make them into an ele&uary.
2. Take of ruft of fteel, or fteel prepared with ful-
phur, fix drams; candied ginger, one ounce; con¬
ferve of orange-peel, three ounces; fyrup of orange-
peel, as much as will reduce them into a proper
confidence.
Thefe elegant chalybeate medicines are given not
only in cacheftic and chlorotic cafes, and menftrual
obftruftions, but likewife in low hyfteric and melan¬
cholic diforders ; and for warming and invigorating
the habit in great debilities and decays of conftitu¬
tion. In either of thefe intentions, the bulk of a fmall
nutmeg is to be taken twice a-day, and its effefts
promoted by moderate exercife.
913. Eleftuary of black hellebore.
Take of black hellebore root, extraft of favin, com¬
pound powder of myrrh, each half an ounce 5 ca-
cella alba, two drams; fyrup of orange-peel, as
M A C Y. 6119
much as is fufficient. Mix, and make them into an Compofi-
eleftuary. t>ons'
This is a medicine of great power for promoting the
natural evacuations from the uterus. It may be taken
to the quantity of half a dram twice a-day.
914. Nephritic elefluary.
Take of lenitive eledtuary, an ounce and a half; Ve¬
nice turpentine, one ounce; egg-fhells prepared (or
prepared oyfterftiells) half an ounce; choice rhu¬
barb, one dram ; fyrup of marfhmallows, as much
as is fufficient. Diffolve the turpentine in the yolk
of an egg; and then mix the whole together, ac¬
cording to art, fo as to make thereof an eledluary.
This compofition is contrived for cleanfing the uri¬
nary paffage in nephritic diforders. A dram of the
eledluary may be taken once or twice a-day, along
with an infufion of marlhallow roots, fweetened with
a fpoonful of honey.
915. Paralytic elefluary.
Take of muftard feed, conferve of rofemary tops, each
one ounce ; compound fpirit of lavender, two drams.
Beat the muftard feed with a little water, that the
pulp may be preffed thro’ a hair lieve; then mix with
it the conferve and the fpirit.
This is a very efficacious medicine for paralytic dif¬
orders, tremors and numbnefs of the limbs, the decays
accompanying old age, and in all cafes where the fo-
lids require to be ftimulated, or fluggifti ftagnant
juices to be put in motion. It ought to be taken
every morning and evening, or oftener, to the bulk of
a large nutmeg, with a glafs of rich wine, or any pro¬
per julep, after it.
916. Elefluary of Peruvian hark.
1. Take of Peruvian bark, three ounces ; cafcariIJa,,
half an ounce ; fyrup of orange-peel, a fufficient
quantity.
2. Take of Peruvian bark, three ounces; Virginian
fnakeroot, one ounce; fyrup of orange peel, a fuffi¬
cient quantity.
3. Take of Peruvian bark, three ounces; crudefal am¬
moniac, three drams; fyrup of lemon-juice, a fuffi¬
cient quantity.
4. Take of Peruvian bark, three ounces; colcothar of
vitriol, fix drams; fimple fyrup, a fufficient quan¬
tity.
5. Take of Peruvian bark, three ounces; alum, one
ounce; fyrup of lemon juice, as much as is fuffi¬
cient.
6. Take of extradl of Peruvian bark, one ounce; ex-
tradi of logwood, extradl of liquorice, each half an
ounce; jmucilage of quince-feeds, as much as is fuf¬
ficient to reduce the other ingredients into the con¬
fidence of an eledluary.
All thefe compofitions are very elegant, and effica¬
cious in the intentions for which they are defigned.
The firft is calculated for common intermittent fevers,
in the cure of which the virtues of the bark are greatly
affifted by the cafcarilla. The fecond and third are gi¬
ven in thofe intermittents which happen in cachedlic
habits, and perfons fubjedt to obftrudlions of the vifeera,.
where the bark by itfelf, on account of its great aftrin-
gency,,
6120 PHARMACY. Part II.
Com poll- gency, would be prejudicial. The fourth is a good
rtrengthener in laxities of the folids and decays of con-
ftitution; and the fifth, a powerful ftyptic in fluxes and
haemorrhages, particularly in the diabetes and fluor al-
bus. The bulk of a nutmeg of each may be taken at
a time, and repeated according to the exigency of the
cafe. The fixth is a very agreeable form for the exhibi¬
tion of Peruvian bark to thofe who are more than or¬
dinarily offended with its tafte; the fubftances here join¬
ed effeClually covering its tafte, at the fame time that
they coincide with it in virtue. The compofition is a
very elegant and pleafant one, and well deferves a place
in the (hops: it may either be given ip the form of a
bolus or ele&uary, in the dofe of a dram or more; or
dilfolved in any fuitable liquor into a draught.
917. An acid purgative eleduary.
Take of pulp of tamarinds, two ounces ; cryftals of
tartar, two drams. Make them into an eleduary.
This is an ufeful cooling laxative in hot bilious dif-
pofitions, or inflammatory difeafes. The bulk of a nut¬
meg may be taken every hour, or oftener, till it begins
to operate, or the fame quantity may be taken once a
day occafionally in dry coftive habits.
918. Saponaceous elefluary.
Take of hard Spanifh foap, two ounces; pareira brava,
one ounce; rhubarb, gum of aloes, each three drams;
fyrup of orange-peel, a fufficient quantity. Mix and
make them into an eleduary.
This eleduary is calculated for jaundices arifing from
an obftrudion of the biliary duds, or a vifcidityof the
bile itfelf: fuch are thdfe which moft commonly occur,
in which the ftools are of a whitith or afti-colour, and
voided with difficulty. The dofe is from half a dram
to a dram, twice a day.
919. Binding elefluary.
Take of the Japonic confedion, two ounces; extrad
of logwood, one ounce ; fyrup of dry rofes, as much
as will reduce them into a proper confiftence for an
eleduary.
This eleduary is calculated for the relief of dyfen-
teries, and other inteftinal fluxes, after the acrid hu¬
mours have been dyly evacuated by mild cathartics, &c.
The quantity of a nutmeg may be taken every four or
five hours.
92 c. Ele fluary of fulphur.
Take of flowers of fulphur, half an ounce ; lenitive
eleduary, two ounces; fyrup of marlhmallows, a
fufficient quantity to make them into an eleduary.
This eleduary is defigned againft the piles, and ge¬
nerally diltinguilhed in the hofpitals by the title of
elefluarium heemorrhoidale; where the diforder is accom¬
panied with febrile or inflammatory fymptoms, fome
nitre is occafionally added, in the proportion of two
drams to the quantity here direded. It may be given
from a dram to half an ounce ^t a time.
Sect. VI. Lohochs.
921. A lohoch, eclegma, lindus, or lambative, is
a foft compound defigned to be licked or flowly fwal-
lowed down, of a middle confiftence between a fyrup
and eleduary, at leaft never fo thin as the former, nor Compofir
fo thick as the latter. tl0MS-
Thefe preparations are generally compofed of ex-
prefled oils, mixed with fyrups and other like fub¬
ftances. Two ounces of a fyrup, a dram of fugar, and
an ounce of exprefled oil, form a lindus of a due con¬
fiftence ; which may be made thicker at pleafure by
adding more oil, or thinner by an increafe of the fy¬
rup.
The form is an inelegant one, and in the prefent prac¬
tice is little regarded.
Sect. VII. Emulftons.
922. The foregoing fedion refpeded compofitions
in which oils were united with watery liquors, by the
mediation of fugar and fyrups, into thick unduous
compounds. The prefent fedion contains mixtures of
oily, refinous, and other like bodies, with water, in a
liquid form, of a white colour refembling milk, and
hence called emulfions.
JEmulfions have been generally prepared by grind¬
ing the oily feeds of plants, or kernels of fruits, along
with common water or any agreeable fimple diftilled
water. In this procefs, the oil of the fubjed is, by the
the mediation of the other matter, united with the a-
queous fluid: and hence they poffefs fome fliare of the
emollient virtue of the pure oil; with this advantage,
that they are agreeable to the palate, and not apt to
turn rancid or acrimonious by the heat of the body,
which the pure oils in fome inflammatory cafes may do.
Emulfions, befides their ufe as medicines themfelves,
are excellent vehicles for certain fubftances which can¬
not otherwife be fo conveniently taken in a liquid form.
Thus camphor triturated with almonds, readily unites
water into an emulfion, and in this form is conveyed
into the remoteft parts of the body, with fufficient ef¬
ficacy to anfwer intentions of moment, at the fame time
that its heat and pungency are foftened by the unduo-
fity of the almonds.
Pure oils, balfams, refins, and other fimilar fub¬
ftances, are likewife rendered mifcible with water, into
emulfions or milky liquors, by the intervention of mu¬
cilages. The white or yolk of an egg unites thefe bo¬
dies alfo with water, but lefs elegantly.
Several of the gummy refins, as ammoniacum, gal-
banum, myrrh, and others, are reducible to emulfions
by trituration with water alone; their refinous part be¬
ing rendered diffoluble by the mediation of the gum¬
my.
923. Comnon emulftons.
Take of fweet almonds blanched, one ounce ; gum a-
rabic, half^n ounce; double-refined fugar, fix drams;
barley water, two pints. Diflblve the gum in the
barley water warmed; as foon as the water is grown
thoroughly cold, pour it by little at a time upon the
almonds and fugar, firft beat together, continuing
to grind the whole, that the liquor may grow milky;
after which it is to be pafled through a drainer. L.
Take of fweet almonds, one ounce ; bitter almonds,
one dram; common water, two pints. Beat the al¬
monds, after having blanched them, in a marble mor¬
tar, end gradually pour on them the common water.
Then drain off the liquor. E.
924. Arabic emulfton is matle after the fame manner,
by
Pan ir. P H A R
Compofi- by adding, while the almonds are beating, two ounces
ti9ns* and a half of mucilage of gum arabic.
Great care (hould be taken that the almonds are not
become rancid by keeping; which will not only render
the emullion extremely unpleafant, a circumftance of
real confequence in a medicine that requires to be ta-
en in large quantities, but likewife give it injurious
qualities little expe6ted from preparations of this clafs.
Thefe liquors are principally made ufe of for diluting
and obtunding acrimonious humours; particularly in
heat of urine and ftranguries, arifing either from a na¬
tural (harpnefs of the juices, or the operation of can-
tharides or other irritating medicines : in thefe cafes,
they are to be drank frequently, in the quantity of half
a pint or more at a time.
925. A purging emulfwn.
Take of fweet almonds blanched, two drams; fine fu-
gar, one dram ; gum arabic, half a dram ; fcam-
mony, 10 grains; fimple cinnamon-water, one ounce.
Diflbive the gum in the cinnamon water; and having
ground the fcammony with almonds and fugar, pour
on the liquor by little at a time, continuing to grind
them together, fo as to make them into an emulfion.
This emulfion is an agreeable and effe&ual purga¬
tive. Some have employed an infufion of liquorice;
which appears to be a very proper addition in thefe
kinds of preparations, as it coincides with the almonds
in correding the irritating power of the purgative ma¬
terial.
926. Emulfion 'with arum root.
Take of fre'fh arum root, gum arabic, each two drams;
fpermaceti, two fcruples; common water, five ounces;
nutmeg-water, fyrup of orange-peel, each half an
ounce. Diffolve the gum arabic with a part of the
water, into a mucilage, which is to be beaten with
the fpermaceti into a fmooth pafte. To this add the
arum root, previoufly beaten by itfelf into a pulp;
and rub them well together, that they may be tho¬
roughly mixed. Then gradually pour in the waters
and the fyrup.
Frefh arum root may be taken in this form without
the leaft inconvenience from the pungency with which
the root itfelf fo violently affeds the mouth. A fpoon-
ful of the emulfion has been given every fix hours, or
oftener, in cafes of the rheumatic kind, and generally
with great benefit. The more immediate effed expe-
perienced from it is that of warming the ftomach,
and promoting fweat, which in fome inftances it does
profufely.
Sect. VIII. Juleps, Mixtures, and Draughts.
927. By julep is commonly underftood, an agree¬
able liquor, defigned as a vehicle for medicines of
greater efficacy, or to be drank after them, or to be
taken occafionally as an auxiliary. In this light their
bafis is generally common water, or a fimple diftilled
water, with one-fourth or one third its quantity of a
diftilled fpirituous water: this mixture is fweetened
v'ith fugar or any proper fyrup, or acidulated with
vegetable or mineral acids, or impregnated with other
medicines fuitable to the intention ; care being taken
that thefe additions be fuch as will not render the com¬
pound unfightly or unpalateabk. The quantity ufually
Von. VIII. a
M A C Y. 612J
direded at a time, in common prefcription, is fix or Compofi-
eight ounces, to be taken by fpoonfuls. tlon?-
928. A mixture, more ftridly fo called, receives
more efficacious materials, whether foluble in water, as
extrads or falts; or indiflbluble, as powders; more re¬
gard being here had to the medicinal intention, than to
the fightlinefs or palateablenefs of the compound. There
is indeed no precife diftindion between the two; the
fame compofition being often called by one a julep, and
by another" a mixture; though in general, few would
give the name of julep to a very difagreeable liquor, or
that of mixture to a very pleafant on«.
929. A draught differs from a julep or mixture
only in being prefcribed in lefs quantity, the whole be¬
ing intended for one dofe.
930. Chall Julep.
Take of the whiteft chalk prepared, one ounce; double-*
refined fugar, fix drams ; gum arabic, two drams;
water, two pints. Mix them together.
This julep is defigned for heartburns and other like
diforders arifing from acid juices in the firft paffages.
931. Mu/k julep. L.
Take of damafk-rofe water, fix ounces by meafure;
mufk, 12 grains; double-refined fugar, one dram.
Grind the fugar and mufk together, and gradually
add to them the rofe-water.
This is an improvement upon the hyjleric julep •with
mujh of Bates, formerly in ufe.
932. Cordial julep.
Take of alexeterial water, four ounces; aromatic wa¬
ter, two ounces; volatile oily fpirit, tin&ure of faf-
fron, each two drams ; white fugar, half an ounce.
Mix, and make them into a julep.
This mixture is an ufefnl cordial in all depreffions of
the fpirits, in the finkings of low fevers, and the lan¬
guors to which hyfterical and hypochondriacal perfons
are fubjeft. An ounce, or two fpoonfuls, may be ta¬
ken for a dofe, two or three times a day.
933. Diaphoretic julep.
Take of alexeterial water, four ounces; fpirit of Min-
dererus, two ounces; fait of hartlhorn, ten grains;
white fugar, fix drams. Mix them for a julep.
This excellent compofition is a very powerful fudo-
rific, and anfwers its intention more efFeffually, and
with greater certainty, than many others calculated for
the fame purpofe. Where a copious fweat is to be ex¬
cited, as in rheumatic difeafes, two fpoonfuls are to be
taken warm in bed every hour, or two hours, till the
fweat breaks out; if warm diluting liquors are not af¬
terwards fufficient to keep it up, the fame medicine is
to be occafionally repeated.
934. Diuretic julep.
Take of fpirit of Mindererus, four ounces; compound
horferadifh water, two ounces ; fyrup of marflt-
mallows, three ounces. Mix them together.
The fpirit of Mindererus is an excellent aperient faliiie
liquor, capable of promoting evacuation either by the
cutaneous pores, or the Urinary paffages, according
to the manner of exhibiting it. When taken warm n
■ bed? it proves a powerful iudorificj efpecially if affift-
34 M
6l22
Compofi- ed by volatile falls, fmall dofes of opiates, or other
tions. fubftances which tend to determine its adtion to the
  ikin. If the patient walks about in a cool air, it ope¬
rates gently, but for the moll part effeftually, by urine.
The additions here joined to it correfpond with this
intention, and promote its operation. As this medi¬
cine excites the urinary difeharge, without heating or
irritating the parts, it takes place not only in drop-
fies, but likewife in inflammatory diforders, wherever
this falutary fecretion is to be promoted. It is given
in the quantity of two fpoonfuls thrice a-day.
935. Fetid julep.
Take of afafetida, one dram and a half; rue water,
fix ounces ; compound valerian water, two ounces;
oil of hart (horn, twenty drops; white fugar, ten
drams. Rub the afafetida in the rue water till it
difiblves ; and having dropped the oil upon the fu¬
gar, mix the whole together.
This compofition is not a little fetid and unfightly ;
it is neverthelefs a medicine of great efficacy in hypo¬
chondriacal and hyfteric diforders, afthmas, and other
nervous complaints : the dofe is one fpoonful, to be
taken thrice a-day. It is fometimes prepared without
the oil of hartfliorn.
936. Binding juleps
Take of alexeterial water, four ounces ; aromatic wa¬
ter, two ounces; Japonic confe&ion, two drams ;
Japan earth, in powder, one dram; liquid lauda¬
num, forty drops; white fugar, half an ounce.
Mix them well together.
This julep is calculated againft dyfenteries and
diarrhoeas ; in which, after proper evacuations, it ge¬
nerally cafes the gripes, and reftrains the flux. It is
to be given three or four times a-day, fn the quantity
of a fpoonful at a time.
937. Antidyfenteric mixture.
1. Take of Ample cinnamon-water, feven ounces;
fpirituous cinnamon-water, one ounce ; ele&uary of
fcordium with opium, half an ounce. Mix them
together.
2. Take of extraft of logwood, three drams ; tinc¬
ture of Japan earth, two drams; fpirituous cinna¬
mon-water, one ounce; common water, feven
ounces. Diflblve the extraA in the cinnamon-water,
and then add the common water and the tinfture.
In recent dyfenteries, after the neceffary evacua¬
tions, a fpoonful or two of either of thefe mixtures
may be given after every motion, or once in four or
five hours : if the firft, which is a mild opiate, fails of
procuring reft, it is a fign that fome of the corrupted
humours ftill remain in the bowels, and that it is more
proper to go on with the evacuation than to fupprefs
the flux. Thefe medicines will fometimes likewife
take place in the laft ftage of the difeafe, when thro’
negleft or mifmanagement it has continued till the
ftrength is much impaired, theinteftines greatly relax¬
ed, and their villous coat abraded ; provided there are
neither ichorous or involuntary ftools, aphthte, pete-
chise, hickup, or great anxiety at the bread. Rhu¬
barb, and thefe aftringents, are to be fo interpofed,
that at the fame time that the putrid humours are dif-
Part II. -
lodged, the ftrength may be fupported, and the in- Compofi^
teftines braced. tioMS- I
938. Cordial mixture.
Take of Ample cinnamon-water, four ounces ; fpiri-
tuous cinnamon-water, two ounces ; extradt of faf-
fron, one fcruple ; confeftion of kermes, fix drams.
Mix them together.
In great languors and depreffions, a fpoonful of this
rich cordial mixture may be taken every half hour.
939. Mixture againjl the phthijis.
1. Take of balfa m of copaiba, one dram; common
water, four ounces; fpirituous cinnamon-water, one
ounce. Syrup of orange-peel, half an ounce. Let
the balfam be diffolvedin a proper quantity of yolk
of egg, and then mixed with the other ingredients.
2. Take of thebaic extradf, one grain ; conferve of
rofes, half a dram. Mix them together for a bo¬
lus.
3. Take of oxymel of fquils, a dram and a half; the¬
baic tin&ure, fifteen drops ; fpirituous cinnamon-
water, two drams; common water, two ounces.
Mix them together.
In the advanced ftate of a confumption, we may
diftinguifti two forts of coughs, one occafioned by the
ulcers, and the other by a thin rheum falling upon the
fauces and trachea ; which parts, being then deprived
of their mucus, become extremely fenfible to irrita¬
tion. It is this laft kind, perhaps, which is molt
painful and teazing to the patient. The firft fort re¬
quires balfamics, if the ulcer is open, and the matter
can be expe&orated. For this purpofe, the firft of
the above mixtures is a very elegant and effedfual for¬
mula ; two fpoonfuls are to be taken at a time twice
a-day : if the balfam purges, two drams of the pare¬
goric elixir, added to the quantity of the mixture
here preferibed, will prevent that effeft. The other
kind of cough can only be palliated by incraflants;
and for that purpofe, the fecond of the above compo-
fitions is one of the moft fuccefsful medicines: the
conferve is altogether fafe, and otherwife well adapted
to the nature of the difeafe, but of weak virtues: the
opiate extraA is the moft efficacious ingredient, but is
to be given with great caution, as opiates in general
are apt to heat, to bind the body, and to obftruft.
expectoration. As thefe bad qualities are in good
meafure corre&ed by fq.uills, as foon as the patient
begins to complain of reftlefs nights from coughing,
the third mixture may be given at bed-time.
940. Valerian mixture.
Take of fimple peppermint-water, twelve ounces; wild'
valerian-root, in powder, one ounce; compound
fpirit of lavender, half an ounce ; fyrup of orange-
peel, one ounce. Mix them together.
Wild valerian root, one of the principal medicines
in epilepfies and vertigoes, feems to anfwer better
when thus exhibited in fubftance, than if given in form
of tindfure or infufion. The liquors here joined to it
excellently coincide with, and by their warmth and
pungency greatly improve, its virtues. Two fpoon^
fuls of the mixture may be taken twice or thrice a-day.
941. Cathartic draught.
Take of jalap, in powder, one fcruple; ipecacoanha,
three
PHARMACY.
Part II.
Com poll* three grains ; compound juniper-water, one ounce;
infufion of lintfeed, an ounce and a half; fimple
fyrup, one dram. Mix them together.
This is a ftrong cathartic ; yet for the moft part
eafy and fafe in operation. It is calculated chiefly for
hydropic cafes ; in which it procures copious evacua¬
tions, without weakening or fatiguing the patient fo
much as many other medicines of this kind.
942. Saline cathartic draught.
Take of Glauberts cathartic ialt, manna, each fix
drams ; boiling water, three ounces; tin&ure of
cardamons, one dram. Diflblve the fait and manna
in the water; and having Itrained off the liquor,
add to it the tinfture of cardamoms.
This is a very elegant and agreeable faline purga¬
tive. Tindlure of cardamoms is one of the belt addi¬
tions to liquors of this kind, or to the purging mineral
waters, for rendering them acceptable to the ilomach.
943. Diaphoretic draught.
Take of fpirit of Mindererus, fpirit of meconium, each
half an ounce ; fait of hartlhorn, five grains. Mix
them together.
This draught is a very powerful faline diaphoretic.
It is given with fafety, and often with great benefit,
in the beginning of inflammatory fevers, after bleed¬
ing ; where theriaca, and other warm fubftances
ufually employed, if they fail in bringing out a fweat,
mcreafe the fever.
944. Diuretic draught.
1. Take of oxymel of fquills, one dram and a half;
fimple cinnamon-water, one ounce; compound fpi¬
rit of lavender, fyrup of orange-peel, each one
dram. Mix them together.
2. Take of vinegar of fquills, one dram, or one dram
and a half; fait of wormwood, half a dram ; lemon-
juice, fix drams ; fimple cinnamon-water, an ounce
and a half; fpirituous peppermint-water, half an
ounce; fyrup of orange-peel, one dram. Let the
fait of wormwood and lemon-juice be firft mixed
together, and then add to them the other ingre¬
dients.
Thefe elegant and efficacious compofitions are com¬
mended by Dr Mead for promoting urine in hydropic
cafes. He direfls them to be taken’every night, or
oftener, according to the urgency of the fymptoms.
The fquill, one of the moft powerful diuretics, is, by
the additions here joined to it, rendered not only more
rateful to the palate and ftomach, but likewife ena-
led more effeftually to anfwer the purpofes intended
by it.
945. An anodyne diuretic draught.
Take of ley of tartar, half a dram ; 'thebaic tin£ture,
forty drops: peppermint-water, one ounce ; fimple
cinnamon-water, half an ounce ; fpirituous cinna¬
mon-water, two drams ; fyrup of marlhmallows,
one dram. Mix them together.
Though praflitioners have rarely ventured to exhi¬
bit opium in dropfies ; yet in thofe- which are accom¬
panied with great, pain, this anodyne drug, by eafing
the pain, and removing the ftri&ure of the pafiagea,
which painful fenfations always occafion, proves a me- Compofi-
dicine of great fervice, and notably promotes the uri- t>ons•
nary difeharge. Dr Mead has given a remarkable in-
ftance of the good effects of the mixture above preferi-
bed, in a perfon labouring under an afeites and tym¬
pany at the fame time, where the pain was intolerable,
the third intenfe, and the urine in very fmall quantity:
the ftronger purgatives increafed the diftemper ; foap,
alkaline falts, nitre, and other diuretics, were tried in
vain: this draught (when the patient feemed to be
beyond any affiftance from medicine) procured unex-
pie&ed relief, not only a gentle fleep, and truce from
the pain, but likewife a copious difeharge of urine :
by repeating the medicine for a little time, every eight
hours, and afterwards ufing corroborants, the cure
was perfe&ly completed.
Sect. IX. Lotions, Gargarifms, Injeftions, &c.
946. Bates's alum water. L.
Take of alum, white vitriol, each half an ounce;
water, two pints. Boil the falts in the water till
they are diffolved ; let the folution fettle, and af¬
terwards filter it through paper.
This liquor is ufed for cleanfing and healing ulcers
and wounds, and for removing cutaneous eruptions,
the part being bathed with it hot three or four times
a-day. It is fometimes likewife employed as a colly-
rium ; and as an inje&ion in the gonorrhoea and fluor
albus, when not accompanied with virulence.
947. Alum water. E.
Take of corrofive mercury fublimate, alum, each two
drams; water, two pints. Let the fublimate and
alum be ground into powder, and boiled with wa¬
ter in a glafs vefiel to the confumption of half
the water ; then fuffer the liquor to fettle, and pour
it off clear from the fediment.
This compofition is defigned chiefly for cutaneous
puftules and ulcerations.
948. Sapphire-coloured water.
Take of lime-water, one pint; fal ammoniac, one
dram. Let them (land together in a copper veffel,
or along with fome plates of copper, until the li¬
quor has acquired a fapphire colour. L.
Take of lime-water newly made, half a pint; fal am¬
moniac, two fcruples ; powdered verdigreafe, four
grains. Mix and ftrain after 24 hours. E.
This water is at prefent pretty much in ufe, as a
detergent of foul and obftinate ulcers, and for taking
away fpecks or films in the eyes.
949. Blue vitriolic water. L.
Take of blue vitriol, three ounces ; alum, ftrong
fpirit (or oil) of vitriol, each two ounces ; water,
a pint and a half. Boil the falts in the water, until
they are diffolved; then add the acid fpirit, and fil¬
ter the mixture through paper.
950. Styptic water. E.
Take of blue vitriol, alum, each three ounces ; water,
two pints. Boil them untfl the falts ?re diffolved,
then filter the liquor, and add an ounce of oil of
vitrij1.
34 M 2
PHARMACY.
Thefe
6iu P H A R
Coropofi- Thefe compofitions are formed upon the ftyptic
tlons- recommended by Sydenham, for flopping bleeding at
the nofe, and other external haemorrhages : for this
purpofe, cloths or doflils are to be dipt in the liquor,
and applied to the part.
951. Vitriolic 'water. E.
Take of white vitriol, two drams; water, two pints.
Boil till the vitriol is diiTolved, and then filter the
liquor.
Where the eyes are watery or inflamed, this folu-
tion of white vitriol is a very ufeful application : the
flighter inflammations will frequently yield to this me¬
dicine, without any other affiftance; in the more
violent ones, venaefeftion and cathartics are to be pre-
mifed to its nfe.
952. AJlringent gargarifm.
Take of oak-bark, one ounce ; alum, one dram ;
honey of rofes, one ounce; water, a pint and a
half. Boil the water with the oak-bark, till fuch
time as the liquor, when ftrained, will amount
only to one pint; to which add the alum and the
honey.
953. Common gargarifm.
Take of tin&ure of rofes, one pint j honey of rofes,
two ounces. Mix them together. Or,
Take of water, fix ounces; nitre, one dram; honey
of rofes, one ounce. Mix them together. Where
acids are requifite, forty drops of the weak fpirit of
vitriol are added to this compofuion.
954. Detergent gargarifm.
Take of emollient decodlion, one pint; tin&ure of
myrrh, one ounce ; honey, an ounce and a half.
Mix them together.
955. Emollient gargarifm.
Take of marfhmallow root, two ounces; figs, four in
number ; water, three pints. Boil them till one
pint is wafted, and then ftrain the liquor.
Thefe liquors are ufed for wafhing the mouth and
fauces; the firft, where the parts are extremely re¬
laxed ; the fecond and third, where ulcerations require
to be deterged, or the excretion of the thick vifcid
faliva promoted ; and the fourth, where the mouth is
dry, parched and rigid, to moiften and foften it. In
fome cafes, volatile fpirits may be advantageoufly
joined to thefe kinds of preparations. Dr Pringle in¬
forms us, that in the inflammatooy quinfey, or ftran-
gulation of the fauces, he has obferved little benefit
arifing from the common gargles: that fuch as were
of an acid nature feemed to do more harm than good,
by contratling the emundlories of the faliva and mu¬
cus, and thickening thofe humours : that a decoftion
of figs in milk and water feemed to have a contrary
effedt, efpecially if fome fpirit of fal ammoniac was
added, by which the faliva was made thinner, and the
glands brought to fecrete more freely; a circumltance
always conducive to the cure.
95 6. Starch glyfer.
Take of gelly of Itarch, four ounces ; linfeed oil, half
an ounce. Liquefy the gelly over a gentle fire,
and then mix in the oil. Forty drops of liquid lau¬
danum, are fometimes added.
M A C Y. Part II.
957. Anodyne Of opiate glyfer. _ Compoft-
Take of infufion of linfeed, fix ounces; liquid lau- tions‘__
danum, forty drops. Or,
Mutton-broth, five ounces; thebaic extrafl, three
grains.
958. Glyjler againji the colic.
Take of common decoftion, half a pint; timftura fa-
era, one ounce ; common fait, one dram; linfeed
oil, two ounces. Mix them together.
959. AJlringent glyfer.
Take of lime-water, ten ounces; Japonic confeftion,
half an ounce. Mix them together for a glyfter, of
which one half is to be injefted at a time.
960. Afringent balfamic glyfer.
This is made by adding to the foregoing half an
ounce of Locatelli’s balfam, diffolved in the yolk
of an egg.
961. Common glyfer.
Take of common deco&ion, twelve ounces; lenitive
ele&uary, one ounce ; common fait, half an ounce;
oil-olive, two ounces. Mix them together.
962. Domefic glyfer.
Take of cows milk, half a pint; brown-fugar, oil-olive,
each one ounce. Mix them together.
963. Emollient glyfer.
Take of palm-oil, an ounce and a half; cows milk,
half a pound. Let the oil be beat up with the yolk
of one egg, and then add the milk.
964. Fetid glyfer.
Take of afafetida, two drams; rue, favin, each half
an ounce; oil-olive, one ounce; oil of Amber,
half a dram ; water, one pint and a half. Boil the
water with the rue and favin, till half a pint ia
wafted ; then ftrain off the remaining deco&ion,
and mix with it the afafetida and the oils. Half
the quantity of the compofition here directed, is to
be injefted at a time.
965. Purging glyfer.
Take of common decodion, half a pint; white foap,
one ounce; fyrup of buckthorn, an ounce and a
half. Mix them, together.
966. Turpentine glyfer.
Take of common decodion ten ounces; Venice tur¬
pentine (diffolved in the yolk of an egg), half
an ounce; linfeed oil, one ounce. Mix^them to¬
gether.
The ufes of thefe compofitions are fufficiently ob¬
vious from their titles. The ftarch, anodyne, emol¬
lient, and aftringent glyfters, are ufed in dyfenteries,
and other alvine fluxes, to {Lengthen the tone of the
inteftines, defend them from being corroded by the
acrimonious humours, to heal their exulcerations, and
cafe the pains which accompany thefe diforders. The
turpentine glyfter is injeded in nephritic cafes; the
fetid in hyfteric ones. The others are calculated
for unloading the inteftines of their contents, where
the exhibition of purgatives in other forms is impro¬
per or unfafe.
Glyfters have been looked upon by fome as mere
topical applications, whofe operation was confined
to
!| Part II.
PHARMACY.
ifl tions. e,
ti
I Compofi-: to the inteftlnes, into which they are received. But
tions. experience has (hewn, that in many cafes their ac¬
tion is extended much farther: thus the turpentine
glyfter, above defcribed, promotes the difcharge by
the kidneys, and communicates to the urine a violet
fmell; and the anodyne glyfter proves narcotic, as
if a moderate dofe of opium had been fwallowed :
Perfons have been inebriated by fpirituous glyfters ;
and fome affirm, that life has been fupported for feveral
days, by thofe of a nutritious kind.
967, Balfamic injeftion.
Take of balfam of Copaiba, half an ounce ; lime-
water, fix ounces; honey of rofes, two ounces.
Let the balfam be well beaten up with the yolk of
one egg; and then gradually add the lime-water
and honey.
968. Mercurial injeftion.
Take of quickfilver, balfam of Copaiba, each half an
ounce ; rofe-water, half a pint. Rub the quick¬
filver with the balfam, till they are perfectly incor¬
porated ; then mix with them the yolk of an egg,
and afterwards add the rofe-water.
This and the foregoing preparation are defigned to
be inje&ed into the urethra in virulent gouorrhmas,
for ckanfing and deterging the parts.
970. Anodyne plajler. E.
Take of white refin, eight ounces; tacamahaca in
powder, galbanum, each four ounces; cummin in
feeds, three ounces; black foap, four ounces. Melt
the refin and the gums together; then add the
powdered feeds and the foap, and make the whole
into a plafter.
This plafter generally gives cafe in flight rheumatic
pains, which it is fuppofed to effeft by preventing the
afflux of humours to the part, and putting in motion
and repelling fuch as already ftagnate there.
971. Antihyjlericplajler. E.
Take of drained galbanum, one pound ; drained afa*
fetida, yellow wax, of each half a pound ; yellow
refin, three ounces. Melt them together into a
plafter.
This plafter is applied to the umbilical region, or
over the whole abdomen, in hyfteric cafes, and fomc-
times with good effedt.
972. Drawing plajler. L.
Take of yellow refin, yellow wax, each three pounds;
tried mutton-fuet, one pound. Melt them together;
and whilft the mafs remains fluid, pafs it through a
drainer.
6125
Compofi-
tions.
Sect. X. Plajlers.
969. Plasters are compofed chiefly of oily and
undtuous fubftances, united with powders, into fuch
a confidence, that the compound may remain firm in
the cold, without dicking to the fingers; that it may
be foft and pliable in a (mall heat ; and that by the
warmth of the human body it be fo tenacious, as
readily to adhere both to the part on which it is ap¬
plied, and to the fubdance on which it is fpread.
There is however a difference in the confidence of
plafters, according to the purpofes they are to be ap¬
plied to: thus, fuch as are intended for the bread and
flomach, fhould be very foft and yeilding ; whild
thofe defigned for the limbs are made firmer and more
adhefive. An ounce of expreffed oil, an ounce of
yellow wax, and half an ounce of any proper powder,
will make a plafter of the firft confiftence; for a hard
one, an ounce more of wax, and half an ounce more
of powder, may be added. Plafters may likewife be
made of refins, gummy-refins, &c. without wax, efpe-
cially in extemporaneous prefeription : for officinals,
thefe compofitions are lefs proper, as they foon grow
too foft in keeping, and fall flat in a warm air.
Calces of lead, boiled with oils, unite with them in¬
to a plafter of an excellent confiftence, and which makes
a proper bafis for feveral other plafters.
In the boiling of thefe compofitions, a quantity of
water mud be added, to prevent the plafter from burn¬
ing and growing black. Such water, as it may be ne-
ceffary to add during the boiling, mud be previoufly
made hot: for cold liquor would not only prolong the
procefs, but likewife occafion the matter to explode,
and be thrown about with violence, to the great dan¬
ger of the operator: this accident will equally happen
upon the addition of hot water, if the plafter is ex¬
tremely hot.
This is a very well contrived plafter for the purpofe
exprefled in its title. It is calculated to fupply the
place of melilot plafter ; whofe great irritation, when
employed for the dreffing of blifters, has been conti¬
nually complained of. This was owing to the large
quantity of refin contained in it, which is here for
that reafon retrenched. It (hould feem, that, when
defigned only for dreffing blifters, the refin ought to
be entirely omitted, unlefs where a continuance of the
pain and irritation excited by the veficatory is required.
Indeed plafters of any kind are not very proper for
this purpofe : their confiftence makes them (it uneafy,
and their adhefivenefs renders the taking them off
painful. Cerates, which are fofter and lefs adhe¬
five, appear much more eligible: the white cerate
{n° 1019.) will ferve for general ufe, and for fome
particular purpofes the yellow cerate (n® 1030.) may¬
be applied.
973. Wax plajler. E.
Take of yellow wax, two pounds ; white refin, half a
pound; hog’s lard, one pound. Melt them toge¬
ther into a plafter.
This plafter is fimilar to the foregoing, but the fur¬
ther redudion of the refin renders it for fome purpofes
more eligible.
974. Cephalic plajler.
Take of Burgundy pitcti, two pounds; foft labda-
num, one pound ; yellow refin, yellow wax, each
four ounces ; the exprefled oil, called oil of mace,
one ounce. Melt the pitch, refin, and wax, toge¬
ther ; then add, firft the labdanum, and after¬
wards the oil of mace. L.
Take of tacamahaca in powder, yellow wax, Venice
turpentine, each four ounces; oil of lavender, two
drams, oil of amber, one dram. Melt the tacama¬
haca
6i26 P H A R
Com poll- haca with the wax; and then add the turpentine,
_ tl0ns' - that a plafter may be formed : when this compound
is taken from the fire, and grown almoft cold, mix
in the oils. E.
Thefe plallers are applied, in weaknefs or pains of
the head, to the temples, forehead, &c. and fome-
times likewife to the feet. Schulze relates, that an
inveterate rheumatifm in the temples, which at times
extended to the teeth, and occafioned intolerable pain,
was completely cured in two days by a plafter of this
kind (with the addition of a little opium) applied to
the part, after many other remedies had been tried in
vain : he adds, that a large quantity of liquid matter
exuded, under the plafter, in drops, which were- fo
acrid as to corrode the cuticle.
975. Common plajier, ufually called diachylon.
Take of oil-olive, one gallon ; litharge, ground into
a moft fubtle powder, five-pounds. Boil them over
a gentle fire, with about two pints of water; keep¬
ing them continually ftirring, till the oil and li¬
tharge unite, and acquire the confiftence of a .pla¬
fter. If all the water fhould be confumed before
this happens, add fomc more water, previoufly made
hot. Ls E.
This plafler is the common application in exco¬
riations of the Ikin, (light flefti wounds, and the like.
They keep the part foft, and fomewhat warm, and de¬
fend it from the air, which is all that can be expected
in thefe cafes from any plafter. Some of our induftri-
ous medicine-makers have thought thefe purpofes
might be anfwered by a cheaper compofition, and ac-
cordingly have added a large quantity of common
whiting and hogs lard ; this, however, is by no means
allowable, not only as it does not (tick fo well, but
likewife as the lard is apt to grow rancid and acrimo¬
nious. The counterfeit is diftinguifttable by the eye.
976. Common flicking plajier.
Take of common plafter, three pounds; yellow refin,
half a pound. Melt the common plafter over a very
gentle fire; then add the refin, firft reduced into
powder, that it may melt the fooner; and mix them
,all together.
This plafter may otherwife be made, by taking, in-
ftead of the common plafter, its ingredients oil and
litharge, and adding the refin a little before they
have come to the due confiftence ; then continue
the boiling, till the plafter is finifhed. It turns out
the moft elegant when made by this laft method.
977. Stickbig plajier. E.
Take of common plafter, two pounds; yellow refin,
five ounces. Melt them together, fo as to make a
plafter.
Thefe plafters are ufed chiefly as adhefives, for keep¬
ing on other drefiings, &c.
978. Common plajier, with gums. L.
Take of common platter, three pounds; galbanum
(trained, eight ounces; common turpentine, frank-
incenfe, each three ounces. Melt the galbanum
with the turpentine over a gentle fire, and fprinkle
in the frankincenfe reduced to powder: then gra¬
dually mix with thefe the common plafter, previouf-
M A C Y. Part II.
ly liquefied by a very gentle heat. Or, inllead of Compofi-
the common plafter already made, you may take the tlo"®*
oil and litharge boiled together: as foon as thefe
unite, before they have acquired the confiftence of
a plafter, the other ingredients are to be added.
979. Gum plajier. E.
Take of gum ammoniacum (trained, galbanum drain¬
ed, each three ounces; common plafter, two pounds.
Mix them together into a plafter.
Both thefe plafters are ufed as digeftives and fuppu-
ratives; particularly in abfcefles, after a part of the
matter has been maturated and difcharged, for fuppu-
rating or difcufiing the remaining hard part.
980. Cummin plajier. L.
Take of Burgundy pitch, three pounds ; yellow wax,
cummin feeds, caraway feeds, bay-berries, each
three ounces. Melt the pitch with the wax ; then
fprinkle in the other ingredients firft reduced into
a powder, and mix the whole well together.
This plafter (lands recommended as a moderately
warm difcutient; and is direfted by fome to be ap¬
plied to the hypogaftric region, for ftrengthening the
vifcera, and expelling flatulencies.
981. Eefenjiveplajier. E.
Take of common plafter, two pounds ; yellow wax,
yellow refin, of each three ounces ; colcothar of vi¬
triol, fix ounces. Boil the oil with the litharge, till
they have acquired nearly the confiftence of a pla¬
fter : in this liquefy the wax, and then add the
other ingredients, fo as to form the whole into a
plafter, according to art.
This plafter is laid round the lips of wounds and
ulcers, over the other dreflings, for defending them
from inflammation, and a fluxion of humours; which,
however, as Mr Sharp very juftly obferves, plafters, on
account of their confiftence, tend rather to bring on
than to prevent.
982. Melilot plajier.
The London college has fubftituted to the plafter of
this name, the drawing plajier, (n° 972.); the Edin¬
burgh the wax plajier, (n° 973.)
983. Mercurial plajier. E.
Take of common plafter, a pound and a half; quiek-
filver eight ounces ; Venice turpentine, two ounces
and a half. Grind the quickfilver in a mortar, with
the turpentine, until they are perfectly incorporated;
and then, having melted the common plafter, and
, taken it from the fire, add to it this mixture.
This plafter is looked on as a powerful refolvent and
difcutient, afting with much greater certainty in thefe
intentions than any compofition of vegetable fubftan-
ces alone; the mercury exerting itfelf in a confider-
able degree, and being fometimes introduced into the
habit in fuch quantity as to affe& the mouth. Pain$
in the joints and limbs from a venereal caufe, nodes,
tophs, and beginning indurations of the glands, are faid
fometimes to yield to them.
984. Strengthening plajier. L.
Tdke of common plafter, two pounds ; frankincenfe,
half a pound ; dragons blood, three ounces. Melt
the
Parc II.
Compofi- the common plafter, and add to it the other in^re-
lions. dients reduced into powder. The dragons blood
fliould be reduced to a very fine powder, otherwife
the mixture will not be of an uniform colour.
This is a reformation of the laborious and injudi¬
cious compofition defcribed in preceding pharmaco¬
poeias, under the title of Emplajirum ad herniam ; and
though far the moft elegant and fimple, is as effeftual
for that purpofe as any of the medicines of this kind.
If conftantly worn, with a proper bandage, it will, in
children, frequently do fervice j though perhaps not
fo much from any ftrengthening quality of the ingre¬
dients, as from its being a foft, clofe, and adhefive co¬
vering.
985. Saponaceous plajler. E.
Take of gum plafter, one pound ; Caftile foap, fliced,
nine ounces; common plafter, two pounds. Melt
the plafter, and then put in the foap, letting the
whole boil for a ftiort time, that it may become a
plafter.
986. Stomach plajler.
Take of foft labdanum, three ounces; frankincenfe,
one ounce; cinnamon, the expreffed oil, called oil
of mace, each half an ounce; effential oil of mint,
one dram. Having melted the frankincenfe, add to
it, firft the labdanum foftened by heat, and then the
oil of place ; afterwards mix thefe with the cinna¬
mon and oil of mint; and beat them together in a
warm mortar, into a mafs, which is to be kept in a
clofe veffel. L.
This is a very elegant ftomach plafter. It is con¬
trived fo as to be eafily made occafionally (for thefe
kinds of compofitions, on account of their volatile in¬
gredients, are not fit for keeping ;) and to be but mo¬
derately adhefive, fo as not to offend the fkin; and
that it may without difficulty be frequently taken off
and renewed, which thefe forts of applications, in or¬
der to their producing any confiderable effeft, require
to be.
Take of yellow wax, eight ounces ; tacamahaca in
powder, four ounces ; cloves, powdered, two oun¬
ces ; palm-oil,fix ounces ; expreffed oil of mace, an
ounce and a half; effential oil of mint, two drams
Melt the wax and tacamahaca with the palm-oil ;
then removing the mixture from the fire, add the
other ingredients, and make them into a*plafter, ac¬
cording to art. E.
Thefe plafters are applied to the pit of the ftomach,
in weaknefs of that vifcus, in vomitings, in the diforder
improperly called the heartburn, &c. and fometimes
with good fuccefs. The pit of the ftomach, however,
as Hoffman has obferved, is not always the moft pro¬
per place for applications of this kind to be made to :
if applied to the five lower ribs of the left fide, towards
the back, the ftomach will in general receive more be¬
nefit from them; for it appears from anatomical in-
fpeftion, that greateft part of it is fituated there.
987. Blife ring plafer. L,
Take of drawing plafter, two pounds; cantharides,
one pound; vinegar, half a pint. Melt the drawing
plafter; and, a litile before it grows ftiff, mix in
the camharides,. reduced into a moft fubtle powder;
6127
then add the vinegar, and work them well toge- Compofi-
ther. dons.
Take of yellow wax, two pounds; yellow rofin, hog’s-
lard, of each one pound; oil olive, half a pint; can¬
tharides, a pound and a half. Reduce the cantha¬
rides firft to a very fine powder, then rub them with
the oil; and having melted the other ingredients
with a gentle heat, add the cantharides to them when
pretty cold. E.
988. An anodyne and difcutient plafer.
Take of cummin plafter, two ounces; camphor, three
drams; Thebaic extradl, one dram and a half. Grind
the camphor, with fome drops of oil olive, into a
very fubtile powder; and then mix it with the other
ingredients, according to art, into a plafter.
989. IVarm plafer.
Take of gum plafter, one ounce; bliltering plafter, two
drams. Melt them together over a gentle fire.
990.. Suppurating plafer.
Take of gum plafter, an ounce and a half; Burgundy
pitch, half an ounce. Melt them together.
The ufes of the three foregoing compofitions, which
are taken from our hofpitals, are fufficiently obvious
from their titles. The warm plafter is a very ftimu-
lating application, of great ufe in fixed pains, as in the
rheumatifm, fciatica, beginning chilblains, &c.
Sect. XI. Ointments, Liniments, and Cerates.
991. Ointments and liniments differ from plafters
little otherwife than in confiftence. Any of the offici¬
nal plafters, diluted with fo much oil as will reduce it
to the thicknefs of ftiff honey, forms an ointment: by
farther increafing the oil, it becomes a liniment. Ce¬
rates differ from plafters and ointments only in confift¬
ence; being a fofter kind of plafter, or harder kind of
ointment.
992. Ointment of verdigris. E.
Take of white wax, yellow refin, of each two ounces
of oil olive, a pint; verdigris, half an ounce. Ha¬
ving melted the wax and refin with the oil, add the
verdigris firft ground with a little of the oil, keep¬
ing the whole conftantly ftirring till cold.
993. Mel JEgyptiacum. L.
Take of verdegris, reduced into a very fubtile powder,
five ounces; honey, 14 ounces by weight; vinegar,,
feven ounces by meafure. Boil thefe ingredients to¬
gether, over a gentle fire, till they have acquired a
due confiftence and a reddilh colour. On keeping
this mixture for fome time, the thicker part falls to
the bottom; the thinner, which fioats on the top, is
called mel JEgyptiacum.
Thefe preparations are defigned only for external ufe,
for cleanfing and deterging ulcers, and keeping down
fungous flelh : they are ferviceable alfo in venereal ul¬
cerations of the mouth and tonfils. If for particular
purpofes, the latter fhould be wanted more acrid, it
may be occafionally rendered fo by fhaking the veffel,
fo as to mix up the thick matter at the bottom (which
contains greateft part of the verdigris) with the upper
thin one. In the former the verdigris is fometimes
doubled.
994. White
PHARMACY.
6128
PHARMACY.
°j^s. 994. White ointment. L. E.
  -Take of oil olive, one pint; white wax, four ounces;
fpermaceti, three ounces. Liquefy them by a gentle
fire, and keep them conftantly and bri/kly ftirring,
till grown thoroughly cold.
995. Ointment of •white lead, commonly called v/Kite
ointment. E.
Take of oil olive, three pints; ceruffe, one pound ;
white wax, nine ounces. Melt the wax in the oil :
then gradually add the cerulfe, and ftir them well
together, that they may be thoroughly mixed into
an ointment.
This is an ufeful, cooling, and emollient ointment,
of good fervice in excoriations, and other like frettings
of the fkin.
996. Camphorated •white ointment. L.
Tills is made by adding to the white ointment a dram
and a half of camphor, previoufly ground with feme
drops of oil of almonds,
This ointment is fuppofed to be more difeutient than
the foregoing, and ferviceable againll cutaneous heats,
itching, and ferpiginous eruptions. It fhould be kept
in clofe vefiels, otherwife the camphor will foon exhale:
fmelling ftrong of this ingredient is the beft mark of
its goodnefs.
997. Ointment of marflnnallo'ws. L.
Take oil of mucilages, three pints; yellow wax, one
pound; yellowrefin, half a pound; common turpen¬
tine, two ounces. Melt the refin and wax with the
oil: then, having taken them from the fire, add the
turpentine; and while the mixture remains hot, ftrain
998. Tello'w haftlicum ointment.
Take of oil olive, one pint; yellow wax, yellow refin,
Burgundy pitch, each one pound; common turpen¬
tine, three ounces. Melt the wax, refin, and pitch,
along with the oil, over a gentle fire; then take them
from the fire, add the turpentine, and whillt the mix¬
ture remains hot ftrain it. L.
Take of yellow wax, yellow refin, each two ounces;
hog’s-lard and oil olive, of each one pound. Melt
them together with a gentle fire, and having remo¬
ved them from it, ftir them well till they grow cold.
E.
Thefie are commonly employed, in dreflings, for di-
gefting, cleanfing, and incarnating wounds and ulcers.
They differ very little, if at all, in their effedts, from the
liniment of A r cans, ( n° 1015.}
999. Black bafilicum ointment, or ointment of four
■ingredients. L.
Take of oil olive, one pint; yellow wax, yellow refin,
dry pitch, each nine ounces. Melt them all toge¬
ther ; and whilft the mixture is hot, ftrain it off.
This ointment was formerly of confiderable efteem
for healing and incarnating wounds, &c. but is faid to
have an inconvenience of being apt to render them foul,
and produce fungous flefh: at prefent it is rarely made
ufe of; the .yellow bafilicum, and the liniment of Ar-
casus, being in general preferred.
Part II.
tooo. Green laftlicum ointment. L.
Take of yellow bafilicum, eight ounces; oil olive, three ....,
ounces by meafure ; verdigris prepared, one ounce.
Mix, and make them into an ointment.
This ointment is an efficacious detergent.
tool. Tellomi ointment. E.
Take of quickfilver, one ounce; fpirit of nitre, two
ounces; hogs-lard, tried, one pound. Diffolve the
quickfilver in the fpirit of nitre by digeftion in a
land-heat ; and whilft the folution is very hot, mix
with it the lard, previoufly melted by itfelf, and juft
beginning to grow ftiff. Stir them brifkly together,
in a marble mortar, fo as to form the whole into an
ointment.
1002. The f ranger blue ointment. L,
Take of hogs lard, tried, two pounds; quicklilver, one
pound ; fimple balfam of fulphur, half an ounce.
Grind the quickfilver with the balfam of fulphur till
they are perfedly incorporated; then gradually add
the lard heated, and mix them carefully together.
1003. The milder blue ointment. L.
Take of hogs-lard, tried, four pounds; quickfilver, one
pound; common turpentine, one ounce. Grind the
quickfilver with the turpentine, in a mortar, till it
ceafes to appear; then gradually add the lard warm¬
ed, and carefully mix them together.
This laft unguent turns out of a much better blue
colour than the foregoing, wdiich is of a very dingy
hue. Mercurial unguents have in many cafes the fame
effed with the preparations of this mineral taken in¬
ternally ; and are at prefent frequently employed, not
only againft cutaneous diforders, as alterants, but like-
wife in venereal and other obftinate cafes, for railing a
falivation. The ptyalifm excited by undion is faid to
be attended with the feweft inconveniences, and to
perform the moft complete cure. In fome conftitu-
tions, mercurials taken inwardly, run off by the inte-
ftines, without affeding the mouth; and in others, they
affed the falival glands fo quickly, as to occafion a co¬
pious ptyalifm, without extending their adion to the
remoter parts, and confequently without removing the
caufe of the difeafe.
1004. Ointment of gum elemi. L.
Take of mutton-fuet, frefh and tried, two pounds; gum
elemi, one pound ; common turpentine, ten ounces.
Melt the gum with the fuet; and having taken them
from the lire, immediately mix the turpentine; then
whilft the mafs remains fluid, ftrain it off.
1005. The ointment, commonly called liniment of Ar-
casus. E.
Take of hogs-lard, one pound; goats fuet, of mutton
fuet, two pounds ; Venice turpentine, gum elemi,
each a pound and a half. Melt and ftrain them, fo
as to make an ointment according to art.
This unguent has long been in ufe for digefting,
cleanfing, and incarnating; and for thefe purpofes is
preferred by fome to all the other compofitions of this
kind.
1006. Emollient ointment. E.
Take of palm oil? four pints; frefti«drawn linfeed oil,
three
Part H. P H A R
Compofi- three pints; yellow wax, one poand. Melt the wax
tions. jn jjjg 0;]s> over a gentle fire, and drain the oint¬
ment, which fupplies the place of the ointment of
tnarjhmallo'ws.
1007. Mercurial ointment. E.
Take of hogs lard, three ounces ; mutton-fuet, one
ounce; quickfilver, one ounce. Rub them diligent¬
ly together in a mortar, till the mercurial globules
difappear. This ointment is made alfo with twice,
and with thrice, the quantity of mercury.
This is the mod fimple of the mercurial ointments,
though poffibly as efficacious as any. It requires in¬
deed a great deal more labour to extinguifh the mer¬
cury in the lard alone, than when turpentine or other
like fubftances are joined : but, in recompence, the
compofition with lard is free from an inconvenience
which the others are accompanied with, viz. being apt
by frequent rybbing to fret tender (kins.
1008. Ointment of mercury precipitate. L.
Take of fimple ointment, an ounce and a half; preci¬
pitated fulphur, two drams; white mercury preci¬
pitate, two fcruples. Mix them well together, and
moiften them with ley of tartar, that they may be
made into an ointment.
This is a very elegant mercurial ointment, and fre¬
quently made ufe of againft cutaneous diforders.
IQ09. Ointment of tar. L. E.
Take of mutton-fuet tried, tar, each equal weights.
Melt them together, and ftrain the mixture whilll
hot.
This compofition, with the addition of half its weight
of refin, has long been ufed in the Ihops as a cheap fub-
ftitute to the black bafilicum.
1010. Saturnine ointment.
Take of oil olive, half a pint; white wax, an ounce and
a half; fugar of lead, two drams. Let the fugar of
lead, reduced into a very fubtile powder, be ground
with fome part of the oil, and the wax melted with
the reft of the oil. Mix both together, and keep
them ftirrring till the ointment is grown cold. L.
Take of fugar of lead, half an ounce; white wax, three
ounces; oil olive, one pint. Liquefy the oil and
wax together, and gradually add the fugar of
lead, previouily ground, with fome of the oil; conti¬
nually ftirring them, till, growing cold, they unite
into an ointment. E.
Both thefe ointments are ufeful coolers and delicca-
tives.
1011. The fmple ointment. L.
Take of hogs-lard, tried, two pounds; rofe-water,
three ounces by meafure. Beat the lard with the
rofe-water, till they are well mixed; then melt them
over a very gentle fire, and fet them by for fome
time, that the water may fubfide; pour the lard off
from the water, and keep inceffantly ftirring and beat¬
ing it about till it grows cold, fo as to reduce it in¬
to a light incoherent mafs: laftly, add fo much ef-
fence of lemons as will be fufficient to give a grate¬
ful odour, -
Von. VIII. *
M A C Y. 6129
1012. The rofe ointment, commonly ca/lej pomatum. E.
On any quantity of hogs-lard, cut into final! pieces, --
and placed in a glazed earthen veffel, pour as much
water as will rife above it fome inches ; and digeft
them together for ten days, renewing the water every
day. Then liquefy the lard with a very gentle heat,
and pour it into a proper quantity of rofe-water :
work them well together; and afterwards pouring
off the water, add to the lard fome drops of oil of
rhodium.
Thefe ointments are in common ufe for foftening and
fmoothing the Ikin, and healing chaps.
1013. Ointment of tutty. L.
Let any quantity of prepared tutty be mixed with as
much purified vipers fat as is fufficient to reduce it
into the conliftence of a foft ointment.
This ointment is defigned for an ophthalmic. What
particular virtues it receives from the vipers fat, we
lhall not prefume to determine.
In the prefent edition of the Edinburgh difpenfatory,
it is ordered to be made of four ounces of hog’s lard,
a dram of white wax, and an ounce of prepared tutty.
1014. Ointment for llifers.
Take of hog’s-lard tried, bliftering plafter, each equal
weights. Melt them together over a very gentle fire,
and keep them conftantly ftirring till grown cold.
Take of oil olive, one pint; yellow wax, four ounces;
yellow refin, two ounces; cantharides, an ounce and
a half. Melt the wax and refin over a gentle fire
with part of the oil; then having taken them off the
fire, add the cantharides firft finely powdered, and
then ground with part of the oil, continually ftirring
the mixture till it has grown cold. E.
1015. The milder epifpafic ointment. E.
Take of cantharides, one ounce ; white refin, yellow
wax, each one ounce; hog’s-lard, Venice turpentine,
each two ounces; boiling water, four ounces. Infufe
the cantharides in the water, in a clofe veffel, for a
night; then ftrongly prefs out, and ftrain the liquor,
and boil it with the lard till the watery moifture is
confumed; then add the refin, wax, and turpentine,
and make the whole into an ointment.
Thefe ointments are added in the dreffings for bli¬
tters, intended to be made perpetual, as they are called,
or to be kept running for a confiderable time, which
in many chronic, and fome acute cafes, they are requi¬
red to be.
The laft, containing the foluble parts of the cantha¬
rides uniformly blended with the other ingredients, ia
more commodious, and occafions lefs pain, though not
lefs effedtual in its intention than the other with the
fly in fubftance.
1016. White liniment. L.
Take of oil olive, three ounces by meafure; fpermacett,
fix drams; white wax, two drams. Melt them to¬
gether over a gentle fire, and keep them conftantly
and brilkly ftirring till grown cold.
This differs only in confiftence from the ’white oint¬
ment, 994.
34 N 1017. Green
6130 P H A R
^tions^ 1017. Green laifam. E.
,.,7 Takeof linfeed oil, oil of turpentine, each one pidund;
verdigris, in powder, three drams. Boil and dir
them well together till the verdigris i$ difiblved.
A balfam, fimilar to this, is faid to have been great¬
ly valued by our furgeons as a detergent.
1018. Volatile liniment.
Take of oil of hartfhorn, fpirit of hartfhorn, each equal
parts. Mix them together.
Dr Pringle obferves, that in the inflammatory quin-
fey, or ftrangulation of the fauces, a piece of flannel,
inoiftened with this mixture, and applied to the throat,
to be renewed every four or five hours, is one of the
moil efficacious remedies. By means of this warm fti-
mulating application, the neck, and fometimes the whole
body, is put into a fweat; which, after bleeding, either
carries off or leffens the inflammation.
1019. White cerate. L.
Take of oil olive, a quarter of a pint; white wax, four
ounces; fpermaceti, half an ounce. Liquefy them
all together, and keep them llirring till the cerate is
grown quite cold.
This differs from the white ointment and liniment
only in being of a thicker confiftence.
1020. Yello'w cerate. L.
Take of yellow bafilicum ointment, half a pound; yel¬
low wax, one ounce. Melt them together.
This is no otherwife different from the yellow bafili¬
cum, than being of a differ confiftence, which renders
it for fome purpofes more commodious.
1021. Epulotic cerate. L.
Take of oil olive, one pint; yellow wax, calamine pre¬
pared, each half a pound. Liquefy the wax with the
oil; and as foon as the mixture begins to grow fiiff,
fprinkle in the calamine ; keeping them conftant-
ly ftirring together, till the cerate is grown quite
cold.
102 2. Ointment of calamine. E.
Take of yellow wax, one pound; oil olive, two pints;
calamine prepared, nine ounces. Melt the wax with
the oil, and gradually fprinkle in the calamine, mix¬
ing and ftirring them well together till grown cold.
Thefe compofitions are formed upon the cerate which
Turner ftrongly recommends in cutaneous ulcerations
and excoriations, and which has been ufualiy diftin-
guifhed by his name. They appear from experience
to be excellent epulotics, and as fuch are frequently
made ufe of in pradlice.
1023T Palfey ointment.
Take of hog’s-lard, oil of bays, each four ounces ;
ftrong fpirit of vitriol, one ounce. Mix, and make
them into an unguent.
This irritating Compofition is applied to numbed or
paralytic limbs: it foon reddens and inflames the fkin,
and when this effeft is produced, muft be taken off';
after which, the part is to be anointed with any emol-
Keht DnguenU
M A C V. Part II.
1024. Liniment for the pile]. C<tbn°.&
Take of emollient ointment, two ounces; liquid lauda- ^
num, half an ounce. Mix thefe ingredients with the
yolk of an egg, and work them well together.
1025. Wax liniment. E.
Take of oil olive, three ounce's: fpermaceti, three dtams;
White wax, two drams. Melt all together over a
gentle fire; and keep the whole continually ftirring
till it cools. 6
Sect. XII. Epithems.
1026. Bliftering epithem. L.
Take of cantharid'es reduced into a molt fubtile pow¬
der, wheat flour, each equal weights. Make them
into a palte with vinegar.
This compofition is of a fofter confiftence than the
bliftering plafters, and for this reafon is in fome cafes
preferred. Praftitioners differ with regard to the de¬
gree of confiftence and adhefivenefs molt proper for ap¬
plications of this kind, and fometimes vary them occa-
ifionally.
1027. Cataplafm of cummin. L.
Take of cummin feeds, half a pound ; bay-berries,
fcordium-leaves dried, Virginian fnakeroot, each
three ounces; cloves, one ounce; honey, thrice the
weight of the powdered fpecies. Make them into a
cataplafm.
This is a reformation of the theriaca Londinenfts,
which for fome time paft has been fcarce otherwile made
ufe of than as a warm cataplafm; only fuch of its in¬
gredients are retained as contribute molt to this inten¬
tion.
1028. Difcutient cataplafm.
Take of bryony root, three ounces; elder flowers, one
ounce; gum ammoniac, half an ounce; fal ammo¬
niac, crude, two drams:; camphorated fpirit of wine,
one ounce. Boil the roots and flowers in a fufficitnt
quantity of water, till they become tender; and ha¬
ving then bruifed them, add to them the gum am-
moniacum diffoived in a fufficient quantity vinegar,
and likewife the fal ammoniac and fpirit: mix the
whole together, fo as to make them into a cata¬
plafm.
This compofition is as good a difcutient as any thing
that can well be contrived in the form of a cataplafm.
1029. Ripening cataplafm. L.
Take of figs, four ounces; yellow bafilicum ointment,
one ounce; galbanum, drained, half an ounce. Beat
the figs thoroughly in a mortar, occafionally drop¬
ping in fome fpirit of wine or ftrong ale ; then care¬
fully mix with them the ointment, firit liquefied along
with the galbanum.
This compofition is a good fuppurant or ripener;
though its effe&s probably depend more on its keep¬
ing the part foft, moift, and warm, than on any parti¬
cular qualities of the ingredients.
1 <330. A.Jivapifm. E.
Take of muftard-feed, in powder, crumb of bread, each
equal parts; ftrong vinegar, as much as is fufficient.
Mist
! Part II. P H A R
|Cqmpofi- Mix and make them Into a cataplafm ; to which is
)n:!‘ _ fometiroes added a little bruifed garlic.
1031. CompoundJinapifm.
Take of multard-feed in powder, crumb of bread, each
two ounces; garlic, bruifed, half an ounce; black
foap, one ounce ; ftrong vinegar, a fufficient quan*
tity. Mix and make them into a cataplafm, accord¬
ing to art.
Both thefe compofitions are employed only as ftimu-
lants: they often inflame the part, and raife blifters,
but not fo perfe&ly as cantharides. They are fre¬
quently applied to the foies of the feet in the low ftate
of acute difeafes, for raifing the pulfe and relieving the
head.
1031. Alum curd.
Take any quantity of the white of eggs. Agitate it
with a fufficiently large lump of alum, in a tin difti,
until it is coagulated.
This preparation Is taken from Riverius. It is an
ufeful aftringent epithem for fore, moiil eyes; and ex¬
cellently cools and reprefles thin defluxions. Slighter
inflammations of the eyes, occafioned by dull, expofure
to the fun, or other like caufes, are generally removed
by fomenting them with warm milk and water, and
walhing them with the vitriolic water, n° 944. Where
M A C Y. 6131
the complaint is more violent, this preparation, after the Compofi-
inflammation has yielded a little to bleeding, is one of tlont-
the bell external remedies. It is to be fpread on lint,
and applied at bed-time.
1032. Emollient cataplafm.
Take of crumb of bread, eight ounces; white foap, one
ounce; cows milk, frefli, a fufficient quantity. Boil
them a little together.
1033. Stomachic cataplafm.
Take of the aromatic cataplafm, one ounce; exprefled
oil of mace, two drams; anodyne balfam, as much
as is fufficient to reduce them into a proper confid¬
ence.
1034. Camphorated cataplafm.
Take of aromatic cataplafm, one ounce; camphor, one
dram. Mix them together.
1035. Ifhiatic cataplafm.
Take of muftard-feed, half a pound ; white pepper,
ginger, each one dram; Ample oxymel, as much as
will reduce them into a cataplafm.
The ufe of thefe compofitions, which are taken from
the hofpitals, may be eafily underftood from their titles.
The laft is a very ftimulating application, and frequent¬
ly veficates the fkin.
INDEX.
JCACIA, n° 598.
Acid fpirits, p. 6078.
Acids, n° 102. Combined with
vinous fpirits, 682.
Alcali of fea-falt, 644.
Alcaline, aloetic wine, 362—
364. Alcaline falls, fixed,
p.6072. Combined with oils
and inflammablefpirits, 6077
Ales, p. 6037.
Ale, antifcorbutic, n° 382.
Bitter, 383. Diuretic, 384.
Opening, 385. Dr Butler’s,
386. Cephalic, 387.
Almond foap, 662.
Aloes, gum and refin of, 615.
^/«?«-whey, 357. Alum burnt,
692. Alum-water, 947. A-
lum curd, 1031.
Amler, prepared, 267. Spirit,
fait, and oil of, 712.
Angelica ftalks candied, 467.
Animals, p. 6013, 6014.
Antimonial or emetic wine,
n° 366. Antimonial cauftic,
793-
Antimony prepared, 255. Pre¬
parations of , antimony,
p. 6101. Precipitated ful-
phurof, n° 772. Golden ful-
phur of, 773. Panacea of,
790. Medicinal regulus of,
770. Simple regulus, 771.
Glafs of, 791. Cerated glafs
of, 792. Butter of, 793.
Cinnabar of, 794.
Apparatus, 117, &c.
Aquafortis, 677. Purified ditto,
678.
fpecies, 827, a. Aro¬
matic powder, 827, b.
B.
Balm-vj&Xer, compound, 569.
Balfam of guaiacum, 430. Of
Guido, 635. Anodyne of
Bat 68,665.Saponaceous, 666.
Green, 1017. Wade’s 433.
Balfamum commendatoris, 433
Barley-m&ttr, 337.
Bates's alum-water, 946.
Beauene de commandeur, 433.
Benzoin, flowers of, 710.
Bezoar ftone prepared, 259.
Bifmuth, magiftery of, 797.
Bitumens, 84, 85.
Bloodfione pxtywctA, 261.
Bolufes, 878. Alexipharmac
bolus, 879. Caftor, 880.
Diaphoretic, "881. Diure¬
tic, 882. Againft the dy-
fentery, 883. Emmena-
gogue, 884. Febrifuge, 885.
Hyfleric, 886. Iliac, 887.
Mercurial, 888. Pe fit oral,
889. Bolus of rhubarb with
mercury, 890. Rheumatic,
891. Sudorific, 892.
Borax, fait of, 711.
C.
Calamine prepared, 260.
Calcination, 245.
Camphor, 42.
Cataplafm of cummin, 1027.
Difcutient, 1028. Ripening,
1029. Emollient, 1032.
Stomachic, 1033. Campho¬
rated, 1034. Ifchiatic, 1035.
Caujlici common, the ftronger,
649, a. The milder, 649, b.
Cerates, 991. White, 1019.
Yellow, 1020. Epulotic,
1021.
Cerujfe, or white lead, 745.
Chalk prepared, 258.
Cinnabar, artificial, 753.
Colbatch's ftyptic powder, 803.
Comminution, 230.
Compofitions, p. 6105, et feqq.
Confeftion, cordial, 530, 901.
Of kermes, 499. Japonic,
899. Of Damocrates, 903.
Of Paulina, 902.
Conferees, 454. General me¬
thod of preferving them, 455.
Of fcurvy-grafs, 456. Of
wood-forrel, 457. Of fpear-
mint, 458. Of rue, 459. Of
fea-worm wood, 460. Of red
rofes, 461. Of rofemary
flowers, 462. Of Seville
orange-peel, 463. Of floes,
464.
Copper, volatile tin&ure of, 741.
Ammoniacal, 742.
Coral prepared, 257.
6V«&r-claws prepared, 256.
Crabs-eyes prepared, 264.
Cretaceous pouon, 319.
Crocus metallorum, 768. Of
antimony waflied, 969.
Cryjlallization, 193—197.687.
D.
Decoftionr, 331. White decoc-
t*011* 333- Of the woods,
334. Of marrtimallow root,
335. Pe&oral, 336. Of fe-
neka, 350. Common for
glyfters, 352. Common, 353.
Depuration, 185.
Diftillation, 208.
Draught, 929. Cathartic, 941.
Saline cathartic, 942. Dia¬
phoretic, 943. Diuretic,944.
Anodyne diuretic, 945.
E.
Earths, 86.
Earthy fubftances, and fuch as
are infoluble in water, how
prepared, 252.
Eau de Carmes, 569.
Edinburgh theriaca, 903, c.
isgg'-ftiells prepared, 266.
Elaterium, '601.
Eleftuaries, 893.
Eleduary of caffia, 894. Dia-
caffia, 895. Lenitive, 896.
!■ N 2 Pec*
6132
Pefloral, 897. Of fcammo-
ny, 898. Thebaic, 903, d.
Acid, 906. Alexiteriabgoy.
Anti-epileptic, 908. Anti-
dyfenteric, 909. Aromatic,
910. Balfamic, 911. Cha¬
lybeate, 912. Of black hel¬
lebore, 913. Nephritic, 914.
Paralytic, 915. Of Peruvian
bark, 916. Acid purgative,
917. Saponaceous, 918.
Binding, 919. Of fulphur,
920.
Elixir of health, 421, b. Of
guaiacum, 431. Volatile
ditto, 432. Of aloes, 436.
Proprietatis, 437. Proprie-
tatis vitriolicum, 438. Pa¬
regoric, 439. Acid of vi¬
triol, 440. Sweet elixir of
ditto, 442. Compound elixir
of myrrh, 444. Elixirfacrum,
445-
Emulfwns, 922. Common emul-
fion, 923. Arabic, 924.
Purging, 925. With arum
root, 926.
Ens veneris, 738.
Epithems, bliftering, 1027.
Eryngo-xooX. candied, 466.
Ether, vitriolic, 683.
Ethiops, martial, 732. Mineral,
752. Antimonial, 804.
Evaporation, 204.
Exprejjion, 221.
Exficcation, 226.
JS.v/rdtf, thebaic, 2 86. Of wolfs¬
bane, 296. Of hemlock, 297,
600. Of plantane, 599. Of
•wormwood, 603. Of leffer
centaury, 604. Of chamo¬
mile, 605. Of elecampane,
606. Of gentian, 607. Of
liquorice, 608. Of black hel¬
lebore, 609. Of logwood,
610,628. Of Peruvian bark,
foft and hard, 6x1, 627. Of
guaiacum wood, foft and
hard, 612. Of rue, 613. Of
favin, 614. Of Rudius, 616.
Ofjalap,626. Cathartic,629.
F.xtraction, 180. Of pulps, 282
Extrads with water, 602.
With re&ified fpirit, 6x9.
With fpirit and water, 625.
F.
Fomentation, common, 351.
Furnaces, x 17.
Fufion, 240.
O.
Gargarifm, aftringent, 952.
Common, 953. Detergent,
954. Emollient, 955.
Gellies, 473—477.
Gilla of vi’.riol, 69.0,
PHARMACY.
Glauber's fait, 698. Spirit of
nitre, 675. Of fea-falt, 676
Glyjler of ftarch, 956. Ano¬
dyne opiate, 957. Againft
the colic, 958. Aftringent,
959. Aftringent balfamic,
960. Common, 961. Do-
meftic, 962. Emollient, 963.
Fetid, 964. Purging, 965.
Turpentine, 966.
Gold, potable, 724, 725.
Gum, 45.
Gaw-refxn, 49.
H.
Hartjhorn, calcined, 281. Spi¬
rit, fait, and oil of, 651.
Hepar antimonii, 768.
Hiera picra, 826.
Ab^’s-lard tried, 276.
Honey, clarified, 278. Of rofes,
501. Solutive, 502.
Honeys and oxymels, p. 6051.
Hungary water, 571.
Infufions in different menftrua,
p. 6029. Infufions and de-
co&ions in water, ib. In
cold water, 6030. In boil¬
ing water, 6031.
Infu/ion of carduus, n° 313..
Of Peruvian bark, 316.
Simple bitter infufion, 320.
Purging bitter ditto, 321.
Bitter infufion with fena,
322. Common infufion of
fena, 323. Infufion of fena
with lemon, 324. with ta¬
marinds, 325. Of rhu¬
barb, 326. Of flammula jo-
vis, 327.
Injedion, balfamic, 967. Mer¬
curial, 968.
/rw filings purified, 288. Pre¬
pared, 288. Ruft of iron
prepared, 730. Scales of
iron prepared, 731. Iron
fulphurated, 734. Open¬
ing crocus of iron, 735. A-
ftringent ditto, 736.
Juice of floes infpiffated, 598.
Juices, 289. Scorbutic, 295.
Juices and infufions concen¬
trated by evaporation, p.
6065. infpiffated, n°596.
Juleps, 927. Of chalk, 930. Of
mulk, 931. Cordial, 932.
Diaphoretic, 933. Diu¬
retic, 934. Fetid, 935.
Binding, 936.
Juleps, mixtures and draughts,
p. 6121.
K
Kermes, confection of, 499.
Mineral, 773. Syrup of,
487.
Kunckel's antiraonial tablets,
Lac fulphuris, 722.
Lapis lazuli prepared, 262.
Lead, preparations of, p.6095.
Sugar of, n° 746.
Zey of Tartar, 645.
Lime-vwWc, 318.
Liniments, 991. Liniment of
Arcseus, 1005. White, 1016.
Volatile, 1018. Forthe piles,
1024. Wax liniment, 1025
Saponaceous liniment, 664,
b.
Liver of antimony, 768.
Located?s balfam, 900.
Ldhochs, 921.
Lotipn, faponaceous, 664, a.
Lotions, gargarifms, injections,
&c. 946, &c.
Lozenges, cardialgic, 844.
Laxative antacid, 845.
Lunar cauftic, 727. Pills, 728
M
Magnefia alba, 699, a.
 burnt, 699, b.
Martial flowers, 738.
Mel iEgyptiacum, 993.
Meafures, 156.
Mercury, 749. Sugared, 751.
Calcined, 754. Solution of,
755. Calx of, 756. Red
calx of, 757. Red precipi¬
tate of, 757. Red corro-
five of, 758. White ditto,
759. White precipitate of,
yfix. Sublimate corrofive,
759. Dulcified, 760. Yel¬
low emetic, 762. Yellow
precipitate of, 763.
Metallic preparations, p. 6092
Metals, n° 96.
Millepedes, &c. prepared, 288.
Minder crus's fpirit, 704.
Minerals, p. 6014.
Minium, or red-lead, 744.
Mithridate, or confeftion of
Damocrates, 903, a.
Mixtures,92%. Antidyfenteric,
937. Cordial, 938. Againft
the phthilis, 939. Valerian
mixture, 940.
Mucilage ol gum arabic, 329.
Of gum tragacanth, 330.
Of quince feeds, 338.
Mujlard-whzy, 356.
Mutton fuel tried, 276
N
Nitre, fixed, 643. Glauber’s
fpirit of, 675. Dulcified
- fpirit of, 685. Purified,
688. Cubical, 700.
O
Oil of almonds, 301. Of Lin«
Index.
feed, 302. Of muftard-
feed, 303. Of ricinus, 304. i
Of oranges, lemons, and
citrons, 307. Of St John’s- ]
wort, 449. Of mucilages, 1
450. Of elder, 451, Green,
452. Camphorated, ibid. 1
Odoriferous, 453. Of worm- |
wood, 516. Of dill-feeds, I
517. Of anifeeds, 518. i
Of caraway-feeds, 519. Of I
cloves, 520. Of chamomile 1
flowers, 521. Of cinna- ;
mon, 522. Of fennel-feeds, ]
523. Of juniper-berries, ]
524. Of lavender flowers,
525. Of bay-berries, 526. 1
Of lemons, 527. Of mace, 1
528. Of marjoram leaves, \
529. Of common mint, 1
530. a. Of peppermint, >
530, b. Of nutmegs, 531.
Of origanum, 532. Ofja- j
maica pepper, 533, Of j
rofemary, 534. Of rue- 1
leaves, 535. Of favin-leaves, 1
536. Of faffafras, 537. Of ’
Turpentine, 538, Of box, i
632. Of guaiacum, 633.
Compound oil of balfam of '
copaiba, 634. Dippel’s a- ;
nimal oil, 636. Of tartar i
per deliquium, 645. Of
hartlhorn, 651. Of foot,
657. Of vitriol, 672. Of i
amber, 712.
Oils, grofs, 30. Effential,
fluid, 36. 509—538. Ef- .
fential concrete, 41. Ex- ;
preffed, 298. By infufion,
&c. 447. Emyreumatic, j
632. Oils and bitumens, i
83.
Ointments, 991. Ointment of
verdigris, 992. White, 994.
Of white lead, 995. Cam¬
phorated, 996. Of marfh-
mallowe, 997. Yellow ba-
filicum, 998. Black bafili- |
cum, 999. Green bafili-
cum, 1000. Yellow, xooi. 1
Stronger blue, 1002. Milder
blue, 1003. Emollient,
1006. Ofgumelemi, 1004.
Mercurial, 1007. Of mer¬
cury precipitate, 1008. Of
tar, 1009. Saturnine, 1010.
Simple, xoix. Rofe oint¬
ment, caljed/azra/aw, 1012.
Of tutty, 1013. For blifters,
1014. Milder epifpaftic,
1015. Of calamine, 1022.
For the palfy, 1023.
Operations of pharmacy, p.
6019.
PHARMACY.
rr Index.
wpiutn drained, 286.
opodeldoc, 666.
\fyrange-pze\ candied, 468.
Mpjyw/e/of garlic, 503. Pefto-
ral, 504. Of fquills, 505.
3' Simple, 506.
K^r-ihells prepared, 265.
^Pearls prepared, 261.
Whilonium, London, 904.
S|p;7//,854. PillsofRudius,6i6.
| Ethiopic, 855. Aromatic,
it 856. Aloetic, 857. Ofjalap,
I 858. Of fcammony with
i| aloes, 859. The more Ample
I colocynth pills, 860. Co-
I chise, the pills fo called,
ij 861. Of colocynth with
| aloes, 862. Deobdruent,
I 863. Chalybeate ecphrac-
| tic, 864. Purging deob-
I • ftruent, 865. Fetid, 866.
I Gum pills, 867. Mercu-
I rial pills, 868. Laxative
1 ditto, 869. Of gamboge,
§ 870. Thebaic, commonly
1 called pacific pills., 871, a.
I Saopnaceous, 871, b. Sto-
] rax, 871, c. Olibanum,
871,3. Pe&oral, 872. Ru¬
fus’s, 873. Squill pills,
874. Againd the dyfente-
ry, 875. Spermaceti pills,
876. Plummer’s pills, 877.
I Plajlers, 969. Anodyne pla-
J der, 970. Antihyderic, 971.
Drawing, 972. Wax, 973.
I Cephalic, 974. Common,
975. Sticking, 976, 977.
Common with gums, 978,979
Cummin, 980. Defenlive,
981. Melilot, 982. Mer¬
curial, 983. Strengthening,
984. Saponaceous, 985.
Stomach, 986. Blidering,
987. Anodyne and difeu-
tient, 988. Warm, 989.
Suppurant, 990.
Potajh purified, 646.
jPoWerj-, 805. Powderofarum,
compound, 808. Of bole
without opium, 809. Of bole
with opium, 810. Compound
powder of ceruffe, 811 . Of
crabs-claws, 812. Com¬
pound tedaceous powder,
813. Bezoardic powder,
814. Compound powder of
contrayerva, 815,. a. Pow-
, der of chalk, 815, b. E-
pileptic powder, 816. Pow¬
der to promote delivery,
818. Compound powder of
myrrh, 817. Compound
powderof fcammony, 819.
Of fena, 820. Sternutatory
powder, 821. Compound
powder of amber, 824. Of
gum tragacanth, 825. A-
romatic powder, 827, b.
Species of fcordium without
opium, 828. With opium,
829. Saline cathartic pow¬
der, 830. Carminative, 831.
Diuretic, 832. Strengthen-
ing,833. Againd the king’s
evil, 834. Vermifuge, 835.
Compound powder of jalap,
836. Dover’sfweatingpow¬
der, 837.
Pulvis antilyfius, 807.
Precipitation, 199.
Preparations, p. 6025, &C.
Preferves,n0 465.
Quickfilver purified, 750.
Regulus of antimony medicinal,
770. Simple 771.
Reftn, 4.3. Yellow, 539. Of
jalap, 622. Of Peruvian
bark, 623. Of faffron, 624.
Rob of elder-berries, 500,597.
Of junipet-berries, 617.
S.
Sal ammoniac purified, 689.
Spirit and fait of, 658, 667.
Sal polychredum, n° 696.
Prunellae, 697. Mirabile,
698. _
Saline juices of vegetables, 50.
Salt of tartar, 638. Of worm¬
wood, 642. Of hartdiorn,
651. Of foot, 657. Vo¬
latile of fal ammoniac, 658.
Of vitriol, 691. Diuretic,
703. Rochelle, 708. Ef-
fential of forrel, 709. Se¬
dative, 711. Of amber, 712.
Of deel, 739.
Salts, and faline preparations,
p. 6072.
Saponaceous lotion and lini¬
ment, 664.
Scorbutic295. Whey,
358- . . r
Glauber’s fpint 0^676
Spirit, of coagulated, 701.
Sebaceous matter, 34.
Septic done, or potential cau¬
tery, 648.
Silver, preparations of, 726’
Soap purified, 663. Almond,
662.
Soap-Xty, 647.
Solution, 160, &c.
Soot, fpirit, fait, and oil of,
957*
Spirit of wine camphorated,
446. Re&ified, 564. Of
rofemary, 570. Of laven¬
der, fimple, 572. Ditto
‘compound, 573. An odo¬
riferous fpirit, called finoeet
honey 'water, 574. Ano¬
ther, 576. Of feurvy-grafs,
golden, or purging, 576.,
577. Of fea-falt, coagu¬
lated, 701. Of amber, 712.
Of hartdiorn 651. Of foot,
657. Of fal ammoniac, 658.
Caudic volatile, 661. Of
fal ammoniac with quick¬
lime, 661. Of fal ammo¬
niac dulcified, 667. Vola¬
tile fetid, 668, 669. Vo¬
latile aromatic, 670. Vo¬
latile oily, commonly called
faline aromatic fpirit, 671.
Of vitriol, weak, 672. Of
vinegar, 679. Of vitriol
dulcified, 684.
Spongebusnt, 280.
Squills dried, 279.
candied, 471. Prepared
with fulphur, 733. Tarta-
rized or foluble, 737. Salt
of, 739.
Stone, medicinal, 802.
Storax, drained, 285.
Styptic powder of Colbatch,
803.
Sublimation, 218.
Sugar of rofes, 846.
5«|7tfr-cakes, anthelmintic, 847
£«//>^ar, dowers of, 715. Wadi-
ed dowers,716. Thick bal-
fam of, 717. Balfam of,
with Barbadoes tar, 718.
With oil of turpentine, 719.
With oil of anifeeds, 720.
Precipitated, 721. Volatile
tin&ure of, 723.
Synapifm, fimple, 1030. Com¬
pound, 1031.
Syrups, 478. Syrup of garlic,
481. Of marfhmallows,482.
Of orange-peel, 483. Balfa-
mic, 484, a. Of clove july-
flowers, 484, b. Of colchi-
cum, 484, c. Of faffron,
485. Of quinces, 486. Of
kermes, 487. Of lemon-
juice, 488. Of mulberries,
489. Of rafberries, 490.
Of meconium, or diacodium,
491 a. Of wild poppies,492 b.
Pedforal, 493. Solutive, of
rofes, 494, a, b. Of dry
rofes, 494, c. Of fquills,
495. Of fugar, 496. Of
buckthorn, 497, a. Of
violets, 497, b. Of gin¬
ger, 498.
T.
Tablets, purging, 849. Kunc-
kePsantim onial tablets, 851.
Tar-water, 317.
Tartar regenerated, 702. Cry-
dais of, 705. Cream of, 706.
Soluble, 707. Emetic, 795.
TYw/aa? Andromachi, 903, b.
Tin, 747. Powdered, 748.
TinHures, 388. Tin&ure of
mint, 315. Of rofes, 328. Of
ipecacuanha, 371. Cephalic,
374. Of rhubarb, vinous.
375. Thebaic, 377, 418.
Bitter, 392, 393. Of worm¬
wood, 394. Aromatic, 395.
Balfamic, 396. Of cantha-
rides, 397. Of cardamoms,
398. Of cador, 399, 400.
Of cinnamon, 401, a. Of
guaiacum volatile, 401, b.
Simple tinfture of bark, 402.
Volatile ditto, 403. Com¬
pound ditto, 404. Of faf¬
fron, 405. Tindure, or ef-
fence, of white dittany, 406.
Fetid, 407. Of foot, 408*
Of jalap, 409. Of kino,
410, a. Japonic, 41 o, b.
Of gum-lac, 411. Of the
martial dowers, 412. Of
iron, 413. Of meco¬
nium, 414. Of melam-
podium, or black helle¬
bore, 415. Ofmufk, 416.
Of myrrh, 417. Of rhu¬
barb, 419. Saturnine,
420, a, Antiphthifical,
420, b. Of fena, 421, a.
Compound ditto, common¬
ly called elixir of health,
421, b. Of fnakeroot, 422.
Stomachic, 423. Styptic,
424. Of fulphur, 425. Of
balfam.of Tolu, 426. Of va¬
lerian, 427, 428. Of white
hellebore,429. Sacred, 376.
Traumatic, or vulnerary bal¬
fam, 434.
Troches, 836. White pe&oral
troches, 838,3. Black pec¬
toral 838, b. Pedoral with
opium, 838, c. Of red
lead, 839. Of nitre, 840.
Of fquills, 841. Of ful¬
phur, 842. Of Japan earth,
843. Nerve troches, 848.
Of rhubarb, 850. Sialo-
gogue troches, 852. Sto¬
machic, 853.
Tutty, prepared, 268.
V
Vegetables, changes produced
in their juices by fermen¬
tation, p. 6008. Produdions
from them by fire, 6009.
Subdances naturally contain¬
ed in them, and feparable
without altering their native
qualities, 60JO. Obferva-
tions
PHARMACY.
<>134
tions on the whole, 6012.
Subllances extra&ed from
them by expreffion, 6028.
Separation of their parts
volatile in the heat of boiling
water, 6053.
Verdigris prepared, 254.
Vejfels for pharmaceutical ope¬
rations, 151.
Vinegar of fquills, 360. Dif-
tilled vinegar, 679.
Vinous fpirit combined with
acids, 6S2.
F/>er-broth, 339,—349.
Vipers fat purified, 277.
Vitriol, white, purified, 690.
Calcined, 693. Week fpirit
of, 672. Dulcified fpirit of,
684-
Vitriolated tartar, 694. Nitre,
695.
Vitriolic water, 949,—951.
W
Wade’s balfam, 433.
Waters, fimpie diddled, 541.
Spirituous diddled, 563.
Water, fimpie alexiterial, 549.
Orange-peel, 550. Black-
cherry, 551. Simple cin¬
namon, 552, a. Without
wine, 552, b. Fennel-water,
553. Baum-water, 554.
Mint-water, 555. Simple
fpearmint-water, 556. Sim¬
ple peppermint-water, 557.
Jamaica pepper water, 558.
Simple pennyroyal water,
559, a. Damalk-rofe water,
560. Rue-water, 56r. Sa¬
vin-water, 562. Hungary
water, 571- Spirituous a-
lexeterial water, 581. With
vinegar, 582. Compound
anifeed-water, 583. Spi¬
rituous orange-peel water,
584. Cardamom-feed water,
585. Caraway-water, 586.
Spirituous cinnamon-water,
587. Cinnamon-water with
wine, 588. Compound ju¬
niper water, 5S9. Spiri¬
tuous peppermint water,
590. Jamaica pepper wa¬
ter, 591. Nutmeg-water,
592. Spirituous pennyroyal-
water, 593. Compound
horfe-radilh water, 594.
Index.
Sulphurated water, 674*
Alum-water, 946, 947^
Sapphire-coloured water,
948. Blue vitriolic, 949.
Styptic, 950. Vitriolic, 951.
Weights, 152. Table of the
weights of different fluids,
159.
Wheys, p. 6034.
Wine, alkaline aloetic, 362, ;
—364. Bitter, 365. Steel
wine, 367. Saffron wine,
369. Ipecacuanha wine,(
370. Viper wine, 372.
Wine of millepedes, 373.
Of white dittany, 380.
Z
Z/w purified, 799. Flowers of,
800. Salt or vitriol of, 800.
P H A
Pharos, PHAROS, (Homer, Strabo, &c.) a fmall oblong
Pharfalus. adjoining to the continent of Egypt, over-againd
Alexandria. On this ifland flood a cognominal light-
tower, of four fides, each fide a ftadium in length ; and
the tower fo high, as to be feen 100 miles off. Some
affirm, each of its four corners reded on a large fea-
crab of glafs or of hard tranfparent done of Ethiopia
or Memphis. Others imagine, the crabs were only
added externally to the bafe by way of ornament, or
as emblematical of its fituation and ufe. The architeA
was Softratus the Cnidian, as appears by an infeription
on the tower, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, who laid
out 800 talents upon it. On account of the port of
Alexandria, the entrance to which was difficult and
dangerous, the Pharos was called the key of the Egyp¬
tian fea, or even of Egypt itfelf, (Lucan): and Pharos,
from being a proper name, is become an appellative, to
denote all light-houfes.
Pharos, ox Phare, a light-houfe; a pile raifed near
a port, where fire is kept burning in the night, to
guide and diredt veffels near at hand. The pharos of
Alexandria, built in the ifland of Pharos, at the mouth
of the Nile, was anciently very famous, infomuch as to
communicate its name to all the red. This mod mag¬
nificent tower confided of feveral Hories and galleries,
with a lanthorn at top, in which a light being conti¬
nually burning, might be- feen for many leagues at fea,
and along the coafl.
PHARSALUS, Pharsalos, Pharfalia, or Pkar-
falium, (anc. geog.), a town of the Phthiotis, a di-
flrift of Theffaly, near Pherae and Lariffa, to which
lad place Pompey fled from the plains of Pharfalus ;
watered by the river Enipeus, which falls into the
Apidanus, and both together into the Peneus. Be¬
tween Pharfalus and Enipeus, Pompey drew up his men
at the fatal battle of Pharfalia.
In this battle, the advantage with refpeft to num¬
bers was greatly on the fide of Pompey. That gene¬
ral himfeif was on the left with the two legions which
Casfar had returned to him at the beginning of the
war. Scipio, Pompey’s father-in-law, was in the
centre, with the legions he had brought from Syria,
and the reinforcements fent by feveral kings and dates
•f Afia. The Cilician legion, and fome cohorts,
P H A
which had ferved in Spain, were in the right, under Pharfalur,
the command of Afranius. As Pompey’s right wing
was covered by the Enipeus, he ftrengthened the left
with his flingers, archers, and the 7000 Roman horfe,
on whom chiefly his party founded their hopes of vic¬
tory. The whole army was drawn up in three lines,
with very little fpaces between them. In conformity
to this difpofition, Casfar’s army was drawn up in the
following order: The tenth legion, which had on all
occafions fignalized themfelves above all the red, was
placed in the right wing, and the ninth in the left $
but as the latter had been confiderably weakened in
the aiffion at Dyrrhachium, the eighth legion was
pofled fo near it, as to be able to fupport and rein¬
force it upon occafion. The reft of Csefar’s forces fill¬
ed up the fpace between the two wings. Marc An¬
tony commanded the left wing, Sylla the right, and
Cneius Domitius Calvinus the main body. As for Cae-
far, he poded himfeif on the right over-againft Pom¬
pey, that he might have him always in his fight.
Thus was the whole plain covered, from Pharfalia
to the Enipeus, with two armies, dreffed and armed
after the fame manner, and bearing the fame enfigns,
the Roman eagles. Pompey obferving how well the
enemy kept their ranks, expe&ing quietly the fignal
of battle, and on the contrary how impatient and un-
fteady his own men were, running up and down in
great diforder for want of experience, he began to be
afraid led his ranks ftiould be broken upon the firft
onfet; and therefore commanded the foot in the front
to keep their ground, and quietly wait for the enemy.
The two armies, though within reach of each other,
kept a mournful filence ; but at length the trumpets
founded the charge, and Caefar’s army advanced .in
good order to begin the attack, being encouraged by
the example of one Caius Cradinus, a centurion, who
at the head of 120 men threw himfeif upon the ene¬
my’s fird line with incredible fury. This he did to
acquit himfeif of a promife he had folemnly made to
Caefar, who, meeting him as he was going out of his
tent in the morning, aiked him, after fome difeourfe.
What his opinion <was touching the event of the battle ?
To which he, ftretebmg out his hand, replied aloud,
Whine is the viclory, Ctefar} thou Jhalt glorioufly con-
P H A
IPharfalus. quer, and I myfelf this day ’will he the fuljett of thy
' praife either dead or alive. In purfuance of this pro-
mife, he broke out of his rank, as foon as the trum¬
pets founded ; and, at the head of his company, ran
in upon the enemy, and made a great {laughter of
them. But while he was ftill preffing forward, for¬
cing his way through the firft line, one of Pompey’s
I men ran him in at the mouth with fuch violence, that
the point of his fword came out at the hind-part of
his neck. Upon his death, Pompey’s foldiers took
courage, and with great bravery ftood the enemy’s on-
fet. While the foot wi re thus fharply engaged in the
centre, Pompey’s horfe in the left wing marched up
confidently; and having firft widened their ranks, with
a defign to furround Caefar’s right wing, charged his
cavalry, and forced them to give ground. Hereupon
Casfar ordered his horfe to retreat a little, and give
way to the fix cohorts, which he had polled in the
rear as a body of referve. Thefe, upon a fignal
given, coming up, charged the enemy’s horfe with
that refolution and good order which is peculiar to
men who have fpent all their lives in camps. They
remembered their inftruftions, not linking at the legs
or thighs of the enemy, but aiming only at their faces.
This unexpected and new manner of fighting had the
defired effeft. For the young patricians, whom Cae-
far contemptuoufly calls the pretty young dancers, not
being able to bear the thoughts of having their faces
deformed with fears, turned their backs, and, covering
their faces with their hands, fled in the utmoft con-
fufion, leaving the foot at the mercy of the enemy.
Caefar’s men did not purfue the fugitives; but char¬
ging the foot of that wing, now naked and un¬
guarded, furrounded them, and cut moll of them in
pieces.
Pompey was fo tranfported with rage, in feeing the
flower of his forces thus put to flight or cut in pie¬
ces, that he left his army, and retired flowly towards
his camp, looking more like a man diftrafted and be-
fide himfelf, than one who by his exploits had ac¬
quired the name of the Great. When he had reached
the camp, he retired to his tent, without fpeaking a
word to any; and continued there, like one diltradled
and out of his fenfes, till his whole army was defeated.
Caefar no fooner faw himfelf mailer of the field, than
he marched to attack the enemy’s entrenchments, that
Pompey might not have time to recoiled himfelf.
When Pompey was informed that his rival was advan¬
cing to attack his entrenchments, he then firft feemed
to have.recovered his fenfes, and cried out, What, into
my camp too? He faid no more; but immediately lay¬
ing afide the marks of his dignity, and putting on
fuch a garment as might bell favour his flight, he llole
out at the decuman gate, and took the road to La-
riffa, which city had hitherto (hewn great attachment
to him. In the mean time, Csefar began the attack
on the enemy’s camp, which was vigoroufly defended
by the cohorts Pompey had left to ^uard it; but they
were at length forced to yield. Caefar was not a little
furprifed, when, after having forced the entrench¬
ments, he found the enemy’s tents and pavilions rich¬
ly adorned With carpets and hangings, their couches
ftrewed with flowers, their tables ready fpread, and
fide-boards fet out with abundance of plate, bowls,
und glaffes, and fame of ihetn even filled with wine.
p H A
So great was the confidence of Pompey’s party, that Pharynx,
they made preparations before-hand for pleafures to be phafcolus-
enjoyed after the vi£tory, which they thought certain.
In Pompey’s tent, Casfar found the box in which he
kept his letters: but, with a moderation and magna¬
nimity worthy of himfelf, he burnt them all, without
reading one; faying, that he had rather be ignorant
of crimes, than obliged to punifh them.
The next day, when the dead were numbered, it
appeared that Casfar had fcarce loft 200 men; among
whom was about 30 centurions, whom Csefar caufed
to be buried with great folemnity. He did particular
honours to the body of Craftinus, who had Begun the
battle; and ordered his alhes to bedepefited in a tomb,
which he erefted to his memory. On Pompey’s fide,
the number of the dead amounted to 13,000 accord¬
ing to fome, and to 25,000 according to others. C«c-
far took 24,000 prifoners, eight eagles, and 180 en-
figns.
PHARYNX, in antomy. See there, n° 353.
PHASEOLUS, the Kidney-bean ; a genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants. There is only one fpecies; but of this there are
many varieties. Thofe principally cultivated for the
table are, 1. The common white, or Dutch kidney-
bean. 2. The fmaller kidney-bean, commonly called
the Batterfea kidney bean. And, 3. The upright
fort, called the tree kidney-bean.
j. The firft fori was fi me time ago propagated in
England, and is Hill in Holland : it grows very tall, -
and requires long flakes and poles to climb on, and its
beans are confidetably broad : this makes them lefs
faleable in the markets, people fuppofing them to be
old becaufe they are broad; and they are hence grown
into difufe, though a much more valuable kind for
eating than any other.
2. The fecond fort, or Batterfea bean, is what is
more univerfally cultivated: it never grows very tall,
nor rambles far, and the air can eafily pafs between
the rows, becaufe of its moderate growth; and this
makes it bear plentifully, and ripen well for the table.
It is the beft-tafled bean, except the lad.
3. The third, or tree kidney-bean, is alfo a plen¬
tiful bearer, and never rambles, but grows up in form
of a fhrub ; but its beans are broader than the Batter-
fea kind, and are not fo well tailed.
They are all propagated from feeds, which are to
be put into the ground in the latter end of March or
beginning of April for an early crop: but thefe fhould
have a warm fituation and a dry foil ; they muft alfo
be planted in a dry feafon. The manner of planting
them is, to draw lines with a bough over the bed, at
two feet and a half diftance, into which the feeds are
to be dropped at about two inches afunder; and the
earth is to be drawn over them with the head of a rake,
to cover them about an inch deep. In a week after
fowing, the plants will appear, and the earth fhould
be drawn up about their ilalks as they rife up; for a
few days after this they will require no further care,
except to be kept clear from weeds, and, when the
beans appear, to have them gathered twice a-week ;
for if the beans are fuffered to hang on too long, they
not only become of no value, but they weaken the
plant. The firft crop of kidney-beans will continue a.
month in good order; and to fupply the table after-
1 1
P H A [ 6136 ] P H A
Phafes, wards, there fliould be frefh fowings in March, April,
Phafhnus. May, and June, the laft of which will continue till
~ the frofts come to deftroy them. Some raife their
early crops on hot-beds; and this is to-be done ex-
a&ly in the fame manner as the raifing the early cu¬
cumbers.
PHASES, in allronomy, from the Greek word <p«^a,
“ to appear;” the feveral appearances or quantities of
illumination of the moon, Venus, Mercury, and the
other planets. See Astronomy.
PHASIANUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of gallinas. The cheeks are covered with
a fmooth naked fkin. There are fix fpecies, viz.
Dunghill i- The gallus, or common dunghill cock and hen,
Cock. with a compreffed caruncle or flelhy comb on the top
of the head, and a couple of caruncles or wattles under
the chin. The ears are naked, and the tail is compref¬
fed and erefted. Of all other birds, perhaps this fpe¬
cies affords the greateft number of varieties; there be¬
ing fcarce two to be found that exaftly refemble each
other in plumage and form. The tail, which makes
fuch a beautiful figure in the generality of thcfe birds,
is yet found entirely wanting in others ; and not only
the tail, but the rump alfo. The toes, which are
ufually four in all animals of the poultry kind, yet in a
fpecies of the cock are found to amount to five. The
feathers, which lie fo fleek and in fuch beautiful order
in moft of thofe we are acquainted with, are in a pe¬
culiar breed all inverted, and (land flaring the wrong
way. Nay, there is a fpecies that comes from Japan,
which inftead of feathers feems to be covered over with
hair.
It is not well afcertained when the cock was firft
made domeflic in Europe ; but it is generally agreed
that we .firft had him in our weftern world from the
kingdom of Perfia. Ariftophanes calls the cock the
Perjtan bird;, and tells us he enjoyed that kingdom be¬
fore fome of its earlieft monarchs. This animal was in
faQ known fo early even in the moll favage parts of
Europe, that we are told the cock was one of the for¬
bidden foods among the ancient Britons. Indeed, the
domeftic fowl feems to have banifhed the wild one.
Perfia itfelf, that firft introduced it to our acquaintance,
feems no longer to know it in its natural form; and if
we did not find it wild in fome of the woods of India,
as well as thofe of the iflands in the Indian ocean, we
might begin to doubt, as we do with regard to the
flieep, in what form it firft exifted in a Hate of nature.
But the cock is ttill found in the iflands of Tinian,
in many others of the Indian ocean, and in the woods
on the coaft of Malabar, in his ancient ftate of inde-
pendance. In his wild condition, his plumage is black
and yellow, and his comb and wattles yellow and purple.
There is another peculiarity alfo in thofe of the Indian
woods; their bones, which, when boiled, with us are
white, as every body knows, in thofe are as black as
ebony.
In their firft propagation in Europe, there were di-
ftinftions then that now fubfift no longer. The an¬
cients efteemed thofe fowls whofe plumage was reddilh
as invaluable ; but as for the white, it was confidered
as utterly unfit for domeftic purpofes. Thefe they re¬
garded as fubjeft to become a prey to rapacious birds;
and Ariftotle thinks them lefs fruitful than the former.
Indeed, his diviflpn of thofe birds feems taken from
their culinary ufes : the one fort he calls generous and Phafianus,
noble, being remarkable for fecundity; the other fort, 
ignoble and ufelefs, from their fterility. Thefe diftinc-
tions differ widely from our modern notions of genero-
fity in this animal; that which we call the game-cock
being by no means fo fruitful as the ungenerous dung¬
hill cock, which we treat with contempt. The Athe¬
nians had their cock-matches as well as we ; but it is
probable theydid not enter into our refinement of choo-
fing out the moft barren of the fpecies for the purpofei
of combat.
However this be, no animal in the world has greater
courage than the cock when oppofed to one of his own
fpecies; and in every part of the world where refine¬
ment and polifhed manners have not entirely taken
place, cock-fighting is a principal diverfion. In China,
India, the Philippine iflands, andall over the Eaft, cock-
fighting is the fport and amufement even of kings and
princes. With us it is declining every day; and it is
to be hoped it will in time become only the paftime of
the loweft vulgar. See the article Cock-Fighting.
The cock claps his wings before he fings or crows.
-His fight is very piercing; and he never fails to cry in a
peculiar manner, when he difcovers any bird of prey
in the air. His extraordinary courage is thought
to proceed from his being the moft falacious of all
other birds whatfoever. A Angle cock fuffices for ten
or a dozen hens; and it is faid of him that he is the
only animal whofe fpirits are not abated by indulgence.
But then he foon grows old ; the radical moifture is
exhaufted ; and in three or four years he becomes ut¬
terly unfit for the purpofes of impregnation “ Hens^^
alio, (to uie the words of Willoughby), as they for the
greateft part of the year daily lay eggs, cannot fuffice
for fo many births, but for the moll part after three
years become effete and barren: for when they have
exhaufted all their feed-eggs, of which they had but a
certain quantity from the beginning, they muft necef-
farily ceafe to lay, there being no new ones generated
within.”
The hen feldom clutches a brood of chickens above
once a feafon, though inftances have been known in
which they produced two. The number of eggs a do¬
meftic hen will lay in the year are above 200, provi¬
ded fhe be well fed and fupplied with water and liber¬
ty. It matters not much whether fhe be trodden by
the cock or no; fhe will continue to lay, although the
eggs of this kind can never by hatching be brought to
produce a living animal. Her nell is made without any
care, if left to herfelf; a hole fcratched into the ground,
among a few bufhes, is the only preparation fhe makes
for this feafon of patient expeftation. Nature, almoft
exhaufted by its own fecundity, feems to inform her of
the proper time for hatching, which fhe herfelf teftifies
by a clucking note, and by difeontinuing to lay. The
good houfewives, who often get more by their hens
laying than by their chickens, often artificially protradl
this clucking feafon, and fometimes entirely remove
it. As foon as a hen begins to cluck, they flint her in
her provifions; which, if that fails, they plunge her
into cold water; this, for the time, effe&ually puts back
her hatching ; but then it often kills the poor bird,
who takes cold and dies under the operation.
If deft entirely to herfelf, the hen would feldom lay
above 20 eggs in the fame neft, without attempting to
hatch
Tlafe CCXXXT.
-
P H A [ 6137 ] P H A
Phafiam«. hatch them: but in proportion as (he lays, her eggs
are removed ; and (he continues to lay, vainly hoping
to increafe the number. In the wild ftate, the hen fel-
dom lays above 15 eggs; but then her provifion is
more difficultly obtained, and (he is perhaps fenfible of
the difficulty of maintaining too numerous a family.
When the hen begins to fit, nothing can exceed her
perfeverance and patience: (hecontinues for fome days
immoveable ; and when forced away by the importu¬
nities of hunger, (he quickly returns. Sometimes alfo
her eggs become too hot for her to bear, efpecially if
(he be furnifhed with too warm a neft within doors, for
then (he is obliged to leave them to cool a little: thus
the warmth of the neft only retards incubation, and
often puts the brood a day or two back in the (hell.
While the hen fits, (lie carefully turns her eggs, and
even removes them to different fituations; till at length,
in about three weeks, the young brood begin to give
figns of a delire to burft their confinement. When by
the repeated efforts of their bill, which ferves like a
pioneer on this occafion, they have broke themfelves a
paffage throogh the (hell, the hen dill continues to fit
till all are excluded. The ftrongeft and bell chickens
generally are the firft candidates for liberty; the weak-
eftcome behind, and fome even die in the (hell. When
all are produced, (lie then leads them forth to provide
for themfelves. Her affe&ion and her pride feem then
to alter her very nature, and correA her imperfedlions.
No longer voracious or cowardly, (he abftains from all
food that her young can fwcllow, and flies boldly at
every creature that (he thinks is likely to do them mif-
chief. Whatever the invading animal be, (he boldly
attacks him; the hoife, the hog, or the maftiff. When
marching at the head of her little troop, (he a£ts the
commander; and has a variety of notes to call her nu¬
merous train to their food, or to warn them of ap¬
proaching danger. Upon one of thefe occafions, the
whole brood have been feen to run for fecurity into the
thickeft part of an hedge, while the hen herfelf ventu¬
red boldly forth, and faced a fox that came for plun¬
der.
Ten or twelve chickens are the greateft number that
a good hen can rear and clutch at a time; but as this
bears no proportion to the number of her eggs, fchemes
have been imagined to clutch all the eggs of an hen,
and thus turn her produce to the greateft advantage.
By thefe contrivances it has been obtained, that a hen
that ordinarily produces but 12 chickens in the year,
is found to produce as many chickens as eggs, and
confequently often above 200. This contrivance is the
artificial method of Hatching chickens in (loves, as is
praftifed at Grand Cairo; or in a chemical elaboratory
properly graduated, as has been effedled by Mr Reau¬
mur. At Grand Cairo, they thus produce 6000 or
ycoo chickens at a time ; where, as they are brought
forth in their mild fpring, which is warmer than our
fummer, the young ones thrive without clutching. But
it is otherwife in our colder and unequal climate ; the
little animal may without much difficulty be hatched
from the (hell, but they almoft all perifh when exclu¬
ded. To remedy this, Reaumur has made ufe of a
woollen hen, as he calls it; which was nothing more
tharv putting the young ones in a warm baflcet, and
clapping over them a thick woollen canopy.
Capons may very eafily be taught to clutch a freflj
Vol. VIII. 2
brood of chickens throughout the year ; fo that when PhaGam s.
one little colony is thus reared, another may be brought
to fuccced it. Nothing is more common than to fee
capons thus employed; and the manner of teaching
them is this; Firft the capon is made v^ry tame, fo as
to feed from one’s hand ; then, about evening, they
pluck the feathers off his bread, and rub the bare (kin
with nettles; they then put the chickens to him, which
prefently run under his bread and belly, and probably
rubbing his bare (kin gently with their heads, allay the
flinging pain which the nettles had juft produced.
This is repeated for two or three nights, till the ani¬
mal takes an affedlion to the chickens that have thus
given him relief, and continues to give them the pro-
te&ion they feek for: perhaps alfo the querulous voice
of the chickens may be pleafant to him in mifery, and
invite him to fuccour the diftreffed. He from that time
brings up a brood of chickens like a hen, clutching
them, feeding them, clucking, and performing all the
fuiifltons of the tendered parent. A capon once ae-
cuftomed to this fervice, will not give over; but when
one brood is grown up, he may have another nearly
hatched put underJiim, which he will treat with the
fame tendernefs he did the former.
The cock, from his falacioufnefs, is allowed to be a
fhort-lived animal; but how long thefe birds live, if
left to themfelves, is not .yet well afeertained by any
hiftorian. As they are kept only for profit, and in a
few years become unfit for generation, there are few
that, from mere motives of curiofity, will make the te¬
dious experiment of maintaining a proper number till
they die. Aldrovandus hints their age to be 10 years;
and it is probable that this may be its extent. They
are fubjeft to fome diforders; and as for poifons, be-
fides nux vomica, which is fatal to mod animals except
man, they are injured, as Linnaeus afferts, by elder¬
berries; of which they are not a little fond.
2. The motmot, or Guinea pheafant, is brownifti, pheafants.
fomewhat red below, with a wedge-like tail, and wants
fpurs. 3. The colchicus is red, with a blue head, a
wedge-(h«ped tail, and papillous cheeks. It is a na¬
tive of Africa and Afia. 4. The argus is yellowifti,
with black fpots, a red face, and a blue creft on the
back part of the head. It is found in Chinefe Tartary.
5. The pidtus has a yellow creft, a red bread, and a
wedge-ffiaped tail. It is a native of China. 6. The
nedthemerus, is white, with a black creft and belly,
and a wedge-(haped tail. It is a native of China.
Pheafants were originally brought into Europe from
the banks of the Phafis, a river of Colchis, in Afia
Minor; and from whence they dill retain their name.
Next to the peacock, they are the mod beautiful of
birds, as well for the vivid colour of their plumes as
for their happy mixtures and variety. It is far beyond
the power of the pencil to draw any thing fo gloffy, fo
bright, or poitits fo finely blending into each other.
We are told, that when Crcefus, king of Lydia, was
feated on his throne, adorned with royal magnificence
and all the barbarous pomp of eaftern fplendour, h«
afked Solon if he had ever beheld any thing fo fine ?
The Greek philofopher, no way moved by the objedls
before him, or taking a pride in bis native fimplicity,
replied, That after having feen the beautiful plumage
of the pheafant, he could be aftonifiied at no other
finery.
Thefe
P H I
PhafiatvJs. Thefe birds, tbo* fo beautiful to the eye, are not lefs
^ delicate when ferved up to the table. Their flefh is con-
fidered as the greateft dainty; and when the old phy-
ficians fpoke of the wholefotnenefs of any viands, they
made their comparifon with the fleih of the pheafant.
However, notwithftanding all thefe perfections to tempt
the curiofity or the palate, the pheafant has multiplied
in its wild ftate.
A fpirit of independence feems to attend the phea¬
fant even in captivity. In the woods, the hen-phea-
fant lays from 18 to 20 eggs in a feafqn; but in a do-
ineftic ftate, (lie feldom lays above 10. In the fame
manner, when wild, (he hatches and leads up her brood
with patience, vigilance, and courage; but when kept
tame, (he never fits well, fo that a hen is generally her
fubftitute upon fuch occafions: and as for leading her
young to their food, (he is utterly ignorant of where it
is to be found; and the young birds ftarve, if left folely
to her proteftion. The pheafant, therefore, on every
account, feems better left at large in the woods than
reclaimed to priftine captivity. Its fecundity when wild
is fufficient to (lock the fore ft ; its beautiful plumage
adorns it; and its fle(h retains a higher flavour from its
unlimited freedom.
However, it has been the aim of late to take thefe
birds once more from the woods, and to keep them in
places fitted for their reception. Like all others of the
poultry kind, they have no great fagacity, and fuffer
themfelves eafily to be taken. At night they rood up¬
on the higheft trees of the wood; and by day they
come down into the lower brakes and buflies, where
their food is chiefly found. They generally make a
kind of flapping noife when they are with the females;
and this often apprifes the fportfman of their retreats.
At other times he tracks them in the fnow, and fre¬
quently takes them in fpringes. But of all birds they are
(hot moft eafily; as they always make a whirring noife
when they rife, by which they alarm the gunner, and
being a \irge mark, and flying very (low, there is fcarce
any mifling them.
When thefe birds are taken young into keeping,
they become as familiar as chickens: and when they
are defigned for breeding, they are put together in a
yard, five hens to a cock ; for this bird, like all of the
poultry kind, is very falacious. In her natural (late
the female makes her neft of dry grafs and leaves; the
fame muft be laid for her in the pheafandry, and (he
herfelf will fometimes properly difpofe them. If (he
refufes to hatch her eggs, then a common hen muft be
got to fnpply her place, which talk (he will perform
with perfeverance and fuccefs. The young ones are
very difficult to be reared ; and they muft be fupplied
with ants-eggs, which is the food the old one leads
them to gather when wild in the woods. To make
thefe go the farther, they are to be chopped up with
curds or other meat; and the young ones are to be fed
with great exa&nefs, both as to the quantity and the
time of their fupply. This food is fometimes alfo to
be varied ; and wood-lice, ear-wigs, and other infers,
are to make a variety. The place where they are rear¬
ed muft be kept extremely clean ; their water muft be
changed twice or thrice a-day; they muft not be ex-
pofed till the dew is off the ground in the morning,
and they (hould always be taken in before fun-fet.
When they become adult, they very well can ftuft for
P H I
themfelves, but they are particularly fond of oats and Phalknus
barley. d.
In order to increafe the breed, and make it ftill more Phia ’
valuable, Longolius teaches us a method that appears
very peculiar. The pheafant is a very bold bird when
firft brought into the yard among other poultry, not
fparing the peacock, nor even fuch young cocks and
hens as it can mafter; but after a time it will live tame¬
ly among them, and will at laft be brought to couple
with a common hen. The breed thus produced take much
ftronger after the pheafant than the hen; and in a few
fuccelfions, if they be let to breed with the cock-phea-
fant, for the mixture is not barren, there will be pro¬
duced a fpecies more tame, ftronger, and more prolific;
fo that he adds, that it is ftrange why moft of our
pheafandries are not (locked with birds produced in this
manner.
The pheafant, when full grown, feems to feed indif¬
ferently upon every thing that offers. It is faid by a
French writer, that one of the king’s fportfmen (hoot¬
ing at a parcel of crows that were gathered round a
dead carcafe, to his great furprife upon coming up,
found that he had killed as many pheafants as crows.
It is even afferted by fome, that fuch is the carnivorous
difpofition of this bird, that when feveral of them are
put together in the fame yard, if one of them happens
to fall fick, or feems to be pining, that all the reft will
fall upon, kill, and devour it. Such is the language
of books; thofe who have frequent opportunities of ex¬
amining the manners of the bird itfelf, know what cre¬
dit ought to be given to fuch an account.
PHASMATA, in phyfiology, certain appearances
arifing from the various tinftures of the clouds by the
rays of the heavenly bodies, efpecially the fun and
moon. Thefe are infinitely diverfified by the different
figures and fituations of the clouds, and the appulfes
of the rays of light.
PHASSACHATES, in natural hiftory, the name
of a fpecies of agate, which the ancients, in its various
appearances, fometimes called leucacbates and perileu-
PHEASANT, in ornithology. See Phasianus.
PHELLANDRIUM, water hem lock, a genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies; one of which,, viz.
the aquaticum, is a native of Britain. This grows in
ditches arid ponds, but is not very common. The
(talk is remarkably thick and dichotomous, and grows
in the water. It is a poifon to horfes, bringing upon
them, as Linnaeus informs us, a kind of palfy ; which,
however, he fuppofes to be owing not fo much to the
noxious qualities of the plant itfelf, as to thofe of an
infeft which feeds upon it, breeding within the (talks,
and which he calls curculio parapletticus. The Swedes
give fwine’s dung for the cure. The feeds are fome¬
times given in intermittent fevers, and the leaves are
by fome added to difeutient cataplafms. In the win¬
ter, the roots and ftem, di(L£ted by the influence of
the weather, afford a very curious (keleton or net¬
work. Horfes, (beep, and goats, eat the plant; fwine
are not fond of it; cows refufe it.
PHENICIA. See Phoenicia.
PHEONS, in heraldry, the barbed heads of darts,
arrows, or other weapons.
PHIAL, a well-known veffel made of glafs, ufed
for
[ 6138 1
PHI [ 61
Phidias for various purpofes.
II Leyden Phial ; a phial of glafs coated on both Tides
"kij6" with tin-foil for a confiderable way up the Tides, of
— great ufe in eledlrical experiments. See Electricity,
pajfun.
PHIDIAS, the moil famous fculptor of antiquity,
was an Athenian, and a contemporary of the celebra¬
ted Pericles, who flourilhed in the 83d Olympiad.
This wonderful artill was not only confummate in the
ufe of his tools, but accomplilhed in thofe fciencesand
branches of knowledge which belong to his profef-
fion, as hiltory, poetry, fable, geometry, optics,
■&c. He firft taught the Greeks to imitate nature
perfe&ly in this way ; and all his works were received
with admiration. They were alfo incredibly nume-
jous ; for it was almoll peculiar to Phidias, that he
united the greateft facility with the greateft perfeflion.
His Nemefis was ranked among his firft pieces: it
was carved out of a block of marble, which was found
in the camp of the Perfians after they were defeated
in the plains of Marathon. He made an excellent fta-
tue of Minerva for the Plateaus; but the ftatue of this
goddefs in her magnificent temple at Athens, of which
there are ftill fome ruined remains, was an afloniftiing
production of human art. Pericles, who had the care
of this pompous edifice, gave orders to Phidias, whofe
prodigious talents he well knew, to make a ftatue of
the goddefs ; and Phidias formed a figure of ivory
and gold 39 feet high. Writers never fpeak of this
jlluftrious monument of Ikill without raptures; yet
what has rendered the name of the artift immortal,
proved at that time his ruin. He had carved upon the
Ihield of the goddefs his own portrait, and that of
Pericles; and this was, by thofe that envied them,
made a crime in Phidias. He was alfo charged with
embezzling part of the materials which were defigned
for the ftatue. Upon this he withdrew to Elis, and
revenged himfclf upon the ungrafeful Athenians, by
making for the Elians the Olympic Jupiter: a prodigy
of art, and which was afterwards ranked among the
feven wonders of the world. It was of ivory and gold ;
.60 feet high, and every way proportioned. “ The
majefty of the work did equal the majefty of the god,”
fays Quintilian, “ and its beauty feems to have added
luftre to the religion of the country.” Phidias con¬
cluded his labours with this mafter-piece; and the
Elians, to do honour to his memory, ere£ted,and ap¬
propriated to his defeendents, an office, which con-
iifted in keeping clean this magnificent image.
PHIDITIA, in Grecian antiquity, feafts celebra¬
ted with great frugality at Sparta. They were held
in the public places and in the open air. Rich and
poor affifted at them equally, and on the fame footing;
their defign being to keep up peace, friendfliip, good
underftanding and equality among the citizens great
and fmall. It is fa id that thofe who attended this
feaft brought each a buftiel of flour, eight meafures
of wine named chorus, live mince of cheefe, and as
many figs.
PHILADELPHIA, the capital of the province
of Penfylvania in North America, fituated in W. Lon.
75. o. N. Lat. 40. 30. It is one of the moft beauti¬
ful and regular cities in the world, being an oblong
of two miles, extending from the river Delaware to
the Schuylkill, with the eaft end fronting the river
39 1 PHI
Delaware, the well the river Schuylkill, and each Plnladrl-
front a mile in length. The river Delaware is navi-
gable from the fea for large veffils above 200 miles, "
and that of Scbuykill as far as Philadelphia. Every  —
man in pofieffion of 1000 acres has his houfe either in
one of the fronts facing the rivers, or in the high-
ftreet, running from the middle of one front to the
middle of the other. Every owner of 5000 acres, be-
fides the above-mentioned privilege, is intitled to have
an acre of ground in the front of his houfe, and all
others may have half an acre, for gardens and court¬
yards. Every quarter of the city forms a fquare of
eight acres; and almoft in the centre of it is a fqnare
of ten acres, furrounded by the town-houfe and other
public buildings. The high-ftreet is 100 feet wide,
and runs the whole length of the town : parallel to it
run eight other ftreets, which are crofled by 20 more
at right angles, all of them 30 feet wide, and com¬
municating with canals from the two rivers, which add
not only to the beauty, but the wholefomencfs of the
city. Ships of 400 or 300 tons may come up to the
key, which is 200 feet fquare, and furnifhed with all
the conveniences for (hip-building, as well as for load¬
ing and unloading goods. Though the whole of this
magnificent plan hath not yet been carried into execu¬
tion, a confiderable progrefs hath been made towards
it. The town-houfe is to (lately, fpacious, and regu¬
lar, that it would make a figure in any capital of Eu¬
rope. The other public buildings are, the court-
houfe, two Quakers meeting-houfes, one church of
England, one Baptift meeting, one Dutch Lutheran
church, one Dutch Calvinift church, one Moravian
church, one mafs-houfe, the Quakers fchool houfe, the
city alms-houfe, the Quakers alms-houfe, the hofpital,
prifon, and work-houfe.
Philadelphia, an ancient townof Turky in Afia,
in Natolia ; feated at the foot of mount Tmolus, from
whence there is a fine view over an extenfive plain.
The Greeks retain its ancient name, but by the Turks
it is called Allahijur. It contains 7 or 8000 inhabi¬
tants ; of whom 2000 are Chriftians, who have four
churches, over which prefides an arebbiffiop. E. Lon.
28. 25. N. Lat. 38. 43.
PHILADELPHUS, the Pipe-tree, or Mock-
orange ; a genus of the monogynia order belonging to
the icofandria clafs of plants.
Species I. The coronarius, white fyringo, or mock-
orange, has been long cultivated in thegardensof this
country as a flowering (hrub ; it is not well known in
what country it is to be found native. It riles feven
or eight feet high; fending up a great number of
(lender (talks from the root. Thefe have a gray bark,
branch out from their fides, and are garniflied with,
oval fpear- (haped leaves. Thefe laft have deep inden¬
tures on their edges ; their upper furface being of a
deep green, but the under furface pale, with the tafte
of a frefh cucumber. The flowers are white, and
come out from the fides and at the ends of the
branches in loofe bunches, each (landing on a diftimSl
foot-ftalk: they have four oval petals, which fpread
open, with a great number of (lamina within, fur¬
rounding the (lyle. Their fmell at fome diftance re-
fembles that of orange-flowers, but is too powerful
for moft people when near. 2. The nanus, with oval
leaves fomewhat indented and double flowers, feldotn
34 O 2 rifes
PHI [ 6140 ] PHI
Philippi. rJfes above three feet high ; the flowers come out fingly
from the Tides of the branches, and have a double or
treble row of petals of the fame fize and form as well
as the fame fcent with the former ; but this fort flowers
very rarely, fo is but little efteemed. 3. The inodo-
rus with entire leaves, is a native of Carolina, and as
yet but little known in Europe. It rifes with a
ihrubby ftalk of about 16 feet in height, fending out
{lender branches from the Tides oppofite, garniftied with
fmooth leaves (harped like thofe of the pear-tree, and
Handing on pretty long foot-ftalks. The flowers
are produced at the ends of the branches; and are
large, white, fpreading open, with a great number of
fliort ftamina with yellow fummits.
Culture. The firft two fpecies are extremely hardy,
but grow taller in light good ground than in fuch as
is ftiff. They are ufually propagated by fuckers,
which are produced by the roots in great plenty. The
The laft fpecies cannot be propogated in this country
by feeds, which is the reafon of its fcarcity ; however,
it may be produced by laying down the branches. It
is alfo liable to be deftroyed by cold in fevere win¬
ters, and therefore ought to be flieltered during that
feafon.
PHILIPPI (anc. geog.), a town of Macedonia, in
the territory of the Edones, on the confines of Thrace
(Pliny, Ptolemy), fituate on the fide of a fteep emi¬
nence ; anciently called Datum and Drenides (Ap-
pian), though Strabo feems to diftinguilh them. This
town^was famous on feveral accounts; not only as
taking its name from the celebrated Philip of Macedon,
father to Alexander the Great, who confidered it as
x fit place for carrying on the war againft the Thra¬
cians ; but alfo on account of two battles fought in its
neighbourhood between Auguftus and the republican
party. In the firft of thefe battles, Brutus and Caffius
had the command of the republican army ; while Oc-
tavianus, afterwards Auguftus, and Mark Anthony,
had the command of their adverfaries. The army of
Brutus and Cafiius confifted of 19 legions and 20,000
horfe ; the imperial forces of an equal number of
legions, but more complete, and 13,000 horfe; fo
that the numbers on both Tides were pretty equal.
1 The troops of Brutus were very richly drefled; moft
of them having their armour adorned with gold and
filver; for Brutus, though very frugal in other re-
fpefts, was thus extravagant with refpeft to his men,
thinking that the riches that they had about them
would make them exert themfelves the more, to pre¬
vent thefe from falling into the enemy’s hands. Both
the republican generals appear to have been inferior
in fliill to Mark Anthony ; for as to Oclavianus, he is
allowed never to have conquered but by the valour of
others. A little before the firft engagement, O&avi-
anus, who had been indifpofed, was carried out of the
camp, at the perfuafion of Artorius his phyfician,
who had dreamed that he Taw a vifion directing him
to be removed. Brutus’s men, who oppofed the
wing commanded by O&avianus, charged without or¬
ders, which caufed great confufion. Howevcr,they were
fuc cefaftrl : tnr part of them, taking a com pa fs about,
fell upon the enemy’s rear ; after which they took and
plundered the camp ; making a great flaughter of fuch
as were in it, and, among the reft putting 2000
Lacedemonians to the fword who were newly come ta
the affiftance of ©ftavianus. The emperor himfelf Philipp’,
was fought for, but in vain, he having been convey- Phtlippme.
ed away for the reafon abovementioned ; and as the
foldiers pierced the litter in which he was ufually car¬
ried, it was thence reported that he had been killed.
This threw that whole part of the army into fuch con-
fternation, that when Brutus attacked them in front,
they were moft completely routed ; three whole legions
being cut in pieces, and a prodigious flaughter made
among the fugitives. But by the imprudence of the
general in purfuing too far, the wing of the republican
army commanded by Caflius was left naked and fepa-
rated from the reft of the army ; on which they were
attacked at once in front and in flank, and thus they
were defeated and their camp taken, while Brutus im¬
agined that he had gained a complete vi&ory. Caflius
himfelf retired to an eminence at a fmall diftance from
Philippi ; whence he fent one of his greateft intimates
to procure intelligence concerning the fate of Brutus.
That general was on his way, and already in view, when
the meflenger fet out. He Toon met his friends; but
they furrounding him to inquire the news, Caflius, who
beheld what palled, imagined that he was taken
prifoner by the enemy, retired to his tent, and in de*
fpair caufed one of his freedmen cut off his head. Thu*
far at lead is certain, that he went into the tent with
that freedman, and that his head was found feparated
from his body when Brutus entered. However, the
freedman was never afterwards' feen.
The fecond engagement was pretty fimilar to the
firft. Brutus again oppofed Odtavianus, and met
with the fame fuccefs ; but in the mean time An¬
thony, to whom he ought undoubtedly to have oppofed
himfelf, having to do only with the lieutenants of
Caflius, gained a complete viffory over them. What
was word, the fugitives, inftead of leaving the field of
battle altogether, fled for prote&ion to Brutus’s army;
where, crowding in among the ranks, they carried de-
fpair and confufion wherever they went, fo that a
total defeat enfued, and the republican army was almoft
entirely cut in pieces. After the battle, Brutus put an
end to his own life, as is related more fully under the
article Rome.
The city of Philippi is likewise remarkable on ac¬
count of an epiftle written by St Paul to the church in
that place. It was a Roman colony, (Luke, Pliny,
coin, infcription). It is alfo remarkable for being
the birth-place of Adraftus, the peripatetic philofo-
pher, and difciple of Ariftotle.—The town is ftill in
being, and is an archbilhop’s fee ; but greatly decayed
and badly peopled. However, there is an old amphi¬
theatre, and feveral other monuments of its ancient
grandeur. E. Long. 44. 55. N. Lat. 41. o.
PHILIPPINE islands, certain iflands of Afia,
lying between 114 and 131 degrees of eaft longitude,
and between 5 and 19 of north latitude, about 300
miles fouth-eaft of China. The chief of them are thofe
ofLuconia or Manilla, Tandaga or Samar, Molbate,
Mindora, Luban, Paragoa, Panay, Leyte, Bohol,
Sibu, Sogbu, Negros, St John, Xollo, and Minda¬
nao. They were difcovered by Ferdinand Magellan,
a Portuguefe gentleman, who had ferved his native
country both in the wars of Africa and in the Eaft
Indies ; particularly under Albuquerque, the famous
Portuguefe general, who reduced Goa and Malacca to
PHI [ 6141 ] PHI
tilippine. the obedience of that crown. Magellan, having had and Japan, which have multiplied confiderably ; but
a confiderable lhare in thofe aftions, and finding him- the (beep that were brought over came to nothing,
felf negle&ed by the government of Portugal, and even The trees produce a great variety of gums ; one kind,
(denied, as it is faid, the fmall advance of a ducat a which is the commoneft, by the Spaniards called
month in his pay, left the court of Portugal in difguft, is ufed inftead of pitch ; of the others, fonie are medi-
and offered his fervice to Charles V. then emperor of cinal, others odoriferous.
Germany and king of Spain, whom he convinced of In thofe iflands are monkeys and baboons of a mon-
the probability of difcovering a way to the Spice ftrous bignefs, that will defend themfelves if attacked
Iflands, in the Eaft Indies, by the weft; whereupon, by men. When they can find no fruit in the moun-
the command of five fmall fhips being given him, he tains, they go down to the fea to catch crabs and oy-
fet fail from Seville, on the tenth of Auguft 151$, fters; and that the oyfters may not clofe and catch
and ftanding over to the coaft of South America, pro- their paws, they firft put in a ftone to prevent their'
ceeded fouthward to 520, where he fortunately hit up- (hutting clofe : they take crabs by putting their tail
on a ftrait, fince called the Strait of Magellan, which in the holes where they lie, and when the crab lays
carried him into the Pacific Ocean or South Sea; and hold of it, they draw him out. There are alfo great
then, lleering northward, repaffed the equator ; after numbers of civet-cats in fome of the iflands. The bird
which, he ftretched away to the weft, acrofs that vaft called tatwz, is a black fea-fowl, fomething lefs than a
ocean, till he arrived at Guam, one of the Ladrones, hen, and has a long neck ; it lays its eggs in the fand
on the fixth of March 152 1; and foon after got to the by the fea-fide, 40 or 50 in a trench, and then covers
Philippine Illands, which he took poflVlfion of in the them, and they are hatched by the heat of the fun.
I name of the king of Spain, but happened to be killed They have likewife the bird faligan, which builds her
in a Ikirmifh he had with the natives of one of them, neft on the fides of rocks, as the fwallows do againfta
His people, however, arrived afterwards at the Mo- wall; and thefe are the delicious Birds-IW/?j fomuch
luccas, or Clove Wands, where they left a colony, and efteemed, being a kind of jelly that diffolves in warm
returned to Spain, by the way of the Cape of Good water.
Hope ; being the. firft that ever failed round the The Spaniards have introduced feveral of the Ame-
globe. But there was no attempt made by the Spa- rican fruits, which thrivi here as well as in America ;
niards to fubdue or plant the Philippine Wands until the cocoa or chocolate-nut particularly, which increa-
the year 1564, in the reign of Philip II. fon of fes fo that they have no occafion now to import it from
Charles V. when Don Lewis de Velafco, viceroy of Mexico. Here is alfo the Fountain-Tree, from which
Mexico, fent Michael Lopez Delagafpes thither with the natives draw water ; and there is likewife a kind of
a fleet, and a force fufficient to make a conqueft of cane, by the Spaniards called vaxuco, which, if cut,
thefe iflands, which he named the Philippines, in ho- yields fair water enough for a draught, of which
noui of Philip II. then upon the throne of Spain; and there are plenty in the mountains, where water is mod
they have ever fince been fubjedt to that crown. wanted.
The inhabitants of thefe iflands confift of Chinefe, Thefe iflands being hot and moift, produce abun-
Ethiopians, Malays, Spaniards, Portugutfe, Pinta- dance of venomous creatures, as the foil does poifonous
dos or Painted People, and Meftees, a mixture of all herbs and flowers, which do not kill thofe who touch
thefe. Their perfons and habits referable thofe of the or tafte them, but fo infeft the air, that many people
feveral nations whence they derive their original; on- die in the time of their bloflbming.
ly, it is obfervable, that the features of the blacks of The orange, lemon, and feveral other trees, bear
thefe iflands are as agreeable as thofe of the white twice a-year. If they plant a fprig, within a year it
people. There is not a foil in the world that produ- becomes a tree, and bears fruit; and therefore, with¬
ers greater plenty of all things for life ; as appears by out any hyperbole, fays our author, I may affirm, that
the multitude of inhabitants to be found in the woods I never faw fuch a luxuriant verdant foil, nor woods full
and mountains, who fubfift almoft entirely by the of fuch old, large, and lofty trees, nor trees that yield
fruits of the earth, and the venifon they take. Nor more fuftenance to man, in any part of the world,
can any country appear more beautiful ; for there is a However, thefe iflands, befides the inconveniences men-
perpetual verdure, and buds, bloflbms, and fruit, ire tioned above, are alfo fubjed to earthquakes, which
found upon the trees all the year round, as well on the are fometimes very fatal.
mountains as in the cultivated gardens. Vaft quanti- The whole number of them is faid to be 1 too.
ties of gold are wafhed down from the hills by the Philippines, a religious fociety of young wo-
rains, and found mixed with the fand of their rivers, men at Rome, fo called from their taking St Philip de
There are alfo mines of other metals, and excellent Neri for their prote&or. The fociety confifts of 100
load-ftones found here; and fuch numbers of wild buf- poor girls, who are brought up till they-are of age to
faloes, that a good huntfman on horfeback, armed be married, or become nuns, under the diredion of
with a fpear, will kill 10 or 20 in a day. The Spa- fome religious women, who teach them to read, write,
niards take them for their hides, which they fell to and work, and inftrud them in the duties of Chriftia-
the Chinefe; and their carcafes ferve the mountaineers nity. They wear a white veil, and a black crofs on
for food. Their woods alfo abound with deer, wild their breads. See Macedonia.
hogs, and goats. Of the laft, there is fuch plenty in PHILIP II. king of Macedon, and father of A-
one of tbefe iflands, that the Spaniards gave it the lexander the Great; equally renowned as a legiflator,
nzmz of Cabras. Horfes and cows have been likewife politician, and warrior. After having conquered
imported into thefe iflands, from New Spain, China, Greece, he meditated the conqueft of Perliaj but while
he
Philippines'
Philip.
Philip,
Philips.
PHI [ 1642 ] PHI
he was preparing for this expedition, he was aflailina-
ted at a banquet by Paufanias, a captain of his guards,
in 336 B. C.
Philip II. king of Spain, a celebrated politician,
but a cruel tyrant through bigotry, by which he loft
the 17 provinces of Flanders belonging to the crown
of Spain, feven of which form the republic of Hol¬
land, and the other ten are fubjeft to France and Au-
ftria. For his marriage with Mary queen of England,
and his invafion of England under Elizabeth, lee the
article England. He was born in the year 1527,3116
died in 1528.
PHILIPS (Ambrofe), an Englifh poet, was de-
fcended from a very ancient and confiderable family of
that name in Leicefterlhire. He received his educa¬
tion at St John’s college, Cambridge ; during his flay
at which univerfity, he wrote his paftorals, which ac¬
quired him at the time fo high a reputation. His
next performance was, The life of Arcbbijhop Williams,
written, according to Mr Cibber, to make known his
political principles, which, in the courfe of it he had
a free of opportunity of doing, as the archbilhop, who
is the hero of his work, was a ftrong opponent to the
high-church meafares.
When he quitted the univerfity, and came to Lon¬
don, he became a conftant attendant at, and one of
the wits of, Button’s coffee-houfe; where he obtained
the friendfhip and intimacy of many of the celebrated
geniufes of that age, more particularly of Sir Richard
Steele, who, in the full voltlme of his Tatler, has in-
ferted a little poem of Mr Philips’s, which he calls a
Winter Piece, dated from Copenhagen, and addreffed
to the earl ofDorfet, on which he beftows the higheft
encomiums; and, indeed, fo much juft ice is there in
thefe his commendations, that even Mr Pope himfelf,
who had a fixed averfion for the author, while he af-
!'e6ted to defpife his other works, ufed always to except
this from the number.
The firft diflike Mr Pope conceived againft Mr Phi¬
lips, proceeded from that jealoufy of fame which was
fo confpicusus in the chara6ter of that great poet;
for Sir Richard Steele had taken fo ftrong a liking
to the poftorals of the latter, as to have formed a de-
fign for a critical comparifon of them with thofe of
Pope, in the conclufion of which the preference was
to have been given to Philips. This defign, however,
coming to Mr Pope’s knowledge, that gentleman, who
could not bear a rival near the throne, determined to
ward off this (troke by a ftratagem of the moft artful
kind ; which was no other than taking the fame talk
on himfelf; and, in a paper in the Guardian, by draw¬
ing the like comparifon, and giving a like preference,
but op principles of crilicifm apparently fallacious, to
point out the abfurdity of fuch a judgment. How¬
ever, notwithftanding the ridicule that was drawn on
him in confequencc of his (landing as it w^ere in com¬
petition with fo powerful an antagonift, it is allowed,
that there are, in fome parts of Philip’s paftorals, cer¬
tain firokes of nature, and a degree of fimplicity, that
are much better fuitedtothc purpofesof paftoral, than
the more corredtly turned periods of Mr Pope’s vefifi-
cation. Mr Philips and Mr Pope being of different
political principles, was another caufe of enmity be¬
tween them; which arofe at length to fo great a height,
that the former, finding his antagonift too hard for
him at the weapon of wit, had even determined on
making ufe of a rougher kind of argument; for which
purpofe he even went fo far as to hang up a rod at
Button’s for the chaftiiement of his adveifary whenever
he flvould come thither; which, however, Mr Pope de¬
clining to do, avoided the argumentujfi baculinum, in
which he would, no doubt, have found himfelf oil the
weakeft fide of the queftion. Our author alio wrote
feveral dramatical pieces; The Briton, Diftrefled mo¬
ther, and Humphrey duke of Glocefter ; all of which
met with fuccefs, and one of them is at this time a
ftandard of entertainment at the theatres, being ge¬
nerally repeated feveral times in every feafon. Mr
Philip’s circumftances were in general, through his
life, not only eafy,, hut rather affluent, in confequence
of his being connected, by bis political principles,
with perfons of great rank and confequence. He was
concerned with Dr Hugh Boulter, afterwards arch¬
bilhop of Armagh, the right honourable Richard Weft,
efq; lord chancellor of Ireland, the reverend Mr Gil¬
bert Burnet, and the reverend Mr Henry Stevens, in
writing a feries of papers called the/'/re Thinker,
which were all publilhed together by Mr Philips, in
three volumes in 12 mo.
In the latter part of queen Anne’s reign, he was
fecretary to the Hanover club, who were a fet’of
noblemen and gentlemen who had formed an afib-
ciation in honour of that fucceflion, and for the fup-
port of its interefts, and who ufed particularly to di-
ftinguilh in their toads fuch of the fair fex as were moft
zealoufly attached to the illuftrious Houfe of Brunfvvic.
Mr Philips’s ftation in this club, together with the
zeal (hewn in his writings, recommending him to the
notice and favour of the new government, he was, foon
after the acceffion of king George I. put into the
commifflon of the peace, and appointed one of the
commiffioners of the lottery. And, on his friend Dr
Boulter’s being made primate of Ireland, he accom¬
panied that prelate acrofs St George’s channel, where
he had confiderable preferments bellowed on him, and
was eledled a member of the Houfe of Commons there,
as reprefentative for the county of Armagh. At
length, having purchafed an annuity for life of 400 1.
per annum, he came over to England fome time in the
year 1748; but having a very bad Hate of health, and
ing moreover of an advanced age, he died foon after,
at his lodgings near Vauxhall, in Surry.
Philips (Catherine), a very ingenious lady, the
daughter of Mr John Fowler merchant : was born at
London, in January 1631, and educated at a fchool
at Hackney. She married James Philips of the priory
of Cardigan, efq. and went with the vifeountefs of
Dungannon into Ireland, where (he tranflated Cor¬
neille’s tragedy of Pompey into Englilh, which was
feveral times aded there with great applaufe. Her
poems were firft: printed in the year 1664, tho’ with¬
out her confent; and after her death a fmall volume of
her letters to Sir Charles Cotterel, was publilhed un¬
der the title of Letters from Orinda to Poliarchus. She
died of the frnall-pox in London, in June 1664. Be-
fides the above, Ihe tranflated from the French of Cor¬
neille, part of the tragedy cd\\z& Horace, which Sir
John Denham completed by adding the fifth ad; and
foon after her death, her poems and tranflations were
publilhed in a folio volume. This lady, who had few
per-
PHI [ 1643 ] P H I
perfonal graces, was greatly admired for her abilities
and many virtues; and was particularly efteemed by fe-
veral perfons of quality and diftinftipn, amongft whom
were thofe illuftrious peers, the duke of Ormond, the
earls of Orrery and Rofcommon, and Dr Taylor bi-
fhop of Downe and Connor. Mr Dryden more than
once mentions her with honour; and Mr Cowley
wrote an excellent ode upon her death.
Philips (John), an eminent Engli/h poet, was
born in 1676. He was educated at Winchefter and
'Oxford, where he became acquainted with Milton,
whom he ftudied with great application, and traced in
all his fuccefsful tranflations from the ancients. The
firft poem which diftinguifhed our author, was his
Splendid Shilling, which is in the Tatler ftyled the
finejl burlefque poem in the Englijh language. He wrote
alfo a poem upon Cyder, founded on the model of Vir¬
gil’s Georgies; which is an excellent performance'in
its kind : with feveral other pieces. He was beloved
by all who knew him ; fomewhat referved and filent
amongft ftrangers, but free, familiar, and eafy with his
friends. He died young, in 1708.
PHILIST7EA (anc. geog.), the country of the
Philiftines, (Bible); which, lay along the Mediterra¬
nean, from Joppa to the boundary of Egypt, and ex¬
tending to inland places not far from the coaft. Palx-
Jlini, the people ; Palxfiina, the country ; (Jofepbus) :
Afterwards applied to the whole of the Holy Land
and its inhabitants. Philijleei, the people, (Septua-
gint) ; Philijlini, (Vulgate) ; the Caphtorim and Phi-
lijlim, originally from Egypt, and defeendants of
Cham, (Mofes). Expelled and deftroyed the Hivites
the ancient inhabitants, and occupied their country ;
that is, the region which retained the name of Phi-
lijlim, in which that of Caphtorim was fwallowed up.
PHILLYREA, mock-privet ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants. There are feven fpecies, all of them fhrubby
plants, natives of France and Italy, rifing from five to
18 or 20 feet high, adorned with fmall clufters of white
or herbaceous flowers. They are very hardy, and will Philo,
thrive in any foil or fituation. Phiiofteies.
PHILO, a celebrated Jewifh writer of the firft
century, was born of a diftinguilhed family at Alex¬
andria, and was the chief of the deputation fent by the
Alexandrian Jews to the emperor Caligula againft the
Greek inhabitants of the fame city, about the year 40.
This deputation was without effeft ; Caligula gave
him audience, heard him, and refufed to grant his de¬
mands. Philo himfelf wrote a curious account of this
embaffy, under the title of, A difeourfe againjl Flac-
cus. There are alfo extant feveral other of his works,
divided into three parts ; the firft of which relates to
the Creation of the World, the fecond is on the Sa¬
cred Hiftory, and the third on the Laws and Cu-
ftoms of the Jews ; all of which are written in ele¬
gant Greek, and interfperfed with excellent moral fen-
timents and allegories. Philo fo clofely imitated Pla¬
to’s ftyle and doftrines, that he has been furnamed the
Jewi/h Plato. The bell edition of his works is that
of London, printed in 1742, by Dr Mangey, in Gr.
and Lat. 2 vols folio.
PHILOCTETES, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of
Paean, was the faithful companion of Hercules; who
at his death obliged him to fwear not to difeover the
place where his allies were interred, and prefented hint
with his arrows dipped in the Hydra’s blood. The
Greeks at the fiege of Troy, being informed by an
oracle that they could never take that city without
thofe fatal arrows, went to Philodletes, and infilled
upon his difeovering where he had left his friend; when
Philodtetcs, to evade the guilt of perjury, let them
know where Hercules was intombed, by Ramping up¬
on the place : but he was punifhed for the violation of
his oath, by dropping an arrow upon that foot;
which, after giving him great agony, was at length
cured by Macaon. He was afterwards taken by Ulyf-
fes to the fiege of Troy, where he killed Paris Vvith
one of his arrows.
PHILOLOGY.
UNDER the term Philology, Jotne comprehend
univerfal literature ; fo that each one may there
include whatever he thinks proper ; as grammar, rhe¬
toric, poetry, antiquities, hillory, criticifm, the in¬
terpretation of authors, &c. This feems to be not
only making an abufe of words, but creating confii-
fion in thofe matters where too much regularity and
precifion cannot be obferved. The term philology is
compofed of the Greek words and which im¬
ply “ a love or ftudy of languages.” It appears, there¬
fore, that philology is nothing more than a general
knowledge of languages, of the natural and figurative
figintication of their words and phrafes, and, in Jhort,
of all that relates to txpreflion in the different dialefts
of nations, as well ancient as modern.
As, in treating of Grammar, we have given thofe
general rules which are applicable to all pofiible lan¬
guages ; we (hall here confine our obfervation to the
languages themfelveS; and to thofe general ideas which
philology offers, without leading our readers thro’ all
the paths of an isnmenfe labyrinths
Languages in general may be divided into,
1. Ancient languages; which are thofe that have
become extind with the people who fpoke them, or
have been fo altered and disfigured that they no longer
refemble the languages which were fpoken by thofe
people,
2. Oriental languages; the ftudy of which is ne-
ceffary in order to the underftanding of the text of the
holy feriptures, efpecially the Old Ttftament.
3. Learned languages; which are thofe that are in-
difpenfably neceffary in the ftudy of erudition, and
particularly literature; which, while there were people
in the world who made them their common language,
were called living ; but as no nation now makes u!e of
them, they are called dead languages, and arc therefore
to be learned from books or in fchools.
4. Modern languages: in which are diftingui/hed,
firft, the common languages of the European nations;
and fecondly, the languages of the people who inhabit
the three other parts of the world.
Sect,
6i44
Languages.
Sect. I. Ancient languages.
1. Of the languages that were fpoken by the firll
inhabitants of the world, till the deftru&ion of the
tower of Babel, there are not now the lead traces re¬
maining ; though fome zealous theologians pretend
that it was the Hebrew as it is found in the Bible, or at
lead the ancient Chaldean : but all this is mere conjec¬
ture ; and it is certain, on the contrary, that every
vedige of thofe languages has been totally dedroyed
by time. The ancient languages that have been in
ufe in the diderent parts of the world fmce that period,
and the knowledge of which, more or lei's imperfeft,
has come down to us, are,
x. The Chaldean.
2. The Syriac and Edrangetic,
3. The Arabic.
4. Coptic or ancient Egyptian.
5. Ancient Ethiopian.
6. Ancient Indian.
7. Ancient Phoenician, which is alfo called the Ionic
Phoenician.
8. Punic or Carthaginian.
9. Scythian, and the Scythian of the Huns..
10. Cyrillian.
ix. Glagolitic.
12. Braminian or Brachmanlan.
13. iEolian or iEolic.
14. Jacobitian.
15. Celtic.
16. Saracen.
17. Ancient Efclavonian.
18. Gothic.
19. Hetrufcan.
20. Mangiurian ; of which the Maronites, Nefto-
rians, and fometimes the Jacobites, made ufe.
21. Hieroglyphic.
22. Runic.
23. AncientVandalian.
24. Ancient Germanic.
And perhaps fome others that may be known
to philologids. To thefe may be added,
25. The different alphabets, idioms, and methods
of fpeaking and writing in the middle age.
Philology is therefore employed in making learned
refearches, not only into thefe languages, but into
many others, which we lhall enumerate in the courfe
of this article. It prefcribes rules, lays down pre¬
cepts, points out principles, furnilhes etymologies, and
makes all the neceffary remarks for the underdanding
and attainment of every known language. It (hows
the ufe that may be made of each particular language;
in what country, and by what people, it has been fpo¬
ken ; and explains, as far as is poffible, all the obfcu-
PHILOLOGY. Sea.I.
but alfo the oriental and other languages, as well as Ancient M
the pronunciation and knowledge of thefe differentLanSua6a “
languages:” Leipfic, publifhed by Gefner, 1743. In
this book are contained the alphabets and firft elements
of a hundred different languages, as well ancient as
modern. This work was reprinted in 1740, and
very confiderably augmented, under the title of, The
majler of the oriental and occidental languages. To
this has been added the Lord’s prayer, in two hundred
languages ancient and modern, in the charadlers pro¬
per to each, with the dialect or manner of pronoun¬
cing the prayer; which contributes greatly to facili¬
tate the attaining an idea of thefe languages. The au¬
thor of this equally curious and inttrudive book is
M. John Frederic Frits; and he was affifted by the
Danilh ipiflionary Schults of Hall. The fucceffors of
Homann ofNurenburg have alfo publilhed four geogra-
phico-philological maps, defigned by Godfrey Henfel,
whic^i bear the following titles: 1. Europapolyglottat
lioiguarum genealogiam exhibens, una cum litteris fcri-
bendique modis omnium gentium : 2. Aft a ; 3. Africa t
with the fame title .* and, 4. America, cum fupplemen-
tispolyglottis. The four parts of the world are engra¬
ved and coloured on thefe maps ; but in every coun¬
try, inttead of the names of its cities and provinces, is
feen the beginning of the Lord’s prayer, in the cha-
rafters ufed in that country ; fo that, with a Angle
glance of the eye, we fee all the languages that are in
nfe in all parts of the known world. Thefe maps are
highly curious, and have doubtlefs coft the inventors
immenfe labour.
Books which teach the particular rul^s of a lan¬
guage called graonmars, rudiments, &c..; and thofe that
contain the words and phrafes, dittionaries, lexicons,
lexical manuals, vocabularies, &c. Philology fhews
the manner in which thefe books are to be made, and
the precautions that are to be obferved to render them
inftructive and agreeable; the method of treating fy-
nonymous terms, the gradations that are among words
feemingly fynonymous, and many other like matters.
It (hews alfo the reciprocal influence which the genius
and manners of a people have on their language ; and
their language on their general method of thinking ;
their manners, urbanity, and refinement.
But as it is impofiible to perceive all the force and
elegance of the various allufions, metaphors, and com-
parifons in a language, efpecially in an ancient lan¬
guage, if we are not properly inftru&ed in their man¬
ners, cuftoms, ceremonies, laws, arts, fciences, and
profeffions, and other peculiarities of the nation by
whom they have been ufed, and whofe natural idiom
they formed, Philology, in order to know the true
origin, etymology, and fignification of the words,
terms, and phrafes. of a language, remounts to the
rities and ambiguities that attend the ftudy of each mod diftant ages, and, employing all the aids it can
language. receive from literature, it makes ufe of antiquities, nu-
When the alphabet of a language is once difcovered mifmatics, and diplomatics, in fixing the meaning of
and well underffood, we may eafily attain, or at haft each term and mode of expreflion, and by thefe
with much lefs difficulty, the knowledge of the reft, means renders languages and authors intelligible, clear,
Befide numberJefs philological works, with which each and agreeable.
library is crowded, they have, in Germany, a fmall Thefe languages, which are no longer in common
treatife that is very curious and very inftru&ive, in-
titled, The new A. B. C. in a hundred languages : or,
“ Fundamental inftrmftions for teaching the youngeft
cholars not only German, Latin, French, and Italian,
ufe, can only be learned by books or manufcipts.
But as thefe have come down to us by the means of
copying, they have confequently been frequently mu¬
tilated, altered, diminilhed and disfigured, by thofe
who
Sea. II. PHIL
Oriental who have Copied them; the text, in general, or at
.Languages.]caft- many pafTages of thefe books and manufcripts,
' ~~ is uniiitelligible at the firft reading. From hence
there has arifenin modern Europe a particular fcience,
that. is. called the Criticifm of Languages., which makes
a part of philology, and is employed, i. In examining
the authenticity and truth of the text; 2. In difco-
vering and pointing out the means of corre&ing the
text ; 3. In reftoring fuch paflages as have been alter¬
ed, omitted, or mutilated; 4. In explaining the true
fenfe of the text; and, 5. In eftablifhing a language
by thefe means in its full primitive perfe&ion, and
making.it perfe&ly intelligible to modern times. The
celebrated M. le Clerc has given us an admirable work
on this fubjeft, intitled Ars Critica, in which he ex¬
plains, with equal genius and folidity, the rules of
found philological criticifm.
That which is of the greateft ufe in underflanding
and interpreting an obfcure or imperfeft paffage, or
an unintelligible vvord or phrafe, is confrontation. The
bed confrontation is that which is made by comparing
an author, book, or manufcript, with itfelf; by ex¬
amining if the fame word, matter, or phrafe, is not
repeated elfewhere, or in equivalent exprefiions. This
is the mod certain method, and produces an authentic
interpretation. The fecond method is to confront a
writer with his cotemporaries of the fame nation: and
the third confids in comparing him with other authors
who have written at different times, and in the fame
language.
Sect. II. Oriental Languages.
Though mod of the languages we have enumerated
in the preceding feftion, and many of thofe we (hall
mention in the fourth, have been, or are dill, in ufe in
the eadern countries, we here underdand, however,
by the term orential, thofe only which are effentially
neceffary to the underdanding, and interpreting, in
an exegetic manner, the holy writings, efpecially
thofe of the Old Tedament; and for this redriftion
of the term we have the authority of a great number
of learned men, who by the oriental languages under-
fland only the Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac, Arabic,
and Coptic : to which we fhall add the Samaritan,
Rabbinic, and Talmudic. Thefe eight languages
merit a more particular examen, as they ferve to eda-
blifh the foundations of the Chridian religion, and
make a confiderable part of the dudy of a Theo¬
logian.
I. The Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldean, refpec-
tively claim the right of feniority: each of them has
its advocates; and the point is not eafy to be decided.
Mod zealous divines are inclined to favour the He¬
brew ; and there are fome of them who pretend that
it was the language in which God talked with Adam
in paradife, and that the faints will make ufe of it in
heaven in thofe praifes which they will eternally offer
to the Almighty. Thefe dodtors feem to be as certain
with regard to what is paffed as what is to come.
Some philologies give the priority to the Arabic, and
others to the Chaldean. This difference is the more
difficult to be reconciled, as Mofes was not born till
2464 years after the creation, and in Egypt; that is
to fay, 700 years after the dedruftion of the tower of
Babel, when all languages were mixed and confounded;
Vol. VIII. 1 1
3 L O G Y. 6145
for we have no proof, nor even any account, that the Oriental
Hebrew was exempted, and preferved its purity amidd Languages.
the general confufion. There is not, moreover, at
this time, any one work of antiquity exiding that is
wrote in Hebrew, except the Old Tedament; and of
that there are even fome parts in Chaldaic; and words
of that and other languages are to be found difperfed
in different parts of it.
There is one more remark we mud here make.
The fird time we find the word Hebrew in the Bible,
is in the 13th verfe ofthe xivth chapter of Genefis; and
it is manifed that Abraham and his defcendants took
that name from the patriarch Heber, the fon of Salab,
and third grandfather of Abraham; it is therefore
evident, that in the time of Abraham this name was
that of a family, and not of a people who had a fepa-
rate language. We\ are therefore to fuppofe, that
Abraham, and the patriarchs after him, fpoke the
cudomary language of the country where they lived:
that this language changed by degrees, as all living
languages have done and ever will do : that Jacob and
his fons having paffed into Egypt, they and their
defcendents, under the name of the Children of Ifraily ■
did not preferve the language of their fathers in all its
purity; but that they mixed with it many expreffions
borrowed from foreign languages, and efpecially from
the Egyptian and Coptic : that Mofes wrote in the
Hebrew language, as the children of Ifrael then fpokc
it: that the other books of the Old Tedament were
wrote dill later; and that it is almod impoffible for
this language to have been preferved without any al¬
teration.
As we have no Hebrew but what is contained
in the Holy Bible, this language mud naturally be
deficient of many words ; not only becaufe all the
ancieht languages, but efpecially thofe ofthe fird ages,
were not fo copious as the modern; but there were
in thofe times fewer objc&s to be named ; and the
facred authors moreover had not occafion to treat
on all fubje&s. The Hebrew language, however,
is fufceptible of all the ornaments of diftion, and is
very expreffive. It is not, befide, fo difficult to learn
as fome have imagined. The dyle of the Pfalms, of
the book of Job, and of all that is written in a poetic
manner, is the mod difficult to underdand. That of
Ifaiah is noble and elegant, worthy of an author who
Was of the houfe of David, and the nephew and grand-
fon of a king. But, notwithdanding all the labours
of the learned for fo many centuries, we are very far
from having a perfeft knowledge of the Hebrew
language: this inconvenience is the greater, as it gives
occafion to many imperfeft tranllations, which disfigure
the true fenfe of the original text; and, what is dill
more, they have founded, on thefe paffages wrong
interpreted, a belief of events that have never arrived
in the manner predi&ed; and even fometimes religious
dogmas.
The Hebrew language had originally no vowels.
They are marked in the mafforets by points under the
confonants. This language is written and read from
the left to the right: it has thirteen letters, which
grammarians divide into guttural, palatic, dental, la¬
bial, and gingival. They now didinguiffi only five
vowels in Hebrew, which are the fame as ours, ay e,
i, o, u. But they divide each vowel into two or
34 P three j
6146
Oriental three; as long, fart, fartefl. The articles, pro-
Languages. n0Uns, &c. are placed after the fubftantive ; and the
fame word is fometimes fubftantive, adje&ive, and verb.
The punftuation and accent are the objefts that re¬
quire the greateft attention in the Hebrew language:
they count near forty accents; and there are many
whofe ufe is ftill unknown. They ferve in general to
diftinguifh, 1. The period and its members, as the
points do in other languages; 2. To determine the
quantity of fyllables ; and, 3. To mark the tone that is
to be obfcrved in chanting them. Nineteen of thefe
accents are alfo called, by grammarians, dijlitiftivi or
accentus regii ; and the others conjunftivi, fervi, or ?ni-
titflri. There is, properly fpeaking, only one con¬
jugation in this language, which is of itfelf fimple,
but is varied in each verb by feven or eight different
manners, that form in fa£t fo many different conjuga¬
tions, and give a great number of expreffions, to repre-
fent by one word the various modifications of a verb.
Thefe are the principal charafteriftics of the He¬
brew, as we find it in the Holy Scriptures ; and which,
taken all together, forms a very regular and analogous
language.
II. The Chaldean is that which was fpoken in
Chaldea. Some fay that it is a dialed derived from the
Hebrew, and others that the Hebrew is a dialed of
the Chahlean. This language has twenty-five letters;
the forms of which are very different from the He¬
brew. It is in like manner wrote from the left to the
right.
The Syriac is alfo confidered as a dialed of the
Hebrew. It has twenty-two letters, which have the
fame names with the Hebrew, but are of very different
forms.
The Arabic, or the language of the Arabians, is
in like manner a dialed of the Hebrew. It has twenty-
eight letters, the names of which have a good deal of
refemblance to the Hebrew; but their charaders are
alfo very different.
The Coptic is the ancient language of the Egyptians,
but mixed in procefs of time with much of the Greek.
We have already faid, in the preceding fedion, that
the late M. de la Crofe has in a manner re-eftablifhed
this language, when we fcarce knew more than the
name of it ; and that he has compofed a Coptic gram¬
mar and didionary. F. Kircher, it is true, had be¬
fore publifhed a Coptic vocabulary and kind of gram-
mer, but very incomplete. There are thirty-two
letters in its alphabet, but the charaders are almoft
entirely Greek. There has been no book found in
this language but tranflations of the Holy Scriptures,
or ecdefiaftic offices, &c.
III. The Satnaritan is another dialed of the He¬
brew. The Samaritans were Jews, and their city Sa¬
maria was in Judea. They followed the law of Mofes
with more rigour, more after the letter than the He¬
brews. There is a Samaritan copy of the Pen¬
tateuch, which differs indeed but little from that
of the Jews in Hebrew : but it is written in different
charaders, that are commonly called Samaritan ; and
which Origen, St Jerom, and many other writers, as
well ancient as modern, fuppofe to be the firft letters
of the Hebrews. There are alfo medals that are
called Samaritan; they have Hebrew infcriptions, in
charaders different from thofe of our Hebrew Bible,
Sea. II.
and which are called fqtiare Hebrew. For a further Oriental
account of the Samaritan language, confult M. Simon LanSuaSes'
in his cuftoms and ceremonies of the Jews, Eduardi"
Bernhardi Lexicon Samaritanum, F. Kircher, M.
Buxtorff, M. de Spanheim, F. Morin, M. Walton,
and a great number of others writers.
IV. The Rabbinic, or the Hebrew of the Rabbins,
is the language of which they have made ufe in their
works. The body of it is compofed of Hebrew and
Chaldaic, with divers alterations in the words of thofe
two languages, whofe fignifications they have much
extended. They have likewife borrowed greatly from
the Arabic. The reft is compofed of words taken for
the moft part from the Greek, with fome from the
Latin, and others from various modern languages,
efpecially that of the country in which each rabbin li¬
ved. For we fhould remember here, that after the
return from the laft captivity, they fpoke fcarce any
pure Hebrew at Jerufalem and in Judea, but Greek
mixed with fome Hebraic expreffions: the Romans
afterward entering Paleftine, and becoming conquer¬
ors of that country, fpoke their own language there ;
and at laft the Jewilh nation was totally difperfed.
We (hall only add, that the Rabbinic is a very copious
language; and that there is fcarce any part of fcience
of which the Rabbins have not treated, but always
with an enthufiafm that is natural to them : there have
been among them even poets and orators.
V. The Talmudic is another dialed or particular
idiom of the Hebrew, in which the Talmud, or the
book compofed by the Jews, that contains all the ex¬
plications of their law, is written. This language
differs greatly from the pure Hebrew. M. Buxtorff
has compofed a Chaldaic, Talmudic, and Rabbinic
diftionary. We have alfo a work of the emperor
Conftantine, intitled Clavis Talmudica; and one of
Otto, called Vita doftorum mifnicorum; befide feveral
others.
Sect III. Of thofe Languages that are called dead.
Languages in general, properly fpeaking, form
no fcience that can enrich the mind with real know¬
ledge, but are to be confidered as introduftions to the
fciences; as keys that open to us the fan&uaries of
erudition. In order to attain the knowledge of an¬
tiquity in its full extent, the knowledge of thofe lan¬
guages that were then in ufe is of great utility: and
properly to judge of modern nations, it is almoft in-
difpenfably neceffary to be acquainted with the prin¬
cipal languages which are now ufed in the world.
There are two languages, however, which are called
learned by way of eminence, and thofe are the Greek
and the Latin. The former of thefe not only enables
us to read the mafterly produ&ions of genius of an¬
cient Greece, but alfo to form a true judgment of all
its antiquities, and of its different ages, which form
the moft entertaining and interefting periods for the
fciences and polite arts of all ancient times. The lat¬
ter affords us the means of underftanding the original
texts of all the admirable works of the moft celebrated
Latin authors, and of becoming acquainted with the
city, republic, and monarchy of Rome, as if we had
been prefent with them ; and of forming a folid judge¬
ment of thofe precious Roman antiquities of every
kind that are ftill remaining among us.
PHILOLOGY.
But
Sea. III. PHILO
Dead But that which has given the Latin an advantage
Languages. even over the Greek itfelf, that has rendered it indif-
penfable to every man of letters, and has made it the
bafis of erudition, is, that during the middle age, and
in general in all modern times, the learned of all Eu¬
rope have made it their common and univerfal lan¬
guage ; fo that the Latin forms, if we may ufe the
exprefiion, the natural language of the fciences.
I. All that is written in Greek cannot be properly
faid to be in the fame language ; for we Ihould care¬
fully diftinguilh,
(i.) The ancient or literal Greek: an admirable
language, in which are written the works of Xenophon,
Thucidydes, Demofthenes, Plato, Arillotle, Homer,
Sophocles, &c. works that have preferved this lan¬
guage in all its purity, and that will make it, with
themfelves, immortal. There are, however, feveral
idioms or dialers in this tongue, among which four
are reckoned principal; and thefe are, i. The Attic,
which is the moft elteemed; 2. The Ionic; 3. The
jEolic ; and, 4. The Doric ; which was a kind of ru-
itic dialed, and in which are written eclogues, idyls,
and other paftorals. We mud obferve by the way,
that all thefe four diale&s are to be fouud in Homer,
and produce an odd effed in an heroic poem, notwith-
flanding the univerfal approbation that is given to this
poet. The Greek language is very copious in words,
and its inflexions are as various as they are Ample in
moft modern languages. It has three numbers ; the
lingular, dual, and plural ; and many tenfes in its
erbs, which afford great variety of expreffion. The
ufe of the participles of theaorift, and of the preterite,
an'd of compound words, which are very numerous in
this language, give it force and brevity, without in
the lead diminifhing its perfpicuity. Proper names
have alfo a meaning in this as in the oriental lan¬
guages ; and the learned there find likewife the cha-
ra&er of their origin. The dialed itfelf, or the pro¬
nunciation, is fonorous, foft, harmonious, and de¬
lightful : in a word, the Greek is the language of a
polite nation, that had a .tafte for all the arts and
fciences.
(2) The Greek of the middle age. The ancient
Greek ended at the time that Conftantinople became
the capital of the Roman empire ; though there were
after that time feveral works, and fome by the fathers
of the church, which were wrote in Greek, and with
fufficient purity : but as theology, law, civil and mi¬
litary policy, the alteration of cuftoms and manners,
&c. introduced fucceflively a great number of words
that were before unknown, thefe novelties by degrees
altered and c. -rupted the language. The natural ele¬
gance of the ancient Greek was no longer to be found.
Thofe men of exalted genius, who conftantly give a
true beauty to a language, were no more. And what
could be expeded from a barbarous age, and from
authors that were even below a moderate capacity ?
(3.) The modern or vulgar Greek. It commenced
at the taking of Conftantinople by the Turks, and is
the language that is now commonly fpoke in Greece,
without any regard to improvement. The wretched
Hate to which the Greeks are reduced by the Turks,
renders them indolent, and, by a neceffary confe-
quence, ignorant. The policy of the Ottoman Porte
does not permit its fubjeds to apply themfelves to
LOGY. 6147
ftudy; and that fame fpirit which has deftroyed the Deia
fineft monuments of antiquity, which has made, of LanSU3Scs-
columns of porphyry and granate, balls for their can¬
nons, has caufed the decadency and total deftrudion
of the fciences. The principal difference between the
ancient and vulgar Greek confifts in the terminations
of their nouns, pronouns, verbs, and other parts of
fpeech. There are alfo in the modern many words
that are not to be found in the ancient Greek ; par¬
ticles that appear to be expletives, and which cultom
alone has introduced to diftinguilh certain tenfes of
their verbs; names of employments and dignities un¬
known to the ancient Grecians, and a great number
of words taken from modern tongues: which altoge¬
ther form a fpurious language, a kind of jargon.
There is a gloffary of this language compofed by du
Cange.
(4.) The Greek of the New Teftament. The
Greek of the Evangelifts and Apoftles is very different
from that of Thucidydes, Xenophon, and Demofthe¬
nes. At the time of the birth of our Saviour, Greek
was commonly fpoken in Judea ; for after the laft cap¬
tivity, the people no longer underftood Hebrew : their
Greek, however, was corrupted ; mixed with a great
number of Hebraifms; with words and terms that re¬
lated to the worftiip, to the laws, policy, manners,
and cuftoms of the Jews ; by which means it became
a vulgar language, a provincial and rude dialed!, in -*♦
comparifon of the ancient or literal Greek. He that
underftands the New Teftament, will not in confe-
quence underftand Homer. It may appear furprifing,
that Jofephus, the Jewilh hiftorian, who lived at the
time of the deftruftion of Jerufalem, about 40 years
after the death of Chrift, fliould be able to write Greek
with fo much purity and elegance: but he was at
once a courtier, a minifter, a general, and a man of
letters ; had ftudied the Greek language, and had
fpoken it at the court of Vtfpafian in Rome. For the
fame reafon, St Paul alfo wrote better Greek than the
Evangelifts and other Apoftles.
From all that has been faid, it is apparent how
much utility attends the ftudy of the Greek tongue,
and how much reafon the Englilh have for applying
themfelves to it from their early youth. There are,
moreover, in modern languages, an infinity of terms
in the arts and fciences, as moft of thofe in aftronomy,
mathematics, phyfic, anatomy, botany, and the names
of many machines, inftruments, and other modern in¬
ventions, that are either altogether Greek, or derived
from it; which renders this language in a manner in-
difpenfable to a man of real learning. We cannot,
laftly, determine if modern nations pronounce the
Greek language in the manner that the ancient inhabi¬
tants of Greece did ; but it is very probable, that if
Demofthenes or Ariftides were now to come upon the
earth, they would be very far from underftanding
what our learned men ftiould fay to them in Greek.
II. The Latin is the fecond of thofe languages that
are called dead. It was firft fpoke in Latium, after¬
wards at Rome ; and by means of the Latin church,
and of the labours of the learned, has come down to
us. The Latin is not an original tongue; but is
formed of the Greek, and efpecially of the iEolian
dialed, and of many words taken from the languages
of the Ofci, the Hetrurians, and feveral other ancient
34 P 2 nations
6148
Dead nations of Italy. It has had different periods of im-
I.anguages. pr0vement and decadency, which form its different
ages.
1. The firfl: age comprehends the ancient Latin that
was fpoke in Latium, and cultivated at Rome from
its firft foundation, under the reigns of its kings, and
in the firft ages of its republic. At the beginning, the
Latin tongue was, fo to fay, inclofed within the walls
of Rome ; for the Romans did not commonly permit
the ufe of it to their neighbours, or the people they
conquered : but when they came to perceive how ne-
ceffary it was for facilitating their commerce, that the
Latin tongue fhould be fpoken every where, and that
all nations in fubjeftion to their empire fhould be uni¬
ted by one common language, they then obliged thofe
they conquered to adopt their language. It eafy
to conceive what muft have been the original language
of a fet of freebooters, without manners, and without
arts or fciences: this jargon muft befide have been
neceffarily mixed with the language of the Sabines,
from whom they ftole their wives, and with thofe of
feveral other foreign nations whom they had conquer¬
ed, or who were incorporated with their republic.
But in proportion as the Romans became polifhed,
their language became refined. There are but very
few works of the firft age now remaining ; among
which are reckoned thofe of Ennius, See.
2. The fecond age of the Latin language began
about the time of Caefar, and ended with Tiberius.
This is what is called the Auguftan age, which was
perhaps of all others the moft brilliant. A period at
which it fhould feem as if the greateft men, and the
immortal authors, had met together upon the earth,
in order to write the Latin language in its utmoft pu¬
rity and perfedtion. This age, and the language of
this age, are fo well known, and we have fo great a
number of works produced at this period, as makes it
unneceffary for us to fay any thing further of it here.
3. The third age begins with the reign of Tiberius.
Seneca feems to have contributed not a little to have
deprived the Latin language of its energy and digni¬
ty, and to have fubftituted the little tricks of ftyle in
its (lead, and fometimes thofe childifh expreffions
which the Italians call concetti. Even Tacitus ap¬
pears not to have been quite free from thefe faults;
for his concife and fententious ftyle is not that of the
golden age; nor likewife is that of the poet Lucian.
4. The fourth age of the Latin tongue is that of
the remainder of the middle age, and the firft centu¬
ries of modern times j during which this language fell
by degrees into fo great a decadency, that it became
nothing better than a barbarous jargon. It is to the
ftyle of thefe times that is given the name of lonu La¬
tin ; and in fa£t it was fo corrupted, altered, and
mixed with foreign expreffions, that M. du Cange
has formed a voluminous gloffary, which contains thofe
words and phrafes only that are ufed in the Low La-
tin, and which we ftiould not be able to underftand
without fuch helps. What indeed could be expedled
from this language, at a time when the barbarians had
taken poffeffion or all Europe, but efpecially of Italy ;
when the empire of the Eaft was governed by idiots ;
when there was a total corruption of morals ; when
the arts and fciences were in a manner annihilated ;
when the priefts and monks were the only men of let-
Se&.lII.
ters, and were at the fame time the moft ignorant and Dead
futile mortals in the world. Under thefe times ofLai,8ua£e*-
darknefs, we muft therefore rank that Latin which is ‘
called lingua ecclefiajlica, and which we cannot read
without difguft.
5. The fifth and laft age of the Latin tongue is
that which began with the 16th century, and was that
of Leo X. Charles V. Francis I. Henry VIII. of
England, &c. A happy period, and ever memorable
for the reftoration of letters, of arts and fciences, of
manners, and of the powers of the human mind, which
till then feemed to have remained in a perpetual ftu-
por. It is neceffary to remember here, that the art
of printing was not invented till about the year 1441 ;
and that the manuferipts of the ancient Greek and
Latin authors were become extremely fcarce, and
highly valuable ; fo that but few private perfons were
able to procure them, and to ftudy the Latin of the
Auguftan age. But fince that time we have had ma¬
ny Latjn works, as well in verfe as profe, in a ftyle
that we cannot fufficiently admire, and which, though
not altogether fo pure and elegant as thofe of the
golden age, yet are not much inferior.
There are, however, in the Latin, and in all dead
languages, two great inconveniences which continually
attend them with regard to modern ages. The firft
confifts in the pronunciation. As to what concerns
the Latin, each nation pronounces it after the manner
of its own language, and each of them imagines their
pronunciation to be the beft. It may be proved, how¬
ever, by many arguments, that no man now upon
earth pronounces Latin in the fame manner as did Ho¬
race and Cicero. The fecond inconvenience is the de¬
ficiency of the Latin language with regard to us, as it
has not terms whereby to^exprefs thofe inventions and
difeoveries of every kind that have been made fince
the exiftence of the Roman empire. There are no
Latin words for any of the furniture that furrounds
us, for three-fourths of the dilhes that come upon our
tables, for the drefs we wear, for our inttruments of
war and navigation, for civil and military employ¬
ments, and, in a word, for all our daily occupations.
It is droll enough to hear our authors call a cannon
bombarda; a peruke, capilametitum; and a button of
our cloaths, globuluf, See. Whoever fhall doubt the
propriety of this obfervation, need only read the ef-
fays that fome able Latinifts have made in our days to
write, gazettes in that language, and they will there
fee the pains thofe writers have taken, and the ill fuc-
eefs they have had. We fhall fay no more of a lan¬
guage which every fcholar learns from his infancy,
which is taught over all Europe in fchools and colle¬
ges, and of which there are grammars, dictionaries,
and other inftru&ive books without number.
S E c T. IV. Modern La nguages.
If we call all the different diale&s of the various
nations that now inhabit the known earth, languages,
the number is truly great; and vain would be his am¬
bition who fhould atten-.pt to learn them, though but
imperfettly. We will begin with naming the princi¬
pal of .them : There are three which may be called
original, or mother-languages, end which feem to
have .given birth to all that are now fpoken in Europe-
Thefe are the Latin, German, and Sclavonian. From
the
PHILOLOGY.
Sea. IV.
PHILO
Modern the Latin are derived the languages of all thofe na-
-anguages. tions which inhabit the fouthern and moft weftern
'countries of this part of the world. From the Ger¬
man, all thofe of the nations that inhabit the centre
and the northern. regions ; and from the Sclavonian,
all the languages of the people who dwell in the moft
e,aftern part of Europe. The Sclavonian is extended
even to Afia, and is fpoken from the Adriatic fea to
the northern ocean, and almoft from the Cafpian fea
to Saxony. But it muft not be imagined from the
term original, which is given to thefe languages, that
they have come down to us from the confufion at Ba¬
bel without any alteration. No ; we have already
(hown, in the preceding fedtion, of what languages
the Latin was formed. With regard to the German,
it may be veryjuftly fupppfed to have been the an¬
cient language of the inhabitants of Germany, as the
names of their divinities and heroes [Mann, Erta,
Hermann, &c. appellative names; which ftill fignify
“ man, earth, chief of an army,” &c.) feem to confirm
that opinion. But it is indubitable, that the ancient
Getman has been mixed and corrupted by the languages
of thofe northern nations which in the fourth century
deluged Europe; and who, when they penetrated
Italy and Africa, did not merely pafs through Ger¬
many as an army that marches in regular order, but
remained there a confiderable time, and mixed with
the natives of the country. All thefe Scythian or
Celtic people acquired likewife in Germany the name
of Allamands, or “ Germansfome were called
Qotbs, that is, “ good others §>uades, or “ bad
others Huns, or “ dogsothers Normans, or “ men
from the north and fo of the reft. And thofe na¬
tions were from that time known and diftinguilhed by
thefe denominations.
I. With regard to the Sclavonian, it is fuppofed
to be in part the ancient language of the Celtes or
Scythiaus, mixed with feme particular dialects of dif¬
ferent eaftern nations. But be that as it may, thefe
three languages appear to have produced the follow¬
ing modern tongues:
From the Latin came,
J. The Portuguefe.
2. Spanilh.
3. French.
4. Italian.
From the German or Allamand,
5. The modern German ; which fo little refembles
the ancient, that it is with difficulty we read the
authors of the 14th century.
6. The low Saxon or low German.
7. The Dutch.
8. The Englilh } in which .almoft all the noun-fub-
ftantives are German, and many of the verbs
French, Latin, &c. and which is enriched with
the fpoils of all other languages.
9. The Danifh.
jo. The Norwegian.
ji. Swedilh.
12. Dalecarlian.
13. Laplandifh.
From the Sclavonian,
14. The Polonefe, with a mixture of the ancient Sar*
matian.
LOGY.
15. The Lithuanian.
16. Bohemian.
17. Hungarian.
18. Tranfylvanian.
19. Moravian.
20. The modern Vandalian, as it is ftill fpoken in Lu-
fatia, Pruffian Vandalia, &c.
21. The Croatian.
22. The Ruffian or Mufcovite.
23. The language of the Calmacs and Cofiacs.
24. Thirty-two different dialefls of nations who inha¬
bit the north-eaftern parts of Europe and Afia,
and who are defeended from the Tartars and Hu-
no-Scythians. There are polyglott tables which
contain not only the alphabets, but alfo the prin¬
cipal diftinft chara&ers of all thefe languages.
To all thefe may be added,
25. The modern Greek, or that which is now fpoken
in Greece.
26. The modern Hebrew, or vulgar language of the
Jews, which is alfo called the German Hebrrw%
&c. And,
27. The jargon that is called Lingua Franca.
II. The common languages of Afia are,
28. The Turkilh and Tartarian, with their different
diale&s.
29. The Perfian.
30. The Georgian or Iberian.
31. The Colchic or Mingralian. ■
32. The Albanian or Circaffian.
33. The Armenian.
34. The language of the Jews in Perfia, Media, and
Babylon.
35. The modern Indian.
36. The Formofian.
37. The Indoftanic.
38. The Malabarian.
39. The Warugian.
40. The Talmulic or Damulic.
41. The modern Arabic.
42. The Tangutian.
43. The Mungalic.
44. The language of Balabandu, and the Nigarian or
Akar Nigarian.
45*. The Grufinic or Grufinian.
46. The Chinefe.
47. Thejaponefe.
We have enumerated here thofe Afiatic languages
only of which we have fome knowledge in Europe,
and eveu alphabets, grammars, or other books that
can give us information concerning them. There are
doubtlels other tongues and dialefts in thofe vaft re¬
gions and adjacent iflands ; but of thefe we are not
able to give any account.
III. The principal languages of Africa are,
48. The modern Egyptian.
49. The Fetuitic, or the language of the kingdom
of Fetu.
50. The Moroccan; and,
51. The jargons of thofe favage nations who inhabit
the defart and burning regions. The people on the
coaft of Barbary fpeak a kind of Turkilh. To
thefe may be added the Chilhic language, other-
wife called Tamazeght; the Negritian, and that of
Guinea;
Thefe languages are fpoke
by the Greek Chriftians
in Afia, under the pa¬
triarch of Conftantinoplc.
The Danifh milfionaries
who go to Tranquebar,.
’ print books at Hall in
thefe languages.
6iSo PHILO
Modern Guinea ; the Abyflunan ; and the language of the
languages. Hottentots.
IV. The languages of the American nations are
but little known in Europe. Every one of thefe, tho’
diftant but a few days journey from each other, have
their particular language or rather jargon. The lan¬
guages of the Mexicans and Peruvians feem to be the
mod regular and polifhed. There is alfo one called
Poconchi or Pocomana, that is ufed in the bay of Hon¬
duras and toward Gunlimal, the words and rules of
which are moft known to us. The languages of
North America are in general the Algonhic, Apala-
chian, Mohogic, Savanahamic, Virginic, and Mexi¬
can : and in South America, the Peruvian, Caraibic,
the language of Chili, the Cairic, the Tucumanian,
and the languages ufed in Paraguay, Brafil, and
Guiana.
V. We have already faid, that it would be a vain
and fenfelefs undertaking for a man of letters to at¬
tempt the ftudy of all thefe languages, and to make
his head an univerfal di&ionary of languages; but it
would be dill more abfurd in us to attempt the ana-
lyfis of them in this place: fome general refleftions
therefore mud here fuffice. Among the modern lan¬
guages of Europe, the French feems to merit great
attention ; as it is elegant and pleafing in itfelf; as it
is become fo general, we may travel from one end of
Europe to the other without fcarce having any oc-
cafion for an interpreter; and as in it are to be found
excellent works of every kind, both in verfe and profe,
ufeful and agreeable. There are, befides, grammars
and difKonaries of this language which give us every
information concerning it, and very able maders who
teach it; efpecially fuch as come from thofe parts of
France where it is fpoke correftly; for with all its
advantages, the French language has this inconve¬
nience, that it is pronounced fcarce any where purely
but at Paris and on the banks of the Loire. The
language of the court, of the great world, and of men
of letters, is moreover very different from that of the
common people : and the French tongue, in general,
is fubjeft to great alteratfon and novelty. What pity
it is, that the ftyle of the great Corneille, and tha; of
Moliere, fliould already begin to be obfolete, and that
it will be but a little time before the inimitable
d'oeuvres oi thofe men of fublime genius will be no
longer fcen on the ftage ! The mod modern (lyle of
the French, moreover, does not feem to be the bed.
We are inclined to t link, that too much concilion,
the epigrammatic point, the antithefis, the paradox,
the fententious expreflion, &c. diminilh its force ; and
that by becoming more poliflied and refined, it lofes
much of its energy.
VI. The German and Italian languages merit like-
P H I tWm
PHILOMATHES, a lover of learning or faience.
PHILOMELA, in fabulous hidory, the daughter
of Pandeon king of Athens, was the filler of Progne
the wife of Tereus king of Thrace. That prince
having ravifhed Philomela, cut out her tongue ; and
to conceal the knowledge of his incelt, Ihut her up in
a clofe prifon: but the princefs finding means to em¬
broider her dory, fent it to her fider Progne j who
LOGY. Seel. IVJ
wife a particular application ; as does the Englilh, Modem ^
perhaps above all, for its many and great excellencies, Languages, j
(fee Language.) Authors of great ability daily
labour in improving them ; and what language would
not become excellent, were men of exalted talents to
make condant ufe of it in their works ? If we had
in Iroquois, books like thofe which we have in Englilh,
Italian, French, and German, (hould we not be tempted
to learn that language ? How glad fhould we be to un-
derdand the Spanilh tongue, though it were only to
read the Araucana of Don Alonzo D'Ercilia, Don
Quixote, fome dramatic pieces, and a fmall number
of other Spanilh works, in the original ; or the poem
of Camoens, in Portuguefe.
VII. The other languages of Europe have each
their beauties and excellencies. Among thefej we
mud not omit to mention the Gaelics A language
unnoticed by the learned, and aimed unknown, or
known only to be defpifed under a barbarous name *, * Erfe. 1
beyond the mountains where it is fpoken, till the
tranflation of the beautiful poems of Ojfian lately
brought it out of obfeurity, and prefented it as an ob-
jed of dudy not unworthy the attention either of the
polite fcholar or the learned philologill. See the
article Ossian ; alfo the article Gaelic, in the AP¬
PENDIX. ^
VIII. The greated difficulty in all living languages
condantly conlilts in the pronunciation, which it is
fcarce poffible for any one to attain unlefs he be born
or educated in the country where it is fpoken : and
this is the only article for which a mader is neceffary,
as it cannot be learned but by teaching, or by con-
verfation : all the red may be acquired by a good
grammar and other books. In all languages what¬
ever, the poetic dyle is more difficult than theprofaic:
in every language we (hould endeavour to enrich our
memories with great dore of words, (copia verier urn),
and to have them ready to produce on all occafions:
in all languages it is difficult to extend our knowledge
fo far as to be able to form a critical judgment of
them. All living languages are pronounced rapidly,
and without dwelling on the long fyllables (which the
grammarians call moram): altnod all of them have
articles which didinguifh the genders: all the Euro¬
pean languages are written from the left to the right,
and almod all the Afiatic from the right to the left.
VIII. Thofe languages that are derived from the
Latin havethis further advantage, that they adopt with¬
out reftraint, and without offending the ear, Latin
and Greek words and expreffions, and which, by the
aid of a new termination, appear to be natives of the
language. This privilege is forbid the Germans, who
in their beft tranflations dare not ufe any foreign
word, unlefs it be fome technical term in cafe of great
neceffity.
P H I
thus becoming acquainted with her filler’s misfortunes,
delivered her from prifon, and took her to the palace:
then killing Itys, her fon by Tereus, (he ferved up
his fle(h to his father; and after he had done, expofed
the child’s head to his view. Tereus, in a tranfport
of fury, purfued the fifters ; but was changed into a
lapwing, Progfie into a fwallow, Itys into pheafant,
and Philomela into a nightingale.
PHILO-
PHI [ 6151 ] PHI
n PHILONIUM, in pharmacy, a kind of fomni- in any of his other difciples, had a particular attach- Philofophy.
ferous anodyne opiate, taking it name from Philo the mtnt to him, and his labours were not loft ; for,   
I inventor. among all the celebrated men who came out of the
PHILOSOPHER, a perfon verfedin philofophy ; fchool of Socrates, Plato was, doubtlefs, the moft re-
or one who makes profeffion of, or applies himfelf to, nowned. He taught at Athens, and had in a fhort
the ftudy of nature and morality. time many difciples. He eftablifhed his fchool in the
Philosopher's Stone, the greateft objeft of al- academy, which was a place without the town, and
chemy, is a long-fought for preparation, which, from thence his followers were called Academics. Ac-
when found, is to convert all the true mercurial part cording to Plato, the foul of man is only a ray from
of metal into pure gold, better than any that is dug the Divinity. He believed that this particle, united
out of mines or perfe&ed by the refiner’s art; and to its principle, knew all things; but when united to
this only by calling a little quantity thereof upon a body, it com rafted ignorance and impurity by that
metals in fufton, whilft that part of the metal which union. He did not entirely negleft natural philofo-
was not mercury is immediately burnt or blown away, phy, like Socrates, but inquired into many queftions
But this, like every other fcientific chimera, will for which relate to that fcience. He believed that all
ever elude the refearches of mankind. things confided of two principles, God and matter.
PHILOSOPHIC, or Philosophical, fomething He likewife cultivated aftronomy. His morality was
belonging to Philosophy. the fame in fubftance with that of Socrates.
PHILOSOPHICAL egg, among chemifts, a The difciples of Plato formed alfo many new fefts.
thin glars body or bubble, of the fliape of an egg, That of which Ariflotle was the founder is doubt-
with a long neck or ftem, ufed in digeftions. lefs the moft illuftrious. This philofopher was the
PHILOSOPHY ; the knowlege or ftudy of nature firft who formed, from the feveral parts of philofophy,
and morality, founded on reafon and experience. a complete fyllem. No one before him had treated
The philofophers among the moft ancient people of feparately, and from principles, the different parts of
the world were calledy^e/or w//e we/?, as appears from this fcience. He did not regard logic as a part of
htftory both facred and profane. Thales and Pytha- philofophy, but as a proper method whereby to dif-
goras in Greece were the firft among thofe that made pofe the underftanding to difcover the truths that it
an open profeffion of this fcience, who thought the contains. The morality of Ariftotle is the moft per-
title of fage too fattidious, and took the more modeft feft of all his works. His phyfics confift of notions
name of philofophers, or lovers or Jludiers of <wifdom. and terms that are vague, and as trifling as obfeure.
Thales, who was a native of Miletus in Ionia, and His difciples and their followers were called the Peri-
the tirft of the feven fages, was the founder of the patetics of Lyceum, where he had fixed his fchool.
Ionic feft ; his moft illuftrious difciples were Anaxi- Ariftotle was not the only difciple of Plato who de-
mander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus. viated from the fentiments of that great man : there
Anaxagoras employed himfelf entirely in the contem- were others who likewife placed thcmfelves at the
plation of the ftars ; and when he was afked if he had heads of different fefts. Arcefilas was the author of
no concern for his country, replied, pointing to heaven a feft that was called the Middle Academy. He de-
with his finger, “ I inceffantly regard my country.” dared that there was nothing either certain or true ;
Pythagoras founded the feft that was called Italic, be- and that the pofitive and negative might be maintained
caufe it was fettled in that part of Italy which was in all forts of fubjefts. Lacydes, who taught in the
called Great Greece, and which now makes part of fame fchool as Plato, 56 years after Arccfilas, was
the kingdom of Naples. He borrowed from the the chief of another feft that was called the New
Egyptians a myfterious manner of teaching by num- Academy. He acknowledged that there was a degree
bers; and to that he added a certain harmony, by of probability, but that we could not afluredly know
which he explained the perfeftion in all objefts. He that any thing was abfolutely true. Pyrrho, about
believed the world to be animated, intelligent, and the fame time, placed himfelf alfo at the head of a
round. Not knowing what to do with the foul after feft. He improved on the dogma of the Academics;
its feparation from the body, he invented the doftrine and maintained that it was impoffible to comprehend
of the metempfyehofis. His difciples of greateft note any thing: but Pyrrho could not comprehend himfelf.
were Ocellus of Lucania, Archytas of Tarentum, He believed that there was nothing true, nothing but
Philolaus of Croton, Parmenides and Zeno, both of what might be faid to be either this or that. His
Elea, and Meliffus oif Samos. Zeno was the inventor followers were called Pyrrhonians, or more commonly
of the dialeftic ; the others applied themfelves clofely fceptics, becaufe theyfearched without ever being able
to the ftudy of natural philofophy, and to the invefti- to difcover any one thing.
gallon of its principles. About the fame time arofe two fefts, who, with
Socrates followed the career of thefe firft philofo- principles diametrically oppofite, rendered themfelves
phers, but turned almoft all his ftudies towards mora- highly celebrated, and divided at firft the wits of
lity. His mafter was Archelaus the Pythagorean. Greece, and afterward thofe of the reft of the world ;
He was the firft who began to reduce the confufed and thefe were Zeno and Epicurus. Zeno was of
ideas of thofe who had gone before him into method; Citium, a city in Cyprus. He taught in the porti-
for which reafon he is called by Cicero the father of coes of Athens, from whence his difciples were called
philofophy. His life was a model of frugality, modera- Stoics. The moft famous dogma of Zeno and the
tion, and patience ; and his doftrine abounds with Stoics confifted in the principle of morality, which
wifdom. was, to live in conformity to nature, that is to fay,
Socrates, difeovering a greater genius in Plato than according to the objeft of our defires: on this prin¬
ciple.
PHI [ 61
Philofophy, ciple, and on divers others, they formed the idea of a
philofophy altogether extravagant, and infenfible to
all external objefts. The phyfics of Zeno had no¬
thing new but the terms. The other feft, which
flourifhed at the fame time, was that of Epicurus }
and they were called Epicureans. This philofopher
taught publicly at Athens, his native country, at the
age of thirty-two years. He rejedted all the chica¬
neries and fubtilities of logic, and fought the truth
by means of the fenfes. He attached himfelf greatly
to morality, to which likewife tended all his other
ftudies: and his morality was as confentaneous to the
nature of man, as that of Zeno was contradi&ory;
feeing that his firft principle was, that pleafure is the
purfuit of man, and that it confifts in health of body
and tranquillity of mind ; and that it is the fource and
the end of a happy life, See. Epicurus was alfo en¬
gaged, but with lefs fuccefs, in the labyrinth of me-
taphyfics, and in phyfics: he adopted the fyftem of
atoms, of which Democritus was the firft author. In
fhort, maugre the evil interpretations and calumnies of
his adverfaries, he inculcated by his dodtrine, and by
his example, frugality and fobriety ; and, according
to him, death is not an objedl of terror : “ For,” fays
he, “ it is nothing fo long as life fubfifts ; and when
it arrives, life is no more; no man has ever felt his
death.”
It is evident, that thefe ancient fyftems of philofo¬
phy are at great variance with each other; and as
truth is conftantly uniform, it follows, that the greateft
part of thefe opinions cannot be true. This confide-
ration engaged Patomon of Alexandria, under the
emperor Auguftus, to feledl all that he found moft ra¬
tional in the dodtrines of all the other philofophers,
whereof he compofed a fyftem, and founded a feel;
and he, for that reafon, gave to his dodtrine the name
of the ecleftic philofophy, from a Greek word which fig-
nifies to felett.
The dodtrine of Plato was at firft in greater eftima-
tion than any of the others ; and there were m,.ny ce¬
lebrated Platonifts under the Roman emperors down to
Julian the apoftate, who was himfelf one of them.
The firft Chriftian dodtors likewife declared for this
philofophy, as Juftin Martyr, Tatian, Athenagoras,
Origen, &c. But at length the philofophy of Ari-
ftotle, perhaps of all others the moft abfurd, took the
lead ; and truth was no longer fought for but in the
writings of that philofopher. This violent fondnefs
for his reveries began about the 12th century; at
which time a philofophy was formed, that is common¬
ly called the fcholajlic, and which is borrowed in great
part from the writings of the Arabs, whom the fcho-
laftics, who were all attached to Ariftotle, imitated
in their fubtile, ambiguous, abftradt, and capricious
manna- of reafoning, by which they never hit the
truth, but conftantly went on one fide, or beyond the
mark. Toward the end of the 14th century, their fpi-
rits were extravagantly heated by logical diftindlions,
relative to that furious emulation, which was formed
on the dodtrine of Ariftotle, between the Nominalifts
and Realifts. The former had, for their chief, O-
cham, an Englifh cordelier, and a difciple of Scotus.
They maintained, that the univerfal natures were no¬
thing but words: and the others, who fupported
themfelves by the authority of Scotus, maintained, that
52 1 PHI
the fame univerfal natures were beings ftridtly real. Philofophf,
Thefe difputes divided all the univerfities of Europe :   
philofophy was no longer employed but in operations
of the intelleft, conceptions, ahf rations, and fuch like
vain fubtilties; and became a mere jargon, a confuted
heap of unintelligible ideas.
At length, in the 16th century, philofophy began
to deliver itfelf from the chains of terminology ; men
accnftomed themfelves to philofophize by reafon, and
not by verbal contention : they began to throw off the
yoke, and, without entirely defpifing Ariftotle, they
no longer believed him on his word. Nicholas Coper¬
nicus, who was born at Thorn, in 1473, and died in
1543, had already borne the torch of reafon in the ma¬
thematics and altronomy : he had rejefted the fyftem
of the world that was invented by Ptolemy, and which
the Greeks called mofl nuife and mojl -divine ; and had
publiftted his book De motu ottavee fpharce, and his trea-
tife De revolutionibus, in which he eftabliftied his fyftem
of the fun’s being immoveable, and of the motion of
the earth. Galileo, who was born at Florence in 1564,
adopted the fyftem of Copernicus, confirmed it, and
improved it by new obfervations. This difeovery of
the truth coft him five or fix years confinement in
the prifon of the inquifition. He introduced a new
and excellent method of rcafoning in philofophical fub-
jefls. * .
Peter Gaffendus, profeffor of mathematics in Paris,
alfo pradifed, in the beginning of the 17th century, a
tew method of philofophizing, which contributed
greatly to the progrefs of that fcience. Laftly, Ren6
Defcartes appeared almoft at the fame time; and, by
a method that had been but very imperfedly under-
ftood before, difeovered more truths in philofophy than
all the preceding ages had produced ; although, from
that weaknefs which is natural to the human under-
Handing, he has frequently mixed error with truth in
his different fyftems. • He treated on almoft all the
parts of philofophy, efpecially the mathematics, pliy-
fics, and metaphyfics. Every one is acquainted with
his famous fyftem of the plenum and vortices.
Before Defcartes, Francis Bacon, baron of Veru-
lam, chancellor of England, had expofed the errors of
the philofophy of the fchools, and the wretched me¬
thod that was there purfued. He was one of the great-
eft men that has ever appeared upon the earth. It was
he who lighted that torch with w-hich all his fucceffors
have illuminated philofophy; and in his writings are to
be found the feeds of every new difeovery, and of every
new hypothefis.
After this golden Aurora, the philofophic horizon
was at once enlightened by two grand luminaries,
which difperfed many of thofe clouds that hid the
truth from mortal eyes, and diffufed great lights, at
laft,on many objedls that lay buried in obfeurity. See
the articles Newton, Newtonian Philofophy, and
Locke.
From the flight draught here given of thehiftory of
philofophy, we may draw the following confequences:
1. That philofophers, in their refearches concerning
the caufes of all things, have found themfelves obliged
to reduce ratiocination into a fyftem; to confine it to
certain rules, and form it into an art, which they
have called Logic. 2. That by endeavouring to ex¬
plain to mankind the nature, the caufes, and effefts of
hap*
P H L
PHI [ 61
philofo- bappinefs, the inveftigation of thefe objefts has pro-
Phy> duced a fcieirce that is called Morality, to which are
gius01 conne<^ed lhe dodlrines of natural theology, the law of
—— nature, ethics, politics, &c. 3. That from their en¬
deavours to inveftigate the nature of thofe fenfible and
palpable objeds which furrounds us, has refulted a
fcience that is called Physics, or Natural Philofophy;
which in like manner confifts of feveral branches, that
allconcor to its perfedion, fuch rsOptics,Chemistry,
Hydraulics, Mechanics, and their dependent arts;
with many others. 4. That by advancing ftill further,
and by endeavouring to comprehend the nature and
properties of fubjeds that are not difcernible by the
fenfes, but whofe exiftence is the refult of fpeculation
and of a train of reafoning, a fcience has arifen that is
called Metaphysics; which has alfo many branches,as
ontology,pfychology, cofmology,pneumatology, &c. 5. That
from a ddire to know the extefifion, the figures, the
meafures of all bodies, and their diftances from each
other, &c. they muft necefiarily have recourfe to cal¬
culation ; from whence refult the mathematical fcieti-
ces, whofe principal branches are Arithmetic, Geo¬
metry, Algebra, Astronomy, &c.
The eflence of philofophy in general confifts in the
inveftigation of the caufes of all things ; and the grand
principle of this inquiry confifts in that fundamental
maxim, that no effett is produced without a caufe ; that
nothing is done without a fufficient reafon. This fyftem
of the fufficient reafon is, therefore, the bafis of all
philofophy, and without it nothing is philofophical.
To confider the outfide of things, is to know them hi-
ftorically ; to refolve them, in order to know their
principles and their caufes, is to learn to know them
philofophically ; and in this manner even hiftory
may be philofophically ftudied. This admirable fy-
flem of. the fufficient reafon, by diffufing the fpirit of
philofophy in the world, has already purged it of num-
berlefs dangerous fuperftitions : the fables of magi¬
cians, forcerers, fpedres, ghofts, the abfolute fympa-
thy, and a thoufand like reveries, have difappeared
from among men of fenfe, to the very great advantage
of the human race.
Philofophy may be again divided into fpeculative,
which includes the fubjeds of metapbyfics, morality,
&c. and demonjlrative or experimental, which princi¬
pally regards phyfics; feeing that, by the improve¬
ment of the human mind by ingenious obfervations
and the affiftanceof numberlefs admirable inftruments,
modern philofophers have difcovered the means of ex¬
plaining the principal phenomena of nature by experi¬
ments, and of demonftrating their hypothefes to the
fight and to the touch, which afford proofs much
more evident than thofe of our anceftors, which were
drawn merely from logical inferences.
Natural Philosophy- See Physics.
Experimental Philosophy. See Experimental
Philofophy.
JYIoral Philosophy. SccMorais.
PHILOSTORGIUS, an ecclefiaftical hiftorian of
the 4th century, was born in Cappadocia, and wrote
an abridgment of ecclefiaftical hiftory, in which he
treats Athanafius with fome feverity. This work con¬
tains many curious and interefting particulars. The
beft edition is that of Henry de Valois in Greek
and Latin. There is alfo attributed to him a book
Vol. VIII. ,
53 ]
againft Porphyry. Philter
PHILTER, or Philtre, (Philtrum,) in pharma-
cy, &c. a ftrainer. 1 ogl on‘
Philter, is alfo ufed for a drug or preparation,
which, it is pretended, will excite love.—The word is
formed from the Greek “ I love,” or
“ lover.”
Philters are diftinguifhed into true and fpurious.
The fpurious are fpells or charms, fuppofed to have
an effed beyond the ordinary laws of nature by fome
magic virtue ; fuch are thofe faid to be given by old
women, witches, &c.—The true philters are thofe
fuppofed to work their effed by fome natural and mag-
netical power. There are many grave authors, who
believe the reality of thefe philters; and allege matter
of fad in confirmation of their fentiments: among the
reft, Van Helmont, who fays, that upon holding a
certain herb in his hand for fome time, and taking af¬
terwards a little dog by the foot with the fame ftiand,
the dog followed him wherever he went, and quite de-
ferted his former matter; which he pretends to account
for thus. The heat communicated to the herb, not
coming alone, but animated by the emanations of the
natural fpirits, determines the herb towards the man,
and identifies it to him : having then received this fer¬
ment, it attrads the fpirit of the other objed magne¬
tically, and gives it an amorous motion.—But this is
mere cant ; and all philters, whatever fads may be al¬
leged, are mere chimeras.
PHILYCA, in botany. See Phylica.
PHIMOSIS, in medicine, a diforder of the penis,
in which the prepuce is fo ftrid or tenfe, that it can¬
not be drawn back over the glans. See Surgery.
PHLEBOTOMY, the opening of a vein with a
proper (harp-edged and pointed inftrument, in order
to let out a certain quantity of blood either for the
prefervation or recovery of a perfon’s health; See
Surgery.
PHLEGM, in the animal (Economy, one of the
four humours whereof the ancients fuppofed the blood
to be compofed. The chemifts make phlegm or water
an elementary body, the charaders of which are flui¬
dity, infipidity, and volatility.
PHLEGMAGOGUES, in medicine, a term an¬
ciently made ufe of for fuch medicines as were fup¬
pofed to be endowed with the property of purging
off phlegm ; fuch as hermodadyls, agaric, turbith,
jalap, &c.
PHLEGMATIC, among phyficians, an appella¬
tion given to that habit or temperament of body where¬
in phlegm is predominant; which gives rife to ca¬
tarrhs, coughs, See.
PHLEGMON, denotes an external inflammation
aud tumour, attended with a burning heat.
PHLEGON, furnamed Trallianus, wrote feveral
books, very few of which are now extant. He was
the emperor Adrian’s freed-man. The hiftory of A-
drian publifhed under Phlegon’s name, is thought to
have been written by Adrian bimfelf. It is faid that
Pldegon fpoke of the darknefs which prevailed during
our Lord’s paffion; which has caufed feveral difputes
both among ancients and moderns.
PHLOGISTON, a term ufed by chemifts to ex-
prefs that invifible and very much unknown fubftance,
which, in conjunction with heat or elementary fire,
34
P H L
Pblogifton. produces the phenomena of flame or ignition, and
gives to metals their fplendor ; which, in other cir-
cumftances, contaminates the white colour of fome
earths and metallic calces, with black, brown, or
other fhades; and which in fome cafes renders the air
noxious, and incapable of fuftainiug the life of ahiinals,
i or fupporting flame, &c. &c.
Fhlogifton To give a definition of this principle jof inflammabi-
cannot be a8 phlogifton is frequently called, has hither-
an°uncom-n to been found impoflible ; becaufe, it is fo far from
bined ftate. being the fubjeft of inveftigation by itfelf, that no
perfon has yet been able to procure it by itfelf; neither
is it poflible to expel it from any one body, without
ftiffering it, in the very fame moment, to combine
with another. In the aft of burning, for inltance,
phlogilton is difcharged very copioufly by any inflam¬
mable body ; but fome part, and that a very confide-
rable one, goes to the compofition of the flame. Part
of the remainder is carried off by the air, and goes to
the formation of foot; another part contaminates the
Sir, and either converts part of the atmofpherical air
into what is called fixable air, or, according to others,
pblogiflicates it, while the fixable air is feparated from
the atmofphere itfelf, of which it is originally a com¬
ponent part: but in all this procefs, no part of the
phlogifton is to be difcovered by itfelf. In like man¬
ner, when iron is diffolved in the vitriolic acid, a great
quantity of phlogifton is difcharged : but in this cafe
alfo it is altogether invifible, and incapable of being
fubjefted to examination ; the only refult of this pro¬
cefs being a kind of aerial vapour, by Dr Priellley
and others called inflammable air s and fo, in all other
phlogiftic proceffes, though we are affured that the
principle is difcharged in great quantity, yet it con-
% ftantly eludes our moft diligent fearch.
Arguments From this invifibility of the phlogifton, it has been
for the Men-conduced, either that phlogifton is the matter of fire,
men tar fire^eat’ anc* or t*iat thcfe elements contain it in
and phlogi- great quantity. The arguments for this opinion feem
ILn. reducible to the following, i. Phlogifton is in fome
Cafes capable of penetrating the fubftance of the clofeft
bodies, in fuch a manner as^o be capable of reducing
calcined metals to their proper ftate. 2. The light of
.the fun appears to contain phlogifton ; as it will turn
the calx of filver black when expofed to it, evert tho’
the calx is included within a glafs veffel flopped in the
moft. careful manner. In like manner, the green co¬
lour which the leaves of plants acquire from the folar
light is thought to be owing to a communication of
phlogifton from it. 3. Dr Prieftley has determined,
that the eleftric fluid either is the phlogifton itfelf, or
contains it; becaufe an eleftric fhock will either reduce
metals to a calx, or reftore them from a calcined to a
3 metallic ftate.
Sifufficient. In confidering thefe arguments, however, it is ob¬
vious, that it ought firft to be proved beyond difpute,
that the fubftance of fire, light, or eleftric fluid, can
be fixed in bodies in fuch a manner as to gravitate,
and fenfibly increafe the weight of fuch bodies. That
phlogifton can do this, feems to be demonftrable from
a known faft in the converfion of iron into fteel; for
in this cafe, the fteel produced always exceeds in
weight the iron originally employed. But in no cafe
whatever can we combine the matter of fire or light
direftly with any fubftance in fuch a manner, that we
P H L
can fay beyond a doubt, that we have made the flame Phlogifton.
or the light ponderable. The celebrated Mr Boyle ~
made a vaft number of experiments upon this fubjeft,^
and fuppofed that he had fucceeded, becsufe many bo- ,;c ^fiance
dies, fuch as lead, become heavier from being expofed of fire being
to the aftion of fire. But later experiments have dif-ponderable,
covered, that this increafe of weight is owing to an
adhefion of air, and not of fire or light, as was com¬
monly thought. Neither can it be at all proved, that
the fire or light is in thefe cafes converted into air, as
fome have imagined. Befides, in the only cafe in
which any thing like pure phlogifton is ever feparated
by itfelf, at leaft as far as we yet know, it is fo far
from appearing like what we would expeft from light
or heat, that it is the very reverfe ; and if there was
fuch a principle in nature as pofitive darknefs, the phlo¬
gifton would feem to have a much greater affinity \.o\Expcrl-
it than to light. The very remarkable experiment laments in
which we now allude is recorded by Dr Prieftley f (its^f/"™*,
author) in the following words. voli 1
“ A very fingular decompofition of inflammable airp. 3<;3.
I obferved in confequence of expofing a great variety
of fubftances to the influence of a fand-heat, which Iinflan-.mi-
kept up for feveral months. Among other things I ble air de-
buried in this hot fand, glafs tubes hermetically feaied, comP°fc‘l
and previoufly filled with all the different kinds of air. h®11,
I filled them in the following manner.
“ Having provided myfelf with glafs tubes about
four feet long, and about one third or one half of an
inch in diameter, and of fuch a thicknefs that I could
eafily melt them with the flame of a couple of candles
and a common blow-pipe, I firft feaied the tubes at one
end, then filled them with quickfilver, and placed them
inverted in a bafon of the fame. After this, either
transferring the air in a bladder from the jars in which
they had been (landing in water, or generating the air
afreffi, if it was of a kind not to bear the contaft of
water, I filled the tubes completely with the kinds of
air on which I wiftied to make the experiment, difpla-
cing the quickfilver. This being done, I inclined the
tube, and applying the flame of my candles, with fome
care, (holding the blow pipe in my mouth only, and
keeping firm hold of the tube on each fide of the place
to which I was applying the heat,) I melted the glafs,
and took off what lengths of it I pleafed ; and every
piece was of courfe hermetically feaied. Thefe pieces
I marked with a file, keeping an account of the mean¬
ing of the marks, that when I took them out of the
fand I might prefently know with what kind of air
they had been filled.
“ When I was performing this part of the procefs
with inflammable air in flint-glafs tubes, I obferved
that the places to which I applied the heat were gene¬
rally tinged black : but I gave little attention to this
circumftance, thinking it might be fomething acciden¬
tal; and, without any particular expectation, I buried
thefe tubes in the fand together with the others. This
was on the 25th of September 1777.
“ On the 20th of January following, I examined
thefe tubes, together with every thing elfe that had been
expofed to the fame heat. The tube containing the in¬
flammable air was 1 o inches long, and by fome accident
was broke; but it was jet black throughout. At this
I was very much furprifed, but I did not then fufpeft
that it was at all owing to the inflammable air with.
which
[ 6iJ4 ]
P H L [6
Plilogifton. virliich it had been filled; thinking it might have been
 occafioned by fome phlogiftic matter in the fand, or
in fome of the velfels that had been burft in the neigh¬
bourhood. Reflefting, however, on this odd circum-
ftance, and thinking, from the uniformity of the tinge,
that pofiibly it might have been occafioned by the in¬
flammable air, I filled another fmall glafs tube with
the fame air; and, fealing it hermetically, buried it
deep in fand contained in an iron pot, which I fet on
the fire, and made very hot, nearly red; and taking
it out the next day, I found the tube quite black, ex¬
cept a fmall part on one fide of that end which had
been uppermoft, about two inches higher than the
other, and confequently had not been expofed to fo
great a degree of heat.
“ Being now fully fatisfied that the blacknefs of the
tube was certainly occafioned by the inflammable air
within it, in circumftances in which it could not expand,
I proceeded to examine the ftate of the air. But, in
the firft place, to afliire myfelf that there had been no
communication between that air and the external air
by means of fome unperceiyed crack in the glafs, I
plunged it in water, and, exhaufting the air over it, I
did not perceive that any bubble efcaped. Then,
breaking the end of the tube under water, I examined
it, and found it not to be inflammable. Sometimes,
however, when I have only made the tube jull black
throughout, by applying the flame of a candle with
a blow-pipe to every part of it in fucceffion, the air has
Hill been inflammable.
“ Putting two glafs tubes, about four inches in
length, and a quarter of an inch in diameter, into a
fand furnace, I kept them in it two days; when I took
them out, and obferved, that the tube which 1 had
placed at the bottom of the fand in the greateft degree
of heat was nearly melted, and perfeftly blue like in¬
digo; while the other tube, which had not been expo-
fed to fo -great a degree of heat, was of a beautiful jet
black throughout.
“ Examining the air in thefe tubes, I found that in
the black tube reduced to one third of its bulk, and
mere phlogifticated air. It did not make lime-water
turbid, was not affedled by nitrous air, and was not
inflammable. The air in the blue tube, or that which
had been expofed to the greateft degree of heat, was
reduced to a very fmall bubble, fo that no experiment
could be made upon it. I have no doubt, however,
that it was phlogifticated.
“ At one time I had a fufpicion that this blacknefs
communicated to the glafs was fomething precipitated
from the iron by the folution of which the inflammable
air had been made; but I was foon convinced of the
contrary, by finding that the effedt was the very fame
when the inflammable air was made from zinc.
“ I foon found that there was no occafion for fuch
a long procefs to produce this effefl, at lead upon the
glafs. For it began to be difcoloured the moment it
was red-hot, or rather when it became foft; a^was
evident by holding one of the lubes in an open fire, or
in the flame of a candle ; for wherever the heat was
applied, the blacknefs took place immediately, without
affedting any other part of the tube.
“ When I examined this black tinge narrowly, I
found that it did not penetrate the glafs; but formed
a delicate fuptrficial tinge, leaving 4he glafs as perfedt-
55 ] P H L
ly poliftied as before the procefs. But the blacknefs Phlogifton
was indelible: at leaft it could not be feraped offwith- " '
out tearing the furface of the glafs, and it made no
change in it with refpedf to eleftricity ; for the tube
thus blackened was as perfedl a ncn-condudtor as ever.
“ The blue colour of the glafs that was moft heat¬
ed, Mr Delava! informed me, was owing to fomething
of iron in the compofuion of the glafs. That it alio
depended on the degree of heat, I afeertained by pla¬
cing one of thefe tubes in a vertical pofition in the
fand-heat. For the lower end of the tube, which had
been moft heated, acquired a deep blue colour, and it
palled into black at the upper end of the tube with¬
out any intermediate colour. There was alfo no other
colour higher than the black ; fo that the firft tinge
which the glafs receives is a perfedt black. Yet, view¬
ing the firft tinge that it receives by the light of a
candle placed beyond it, it feemed to have a lhade of
red.
“ As I was fenfible that the blacknefs was owing
to the precipitation of phlogifton from the inflammable
air, I thought it poffible that fome fubftance which
had a near affinity with phlogifton might difeharge it;
and trying minium, it fucceeded immediately. Having
filled one of thefe black tubes with this metallic calx,
the moment I made it red hot, the blacknefs entirely
difappeared, and left the tube as tranfparent as ever it
had been.
“ In the firft experiment of this kind I ufed mini¬
um out of which all its air had been expelled by heat,
and which is of a yellow colour. In this procefs it be¬
came whiter, and adhered a little to the glafs. When
I feraped it off, I could not be quite fure that any part
of it had become real lead, but it evidently approached
towards a metallic ftate, by being of a more compadl
texture than before.
“ In this ftate of the experiments it was fuggefted
by Mr Bewly, that probably the lead in the glafs tubes
had attrafted the phlogifton; and I prefently found this
to be the cafe. For when I had filled a green-glafs
tube with the inflammable air, and fealed it hermeti¬
cally, as I had done the flint-glafs tubes, I expofed it
to a melting heat, which is greater than that which
flint-glafs will bear, without producing any change of
colour in it. What remained of air in the tube that did
not efcape when part of it was melted, was ftill ftrongly
inflammable.
“ It appears, therefore, from this experiment, that
the calx of lead, in the form of glafs, has a ftronger
affinity with phlogifton than any thing in the compofi-
tion of inflammable air, in a degree of heat capable of
melting glafs. Or, if there be no proper conftituent
part of inflammable air befides phlogifton, the attrac¬
tion of the calx is fo great as to reduce the phlogifton
from an elaftic and uncombined ftate to a fixed and
combined one.
“ Having by means of thefe glafs tubes effe&ed a
complete decompofition of inflammable air, the phlo-
giften in it. having united with the glafs of the lead; I
thought, that if there had been any acid in its compo-
fition, it would then be difengaged, and be found.in
the tube. In order to find whether there was any acid
in it or not, I poured into one of thefe tubes a fmall
quantity of water made blue with the juice of turn-
fole j but it came out as blue as it went in.”
34 Q_?
From
P H L [ 61
Phlogifton. From this curious experiment it appears, that ph!o-
gifton tends to make bodies opaque even when tranf-
6.(, parent before; and indeed fomething of this kind is
tends^to0" a'way8 obferved in whatever manner we apply phlogi-
niske ho- fton. The calces of lead or tin, made by diflblution
dies opake, and precipitation wish the vitriolic acid, though of the
pureft white, become immediately tinged with black
by an union with the fmalleft particle of phlogifton ;
or at leatt their whitenefs is fo much fullied, that the
tendency of phlogifton to produce a black colour is
vifible on all occafions. Metals alfo, when combined
with phlogiflon, are exceedingly opaque ; but, when
deprived of it, and expofed to a very itrong fire, they
melt into a tranfparent glafs. Now, if phlogifton was
the fame thing with fire or light itfelf, we fhould be
apt to fupppfe that fuch bodies as had been longeft ex¬
pofed to the aftion of fire would contain moll of it ;
7 but this is not found to be the cafe. Neither can it
Fire cannot well be anfwered, that fire in an a&ive Hate is capable
be fuppofed 0f expelling, fire in a quiefcent Hate ; becaufe it mult
ex*53ft1'6 °ft-be w‘1^ t^'3 element a3 with water: fucceeding quan-
ftif. ing' tities of water, if they are violently urged on, will ex¬
pel the quantity which lies before them ; but at laft, a
certain quantity will remain in the fubftance through
which the water pafftd; and this quantity will be the
fame whether the fubftance has been immerfed in a
fwift or flow running dream. In like manner, when a
fubftance is expofed to theailion even of the moft violent
fire, that element can only pafs through it, as we might
fuppofe water to pafs through a fieve, while it remains
in the fire ; but when it is taken out, and fuffered to
cool, a certain quantity of the fire mull neceffarily be
fuppofed to become quiefcent, becaufe it has nothing
to expel it. It would feem probable, therefore, that if
phlogifton was of the fame nature with fire, no other
change could be made upon bodies by expofing them
to the a&ion of that element, than melting, or altering
their form; but we evidently fee that the fire carries off
8 one part of their fubftance, and leaves another.
Fleftric Again, with regard to the calcination of metals by
fluid cannotthe eleftric fluid, it does not appear to adl differently
be proved fcom common fire. An eleftric fpark made to pafs
'fttonPtl*° between two ends of wires, will deprive them of fome
41 ' part of their phlogifton : but this cannot prove that
the eledlric fluid is the phlogifton of which they are
deprived, becaufe in this cafe they would contain lefs
eledlric matter than before; but of this we can have
no certainty, becaufe all bodies feem to be full of this
fluid, and we have no method of meafuring the quan¬
tity contained in different bodies. As to the reduc-.
tion of metallic calces by the eledlric fpark, the fadl
is denied by fome eminent foreign philofophers; but
although it ftiould be granted, yet we mud ob-
ferve, that a fpark of eledlricity cannot be procured
but by making the fluid pafs through a fmall fpace of
air interpofed between two ends of wires, or fome fi-
milar fubftances. Now though in this cafe the fpark
flrould reduce a metallic calx lying between thefe two
wires, yet this could never prove that the eledlric fluid
itfelf was phlogifton ; becaufe, in pafiing from one
wire and entering the other, a quantity of phlogifton
mull neceffarily be extricated from the wires by the
violent impulfe of the fluid. We muft fufpedl, there¬
fore, that the eledlric matter in this cafe only gives to
the.calx, the phlogifton which it takes from the wires:
56 1 P H L
or, is it not poflible that the phlogiftic matter may in Phlogifton-
part be derived from the air, which always contains a
quantity of it ?
It hath been obferved, that by making the eledlric
fpark pafs a great number of times through a fmall
quantity of air, the latter becomes dimitrifhed and
phiogifticated. But in this cafe alfo the phlogifton is
evidently derived from the metallic points between
which the fpark mud pafs. The argument therefore
drawn by Dr Prieftley from this fadl, for the phlo¬
giftic nature of the eledlric fluid, cannot hold. It is
the fame thing as calcining metals confined in a cer-’
tain quantity of air by a common fire ; for in this cafe
the air is always found to be phiogifticated. 9
The arguments drawn from the blackening of the
calces of filver by the folar beams, feem alfo to 'n*^e°[sar^U"
conclnfive. Glafs, as appears from Dr Prieftley’s ex- drawn fron>
periment above related, will imbibe phlogifton, and the black-
will alfo part with it, without lofing its texture aseningof'
glafs. Poflibly the cafe may be the flame with the
calx of filver juft now mentioned. The glafs, though iun.bcams.
it appear to us quite clear and tranfparent, may con¬
tain fome phlogiftic matter, which by the adlion of
the folar light may be transferred to the calx; or it
may come from the air contained in the glafs. At
any rate, it is impoffible, from a Angle experiment,
to deduce fuch an important confequence, efpecially
as it is attended with a Angularity which at once over¬
throws almoft every inference we can draw from it.
If we fuppofe the light of the fun to be phlogifton,
much more ought we to fuppofe the light of a comhion
fire to be the fame : and if this were the cafe, then the
lunar calx ought to be blackened by expofing it to
the light of a common fire as well as to the rays of
the fun. But this is found not to be the cafe ; for
though we expofe the calx of filver to a common fire IO
ever fo long, no blacknefs will take place. It is the And of
fame thing with regard to the green colour of plants; |J10^e ^rora
for this is produced by the folar light, and by that
light only : fo that we muft own it to be in fome re- plants,
fpedls fpecifically different from the light of our com¬
mon fires; but as thefe differences are totally un¬
known to us, it is plain, that, until our knowledge in
this refpeA is increafed, we cannot argue conclulively
concerning the nature either of the one or the other. n
In Dr Prieftley’s treatife on air, he fuppofes that it Air not
is the phlogifton which gives elafticity to that fluid.£ud<^a?ic
But in this alfo that eminent philofopher feems to
have been miftaken. It is certain that elafticity is not
neceffarily conne&ed with phlogifton, fince it may be
entirely deprived of its elallicity, and fixed in the fub¬
ftance of folid bodies; of which Dr Prieftley himfelf
gives a moft remarkable inflance in the experiment
above related of the inflammable air contained in the
glafs tube. It is impoffible that the phlogifton, while
in a quiefcent inactive Hate, can either be in a ftateof
expanlion, or have a tendency to expand ; becaufe this
would be fuppofing it to have two natures diametri¬
cally oppofite to each other at the fame moment. If
therefore this fubftance has fome qualities peculiar to
its ftate of quiefcence, and others peculiar to its (late
of expanfion, we muft of needfity fuppofe that there
is fome third fubftance, by means of which its pro¬
perties are changed at different times. Now we know,
that this third fubftance is the fire; or rather the fire
and.
ihlogifton
Kceives its
laftkity
cornbina-'
phlogifton
with air.
P H L [ 61
'hlogftion. and air combined, for fire alone will not expel phlo-
gifton. If then the fire originally gives its elafticity
to phlogifton, it is in the higheft degree probable,
that to this element it owes its permanent elafticity
alfo.
Some authors have been of opinion, that heat is
produced by what they call the evolution of phlogijlon ;
and Dr Dugud Leflie, in his treatife on animal-heat,
labours throughout a whole chapter to prove, that the
evolution of phlogifton is attended with heat. But
granting that it is fo, if we fuppofe this evolution to
be the caufe oi heat, we are certainly wrong ; for the
caufe of heat would then be whatever evolves the phlo¬
gifton. Dr Leflie fuppofes that the adlion of the
blood-veffels evolves the .phlogifton ; and in this cafe
the a&ion of the vefiels, not the evolution of phlogi-
flon, is the caufe of heat. But in many cafes the argu¬
ment will not hold : for there are numberlefs inftances
where phlogifton is evolved in great quantity, without
any confiderable degree of heat being produced ; and
in tliofe where the greateft heat is produced, the
phlogifton feems not fo properly to be evolved, as to be
dejhoyed in fuch a manner that it can never after¬
wards be found.
Some philofophers, and among the reft Mr Scheie,
have fuppofed, that fire confifts in a chemical combi¬
nation of phlogifton with dephlogifticated air; in
which cafe, fays he, the compound becomes fo fine
and fubtle, that it pafles through the pores of the moft
folid bodies, glafs itfelf not excepted. But this fup-
pofition is entirely contrary to the analogy of nature.
It is certain, that both the air and phlogifton, fepa-
rately, are incapable of palling through glafs; ex¬
cepting in certain circumftances, where hot glafs is
found to be penetrable by phlogiftic vapours: nor have
we any inftance of a mixture of two thick liquids pro¬
ducing a thin one. It feems indeed impoflible that this
could be the cafe without a change of nature in both
fluids ; and no fubftance can change its nature of it¬
felf. Certain fubftances indeed there are, which ap¬
pear to change their natures by being mixed ; but if
we confider the matter fairly, we will find that this
change is only in appearance. Thus, if powdered
cream of tartar is mixed with chalk or quicklime, the
mixture appears to deliquiate in the air, which is a
property belonging neither to the chalk nor cream of
tartar. But here a quantity of alkaline fait is produ¬
ced, which naturally deliquefces, and occafions the
deception. In like manner, when a neutral fait is
formed by an acid and alkali, both of which taken fe-
parately will deliquiate in the air, yet the nature of
thefe component parts are not changed though the
neutral fait does not deliquiate: only their attra&ion
for each other is fo ftrong, that their attra&ion for
water becomes lefs than that of the air for the fame
element; and of confequence the fait remains dry.
But at any rate, there is no poffibility of making a fa-
line folution more fluid than water. Every fubftance
which can be diffolved in water or an aqueous fluid,
always takes fomething from its fluidity ; and the
fame thing happens with oil, or any other fluid thicker
than water. It is incredible that two kinds of oil,
both of them having a thick confiftence when fepa-
rate, fhould yet, by Ample mixture, become as fluid
as water:, yet on a fimilar fuppofitioD, which cannot
57 1 P H L
be explained by any known faff in nature, proceeds Phlogifton,
the whole of Mr Scheie’s hypothefis.  
It may indeed be argued, that phlogifton is by it- pj|loIi.fton
felf capable, in fome cafes, of pervading folid bodies; can pene.
and confequently may communicate to the common trate hot
atmofphere, by a chemical combination with it, fuchg^fs, and
a degree of fluidity, that it will pafs through the pores why*
of glafs or any other, folid fubftance. In fupport of this
hypothefis it may be urged, that Dr Lewis * affeUs his * Ueu-
having feen globules of lead revived by the adlion oimann's Che*
the phlogiftic vapours of charcoal, even in the middle
of thick pieces of glafs, where there was not the leaftnote
appearance of a crack. It is certain alfo, that though
we deprive mercury of its phlogifton as much as pof-
fible by means of the nitrous acid, it will rife in its
native form by diftillation in the clofeft veflels.
But in thefe, and other fimilar inftances, we are to
confider, in the firft place, that by heat the pores of
all bodies are opened, and confequently made liable
to receive fubftances, which in their natural ftate they
would not receive. All fluid fubftances alfo have their
fluidity increafed by heat. Thus, we will find that
warm water will pafs through a thick cloth in a much
more full and copious ftream than an equal quantity of
cold water will do. Now, when glafs is much heated,
its properties are remarkably changed. It lofes its
tranfparency, and becomes a conductor of eledricity ;
and if it then condu&s this fluid, or modification of a
fluid, which at other times it cannot do without be¬
ing fhatlered to pieces, this evidently fliows that it
may alfo condud, or be penetrable by, vapours of va¬
rious kinds. This will account in a fatisiadory man¬
ner for the revival of lead in the heart of folid pieces
of glafs; for it is-not pretended that a revivification
of this kind will take place in the cold, even tho’ the
glafs (hould be expofed to the greateft quantity of
phlogifttc vapours that can be imagined. Hence the
inference mult be very ftrong, not that heat derives
any of its adivity from phlogifton, but that all the ac-
tivity which phlogifton poflefles is derived from heat.
Again, with refped to the calcination of mercury, Why the
and its revival by mere heat, it muft be remembered, calces of
that neither calcinations nor revivifications of metals mercury
can take place in vacuo. Mercury may indeed be re- "ive^wlth-
duced to a kind of calx by expofure to the fire, butou^addi-
then it muft alfo be expofed to the air at the fametion.
time ; and indeed the cafe is the fame with all metals.
It is probable, therefore, that all of them receive
fomething from the air, and this is abundantly con¬
firmed by experiments; for no calx can be reduced
without an emiflion of air at the time of redudion.
The common metals on this occafion emit fixable air;
but the calces of mercury emit dephlogifticated air. If
the air is dephlogifticated, it is plain that the calx
muft be phlogifticated ; becaufe the air of our atmo¬
fphere is not in a pure dephlogifticated ftate. The
phlogifton it contains muft therefore be difpofed of
in fome way or other, and it is in the higheft degree
probable that it remains with the calx. But a phlo¬
gifticated calx becomes a metal, when expofed to a
proper heat. In the revival of mercury, therefore, the-
phlogifton probably comes from the air. Silver and
gold, which are indeftruflible by fire, probably owe
this quality to their having little attradion for fixed
air, but a great deal for phlogifton. The confequence.
off
»
P H L * [ 6158 ] P H L
Fhlog'fton. of this mull be, that if a calx of filver or gold is ex-
pofed to the air and to the a&ion of heat at the fame
time, the calx will imbibe the phlogifton rather than
fixable air; and of confequence will always appear in
a metallic ftate, though it fhould 'be calcined ever fo
long.
Having thus fhewn at fome length, that phlogifton
cannot with any probability be fuppofed to have aftive
I7 qualities of its own diftinft from thofe which it re-
Enumera- ceives from the fire, we muft next inquire into its
tion of the nature from the few properties which it is certainly
properties known to poffefs. Thefe properties may be reduced
fton S" to the Allowing.
1. It is capable of being reduced to an exceedingly
thin, permanently elattic, and light vapour; in which
ftate it has all the properties of a fpecies of air.
2. It may be deprived of this elafticity, and com¬
bined with terreftrial bodies; in which cafe it becomes
ponderable, and gives a remarkable degree of opacity
to all bodies with which it unites itfelf.
3. In a great many cafes it is a means of producing
and preferving flame ; efpecially when combined with
terreftrial bodies.
4. In fome cafes it appears to give a violent explo-
five power to common air.
5. When combined with air in a certain degree, it
deprives it of the very eflential properties of fupporting
flame or animal-life.
From a general confideration of thefe properties, it
appears probable that phlogifton is a terreftrial fub-
ftance, expanfible indeed in the higheft degree, but
which may alfo be reduced to a folid, and which in that
ftate of folidity feems to be endowed with no other
properties than thofe of paffive terreftrial matter, ow¬
ing all its a&ivity to a combination either with fire or
In confidering the phlogifton with regard to its
property of fuftaining flame, we find that the greater
quantity of the inflammable principle there is in any
fubftance to be inflamed, the more eafily and fiercely
it burns ; and the fame efFe& follows, if the air is
perfedly free from phlogifton, though the inflam¬
mable fubjed fhould contain a fmaller quantity of it.
But if we invert this proportion, loading the air with
phlogifton, and at the fame time giving a great
quantity of it to the fuel, the fire will infallibly be
extinguilhed, though made ever fo fierce originally.—
Now to underftand the reafon of this, we muft call to
mind what hath already been delivered in various parts
of this work, concerning the nature of eleftric fluid,
heat, vapour, fire, and flame. Under tbefe articles
jg it has been fhown,
Recapitula- 1> That fire, heat, light, and ele&ricity, are only
tion of the fo many different modifications of the fame fluid, which
properties we fhall here call the ethvrial fluid.
of heat. 2 That the etherial fluid afting as fire or heat, a£ls
from a centre to the circumference, in every part of
the heated body.
3. That the fame fluid afting as light, vibrates as
from a centre, but that the centre from which it
vibrates is at a diftance from the body on which the
light falls.
4. When a great quantity of light falls upon any
body, that is, when the vibrations of the etherial
fluid towards it are exceedingly vehement, they pene¬
trate its fubftance, however folid it may be, and aPhlos^0"
new vibration takes place within the fubftance of the
body itfelf. The centre from which the vibrations
proceed being then within the body, heat is the
certain confequence ; and therefore every intenfe light
will in a fhort time produce heat.
5. In certain bodies the etherial fluid may have a
vibration, or tendency to vibration, within the fub¬
ftance of the bodies themfelves, though by reafon of
their texture this vibration is not obferved externally.
In this cafe the heat is faid to be latent, and the
body is cold to the touch, as is the cafe of vapour.
6. When this tendency to expand becomes exceed-
ingl; great, the particles by which the etherial fluid
is confined muft yield to its impulfe, and the body
becomes hot to the touch; or if the impulfe is very
violent, it breaks out into flame, and burns fiercely.
7. Flame cannot exi-ft without a decompofition of
vapour ; and this decompofition takes place as foon as
more latent heat is forced upon the vapour than it can
contain.
8. Vapour will abforb heat to a certain degree ;
and in proportion to this abfprption, it cools thofe
bodies which it touches, or extinguilhes fire when
blown upon it.
9. Vapour, having abforbed as much heat as it can
contain, when blown upon a fire, inftead of extin-
guifhing it, is inftantly decompofed, and is converted
into violent flame, returning back all the heat which
it had formerly abforbed.
Under the article Flame, it has alfo been fliown,
that probably no vapours whatever are abfolutely un¬
inflammable, though fome are fet on fire with much
more difficulty than others. Thofe which are eafily
inflamed we call inflammable, and thofe which cannot
be inflamed without a great deal of diffculty are called
uninflammable. As, therefore, among all this variety
of vapours there muft be one more inflammable than
all the reft, it is very natural, if it is frequently to
be met with, to call it the phlogifton, or inflammable
principle. Now, we find a certain kind of fubftance
fo univerfaily diffufed throughout nature, that fcarce
any any thing feems to be perfectly diverted of it.
This fubftance is oil, and it is univerfally allowed to
contain a great quantity of the phlogiftion. But, ’9
when we come to analyfe the Tubftance of oil itfelf, y 15 °*
we find it compofed of an earthy matter which remains
in the retort after dillillatlon ; and of a fluid, thinner
than the oil originally was, which arifes in vapour:
but if this thin oil be fubjected to a fecond diftillation,
it again leaves a quantity of fixed matter, and yields a
portion of oil (till more fluid than before. By a repe¬
tition of the procefs, more earth is frill produced, the
oil which arifes becomes lefsandlefs in quantity, till at
laft it cannot by any means be colleded.—Hence it is
probable, that oil is compofed of earthy particles dif-
pofed in fuch a manner that they are eafily fitted for
abforbingheat, and thus being converted into vapour;
at the fame time that they are alfo very eafily ca¬
pable of being decompofed, and of parting with the
heat, after which they refume their original terreflrial
form. 10
From a confideration of all this, we are naturally Phlogiflon
led to conclude, that the phlogifton, properly fo called, °.nly aPor"
is only a portion of cmpyreumatic oil, that is, of oil
which oil.
P H L [ 6159 1 P H L
logifton. which i* partly decompofed by having been expofed
~ to a violent beat.—This hypothefis will folve all the
wh V . phenomena in which phlogiftonis concerned.—Alkalies
I e^hTno- and ca'c'ne£^ earths are found to attraft phlogifton
sena of powerfully, and fo likewife they do the grofler oils.—
ilogifron The vitriolic acid unites with phlogifton, and fo will
^ th.is, it do with oils of almoft every kind.—The nitrous acid
pe incip e. un;tes more powerfully with phlogifton than moft
other fubflances; but the fame acid will unite with
many kinds of oils fo violently, as to fet them on fire.
—Phlogifton ftains every thing black which it touches,
and fo does empyreumatic oil.—Phlogifton, when com*
bined with air, will extinguilh flame ; but oil will do
fo likewife, if it is thrown on a fire in too great quan¬
tity. The reafon is the fame in both cafes. Oil ab-
forbs fire in great quantity before it can be raifed in
vapour; and until it can be raifed in vapour, it cannot
be kindled. After it is reduced to vapour, it Uill ab-
forbs more before the vapour is converted into flame.
If then the phlogifton is poured upon flame while it
is in this abforbing ftate, the undoubted confequence
muft be, that, inftead of adding any thing to its heat,
it will take fomething from it, and if the quantity is
fufficiently large, the flame muft be extinguifhed. In
like manner, when oil in its liquid ftate is poured up¬
on fire, it abforbs part of the heat; and if the quan¬
tity of oil poured on is capable of abforbing more
heat than the fire can give, an extinftion of the flame
will undoubtedly take place. But if phlogifton is pour¬
ed upon flame, after having abforbed as much fire as
it can contain, it will then, inftead of extinguifliing,
increafe the fire to a great degree ; becaufethe texture
of it is entirely decompofed, and it throws out at once
all the fire it had imbibed before. In like manner oil,
if heated till juft ready to inflame, will burn fiercely
if thrown into a fire though in ever, fo large a quantity.
Nay, if oil is violently heated in a veflel over the fire,
and that veffel afterwards fet down upon the cold and
moift ground, the oil will be fet on fire. The reafon
of this is, that the fuperabundant heat contained in
the veflel and lower parts of the oil, is, by the cold,
violently forced towards the furface, whence a thick
vapour ip continually arifing. This vapour has already
as much latent heat as it can contain ; but more being
continually forced upon it, in attempting to fly from
the cold below, the vapour is entirely decompofed,
and throws out not only that quantity which the cold
forces upon it, but alljthat the oil had imbibed while
it continued over the fire.
al Hence we may account for the generation and
UoiT&c of phenomena of inflamable air. This is produced in
in flam m a- the firft place by acids, in the fecond place by the
ble lir ac- diftillation of inflammable fubftances by a ftrong
counted for. flre> and jn ^e third place by the vapour of vitriolic
ether.
1. When the vitriolic acid is poured upon filings of
iron, a vapour arifes, which is not only capable 0/
inflammation by itfelf, but explodes with violence
when mixed with common air, upon the contaft of
flame. Here we muft confider, that the vitriolic acid
contains a great deal of latent heat, as is evident from
mixing it with water, when the mixture grows very
hot, and (brinks in bulk. This will likewife happen
when the diluted acid is poured upon iron filings; for
then the mixture again grows hot, which (hows an
extrication of heat formerly latent fomewhere. Along Phlogifton.
with this heat, the phlogifton of the metal is dif- ‘
charged, and of confequence the latter abforbs as
much fire as it conveniently can. The union is here
perfeflly complete: for as it is made beneath the furface
of an aqueous fluid with which the phlogifton has but
little tendency to unite, (for oil and water do not
readily mix with one another), the inflammable prin¬
ciple abforbs juft as much of the fire as it can con¬
tain ; the ftiperfluous quantity being diffipated in the
air. It then remains an invifible, elaftic, and very
light vapour; becaufe the greateft part of its compo-
fnion is pure fire, which never could be proved to
have any weight; and therefore inflammable air is
much lighter than common air, which always has a
confiderable quantity of water in its compofition.—
This being the cafe, it is plain, that when any flaming
body is immerfed in this vapour, that part of the va¬
pour which touches the flame muft be kindled, and the
phlogifton, being emptied of the greateft part of the
fire it contained, will now combine with the common,
air, and phlogifticate it; that is, it will combine,
loofely with it, and, not having fo much fire as it
could contain, will greedily attract more from every
ignited fubftance which comes in its way, and will
therefore extinguifli fire as far as its operation goes.
It remains only now to (hew the reafon of the ex-
plofion of inflammable air when mixed with common
air; and this moft probably arifes from the extreme in¬
flammability of the phlogiftic vapour when fully fatu-
rated with heat. By this means almoft every part of
it takes fire at the fame inftant; and thus a confider¬
able quantity of air being violently heated at the fame
moment, muft expand in proportion, and a confider¬
able explofion take place. When dephlogifticated air
is mixed with inflammable air, the explofion is much
greater; and the reafon is plain, becaufe in common
air there is always a quantity of phlogiftic vapour not
faturated with heat. This vapour abforbs a quantity
of the heat thrown out by the decompofed inflammable
air; and confequently leflens that which is communica¬
ted to the common air, and on which the explofion
depends. But in the dephlogifticated air, as little or
no vapour of this kind exifts, the heat which the in¬
flammable air throws out is almoft all communicated to
the former, and therefore the explofion is much grea¬
ter ; efpecially as dephlogifticated air increafes the
power of any kind of flame to fuch a degree, that by
its means the heat of common fire is made equal to
that of a burning mirror.
2. When inflammable air is produced from a diftil¬
lation of wood or any other kind of inflammable fub¬
ftance, it is emitted at the time that the oil cornea
over and therefore we may juftly conclude, that it is
nothing elfe than a part of the vapour of that oil
which has imbibed fo much fire, and is become fo in¬
timately combined with it that it cannot be con-
denfed without an entire decompofition ; for this is
the cafe with inflammable vapours when they have
got a certain quantity of this fluid in them. Thus,,
the grofs vapour is raifed by the fire, but is not
thoroughly penetrated by it. The fire indeed ex¬
pands it till it becomes lighter than the common at-
mofphere. It is hot to the touch, and therefore its
heat is ready to be abforbed by every cold fubftance
which.
P H L [ 6160 ] P H L
Phlagifton. which it touches; of confequence the vapour conden-
' ~ fes without inflammation: but when the fire has en¬
tered into a more clofe combination with it, fo that
the expanfile force of that element is totally confined by
the particles of the oil, the vapour is then cold to the
touch, yet fo full of internal or latent heat, that it is
ready to take fire on the flighteft contatt of a burn¬
ing body. The vapour is then inflammable andincon-
denfible; and, being perfectly tranfparent and invi-
fible, is called inflammable air.
3. The production of inflammable air from vitriolic
ether is fo eafily accounted for after what has been
faid, that little further notice needs be taken of it:
only it may be obferved, that the vapour of ether it-
felf, even when in its condenfible ftate, will explode when
mixed with common air; which feems to (how very clear¬
ly, that we are not to look upon inflammable air, when
incondenfible and perfectly invifible, as any other thing
than an exceedingly fubtile vapour or thin fmoke,
and confequently that the phlogifton itfelf is only the
4J oily particles which conftitute that vapour.
Diminution We muft now inquire into that remarkable property
of air by of phlogifton by which it always diminifhes air when
phlogifton m[xed .w|th Jt. jn orcler to underftand this, it will be
exp ame . ineceffary t0 conflcJer by what means the bulk of air is
diminiftied. This, if we except mechanical compref-
•fion, can only be done by taking away either part of
its elafticity, or fome of its other component parts.
Now, it hath been fhown under the article Fluidity,
that all fluids contain a great quantity of latent heat;
nay, that on this principle their fluidity entirely de¬
pends. Of confequence, the air muft contain a great
quantity of latent heat; and if any fubftance capable
of abforbing this heat is prefented to it, the air muft
be diminilhed. This is the cafe with phlogifton; and
therefore air is always found to be diminilhed in con¬
fequence of being phlogifticated. But in proportion
as the air lofes this heat, and the phlogifton imbibes
it, it is plain that the latter muft become more and
more faturated with it, and of confequence approach
nearer and nearer to an inflammable ftate. Hence we
may account for the change of nitrous into inflammable
air, mentioned by Dr Prieftley. But for a more full
Bifcuffion of all thefe fubjefts, fee the articles Inflam¬
mable Air, Nitrous Air, &c. in the APPENDIX.
Before concluding this article, however, it will be
proper to take notice of fome obje&ions which may be
brought .againft the theory above laid down.
1. It is impoffible, fay the objeftors, to prove that
there is in nature any fubftance which properly de-
ferves the name of phlogifton, or foie principle of in-
a+ flammability. We fee that bodies are capable of
Phlogifton being fet on fire ; but before we aflume the exift-
in the ab- Cnce of fuch a principle as phlogifton in the ab-
ftraft. ft raft, we ought to be able at leaft to define it, that
fo we might be able to prove its exiften'ce in different
bodies. But, as matters ftand at prefent, it is impof¬
fible for us even to know when we have gained our
point. How is it poflible, for inftance, to know whe¬
ther the phlogillon in fpirit of wine be exa&Iy the fame
with that in fulphur ? Or, by what means can we be
afeertained that it is the fame principle which gives
the fplendor to metals that caufes bodies emit a flame?
To this it may be replied, that philofophers in
general have attributed all thefe phenomena to one
caufe: therefore every inquirer ought to fearch among Phlogonis
the natural caufes, in order to find one which is ca- 1
pable of producing all thefe phenomena; and if he Phoca-j
finds fuch an one, there is the higheft probability that
there is no other; for nature doth not multiply caufes
where one will ferve. Hence it is incumbent on thofe
who would affume two principles of inflammability, to
prove the exiftence of them both; but there is not the
fame obligation upon thofe who affume the exiftence
only of one to prove that no more exift.
2. Though bodies may be inflamed, and have a pre- ,
difpofition to be inflamed in certain circumftances, we
are not therefore bound to fuppofe that this predifpo-
fition confifts in the admixture of any material fubftance
with them.
Here we muft attend to the confequence of inflam¬
mation, which is a feparation of the body into matter jj
of two different kinds; one of which remains, while the
other is carried off. As foon as this volatile matter is
entirely diflipated, the inflammation ceafes. The pro¬
bability therefore is exceedingly ftrong, that this mat¬
ter either is the principle of inflammability itfelf, or •:
contains it.
PHLOGONIiE, aclafs of compound, inflammable,
and metallic foffib, found in fmall maffes of determi-
nately angular figures; comprehending the pyricubia,
pyroftogonia, and pyripolygonia.
PHLOMIS, the Sage tree, or Sage; \
a genus of the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the
didynamia clafs of plants. There are i4fpecies, all of
which have perennial roots, and of many the ftalks
alfo are perennial. The latter rife from two to five or
fix feet high; and are adorned with yellow, blue, or
purple flowers in whorls. They are all ornamental
plants; and deferve a place in gardens, as they are fuf-
ficiently hardy to endure the ordinary winters in this
climate : they require, however, a pretty warm fitua-
tion. They may be propagated by offsets, or cuttings.
PHLOX,Lychnidea, ox BaftardLychnis', a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants. There are feven fpecies, all of them !
natives of North America. They have perennial roots,
from which arife herbaceous (talks from nine inches to
two feet in height, adorned with tubulated flowers of
a purple colour. They are propagated by offsets,
and will bear the winters in this country. They re¬
quire a moift rich foil, in which they thrive better and ;
grow taller than in any other.
PHLYCTENiE, in medicine, fmall eruptions on
the (kin.
PHOCA, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds of 1
the order of ferae. There are fix parallel foreteeth in V
the upper jaw, the outermoft being larger; and four
blunt, parallel, diftinft, equal fore-teeth in the under
jaw. There is but one dog-tooth, and five or fix
three-pointed grinders; and the hind feet are united
fo as to referable a (hip’s tail. There are three fpe¬
cies, viz.
1. The urfina, or fea-bear, has external ears. The
male is greatly fuperior in fize to the female. The |
bodies of each are of a conic form, very thick before,
and taper to the tail. The length of a large one is
eight feet; the greateft circumference, five feet; near
the tail, 20 inches; and the weight is about 800 lb.
The nofe projedls like that of a pug-dog, but the head
P H O [ 61
rifes fuddenly ; the teeth lock into one another when
the mouth is fhut; the tongue is large ; the eyes are
large and prominent, and may be covered at pleafure
by a flelhy membrane. The length of the fore-legs
is 24 inches; they are like thofe of other quadrupeds,
not immerfed in the body like thofe of feals; the feet
are formed with toes like thofe of other animals, but
are covered with a naked Ikin, fo that externally they
feem to be a fhapelefs mafs; the hind-legs are fixed
to the body quite behind, like thofe of feals; but are
capable of being brought forward, fo that the ani¬
mal makes ufe of them to fcratch its head.
Thefe animals are found in the northern feas. Du¬
ring the three months of fummer they lead a molt
indolent life : they arrive at the iflands vaftly fat; but
during that time they are fcarce ever in motion,
confine themfelves for whole weeks to one fpot, fleep
a great part of the time, eat nothing, and, except the
employment the females have in fuckling their young,
are totally inaftive. They live in families : each male
has from 8 to 50 females, whom he guards with the
jealonfy of an eaftern monarch ; and though they lie
by thbufands on the (hores, each family keeps itfelf
feparate from the reft, and fometimes, with the young
and unmarried ones, amount to 120. The old animals,
which are deftitute of females, or deferted by them,
live apart, and are exceflively fpleuitic, peevifh, and
quarrelfome : are exceeding fierce, and fo attached to
their old haunts, that they would die fooner than quit
them. They are monftroufly fat, and have a moft hir*
cine fmell. If another approaches their ftatiou, they
are roufed from their indolence, and inftantly fnap at it,
and a battle enfues; in the conflict, they perhaps in¬
trude on the feat of another: this gives new caufe of
offence, fo in the end the difcord becomes univerfal,
and is fpread through the whole ftiore.
The other males are alfo very irafcible : the caufes
of their difputes are generally thefe. The firft and
moft terrible is, when an attempt is made by another
to feduce one of their miftreffes or a young female of
the family. This infult produces a combat; and the
conqueror is immediately followed by the whole fera-
glio, who are fure of deferting the unhappy vanquilh-
ed. The fecond reafon of a quarrel is, when one in¬
vades the feat of another: the third arifes from their
interfering in the difputes of others. Thefe battles are
very violent; the wounds they receive are very deep,
and referable the cuts of a fabre. At the end of a
fight they fling themfelves into the fea, to wafh away
the blood.
The males are very fond of their young, but very
tyrannical towards the females: if any body attempts
to take their cub, the male ftands on the defenfive,
while the female makes off with the young in her
mouth ; fhould fhe drop it, the former inftantly quits
his enemy, falls on her, and beats her againft the
ftones, till he leaves her for dead. As foon as (he re¬
covers, (he comes in the moft fuppliant manner to the
male, crawls to his feet, and wadies them with her
tears: he, in the mean time, (talks about in the moft
infulting manner; but in cafe the young one is carried
oft', he melts into the deepeft afflidtion, and (hews all
figns of extreme concern. It is probable that he feels
his misfortunes the more fenfibly, as the female ge-
Vol. VIII. x
61 ] P H O
nerally brings but one at a time, nevdr more than
two.
They fwitn very fwiftly, at the rate of feven miles
an hour. If wounded, they will feize on the boat, and
carry it along with vaft impetuofity, and oftentimes
fink it. They can continue a long time under water.
When they want to climb the rocks, they faften with
the fore-paws, and fo draw themfelves up. They are
very tenacious of life, and will live for a fortnight after
receiving fuch wounds as would immediately deftroy
any other animal.
2. The leonina, or fta-lion, is found near the fouth
pole. One variety of this fpecies is defcribed at fome
length by the publiftier of Anfon’s voyage. However,
according to others who have written on this fubjedf,
the name offea lion belongs not fo properly to this as
to another, which has a mane like a true lion. Of thefe
we have the following account from Pernety’s Hifto-
rical Journal. “ The hair that covers the back part
of the head, neck, and (boulders, is at lead as long
as the hair of a goat. It gives this amphibious ani¬
mal an air of relemblance to the common lion of the
foreft, excepting the difference of fize. The fea-lions
of the kind I fpeak of, are 25 feet in length, and
from 19 to 20 in their greateft circumference. In
other refpedls they refemble the fea-lions. Thofe of
the fmall kind have a head refenabling a maftiff’s, with
clofe cropt ears.
“ The teeth of the fea-lions which have manes, are
much larger and more folid than thofe of the reft. In
thefe, all the teeth which are inferted into the jaw¬
bone are hollow. They have only four large ones,
two in the lower and two in the upper jaw. The reft
are not even fo large as thofe of a horfe. I brought
home one belonging to the true fea-lion, which is at
lead three inches in diameter, and feven in length,
though not one of the largeft. We counted 22 of the
fame fort in the jaw-bone of one of thefe lions, where
five or fix were wanting. They were entirely folid,
and projedted fcarce more than an inch or an inch and
a half beyond their fockets. They are nearly equal in
folidity to flint, and are of a dazzling white. Seve- ,
ral of our feamen took them for white flints when they
found them upon the (bore. I could not even perfuade
them that they were not real flints, except by rubbing
them againft each other, or breaking fome pieces off,
to make them fenfible that they exhaled the fame fmell
as bones and ivory do when they are rubbed or
fcraped.
“ Thefe fea-lions that have manes, are not more
mifchievous or formidable than the others. They are
equally unwieldy and heavy in their motions; and
are rather difpofed to avoid than to fall upon thofe
who attack them. Both kinds live upon fi(h and
water-fowl, which they catch by furprife. They
bring forth and fuckle their young ones among the-
corn-flags, where they retire at night, and continue
to give them fuck till they are large enough to go to
fea. lu the evening you fee them affembling in herds
upon the (hore, and calling theirdams in cries fo much
like iambs, calves, and goats, that, uoiefs apprifed
of it, you would eafily be deceived. The tongue of
thefe animals is very good eating: we preferred it to
that of an ox or calf. For a trial we cut off the tip
34 R of
P H O [ 6162 ] P H 6
Phoca. of the tongue banging out of the mouth of one of
  thefe lions which was juft killed. About x 6 or x 8 of
us eat each a pretty large piece, and we all thought it
fo good, that we regretted we could not cut more
of it.
“ It is faid that their flefh is not abfolutely difa-
greeable. I have not tafted it : but the oil which is
extracted from their greafe is of great ufe. This oil is
extrafted two ways; either by cutting the fat in pie¬
ces, and melting it in large cauldrons upon the fire; or
by cutting it in the fame manner upon hurdles, or
pieces of board, and expofing them to the fun, or on¬
ly to the air: this greafe diffolves of itfelf, and runs
into vefiels placed underneath to receive it. Some of
our feamen pretended, that this laft fort of oil, when
it is freflt, is very good for kitchen ufes: this, as well
as the other, is commonly ufed for dreffing leather for
veflels, and for lamps. It is preferred to that of the
whale: it is always clear, and leaves no fediment.
“ The flctnsof the fea-lions are ufed chiefly in ma¬
king portmanteaus, and in covering trunks. When
they are tanned, they have a grain almoft like Moroc¬
co. They are not fo fine, but are lefs liable to tear,
and keep freflx a longer time. They make good
fhoes and boots, which, when well feafoned, are wa¬
ter-proof.
“ One day Mr Guyot and fome others brought on
board five fea-lionefles. They were about feven feet
long, and three and a half in circumference, tho’ their
inteftines were drawn. Thefe gentlemen had landed on
a fmall ifland, where they found a prodigious number
of thefe animals, and killed eight or nine hundred of
them with fticks. No other weapon is neceflary on
thefe occafions. A fingle blow with a bludgeon, three
feet'or three feet and a half long, almoft full at the
nofe of thefe animals, knocks them down, and kills
them on the fpot.
“This is not altogether the cafe with the fea-lions :
their fize is prodigious. Our gentlemen encountered
two of them for a long time, with the fame weapons,
without being able to overcome them. They lodged
three balls in the throat of one while he opened his
mouth to defend himfelf, and three mulket-fhot in his
body. The blood guihed from his wounds like wine
from a tap. However, he crawled into the water and
difappeared. A failor attacked the other, and enga¬
ged him for a long time, ftriking him on the head with
a bludgeon, without being able to knock him down :
the failor fell down very near his antagonift, but had the
dexterity to recover himfelf at the inftant the lion was
going to gorge him. Had he once feized him, the
man would infallibly have been loft : the animal would
have carried him into the water as they ufually do their
prey, and there feafted upon him. In his retreat to
the fea this animal feized a penguin, and devoured him
inftantaneoufly.”
3. Thevitulina, fea-calf, or common feal, inhabits
the European ocean. It has a fmooth head without
external ears. The common length of thofe taken on
the Bi itifti coafts is from five to fix feet. The fore¬
legs are deeply immerfed in the fkin of the body: the
hind-legs are placed in fuch a manner as to point dr-
reftly backwards: every foot is divided into five toes;
and each of thofe conne&ed by a ftrong and broad
web, covered on both fides with fhort hair. The toes
are furnifhed with ftrong claws, well adapted to afiift Phoca.
the animal in climbing the rocks it balks on: the daws 1
on the hind feet are flender, and ftraight ; except
at the ends, which are a little ineUrvated. The head
and nofe are broad and flat, like thofe of the otter; the
neck Ihort and thick ; the eyes large and black ; in
lieu of external ears, it has two fmall orifices: the
noftrils are oblong: on each fide the nofe are feve-
rai long ftiff hairs; and above each eye, are a few of
the fame kind. The form of the tongue is fo fingu-
lar, that were other notes wanting, that alone would
diftinguifli it from all other quadrupeds; being forked,
or flit at the end. The cutting teeth are Angular in
refpedl to their number, being fix in the upper jaw,
and only four in the lower. It has two canine teeth
above and below, and on each fide of the jaw five grin¬
ders ; the total 34. The whole animal is covered with
Ihort hair, very clofely fet together: the colour of
that on the body is generally dulky, fpotted irregular¬
ly with white; on the belly, white: but feals vary
greatly in their marks and colours, and fome have
been found entirely white.
The feal is common on mod of the rocky fhores of
Great Britain and Ireland, efpecially on the northern
coafts: in Wales, it frequents the coafts of Caernar-
vonlhire and Anglefey. It preys entirely on fi(h, and
never molefts the fea-fowl: for numbers of each are
often feen floating on the waves, as if in company.
Seals eat their prey beneath the water ; and in cafe
they are devouring any very oily fifb, the place is
known by a certain fmoothnefs of the waves imme¬
diately above. The power of oil in {tilling the waves
excited by a ftorm, is mentioned by Pliny : the mo¬
derns have made the experiment with fuccefs; and
thereby made one advance towards eradicating the vul¬
gar prejudices againft that great and elegant writer.
Seals are excellent fwimmers, and ready divers; and
are very bold when in the fea, fwimming carelefsly
enough about boats: their dens or lodgments are in
hollow rocks, or caverns, near the fea, but out of the
reach of the tide : in the fummer they will come out
of the water, to bafli or fleep in the fun, on the top of
large ftones or flxivers of rocks; and that is the op¬
portunity our countrymen take of {hooting them : if
they chance to efcape, they haften towards their pro¬
per element, flinging ftones and dirt behind them, as
they fcramble along ; at the fame time expreffing their
fears by piteous moans; but if they happen to be over¬
taken, they will make a vigorous defence with their
feet and teeth till they are killed. They are taken for
the fake of their {kins, and for the oil their fat yields:
the former fell for 4 s. or 4 s. 6 d. a-piece ; which,
when drefied, are very ufeful in covering trunks, ma¬
king waiftcoats, {hot-pouches, and feveral other con-
venieneies.
The flefti of thefe animals, and even of porpefes, for¬
merly found a place at the tables of the great; as ap¬
pears from the bill of fare of that vaft feaft that arch-
bifliop Nevill gave in the reign of Edward IV. in which,
is feen that feveral were provided on the occafion.
They couple about April, on large rocks, or fmall
iflands, not remote from the (hore ; and bring forth in
thofe vaft caverns that are frequent on our coafts ; they
commonly bring two at a time, which in their infant
ftate arc covered with a whitiftx down, ot woolly fub-
ftance
P H O [6;
. Phoca. ftance. The Teal-hunters in Caithnefs fay, that their
  'growth is fo fuddenj that in nine tides from their birth
(54 hours) they will become as aftive as their pa¬
rents. On the coaft of that country are immenfe ca¬
verns opening into the fea, and running fome hundreds
of yards beneath the land. Thefe are the refort of
feals in the breeding time, where they continue till
their young are old enough to go to fea, which is in
about hx or feven weeks. The firft of thefe caves is
near the Ord, the laft near Thrumfter : their entrance
is fo narrow, as only to admit a boat; their infide very
Spacious and lofty. In the month of Oftober, or the
beginning of November, the feal hunters enter the
mouths of the caverns about midnight, and rowing up
as far as they can, they land ; each of them being pro¬
vided with a bludgeon, and properly ftationed, light
their torches, and make a great noife, which brings
down the feals from the farther end in a confufed body
with fearful fhrieks and cries: at firft the men are obli¬
ged to give way for fear of being overborne; but when
the firft crowd* is paft, they kill as many as ftraggle
behind, chiefly the young, by ftriking them on the
nofe ; a very flight blow on that part difpatches them.
When the work is over, they drag the feals to the
boat, which two men are left to guard. This is a moft
hazardous employ ; for fhould their torches go out,
or the wind blow hard from fea during their continu¬
ance in the cave, tfceir lives are loft. The young feals
of fix weeks age, yield more oil than their emaciated
dams: above eight gallons have been got from a fingle
whelp, which fells from 6 d. to 9 d. per gallon ; the
Ikins from 6d. to tzd. each.
The natural hiftory of this animal may be further
elucidated, by the following extra&s from a letter of
the reverend Dr William Borlafe, dated October the
24t^» I7^3* “ feals are feen in the greateft
Zboiofy. P,enty on l^e ^ore8 Cornwall, in the months of
May, June, and July. They are of different fizes;
fome as large as a cow, and from that downwards to
a fmall calf. They feed on moft forts of fifh which
they can mafter; and are feen fearching for their prey
near fhore, where the whiftling fifh, wraws, and po-
lacks, refort. They are very fwift in their proper depth of
water, dive like a (hot, and in a trice rife at 50 yards di-
ftance; fo that -weaker fifties cannot avoid their ty¬
ranny, except in (hallow water. A perfon of the parifh
of Sennan, faw not long fince a feal in puriuit of a mul¬
let (that ftrong and fwift fifti) : the feal turned it to
and fro in deep water, as a gre-hound does a hare :
the mullet at laft found it had no way to efcape, but
by running into (hoal water: the feal purfued ; and
the former, to get more furely out of danger, threw it-
felf on its fide, by which means it darted into ftioaler
water than it could have fwam in with the depth of its
paunch and fins, and fo efcaped. The feal brings her
young about the beginning of autumn ; our fifhermen
have feen two fucking their dam at the fame time, as
/he flood in the fea in a perpendicular pofition. Their
head in fvvimming is always above water, more fo than
that of a dog. They fleep on rocks furrounded by the
fea, or on the lefs acceffibte parts of our cliffs left dry by
the ebb of the tide ; and if difturbed by any thing, take
care to tumble over the rocks into the ft a. ■ They are
extremely watchful, and never fleep long without mo¬
ving ; feldbm longer than a minute ;' then raife their
63 ] P h o
heads, and if they hear or fee nothing more than or¬
dinary, lie down again, ind fo on, raifing their heads
a little and reclining them alternately in about a mi-.
nute’s time. Nature feems to have given them this
precaution, as being unprovided with auricles or ex¬
ternal ears; and confequently not hearing very quick,
nor from any great diftance.”
PHOCJEA, the laft lown of Ionia, (Mela, Pli¬
ny) ; of jEolis, (Ptolemy), becaufe fituated on the
right or north fide of the river Hermus, which he
makes the boundary of iEolis to the fouth. It flood
far in the land, on a bay or arm of the fea ; had two
very fafe harbours, the one called Lampter, the other
Naujlatbmos, (Livy). It was a colony of lonians, fi¬
tuated in the territory of jEolis, (Herodotus). Maffi-
lia in Gaul was again a colony from it. Pboc&enfesi
the people, (Livy); Phacaicus, the epithet, (Lu¬
can) ; applied to Marfeilles. It was one of the 12 ci¬
ties which affembled in the panionium, or general
council of Ionia.
PHOCION, an Athenian general, and a great ora¬
tor. Demofthenes himfelf was afraid of his eloquence.
Philip of Macedon had fo great an eftetm of his cou¬
rage and military conduft, that he dreaded him. He
had as much moderation as Demofthenes had vehe¬
mence ; and by his prudent counfels diverted Alexander
from a war with the Athenians and with all Greece.
Alexander fent him prefents, and told him he was the
only perfon in Athens whom he acknowledged to be
an honed man : Phocion at the fame time was draw¬
ing water out of the well, and his wife was making of
bread; yet he wifely refufed the prefents. Antipater
alfo offered him great fums of money, which he like-
wife returned : his innocence and virtue rendered his
poverty honourable. He was obliged to take up arms
in defence of his country ; and bis conduft was fuc-
cefsful againft Philip of Macedon, and upon feveral
other occafions. He was at laft condemned on a falfe
accufation of treafon by his ungrateful fellow-citizens,
and put to death 318 B. C. After which the Athenians
erefted him a ftatue, and cut off his accufer.
PHOCIS, (Demofthenes, Strabo, Paufanias); a
country of Greece, contained between Boeotia to the
eaft, and Locris to the weft, but extending formerly
from the Sinus Corinthiacus on the fouth, to the fea
of Euboea on the north, and, according to Dionyfius,
as far as Thermopylae; but reduced afterwards to nar¬
rower bounds. Phocenfes iht people; Phocicus, the
epithet, (Juftin) ; Bellum Pbocicum, the facred war
which the Thebans and Philip of Macedon carried on
againft them for plundering the temple at Delphi;
and by which Philip paved the way to the fovereignty
of all Greece, (Juftin.)
PHOEBUS, one of the names given by ancient
mythologifts to the Sun, Sol, or Apollo. See A-
POLLO.
PHOENICIA, or more properly Phoenice, the
ancient name of a country lying between the 34th and
36th degrees of north latitude ; bounded by Syria on
the north and eaft,. by Judaea on the fouth, and by
the Mediterranean on the weft. Of its name there are
various derivations given. Some derive it from a chief
named Phoenix: others from the Greek word Phoenix,
fignifying a palm or date ; as if that tree had abound¬
ed remarkably in this country. According to Bochart,
34 R 2 its
Phocsta
Phaenicia,
P H O [ 6164 ] P H O
Phffinicia. Jts moft probable etymology is Phene Anaky that is,
“ the defcendants of Anak.”
It is univerfally allowed, that the Phoenicians were
defcendants of the Canaanites. Their country, how¬
ever, fmali as it was, comprehended feveral kingdoms,
viz. Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and Byblus. Of none
of thefe we have any certain hiftory excepting Tyre
and Sidon, which is given under thefe articles in the
order of the alphabet. But their language and reli¬
gion were diffufed over feveral nations who proceeded
from them as colonies, particularly the Carthaginians,
and are therefore better known.
The language of the Phoenicians was little different
from that of the ancient Canaanites, and confequently
a dialeft of the Hebrew. Their charaflers were either
the very fame with the Samaritan, or but little diffe¬
rent from them. The fame may be faid of the lan¬
guage of the Carthaginians, who, being a Phoenician
colony, mull originally have fpoken the fame with
that of the mother-country. However, it is probable
that in after-ages it differed confiderably. This in¬
deed has been fully proved by Selden, Scaliger, Pitt,
and Bochart, the laftof whom has colledled a number
of Punic words, and traced all of them up to the He¬
brew or Phoenician. A few of thefe words are given
in the following table.
Hebrew or Phoenician.
Zachseus
Amalec
Hinnon, or Hanun
Hannabaal,orBaal-Hanan
Ezra, or Ezdras-Baal
Barac
Magog
Adar, or Ader-baal
Mehir, or Maher-baal
Punic.
Sichaeus.
Amilco, or Himilco.
Hanno.
Hannibal.
Afdrubal.
Barca.
Mago
Adherbal.
Maherbal.
According to Prifcian and St Audio, the Punic or
Carthaginian language had an admixture of the Chal¬
dee and Syriac ; and Salmafius intimates, that, accord-
ding to fome, the Punic language agreed in many re-
fpe&s with the Egyptian. Nay, M. Maius, profeffor
of the Greek and Oriental languages in the Ludovician
Univerfity of Gieffen, puhlifhed a fmali piece in the
year 1718, wherein he (hows, that the language of
the modern Mahefe has a great deal of the old Punic
in it, and that thefe words are farther diftant from
the Arabic than from the ancient Hebrew or Chal¬
dee.
With regard to religion, the Phoenicians were the moft
grofs and abominable idolaters. The Baal-berith,
Baalzebub, Baalfamen, &c. mentioned in Scripture
were fome of the Phoenician gods ; as were alfothe Mo¬
loch, Afhtaroth, andThamnuiz, mentionedin thefacred
writings.—The word Baal, in itfelf an appellative,
was no doubt applied to the true God, until he rejefled
it on account of its being fo much profaned by the
idolaters. The name was not appropriated to any par¬
ticularly deity among the idolatrous nations, but was
common to many ; however, it was generally imagined
that one great God prefided over all the reft. Among
the Phoenicians this deity was named Baal far/(en,
whom the Hebrews would have callen Baal-Jhemim,
or the God of heaven. In all probability this was alfo
the principal Carthaginian deity, though his Punic
same is unknown. We have many religious rites of
the Carthaginians handed down to us by the Greek Phoenicia,
and Roman writers ; but they all beftowed names of
their own gods upon thofe of the Carthaginians,
which leads us to a knowledge of the correfpondence
between the charafters of the Phoenician and European
deities. The principal deity of Carthage, according
to Diodorus Siculus, was Chronus or Saturn. The
facrifices offered up to him were children of the heft
families. Our author alfo tells us, that the Cartha¬
ginians had a brazen ftatue or coloffus of this god,
the hands of which were extended in adl to receive,
and bent downwards in fuch a manner, that the child
laid thereon immediately fell down into a hollow
where there was a fiery furnace. He adds alfo, that
this inhuman praftice feemed to confirm a tradition
handed down to the Greeks from very early antiquity,
viz. that Saturn devoured his own children.
The goddefs Cceleftis, or Urania, was held in the
higheft veneration by the Carthaginians. She is
thought to have been the fame with the queen of hea¬
ven mentioned in Jeremiah, the Juno Olympia of the
Greeks. According to Hefyfhius the fame word ap¬
plied in the Punic langage both to Juno and Venus.
Nay, the ancient Greeks frequently confound Juno,
Venus, and Diana or the moon, all together; which
is to be attributed to the Egyptians and Phoenicians,
from whom they received their fyftem of religion; who
feem in the moft ancient times to have had but one
name for them all. Befides thefe there were feveral
other deities of later date, who were worfhipped among
the Phoenicians, particularly thofe of Tyre, and confe¬
quently among the Carthaginians alfo. Thefe were
Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, and Bacchus. Jupiter was
worlhipped under the name of Belus or Baal. To him
they addreffed their oaths, and placed him for the
moft part, as there is reafon to believe, at the head
of their treaties. The fame name was alfo given to
the other two, whence they were frequently miftaken
for one another. Apollo or the fun went either by
this name fimply, or by others of which this made a
part.
The Carthaginian fuperftition, however, was not
confined to thefe deities alone. They worfhipped alfo
the fire, air, and other elements; and had gods of
rivers, meads, &c. Nay, they paid divine honours to
the fpirits of their heroes, and even to men and women
themfelves while yet in life ; and in this adoration
Hannibal the Great had for fome time a (hare, not-
withftanding the infamous con^uft of his countrymen
towards him at laft. In order to worftiip thofe gods
with more conveniency on all occafions, the Carthagi¬
nians had 3 kind of portable temples. Thefe were
only covered chariots, in which were fome fmali images
reprefenting their favourite deities; and which were
drawn by oxen. They were alfo a kind of oracle,
and their refponfes were underftood by the motion
impreffed upon the vehicle. This was likewife an
Egyptian or Libyan cuftom, and Tacitus informs us
that the ancient Germans had fomething of the fame
kind. The tabernacle of Moloch is thought to have
been a machine of this kind, and it is not improbable
that the whole was derived from the tabernacle of the
Jews in the wildernefs.
Befides all the deities abovementioned, we dill find
another, named the Damn or Genius of Carthage,
menioned
P H O [6i
o:Benicop- mentioned in the treaty made by Philip of Macedon
tUhcenU anc* ^ann‘t'a^ What this deity might be, we know
 !__not; however, it may be obferved, that the pagan
world in general believed in the exiftence of demons, or
intelligences who had a kind of middle nature between
gods and men, and to whom the adminiftration of the
I . world was in a great meafure committed. Hence it
is no wonder that they fhonld have received religious
honours. For when once mankind were pofleffed with
the opinion that they were the minifters of the gods,
and trufted with the difpenfation of their favours, as
well as the infli&ion of their punifhments, it is natural
to fuppofe that they would be defirous of making their
addreffes to them.
PHOENICOPTERUS, or Flamingo, in orni-
tholagy, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
grails. The beak is naked, teethed, and bent as if it
was broken ; the noftrils are linear ; the feet are pal-
mated, and four-toed. There is but one fpecies; viz.
the Bahamenfis of Catelby, a native of Africa and A-
merica.
ii Plate This bird refembles the heron in (hape, excepting
gxxxvm. ^ {jju^ wh;ch |s 0f a very fingular form. It is two
1 s'years old before it arrives at its perfeft colour ; and
then it is entirely red, excepting the quill-feathers,
which are black. A full-grown one is of equal weight
with a wild duck ; and when it (lands eredt, it is five
feet high. The feet are webbed. The flefh is deli-
[ cate; and mcft refembles that of a partridge in tafte.
The tongue, above any other part, was in the higheft
efteem with the luxurious Romans. Thefe birds make
their nefts on hillocks in (hallow water; on which they
fit with thsir legs extended down, like a man fitting on
a (tool. They breed on the coa(ls of Cuba, and the
Bahama {(lands in the Weft Indies; and frequent falt-
water only. By reafon of the particular (hape of its
bill, this bird, in eating, twifts its neck from fide to
fide, and makes the upper mandible touch the ground.
Thefe birds are very ftupid, and will not rife at the re¬
port of a gun ; nor is it any warning to thofe who fur-
vive, that they fee other* killed by their fide; fo that,
by keeping himfelf out of a fight, a fowler may kill as
msry as he pleafes.
PHOENIX, in aftronomy. See there, n° 206%
Phoenix, the Great Pain:, or Date-tree; a genus of
plants belonging to the order of palmae. There is only
one fpecies, viz. the dadlylifera, orxommon date-tree,
a native of Africa and the eaftern countries, where it
grows to 50, 60, and too fret high. The trunk is
round, upright, and ftudded with protuberances, which
are the veftiges of the decayed leaves. From the top
iffues forth a clufter of leaves or branches eight or nine
feet long, extending all round like an umbrella, and
bending a little towards the earth. The bottom part
produces a number of (talks like thofe of the middle,
j but feldom (hooting fo high as four or five feet. Thefe
ftatks, fays Adanfon, diffufe the tree very confider-
ably ; fo that, wherever it naturally grows in forefts,
it is extremely difficult to open a paffage through its
prickly leaves. The flowers are male and female up¬
on different roots. The dates, which.are the produce
of the female plant, grow in large fpiral clutters, each
being about the bignefs and (hape of a middling olive,
and containing within the pulp, which is of a yellow
colour and agreeable tafte, a round, ftrong, hard nut
65 ] P H O
or (lone, of an adt-colour, marked with a deep fur- Phoenix,
row, running lengthwife. Of the frefti dates and fu- —
gar, fays Haffelquift, the Egyptians make a conferve,
which has a very pleafant talle. The kernels or (tones,
though hard as horn, they grind in hand-mills, and,
in default of better food, give to their camels. Of the
leaves are made bafkets, or bags, which are much ufed
in Turky on journeys, and for other ceconomical ufes.
In Egypt they are ufed as fly-flaps, for driving away
the numerous infers which prove fo troublefome in
hot countries; and Rauwold relates, that of the fibres
of the leaves and covering of the fruit are fpun ropes,
of pretty large dimenfions and confiderable ftrength.
The hard boughs are ufed for fences and other pur-
pofes of hufbandry ; the principal (tern for building;
in fine, no part of this curious tree wants its ufe. The
fruit, before it is ripe, is fomewhat aftringent ; but
when thoroughly mature, is of the nature of the fig.
The Senegal dates are fhorter than thofe of Egypt,
but much thicker in the pulp, which is faid to have a
fugary agreeable tafte, fuperior to that of the beft
dates of the Levant.
Thefe plants may be eafily produced from the feeds
taken out of the fruit, (provided they are frefli),
which (hould be fown in pots filled with light rich
earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed of tanners
bark, which (hould be kept in a moderate tempera¬
ture of heat, and the earth frequently refreflied with wa¬
ter. When the plants are come up to a proper fize, they
(hould be each planted into a feparate fmall pot, filled,
with the fame light earth, and plunged into a hot-bed
again, obferving to refrefh them with water, as alfo
to let them have air in proportion to the warmth of
the feafonand the bed in which they are placed. Du¬
ring the fummer-time they (hould remain in the fame
hot-bed; but in the beginning of Auguft, you (hould
let them have a great (hare of air to harden them
againft the approach of winter; for if they are too
much forced, they will be fo tender as not to be pre,
ferved through the winter without much difficulty,
efpecially if you have not the conveniency of a bark-
ftove to keep them in. The foil in which thefe plants
(hould be placed, mutt; be compofed in the following
manner, viz. half of light frefh earth taken from a
pafture-ground, the other half fea-fand and rotten dung
or tanners bark in equal proportion ; thefe (hould be
carefully mixed, and laid in a heap three or four
months at lead before it is ufed, but (hould be often
turned over to prevent the growth of weeds, and to
fweeten the earth.
Phoenix, in ornithology, a bird famous among the.
ancients, but generally looked upon by the moderns
as fabulous. The ancients fpeak of this bird as (ingle,
or the only one of its kind ; they deferibe it as of the
fize of an eagle ; its head finely crefted with a beauti¬
ful plumage, its neck covered with feathers of a gold
colour, and the reft of its body purple, only the tail
white, and the eyes fparkling like ftars: they hold,
that it lives 500 or 600 years in the wildernefs; that
when thus advanced in age, it builds itfelf a pile of
fweet wood and aromatic gums, and fires it with the
wafting of its wings, and thus burns itfelf; and that
from its afhes arifes a worm, which in time grows up
to be a phoenix. Hence the Phoenicians gave the
name ofphesnix to the palm-tree; becaufe when burnt
downt
Phols?
' Plaie“
ccxxxvx
fig. *.
P H O r 6166 P H o
• down to the root, it rifes again fairer than ever.
PHOLAS, a genus of infe&s, belonging to the
u order of vermes teftacea. The (hell is double-valved
and divaricated ; the cardo is turned backwards, and
conne&ed by a cartilage. There are fix fpecies, diftin-
guifhed by the figure of their (hells.
The word pholas is derived from the Greek, and
fignifks fomething which lies hid. This name they de¬
rive from their property of making themfelves holes in
the earth, fand, wood, or (tone, and living in them.
The means of their getting there, however, are as yet
entirely unknown. All that we can know with cer¬
tainty is, that they muft have penetrated thefe fub-
ftances when very fmall; becaufe the entrance of the
hole in which the pholas lodges is always much lefs than
the inner part of it, and indeed than the (hell of the
pholas itfelf. Hence fome have fuppofed that they were
hatched in holes accidentally formed in (tones, and
that the (tones naturally grew of fuch a lhape as was
neceflary to fill the cavity.
The holes in which the Pholades lodge are ufually
twice as deep, at lead, as the (hells themfelves are long;
the figure of the holes is that of a truncated cone, ex¬
cepting that they are terminated at the bottom by a
rounded cavity, and their pofition is ufually fomewhat
oblique to the horizon. The openings of thefe holes
are what betray the pholas being in the done ; but
they are always very fmall, in proportion to the fize
of the fifh. There feems to be no progrefiive motion
of any animal in nature fo (low as that of the pholas ;
it is immerfed in the hole, and has no movement ex¬
cept a fmall one towards the centre of the earth ; and
this is only proportioned to the growth of the animal.
Its work is very difficult in its motion; but it has
great time to perform it in, as it only moves downward,
finking itfelf deeper in the (lone as it increafes itfelf in
bulk. That part by means of which it performs this,
is a flefhy fubftance placed near the lower extremity of
the (hell; it is of the (hape of a lozenge, and is con-
fiderably large in proportion to the fize of the animal;
and though it be of a foft fubftance, it is not to be
wondered at that in fo long a time it is able, by con-
ftant work, to burrow into a hard (lone. The manner
of their performing this may be feen by taking one of
them out of the (tone, and placing it upon foroe foft
clay ; for they will immediately get to work in bend¬
ing and extending that part allotted to dig for them,
and in a few hours they will bury themfelves in the
mud in as large a hole as they had taken many years
to make in the done. They find little refiftance in fo
foft a fubftance, and the neceffity of their hiding them¬
felves evidently makes them haften their work. The
animal is lodged in the lower half of the hole in the
llone, and the upper half is filled up by a pipe of a
deftiy fubdance and conic figure, truncated at the end :
this they ufually extend to the orifice of the hole, and
place on a level with the furface of the (lone ; but they
feldom extend it any farther than this. The pipe, tho’
it appears (ingle, is in reality compofed of two pipes,
or at leaftr it is compofed of two parts feparated by a
membrane. The ufe of this pipe or probofcis, is the.
fame with that of the probofcis of other (hell-fifh, to
take in fea-water into their bodies, and afterwards to
throw it out again. In the middle of their bodies they
have a fmall.green veflcl, the ufe of which has not yet
been difeovered. This, when plunged in fpirit of wine, Pholas
becomes of a purple colour: but its colour on linen
will not become purple in the fun like that of the mu-
rex ; and even if it would, its quantity is too fmall to
make it worth preferving.
The pholas is remarkable for its luminous quality.
That this fi(h is luminous was noticed by Pliny, who
obferves that it (hines in the mouth of the perfon who
eats it; and, if it touch his hands or cloaths, makes
them luminous. He alfo fays that the light depends
upon its moifture. The light of this fifti has furnilhed
matter for various obfervations and experiments to M.
Reaumur and the Bolognian academicians, efpecially
Beccariu9,who took fo much pains with the fubjeA of
phofphoreal light.
M. Reaumur obferves, that whereas other fifties give
light when they tend to putrefcence, this is more lu- J
minous in proportion to its being frefti; that when
they are dried, their light will revive if they be moift-
ened either with frefh or fait water, but that brandy
immediately extinguifties it. He endeavoured to make
this light permanent, but none of his fchemes fuc-
ceeded.
The attention of the Bolognian academicians was
engaged to this fubjeft by M. F. Marfilius, in 1724,
who brought a number of thefe fifties, and the (tones
in which they were inclofed, to Bologna, on purpofe
for their examination.
Beccarius obferved, that though this fifti ceafed to
(hine when it became putrid, yet that in its moft pu¬
trid date, it would (hine, and make the water in which
it was immerfed luminous when it was agitated. Ga-
leatius and Montius found that wine or vinegar ex-
tinguiflied this light; that in common oil it continued
fome days, but in reftified fpirit of wine or urine
hardly a minute.
In order to obferve in what manner this light was
affefted by different degrees of heat, they made ufe of
a Reaumur’s thermometer, and found that water ren¬
dered luminous by thefe fifties increafed in light till
the heat arrived to 450, but that it then became fud-
denly extinff, and could not be revived again.
In the experiments of Beccarius, a folution of fea-
falt increafed the light of the luminous water, a folu¬
tion of nitre did not increafe it quite fo much. Sal
ammoniac diminifhed it a little, oil of tartar per deli-
quium nearly extinguiftied it, and the acids entirely.
This water poured upon frefh calcined gypfum, rock
cry dal, cerufs, or fuga r, become more luminous. He
alfo tried the effe&s of it when poured upon various
other fubftances, but there was nothing very remark¬
able in them. Afterwards, ufing luminous miilt, he
found that oil of vitriol extinguiftied the light, but that
of tartar increafed it.
This gentleman had the curiofity to try how diffe¬
rently coloured fubftances were affefted by this kind
of light ; and having, for this purpofe, dipped feve-
ral ribbons in it, the white came out the brighteft,
next to this was the yellow, and then the green ; the ;
other colours could hardly be perceived. It was not, ;
however, any particular colour, but only light, that
was perceived in this ca>fe. He then dipped boards
painted with the different colours, and alfo glafs tubes
filled with fubftances of different colours, in water ren¬
dered luminous by the fifties. In both thsfe cafes, the
P H O [ 61
red was fiardly vifible, the yellow was the"brighteft,
5 and the violet the dulleft. But on the hoards, the
blue was nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more
languid ; whereas in the glafles, the blue was inferior
to the green.
Of all the liquors to which he put the pholades, milk
was rendered the moft luminous. A fingle pholas
made feven ounces of milk fo luminous, that the faces
of perfons might be diftinguiihed by it, and it looked
as if it was tranfparent.
Air appeared to be necefiary to this light; for when
Beccarius put the luminous milk into glafs tubes, no
agitation would make it Ihine, unlefs bubbles of air
were mixed with it. Alfo Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhaufted receiver, the pholas loti
its light, But the water was fometimes made more lu¬
minous ; which they aferibed to the rifmg of bubbles
of air through it.
Beccarius, as well as Reaumur, had many fchemes
to render the light of thefe pholades permanent. For
this purpofe he kneaded the juice into a kind of pafte
with flour, and found that it would give light when it
was immerfed in warm water; but it anfvvered beft to
preferve the fifh in honey. In any other method of
prefervation, the property of becoming luminous would
not continue longer than fix months, but in honey it
had laded above a year; and then it would, when
plunged in warm water, give as much light as ever it
had done.
PHON ICS, the do&rine or fcience of founds, other-
wife called Acoustics. See that article.
PHOSPHORUS, a name given to certain fubftan-
ces which (hine in the dark without emitting heat. By
this circumftance they are didinguiflied from the /yro-
phori, which though they take fire on being expofed
to the air, are yet entirely deftitute of light before
this expofure.
Phofphori are divided into feveral kinds, known by
the names of Bolognian phofphorus, Mr Canton's phof-
phorus, Baldwin's phofphorus, phofphorus of urine, &c.
of which the lad is by far the mod remarkable both
with refpecl to the quantity of light which it emits,
and its property of taking fire and burning very
fiercely upon being (lightly heated or rubbed. For
the method of preparing thefe, fee Chemistry, n° 193,
476—486.
Befides thefe, however, it has been found that ahnoft
all terredrial bodies, upon being expofed to the light,
will appear luminous for a little time in the dark, me¬
tals only excepted. This points out a general divifion of
the phofphori into two clafles; namely, fuch as require
to be expofed to the light either of the fun, or of fome
artificial fire, before they become luminous; and fuch
as do not. Of the former kind are the Bolognian phof¬
phorus, Mr Canton’s phofphorus, the phofphori from
earths, &c. Of the latter kind are rotten wood, the
ikins of fifhes, and the phofphorus of urine. To thefe
we may add fome other fubdances which become lumi¬
nous in another way; viz. the mafs which remains af¬
ter the didillation of volatile fal ammoniac with chalk,
foaf-fugar, and the phofphorus of urine difiblved in
fpirit of wine. The fird, which is a compofition of
the marine acid of the fal ammoniac with the chalk,
after being fufed in a crucible, becomes luminous when
ftruck with any hard body ^ white fugar is luminous,
67 ] P H O
when grated or feraped in the dark ; and the folution Phofphorus
of phofphorus in fpirit of wine is luminous only when
dropped into water, and even then the light is only
perceived where the drops fall into the liquid. One
part of phofphorus communicates this property to
600,000 parts of fpirit of wine.
There is a remarkable difference between the light
of rotten wood, fifhes, and that of phofphorus of
urine, even when it is not in an ignited date ; for this
bft does not ceafe to be luminous even when included
within an exhauded receiver, the contrary of which
happens to rotten wood and fifties. If air is drongly
blown upon this phofphorus from a pair of bellows, it
will extinguifh its light for fome time, which i« not
the cafe with the other kinds. When kept in water,
and placed in a warm air, the phofphorus of urine dif-
charges fuch large and bright flaffies into the air above
it, as are apt to furprife and even frighten thofe who are
unacquainted with it. Thefe corufcations are contrac¬
ted in their paffage through the water, but expand as
foon as they get above it; however, the experiment can
only be tried to advantage in warm weather, and in a
cylindrical glafs not above three quarters filled with
water.
The phenomena exhibited by the earthy phofphori'
are very curious; both on account of the Angular cir-
cumdances in which they exhibit their light, and the
varieties obferved in the light itfelf. All thefe, as has
been already mentioned, emit no light till they have
been fird expofed to the light of the fun, or fome other
luminous body. After that, they are luminous in the
dark for a confiderable time ; but by degrees their
light dies away, and they emit no more till after ano¬
ther expofurc to the fun. But if this happens to be
too long continued, they are then irrecoverably fpoil-
ed. The fame thing will happen from being too much
heated without any expofure to light. Indeed, if a
phofphorus, which has jud ceafed to be luminous, be
heated, it will again emit light without any expofure
to the fun ; but by this its phofphoric quality is wea¬
kened, and will at lad be dedroyed. Indeed thefe
phofphori are fo tender, and impatient either of light
or heat, that the bed method of rendering them lumi¬
nous occafionally is by difeharging an eiedtric bottle
near them. The light of the flafh immediately kindles
the phofphorus, and it continues luminous for a confi¬
derable time, after which it may again be revived by
another flafh, and fo on. However, with all the cafe
that can be taken, thefe phofphori are very far from
being perpetual; nor has any method been yet fallen
upon to render them fo.
The Angularities in the light of the phofphori 3-
bovementioned are, that they emit light of many dif¬
ferent and moft beautiful colours. This difference of
colours feems to be natural to them ; for fome will at
firft emit a green, others a red, others a violet, &c.
at their formation. However, the beft kinds agree
in this ftrange property, that if they are expofed to a
red light, they emit a red light in the dark; and the
fame of other colours. But this mud not be undef-
ftood without limitation; nor is the phofphoreal light
at any time fo bright as the luminous body, whatever-
it was, by which it was kindled. Neither are we to
imagine, that any particular phofphorus has a particu¬
lar kind ftf light appropriated to it; for the fame phof¬
phorus .
P H O [ 6168 ] P H O
article
Cold,
ft0 4.
Phofphorusphorus which at one time emits a purple light, will at
another perhaps emit a green, ora light of fome other
colour.
The explanation of the principal phenomena of phof-
phorus is deducible from what has been (hown concern¬
ing the nature of fire, compared with what is mentioned
tinder the article Quicklime. Under this laft article it
is fiiown, that, when calcareous earths are deprived of
their fixed air, a proportionable quantity of adtive fire
is abforbcd by them; that is, the etherial fluid, which
pervades all bodies, has a violent tendency to expand
itfelf, or to adl all around every particle of the calci¬
ned earth, as from a centre. Of confequence, if this
tendency was not counteradted by fome other power,
thefe fubftances would emit a perpetual flame. This
power, however, is found in our atmofphere; which
has already been fiiown either to be the pofitive prin-
* See the ciple of cold, or to contain it *. Hence, the latent fire
in thefe fubftances is checked, and cannot adt, excep¬
ting within the very fubftance itfelf. But if any other
body comes in contadf with the calcined earth, in which
the principle of cold is lefs vigorous than in the atmo¬
fphere, the adlive fire in the quicklime immediately
fhows itfelf, and the body either becomes hot, or is
confumed as if by fire. Hence it will follow, that if
a very inflammable body is touched by quicklime, it
ought to be fet on fire. But of this we have no in-
ftance, becaufe it is impoffible for the quicklime to
part with any of its fire, unlefs it receives fomething
in exchange. This indeed it might receive from the
atmofphere ; which could fupply it either with more
fire, if it was in a ftate of ignition; or with fixed air,
if any fubftance was at hand to receive the fire. But
the atmofphere refnfes to part with, the fire which it
contains, becaufe the effort of the fire in the quickfil-
ver is not fufficiently ftrong to overcome the oppofition
it meets with in other bodies; and, on the other hand,
the effort of the fire in the quicklime is fufficient to
keep the earth from attradfing fixed air out of the at¬
mofphere. But when water, for inftance, is poured
on the quicklime, the dry earth abforbs it very gree¬
dily, and parts with a proportionable quantity of its
latent fire, which the water alfo abforbs much more
readily than the atmofphere. Hence the mixture be¬
comes fo exceedingly hot as fometimes to fire combu-
ftible bodies. Now, if inftead of water we fuppofe
the lime to be mixed with oil, this alfo will abforbthe
fire; but not with fuch force as the water ; neither is
the heat by any means fo confiderable ; becaufe oil is
capable of detaining a vaft quantity of heat in a latent
ftate, the only confequence of which is an increafe of
its fluidity, without any very perceptible change of
temperature. At the fame time, however, we muft
remember, that if the oil is in very fmall quantity, and
intimately combined with the quicklime in that pe¬
culiar ftate which we call phlogijion, it is eafy to con¬
ceive, that it may be fo much faturated with fire, as to
be unable to contain any more without being ignited.
In this cafe, if more fire is forced into the compound,
a quantity of the phlogiftic matter which it contains will
be decompounded ; and of confequence, the fire which
it has imbibed will be thrown out, as in the common
ignition of vapour; and in proportion to the degree of
heat thus communicated, will the degree of ignition
and the continuance of it be. If the quantity of heat
is very great, the phlogifton will be diflipated all atPhofpM
once; but if otherwife, the ignition will continue for 1
a much greater length of time, as is the cafe with a
common fire.
To apply this to the accenfion of phofphori, we J
muft confider, that thefe fubftances are all formed by
calcining calcareous fubftances, and combining them
with fome portion of phlogiftic matter. Baldwin’s
pbofphorus is made by diflblving chalk in thd nitrous
acid, afterwards evaporating the folution, and driving
off moft of the acid. The confequence of this is, that >
the earth is left in an exceedingly cauftic ttate, as the
acid expels the fixed air more completely than could i
be done almoft by any calcination whatever;, at the
fame time that any phlogiftic matter which might have
been contained in the mixture is moft accurately diffu-
fed through it, and combined with it. The Bolog-
nian phofphorus is compofed of a gypfeous earth,
which contains a quantity of vitriolic acid; and as no
mineral is to be found perfe&Iy free from phlogiftic |j
matter, the vitriolic acid unites with it during the cal¬
cination into an exceedingly inflammable fulphur; for j
the greater the quantity of acid there is in proportion i
to the phlogifton, the more inflammable is the com¬
pound f. Thus the Bolognian, as well as Baldwin’s f See th#
phofphorus, is a compound of quicklime and gu'^pj^
mable matter; and the cafe is ftill more plain with re¬
gard to Mr Canton’s, where the quicklime is mixed
with fulphur, and both calcined together.—Neither
are the phofphori made by calcining oyfter-fhells with¬
out addition to be accounted any way different from
thofe already mentioned ; fince the fhells always con¬
tain fome portion of inflammable matter, which, being
reduced to a coal by the aftion of the fire, furnifhes a
quantity of phlogifton, and imparts it to the whole of
the calcareous matter.
Having thus feen that the phofphori of which we
now fpeak are all compofed of pure calcareous earth
and phlogifton, we are next to confider, that the phlo¬
gifton muft; be in fuch a ftate as it is when faturated j
with fire and ready to inflame. It is not indeed in
the ftate of vaponr, becanfe this would require a quan- ;
tity of fire detached from any other fubftance, and in-
terpofed between the particles of the vapour, in order !
to keep them at a diftance, or to give it elafticity. But
the fire which ought to do this is confined by the cal¬
careous earth, which alfo detains the phlogifton itfelf.
As long therefore as the balance is thus preferved, the
phofphorus cannot fhine; but as foon as a frefh quan- !
tity of light is difeharged upon it, then more light or |
fire (for they are the very fame in this cafe), enters the
quicklime than it can contain. The confequence of |
this is, that the quantity which cannot be retained by
the earth, exerts its force upon the phlogifton; which
having already as much as it can hold, not only the fu-
perfluous quantity is difeharged, but alfo part of that
which the phlogifton had abforbed before. The burn¬
ing indeed is very flow and weak, becaufe the phlogi¬
fton is obitinately retained by the earth, which both
impedes the ignition, and prevents the diflipation of
the phlogifton in vapour. However, as foen as the
lime has by its aftion impeded the farther extrication
of the phlogifton, the balance is reftored, the fire goes
out, and the phofphorus ceafes to be luminous. Heat
will kindle it again ; but thus a larger quantity of
phlogiftic j
P H O [ 6169 ] P H O
ofphorus phloglftic matter is diffipated, and the phofphorus is
 foon deftroyed. Light does the fame, but in a much
more moderate degree ; and therefore the phofphorus
may be frequently rekindled by means of light, and
will continue its fplendor for a long time. But if the
light is too long continued, or too violent, it will pro¬
duce the fame confequence whether it is attended with
perceptible heat or not.
With regard to the phofphorus of urine, the cafe is
the fame; only, inflead of the calcareous earth, we
have here an acid joined with phlogifton. The latter
is in exceeding fmall quantity, and of confequence fo
loaded with fire that the lead additional heat, rub¬
bing, or alteration in the weather, forces more fire
upon it than it can bear, and therefore part of it is
continually flashing off in thofe corufcations formerly
mentioned. The reafon why this phofphorus flalhes
like lightning, and the others give only a fteady light
like coals, is, that the compound is very volatile. It
requires indeed a violent fire to dilh'll it at firft ; but
in the diftillation fo much fire is imbibed, that it feems
ever afterwards ready to evaporate fpontaneoufly ; and
therefore phofphorus, when once made, is eafily re-
ditlilled in clofe veffels.
It now remai-ns only to (how the reafon why the
phofphorus of urine and fome others will (bine under
water, or in an exhaufted receiver, while rotten wood,
&c. will not. This feems to arife from the quantity
of fire which they have internally, and which requires
no fupply from the external air as in the cafe of com¬
mon fire: and hence the phofphorus of urine (bines
more brifidy in vacuo than in the air; becaufe the
prelfure of the atmofphere is then taken off, and the
evaporation of the phlogifiic matter promoted. The
light of fillies and rotten wood feems to be of an
de&ric nature ; and therefore ceafes when the air is ex¬
haufted, as on this fluid all the phenomena of elec¬
tricity are found to depend.
With regard to the various colours of phofphoric
light, fome have imagined that the earthy fub-
ftance was capable of imbibing a certain quantity of
light, and emitting it afterwards in the very fame
Hate, and having the fame colour which it had before.
But this is now known to be a miftake, and the light
of the phofphori is found to be owing to a true ac-
cenfion, though weak, as in other burning bodies.
Hence it is very probable that the colour of the light
depends upon the degree of accenfion; for we fee that
even in common fires the colour depends in a great
meafure on the ftrength of the flame. Thus the flame
of a candle, where it is not well kindled at bottom,
always appears blue. The flame of a fmall quantity
offulphur, or offpirit of wine, is blue ; but if a large
quantity of either of thefe fubftances be fet on fire, the
flame will in many places appear white. A ftrong
flame mixed with much fmoke appears red. A weak
one in fimilar circumftances appears brown, See.
Hence if the phofphorus is weakly kindled, it will emit
a brown, violet, blue, or green flame ; if ftrongly, a
red or white one.
It has already been mentioned, that almoft all ter-
reftrial bodies have a phofphoric quality ; however
this, in moft of them, is extremely weak, and continues
only for a very ftiort time. Signor Beccaria, who
difeovered this property, ia order to find out what
Vox.. VIII.
fubftances were phofphoric, and what were not, hadPhofph
a machine contrived like a dark lanthorn, in which he
included himfelf, in order to perceive with the greater
facility any fmall quantity of light which might be
emitted by the fubftances which he defigned to exa¬
mine. In the fide of the machine was a cylinder ca¬
pable of being turned about without admitting any
light. Upon this were pafled the fubftances he de¬
figned to examine, and by turning the cylinder he
immediately brought them from the light of the fun
into intenfe darknefs ; in which fituation there were
but few fubftances which did not afford a fufficient
quantity of light to render themfelves vifible. Tin's
phaenomenon, however, is evidently fimilar to an op¬
tical illufion by which we are made to fee what is not
prefent before us; for if we look very intenfely upon
any thing for fome time, fuffering no more light to
enter our eyes than what is refledled from that objedt,
we will imagine that we ftill fee it, though we remove
into the dark or (hut our eyes. The reafon of this
is, that the nervous fluid being once put in motion
after a certain manner, continues that motion for a
fhort fpace of time after the moving caufe is removed.
In like manner, as the light is partly refledfed from
bodies, and partly penetrates them, when any body
is expofed to the light, and then is fuddenly brought
into a dark place, the etherial fluid within its (ub-
ftance being once put into motion does not ceafe to
move immediately, but for a time produces that vi¬
bration which we call light; for the fubftance of light
is prefent in the moft intenfe darknefs as well as in fun-
(hine. Hence almoft ail fubftances are capable of
emitting light in the dark, after being expofed to a
vigorous funfhine ; though the reafon of their doing
fo may be very different from that by which the pho¬
fphori become luminous.
Many entertaining experiments may be made with
the various kinds of phofphori, efpceially with that of
urine. This laft, however, is fometimes dangerous
on account of the violence with which it burns. If
difiblved in oil of cloves, it lofes this property, but
continues to be as luminous as before ; fo that this
mixture, called liquid phofphorus, may be ufed with
fafety. As on fome occafions it may be wiftied to
have it in powder, it is proper to obferve that this
may be done with fafety by pouring fome hot water
upon the phofphorus in a glafs mortar. The com¬
pound melts, and while in a foft date is eafily reducible
to powder of any degree of finenefs.
dcid c/" Phosphorus. This acid, called alfo the
microcoftnic acid, has already been deferibed, and the
method of procuring it from urine (hown, under the
article Chemistry, n° 307, 308. Sincethat article was
written, however, it has been difeovered by Mr Scheie,
that an acid capable of making phofphorus is produ¬
cible from calcined bones or hartlborn, and the vitriolic
acid. The procefs for procuring this acid recom¬
mended by that gentleman was todiflblve the bones in
nitrous acid ; afterwards to precipitate the earth by
means of the vitriolic acid ; to filter and evaporate the
liquor.to drynefs ; and, after driving oflF the nitrous
acid, the phofphoric acid remains. This procefs,
however, is expenfive on account of the wafte of ni¬
trous acid ; and is likewife very inconvenient, becaufe
a great deal of the earthy matter continues dilfolved,
34 S even
P H R [ 6170 ] P H T
Phofphoms even after the vitriolic acid is poured in, and therefore
IS the phofphoric acid is never to be obtained pure ; for
Fhrafe' which reafon, the following procefs is preferable.
Take of calcined bones or hartfhorn, one pound; oil
of vitriol, 14 ounces. Let the bones be reduced to
fine powder ; then pour on the acid undiluted, and
rub both together till they are as accurately mixed as
poffible. Having let them remain for fome hours in
this fituation, pour on as much water, ftirring and dif-
folving the lumps into which the mafs will now be
concreted, till it is all equally diftributed through the
liquid, and has the confidence of thick gruel. Let
it remain 24 hours, and then pour it into a canvas
cloth in order to let the liquid drain from it. This is
a very tedious operation, as frefh water muft con¬
tinually be pouring on till all the faline matter is
wafhed off. When this is done, pour into the liquid
a quantity of cauftic volatile alkali, which will occa-
fion a copious precipitation ; for the earth of bones is
much lefs ftrongly attra&ed by acids than even the
cauftic volatile alkali. The liquid being now filtered
a fecond time, which will be done with fufficicnt cafe,
and afterwards evaporated, there remains a mafs com-
pofed of phofphoric acid, and vitriolic fal ammoniac.
By increafing the fire, the latter is difiipated in va¬
pour ; and if the procefs has been fuccefsful, four
ounces or more of pure phofphoric acid will remain.
With regard to the properties of this acid, it is not
yet afeertained whether they are exaflly the fame with
the microcofmic acid or not. Indeed, as far as yet ap¬
pears, they feem to be different ; and there are very
flrong reafons for fuppofing that the phofphoric acid
thus produced is no other than the vitriolic altered by
its combination with the earth of bones. See the ar¬
ticle Bones in the APPENDIX.
PHOTIUS, patriarch of Conftantinople, was one
of the fineft geniufes of his time, and his merit railed
him to the patriarchate ; forBardas havingdriven Igna¬
tius from the fee, Photius was confecrated by Albeftus
in 859. He condemned Ignatius in a fynod, where¬
upon the pope excommunicated him, and he, to balance
the account, anathematized the pope. Bafilius of Ma-
cedon, the emperor whom Photius had reproved for
the murder of Michael the late emperor, expelled
him, and reftored Ignatius ; but afterward re-eftablilh-
ed Photius, upon Ignatius’s death, in 878. At laft,
being wrongfully accufed of a confpiracy againft the
perfon of Leo the philofopher, fon and fucceffor to
Bafilius, he was expelled by him in 8S6, and is fup-
pofed to have died foon after. He wrote a Bibliotheca,
which contains an examen of 280 authors: we have
alfo 253 epiftles of his; the Nomocanon under 14
titles; an abridgment of the a&s of feveral councils,
&c. He was a perfon of prodigious reading, and the
greateft fcholar almoft of any age,
PHRASE, in gramar, an elegant turn or manner
of fpeech, peculiarly belonging to this or that oc-
cafion, this or that art, or this or that language. Thus
we fay, an Italian phrafe, an eaftern phrafet a poetical
phrafe, a rhetorical phrafe.
Phrase is fometimes alfo ufed for a fhort fentence,
or fmall fet or circuit of words conftrufted together.
In this fenfe, Father Buffier divides phrafes into com¬
plete and incomplete.
Phrares arc complete where there is a noun and a
verb, each in its proper function ; i. e. where the noun Phrafeo-
expreffes a fubjeft, and the verb the thing affirmed lo|y
» n . - , , , Phthiriafo.
Incomplete Phrases are thofe where the noun and  
the verb together only do the office of a noun ; con-
fifting of feveral words without affirming any thing,
and which might be expreffed in a fingle word. Thus,
that’which is true, is an incomplete phrafe, which might
be expreffed in one word, truth ; as “ that which is
true fatisfies the mind,” /. t. “ truth fatisfies the mind.”
PHRASEOLOGY, a colleftion of the phrafes,
or elegant expreffions, in any language. See Phrase.
PHRENITIS, the fame with Phrensy ; an in¬
flammation of the meninges of the brain, attended
with an acute fever and delirium. See Medicine,
n° 284.
PHRYGIA, an extenfive country of the Hither
Afia, on this fide mount Taurus, and the river Halys.
Reckoned by the ancients twofold, viz. the Greater
and Lefs, (Livy, Ptolemy.) The Lefs Phrygia feems
to have confifted of two parts ; one nearer the Helle-
fpont, from which it is called Hellefpontiaca: the
other, which was to the fouth of Bithynia, about
Olympus, more remote from the Hellefpont, and un¬
der the dominion of Prufias ; but which was afterwards
ceded to the Attali, or to Eumenes, by them called
Epittetos; which in a laxer fenfe denotes the Minor
Phrygia, or the Lefs ; but in a ftri&er, is diftinft
from the Phrygia on the Hellefpont, and lies at the
foot of Olympus, a mountain of Myfia, on the con¬
fines of Bithynia: fo that we have three Phrygias;
Major, Minor, and Epiftetos.
PHTHIRIASIS, the lousy evil, from « »
loufe.” It is a loufy diftemper ; children are frequent¬
ly its fubjeds, and adults are fometimes troubled with
it. The increafe of lice, when in a warm moift fitu¬
ation, is very great; but a cold and dry one foon de-
ftroys them. On the human body four kinds office
are diftinguilhed: 1. The pediculi, fo called becaufe
they are more troublefome with their feet than by their
bite. Thefe are in the heads of children, efpecially
if fore or fcabby ; and often in thofe of adults, if they
are flothful and nafty. 2. Crab-lice, fee Oai-LiCB..
3. Body lice; thefe infeft the body, and breed in the
clothes of the nafty and flothful. 4. A fort which
breed under the cuticle, and are found in the hands
and feet: they are of a round form, and fo minute as
often to efcape the fight: by creeping under the fcarf-
flein they caufe an intolerable itching; and when the
Ikin burfts where they lodge, clufters of them are
found there. See Acarus.
A good diet and cleanlinefs conduce much to the
deftru&ion of lice. When they are in the head, comb it
every day ; and, after each combing, fprinkle the pulv.
fern, ftaph. agr. or coccul. Ind. among the hairs every
night, and confine it with a tight cap.
Codrochius, in his treatife on lice, fays, that the
powdered coc. Ind. exceeds all other means; and that
it may be mixed in the pulp of apple, or iv lard, and
applied every night to the hair. Some writers affert,
that if the pul. cort. rad. faffafr. is fprinkled on the
head, and confined with a handkerchief, it deftroys
the lice in one night.
The body-lice [are deftroyed by any bitter, four,
fait, or mercurial medicine, if applied to the Ikin.
The
PHY [ 6171 ] PHY
j'hthifis The black foap, and the flowers called cardamine,
I II or lady's-fmock, are faid to be fpecifics in all cafes of
|hyfetcr- lice on the human body.
PHTHISIS, a fpecies of confumption, occafioned
by an ulcer in the lungs. See Medicine, n° 351—
353. and p. 4870, 4871.
PHUL, or Pul, king of Aflyria, by fome hifto*
rians faid to be Ninus under another name, and the
firft founder of that monarchy: A renowned warrior.
He invaded Ifrael in the reign of Manahem, who be¬
came tributary to him, and paid him 1000 talents of
filver for a peace. Flourifhed 771 B. C.
PHYLACTERY, in the general, was a name given
by the ancients to all kinds of charms, fpells, or cha-
radlers, which they wore about them, as amulets, to
preferve them from dangers or difeafes.
Phylactery particularly denoted a flip of parch¬
ment, wherein was wrote fome text of holy fcripture,
particularly of the decalogue, which the more de¬
vout people among the Jews wore on the forehead, the
breaft, or the neck, as a mark of their religion.
The primitive Chriftians alfo gave the name phylac¬
teries to the cafes wherein they inclofed the relics of
their dead.
PHYLICA, BASTARD ALATERNUS J 3 genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There are fix fpecies, of which three are
kept in the gardens of this country; but, by reafon of
their being natives of warm climates, they require to
be kept in pots, and houfed in winter. They are all
fhrubby plants, rifing from three to five or fix feet
high; and adorned with beautiful clufters of white
flowers. They are propagated by cuttings.
PHYLLANTHUS, sea-side laurel ; a genus
of the triandria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs
of plants. There are fix fpecies, all of them natives
of warm climates; and rife from 12 or 14 feet, to the
height of middling trees. They are tender, and can¬
not be propagated in this country without artificial
heat.
PHYSALIS, the winter cherry; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are 16 fpecies ; of which the moft re¬
markable is the alkekengi, or common winter-cherry.
This grows naturally in Spain and Italy. The roots
are perennial, and creep in the ground to a great di-
ftance if they are not confined. Thefe, in the fpring,
fhoot up many ftalks, which rife to the height of a
foot or more, garniflied with leaves of various forts;
fome of which are angular and obtufe, fome oblong
and {harp pointed, with long foot-ftalks. The flowers
are produced from the wings, (landing upon (lender
foot-ftalks; are of a white colour, and have but one
petal. They are fucceeded by round berries about the
lize of fmall cherries, inclofed in an inflated bladder,
which turns red in autumn, when the top opens and
difclofes the red berry, which is foft, pulpy, and filled
with flat kidney-(haped feeds- Soon after the fruit
is ripe, the ftalks decay to the root. The plant is eafily
propagated, either by feeds, or parting the roots.
PHYSETER, or Spermaceti-fish, in zoology,
a genus belonging to the order of cete. There are four
fpecies; the moft remarkable are,
1. The microps, or black-headed cachalot, with
a long fin on the back, and the upper jaw confider-
ably longer than the under one. A fifh of this Pliyfeier,
kind was caft alhore on Cramond ifle, near Edin- phyflc?-
burgh, December 2 2d, 1769; its length was 54
feet; the greateft circumference, which was juft be¬
yond the eyes, 30: the upper jaw was five feet longer
than the lower, whofe length was ten feet. The head
was of a moft enormous fize, very thick, and above
one-third the fize of the fifh: the end of the upper
jaw was quite blunt, and near nine feet high: thefpout
hole was placed near the end of it. The teeth were
placed in the lower jaw, 23 on each fide, all pointing
outwards; in the upper jaw, oppofite to them, were
an equal number of cavities, in which the ends of the
teeth lodged when the mouth was clofed. One of the
teeth meafured eight inches long, the greateft. circum¬
ference the fame. It is hollow within fide for the depth
of three inches, and the mouth of the cavity very wide:
it is thickeft at the bottom, and grows very fmall at
the point, bending very much; but in fome the flexure
is more than in others. Thefe, as well as the teeth of
all other whales we have obferved, are very hard, and
cut like ivory. The eyes are very fmall, and remote from
the nofe. The pe&oral fins placed near the corners of
the mouth, and were only three feet long: it had no
other fin, only a large protuberance on the middle of
the back. The tail was a little forked, and 14 feet
from tip to tip. The penis feven feet and a half long.
Linnasus informs us, that this fpecies purfues and ter¬
rifies the porpeffes to fuch a degree as often to drive
them on (bore.
2. The catodon, or round-headed cachalot, with a
fiftula in the fnout, and having no back fin. Of this
fpecies, a hundred and two of different (izes were caft
afhore at one time, on one of the Orkney Ides, the
largeft 24 feet in length. The head is round,
the opening of the mouth fmall: Sibbald fays it has
no fpout-hole, but only noftrils. But Mr Pennant is
of opinion, that the former being placed at the extre¬
mity of the nofe has been miftaken by him for the lat¬
ter. Some teeth of this fuecies are an inch and three
quarters long, and in the largeft part, of the thick-
nefs of one’s thumb. The top is quite flat, and mark¬
ed with concentric lines ; the bottom is more (lender
than the top, and pierced with a fmall orifice; inftead
of a back fin there was a rough fpace.
For the method of extrafting the fpermaceti from
the brain of thefe creatures, fee the article Sterma-
ceti.
PHYSIC, or Physick, the art of healing; pro¬
perly called Medicine. The word is formed from the
Greek fwif, “ nature ;” in regard medicine confifts
principally in the obfervation of nature. See Phy¬
sics and Medicine.
PHYSICAL, fomething belonging to, or really
exifting, in nature. In this fenfe we fay a phyfical
point, in oppofition to a mathematical one, which only
exifts in the imagination ; a phyfical fubftance or bo¬
dy, in oppofition to fpirit, or metaphyfical fubftance,
&c.
PHYSICIAN, a perfon who profefles medicine, or
the art of healing difeafes. See Medicine.
PHYSICS, orNATuRALP-HiLosoPH y. Bythe word
phyjics, in its moft extenfive fenfe, we underftand The
fcience of the operations of nature^ and of its prtduciions.
This definition is alone fufficient to inform us, what are
34 S 2 the
PHY [ 61
Phyfa?- the particular parts of phyfics, and what are the means
it employs to attain its ends. Thus Natural Hijiory,
or Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy, defcribe
thofe bodies that nature produces, as far as they are
difcernible by our fenfes. So Chemistry and Ex¬
perimental Philofopky difcover to us, at leaft in
part, the compofition of bodies, and the various alte¬
rations of which thofe compofition* are fufceptible.
So General and Speculative Physics draws from all
thefe preliminary obfervations, from all thefe matters
of fa6t, juft confequences relative to the univerfal laws
of nature, to the properties, forces, adlion, and eflen-
tial qualities of bodies.
The object of phyfics being the examination of
the whole frame of nature, fo far as it is vifible and
palpable to man, it is eafily to conceive, that it muft
form the moft extenfive branch of human knowledge,
feeing that the operations of nature are varied almoft
to infinity. To reduce this immenle fubjeft intofome
order, philofophers have begun by dividing all the
produftions of this globe into three clafles, which they
call kingdoms, and diftinguilh into the vegetable, the mi¬
neral, anisnalkingdom. Botany, mineralogy, and
natural hiftory properly fo called, teach therefore all
that is come to the knowledge of man in each of thefe
kingdoms. Chemiftry refolves all bodies, and confe-
quently fhows the manner in which they are compound¬
ed. Philofophers have likewife difcovered that the tini-
verfe is compofed of elements, of which there are four,
Earth, Water, Fire, and Air. Experimental phi-
lofophy, by numberlefs effays and obfervations, ex¬
plains the manner in which thefe elements operate up¬
on each other, and the effe&s that they produce. The
knowledge of thofe heavenly bodies, whofe various
courfes fill the vaft expanfe of the firmament, and of
their properties and courfes either real or apparent,
is comprifed in the fcience of Astronomy.
All the ancient oriental nations, including the
Hebrews and the Egyptians, were mere novices in
phyfics ; and their ignorance feems to prove the in¬
fancy of the world. The Greeks, men of a fubtile and
inquifitive genius, went further, and fometimes gueffed
right enough, though very rarely. Empedocles, for
example, who is ranked by fome among the Pythago¬
reans, profefled the fyftem of the four elements in na¬
ture; and added thereto two principles, which he call¬
ed principium amicitise, and principium contentionis.
The firlt, according to him, is the caufe of the coali¬
tion of beings; and the fecond, that of their receflion
or feparation. Was not this derived from the fame
origin as the celebrated fyftem of the attra&ion and
repulfion of bodies i Whatever was the caufe, the pro-
grefs of phyfics has ever been flow ; and we are afto-
nifhed when we fee ancient writers of the greateft ge¬
nius, as Plutarch and an hundred others, make ufe of
fuch wretched reafoning when they mention thofe fub-
je6ts that relate to phyfics.
Among the Romans, Lucretius and Cicero have
indeed written on thefe fubjefts; but they have only re¬
lated the opinions of the Greeks, which were not wor¬
thy of great regard. Seneca and Pliny went further;
and we are obliged to the latter for the ufeful obfer¬
vations which he has made on many parts of this
feience, although he is frequently too credulous. Pli¬
ny, moreover, does not belong to the clafs of dogmatic
72 ] PHY
authors on phyfics, as he gives only an hiftorical ac¬
count of thefe matters.
The firft ages of Chriftianity were the ages of dark-
nefs for all the fciences and the arts. It was not till
very late, that Bacon baron of Verulam, and fome of
his cotemporaries, produced the firil fparks of thofe fair
lights that havefince blazed forth by the happy labours
of their fucceffors. Gaffendus, Defcartes, Rudiger,
Newton, Leibnitz, Wolff, and a multitude of other ce¬
lebrated philofophers, have diffufed thefe lights over
philofophy ; and all thefe great men have at laft efta-
blifhed that method of treating it which is alone able
to difcover the truth. This method is perfectly fimple.
They begin with eftablifhing fads by means of expe¬
riments and obfervations, and draw from thence con¬
fequences relative to their caufes and principles. For,
as foon as experience or the fenfes have difcovered
what pafles in nature, the mind endeavours to difcover
what cannot be diftinguifhed by the fenfes; that is to
fay, what may be the caufe or the end of each pheno¬
menon or operation in nature ; and by this means it
conftantly combines the accuracy of obfervation with
the fagacity and rigour of argument.
It is certain, that a diligent obfervation of the fub-
jeds of Mineralogy and Zoology, united with the
ftudy of Botany, affords every poffible information
relative to natural hiftory in general; that is, we
thereby acquire the hiftorical knowledge of all the be¬
ings of this globe, that nature produces. Experi¬
mental Philofopky, aided by Chemistry, and fe-
veral parts of the Mathematics, difclofe the com-
pofition of thefe beings, and the fprings by which
nature operates in their produdion, and in making
them produce, in their turn, the mutual effeds of the
elements, &c. Astronomy, of which we have in
like manner treated, explains the nature of the cele-
ftial bodies and their courfes : and all thefe various
fciences, united, condud us at laft, as far as the hu¬
man mind is able to proceed, to the determination of
the general laws of nature in the order of the univerfe;
from whence refult univerfal and fpeculative Phyjics, of
which it remains to give a curfory idea. This icience,
which for fome thoufand years has been juftly called
fpeculative, feeing that it has been founded altogether
on vain fpeculations,and fuppofitions merely ideal, is at
length fupported by experiments and obfervations that
bear the fiamp of manifeft demonftrations. It now
forms no fyftem, admits of no hypothelis, but fuch
whofe veracity and certainty have been previoufly de-
monftrated. For which purpofe it calls to its afliftance
all the fubordinate fciences, and makes ufe of their
operations in the inveftigation and eftablilhment of its
principles. As Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology,
Chemistry, Anatomy, Physiology,and almoft all
the otherpartsofPHYsic,GEOGRAPHY, Experimental
Philofophy, i\\ the particular fciences which are comprifed
under the general denomination of Mathematics; all
thefe have relation to general phyfics, and each of them
concurs more or lefs to furnilh materials for its fub-
lime operations. When, by the affiftance of the la¬
bours of thefe, phyfics has eftabliftied the veracity of
fads, it then applies the moft fubtile, abftrad, and
profound ratiocination, to draw from thence juft confe¬
quences, and to eftablifh general principles, founded
on thefe fads, relative to the univerfal laws of nature;
Phyfitt.
PHY [6.
§{ yfiogno- to the celeftial bodies, and the true order of the uni-
>ir ionics, verfc. to the elements, and their reciprocal a&ion; to
^my8"10"meteors ’ to ^0^‘es that are vifible and tangible;
-I—1 to the reciprocal aftion of palpable bodies; to thege-
neration of beings in general, and of man in particu¬
lar ; to every production of nature in all the three
kingdoms: in a word, it endeavours_ to account, as
far as the weak lights of the human underftanding are
capable of accounting, for all the phenomena of heaven
and earth. See all the abovementioned fciences feve-
rally treated in the order of the alphabet.
PHYSIOGNOMONICS, among phyficians, de¬
note fuch figns as, being taken from the countenance,
ferve to indicate the ftate, difpofition, &c. both of the
body and mind : and hence the art of reducing thefe
figns to praflice is termed phyfiognomy.
(PHYSIOGNOMY, the art of knowing the hu¬
mour, temperament, or difpofition of a perfon, from
obfervation of the lines of his face, and the characters
of its members or features. The word is formed from
the Greek “ nature,” and yivao-x«, “ I know.”
Baptifta Porta and Robert Fludd are the principal
modern authors on phyfiognomy. The ancient ones
are the fophift Adamantius, and Ariftotle ; the phy¬
fiognomy of which lalt we have tranflated into Latin
by De Lacuna.
There feems to be fomething in phyfiognomy, and
it may perhaps bear a much purer phiiofpphy than
what thefe authors were acquainted withal. This, at
leaft, we dare fay, that of all the fanciful arts of the
ancients, diffufed among the moderns, there is none
has fo much foundation in nature as this.
There is an apparent correfpondence between the
face and the mind. The features and lineaments of the
one are direCted by the motions and affeCtions of the
other, there is even a peculiar arrangement of the
members of the face, a peculiar difpofition of the
countenance, to each particular affeCtion, perhaps to
each particular idea of the mind. In effeCl, the lan¬
guage of the face, phyJjognot?iy, is as copious, nay, per¬
haps as diftinCt and intelligible, as that of the tongue.
The foundation of pbyfiognomy is this: The diffe¬
rent objeCts that prefent themfelves to the fenfes, nay,
the different ideas that arife in the mind, do each make
fome imprefiion on the fpirits; and each an imprefilon
correfpondent or adequate to its caufe ; therefore each
a different impreffion.
Now, if by repeated acts, or the frequent entertain¬
ing of a favourite paffion, or vice, which natural tem¬
perament has hurried or cuftom dragged one to, the
face is often put in that pofture which attends fuch
aCts ; the animal-fpirits will make fuch patent paffages
through the nerves (in which the effence of a habit
confifts), that the face is fometimes unalterably fet in
that pofture, or at leaft falls infenfibly and mechanically
into that pofture, unlefs fome prefent objeCt diftort it
therefrom, or difiimulation hide it.
This reafoning is confirmed by obfervation. Thus
we fee great drinkers with eyes generally fet to the
nofe ; the adducent mufcles being often employed to
put them in that pofture, in order to view their loved
liquoV in the glafs in the time of drinking ; whence
thofe mufcles are alfo denominated bibitory mufcles.
Thus alfo lafcivious perfons arc remarkable for the
73 1 PHY
oculorum mobilis petulantia, as Petronius calls it.— 1‘hyfiogno-
Hence we may account for the Quakers expcCting 1>h ^
face waiting the fpirit, the melancholy face of moft-_J—_fL’
fectaries, the ftudious face of men of great application
of mind, &c.
Were our obfervation a little more ftrift and deli¬
cate, we might doubtlefs not only diftinguifh habits
and tempers, but even profeffions.—In effeft, does
there need much penetration to diftinguifh the fierce
look of the veteran foldier, the contentious look of
the pradifed pleader, the folemn look of the minifter
of ftate, &c.
Within thefe few years, one M. Lavater of Zurich
has attempted to revive the trade of phyfiognomy, and
publifhed a quarto volume on the certainty and utility
of the art. His reafons for believing in it, befideS
thofe already given, are to the following purpofe.
“ Every moment we are ading upon phyfiognomical
principles, without being aware of it ; and not men
only, but the brutes alfo, even infeds, both know
their moft convenient food, and their enemies, by the
outfide. What are we doing when we choofeout fome
fruits as the beft, or when we prefer one horfe to ano¬
ther, but judging, from the outfide, of the internal
qualities ? We then certainly ad the phyfiognomer.
That every man is undoubtedly a natural phyfiogno¬
mer, is ftill mere apparent from confidering the ef-
feds which refult from the firft fight of perfons un¬
known. We are often much inclined to tell our
friends, that we do not like the man before us, a]tho,
we be in no degree acquainted with him. Whoever is
an attentive obferver of what pafles in his own mind,
knows that he no fooner fees any perfon, than certain
attendant ideas fucceed the firft impreffion,, which in¬
volve nothing lefs than a judgment over his difpofition#
of mind, fo far that we pronounce him to be of a quite
different caft from fome others of our acquaintance.
We cannot, in every cafe, tell exadly why we judge
thus, whether it be from his figure, from his eyes, or
from his nofe. Nor can we always determine, whe¬
ther the impreffion be not from different ideas compli¬
cated. This is not to be learned by rule; we judge
only from a feeling acquired by experience. As phy¬
fiognomical pradice is general, it cannot be but found¬
ed in nature; and one fliould think, therefore, that it
poffibly might be the fubjed of fcience. Does not
pradice always precede theoretical knowledge?”
The rules for this extraordinary art are not laid
down in the volume we now fpeak of; however, fo
many things are neceffary on the part of the artift,
that no body, it would feem, without a tolerable fhare
of felf-fufficiency, could engage in the art. The rea-
fon is, that it requires virtue in the artift to perceive
virtue in the face of him whom he infpeds; and confe-
quently, unlefs the phyfiognomift is poffeffed of all the
virtues in the world, h? will be perpetually drawing
falfe conclufions; for, “ No one, (fays our author,)
certainly is able to difcern the look of magnanimity, or
the countenance of .an exalted foul, but he who is mag¬
nanimous himfelf, who thinks nobly, and who is dif-
pofed to ad generoufly.”
PHYSIOLOGY, properly denotes a difcourfe of
nature, and natural bodies ; or, it is that part of na¬
tural philofophy which treats of the various pheno-
PIC [ 6174 ] PIC
Phytology mena of nature in a fcientifcal and fpcculative way.
P See Physiology.
icar Among phyficians, the term phyjiology denotes the
hiftory of the human body, and its feveral conftituent
parts, with their relations and fundlions. See Ana¬
tomy.
PHYTOLOGY, a difcourfe concerning the kinds
and virtues of plants. See Botany, and Materia Me-
dica.
PIAZZA, in building, popularly called piache, an
Italian name for a portico, or covered walk, fupport-
ed by arches.
The word literally fignifies a broad open place or
fquare ; whence it alfo became applied to the walks or
portico’s around them.
PICA, in ornithology. See Corvus.
Pica, in medicine, a depravation of appetite, which
makes the patient long for what is unfit for food, or
incapable of nourifliing ; as chalk, alhes, coals, plaltcr-
lime, &c. See Medicine, n° 465.
PICARD, a native of the Netherlands, who impro¬
ved upon the errors of the Adamites. He called him-
felf the Son of God; and pretended, that, like a new
Adam, he was fent by his father to reftore the law of
nature, which, according to him, chiefly confifted in
community with refpeA to women, and in going quite
naked. It is faid, that though marriage was inflitu-
ted among them, no man was allowed to lie with a wo¬
man without firft obtaining leave of the chief of the
fe&. He fortified himfelf in an ifland in the river Lif-
mik, feven leagues from Thabor, the military refidence
of the famous Zifca; but unhappily for him, 40 of his
followers being gone out upon a party, bafely plun¬
dered fome country houfes, and killed upwards of 200
perfons; upon which Zifca attacked the ifland, took it,
and put all the Picards to the fword, except two,
whofe lives he fpared in order to learn from their own
mouths the principles of their religion. This happen¬
ed in the year 1420.
Picard (John), an able mathematician, and one
of the moft learned aflronomers of the 17th century,
was borne at Fleche, and became prieftandprior ofRillie
in Anjou. Going to Paris, he was in 1666 received into
the Academy of Sciences, in quality of aftronomer. In
1671, he was fent, by order of the king, to the caftle of
Uraniburg, built by Tycho Brahe in Denmark, to make
aftronomica! obfervations there ; and from thence he
brought the original manufcripts wrote by Tycho
Brahe, which are the more valuable as they differ in
many places from the printed copies, and contain a
book more than has yet appeared. He made impor¬
tant difcoveries in aftronomy ; and was the firft who
travelled through feveral parts of France, to meafjre
a degree of the meridian. His works are, t. A trea-
tife on levelling. 2. Fragments of dioptrics. 3. Ex¬
periment a circa aquas effluent es. 4. De men fur is. 5. De
tnenfura liquidorum iff aridorum. 6. A voyage to U-
raniburg, or aftronomical obfervations made in Den¬
mark. 7. Aftronomical obfervations made in feveral
parts of France, &c. Thefe, and fome other of his
works, which are much efteemed, are in the fixth and
feventh volumes of the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences.
PICA RDY, a province of France, bounded on the
north by Hainault, Artois, and the fea; on the eaft,
by Champagne; on the fouth, by the ifle of France; Heart)
and on the weft, by Normandy and the Britifh chan- j*
nel. It is divided into the Upper, Middle, and Lower 1C et?j
Picardy; and the principal rivers are the Somme, the 1
Oyfe, the Canche, the Lis, the Scarp, the Deule, and
the A a. The foil is very fertile in corn, fruits, and \
paftures; but it produces no wine. They have a con-
fiderable trade in woollen manufa&ures, and the inha- ;
bitants are a very iuduftrious people. Amiens is the
capital town.
PICART (Bernard), a celebrated engraver, fon of
Stephen Picart, alfo a famous engraver, was born at
Paris in 1673. He learned the elements of his art
from his father, and ftudied archite&ure and perfpec-
tive under Sebaftian le Clerc. As he embraced there-
formed religion, he fettled in Holland to enjoy the free
exercife of it; where his genius produced thofe mafter-
pieces which made him efteemed the moft ingenious ;
artift of his age: and a multitude of books are erobel-
lifned. with plates of his engraving. He died in 1733.
PICENTIA, (Strabo, Pliny); the capital of the
Picentini, whofe territory, called Ager Picentinus, a
fmall diftrift, lay on the Tufcan fea, from the Protnon- 1
torium Minerva, the fouth boundary of Campania on
the coaft, to the river Silarus, the north boundary of
Lucania, extending within-land as far as the Samnites
and Hirpini, though the exa£t termination cannot be
afligned. The Greeks commonly confound the Picen¬
tini and Picentes, but the Romans carefully diftinguilh
them. The former, with no more than two towns that
can be named, Silernum and Picentia; the fituation of
both doubtful: only Pliny fays the latter flood within-
land, at fome diftance from the fea. Now thought to
be Bicenza, (Holftenius), in the Principato Citra of
Naples.
PICENUM, (Csefar, Pliny, Florus) ; Picenus
Acer, (Cicero, Salluft, Livy, Tacitus) ; Ager Pi-
centium, (Varro) : a territory of Italy, lying to the
eaft of Umbria, from the Apennine to the Adriatic; j
on the coaft extending from the river Aefi's on the
north, as far as the Preetutiani to the fouth. In the ,
upper or northern part of their territory the Umbri
excluded them from the Apennine, as far as Camcri-
num, (Strabo); but in the lower or fouthern part they
extended from the Adriatic to the Apennine. A very
fruitful territory, and very populous. Picentes, the
people, (Cicero); from the lingular, Picens, (Livy):
different from the Picentini, on the Tufcan fea, tho’
called fo by the Greeks; but Ptolemy calls them Pi-
ceni, as does alfo Pliny. Their territory at this day
is fuppofed to form the greateft part of the March of
Ancona, (Cluverius.)
PICKERY, in Scots law, petty theft, or dealing *
things of fmall value.
PICKETS, in fortification, flakes (harp at one end,
and fometimes fliod with iron, ufed in laying out the
ground, of about three feet long ; but, when ufed for |
pinning the fafeines of a battery, they are from three
to five feet long.
Pickets, in artillery, are about five or fix feet long,
fliod with iron, to pin the park lines, in laying out the
boundaries of the park.
Pickets, in the camp, are alfo flakes of about fix
or eight inches long, to fatten the tent cords, in pitch¬
ing the tents; alfo, of about four or five feet long, dri¬
ven
P I O L 6175 1 PIC
ivicket ven into the ground near the tents of the horfemen, to
3, . *u t tie their horfes to.
—1_ Picket, an out-guard potted before an army, to
give notice of an enemy approaching.
Picket, a kind of puni/hment fo called, where a fol-
dier (lands with one foot upon a (harp-pointed (lake:
the time of his (landing is limited according to the of¬
fence.
PICQUERING, a flyingwar, or (kirmilh, madeby
foldiers detached from two armies for pillage, or be¬
fore a main battle begins.
PIQUET, or Picket, a celebrated game at cards,
much in ufe throughout the polite world.
It is played between two perfons, with only 32
cards; all the duces, threes, fours, fives, and fixes,
being fet afide.
In reckoning at this game, every card goes for the
number it bears, as a ten for ten ; only all court-cards
go for ten, and the ace for eleven : and the ufual game
is one hundred up.—In playing, the ace wins the
king, the king the queen, and fo down.
Twelve cards are dealt round, ufually by two and
two; which done, the remainder are laid in the middle:
if one of the gamefters finds he has not a court-card in
his hand, he is to declare he has carte blanche, and
tell how many cards he will lay out, and defire the
other to difcard, that he may (hew his game, and fa-
tisfy his antagonift that the carte-blanche is real; for
which he reckons ten.
Each perfon difcards, i. e. lays afide a certain num¬
ber of his cards, and takes in a like number from the
(lock.—The firft, of the eight cards, may take
three, four, or five ; the dealer all the remainder, if
he pleafes.
After difcarding, the elded hand examines what fuit
he has mod cards of; and reckoning how many points
he has in that fuit, if the other have not fo many in
that or any other fuit^ he tells one for every ten of
that fuit.—He who thus reckons mod is faid td win
the point.
The point being over, each examines what fequences
he has of the fame fuit, viz. how many tierces, or fe¬
quences of three, quartes or fours, quintes or fives, fix-
iemes or fix’s, &c. For a tierce they reckon three
points, for a quarte four, fora quinte 15, fora fixieme
16, &c. And the feveral fequences are dillinguidied
in dignity by the cards they begin from : thus ace,
king, and queen, are called tierce major; king, queen,
and knave, tierce to a ki>:g; knave, ten, and nine,
tierce to a knave, itfc. and the bed tierce, quarte, or
quinte, /. e. that which takes its defcent from the bed
card, prevails, fo as to make all the others in that
hand good, and dedroy all thofe in the other hand.—
In like manner, a quarte in one hand fets afide a tierce
in the other.
The fequences over, they proceed to examine how
many aces, kings, queens, knaves, and tens, each
holds; reckoning for every three of any fort, three :
but here too, as in fequences, he that with the fame
number of threes, has one that is higher than any the
other has, e. gr. three aces, has all his others made
good hereby, and his adverfary’s all fet afide.—But
four of any fort, which is called a quatorze, always fets
afide three.
All the game in hand being thus reckoned, the el¬
ded proceeds to play, reckoning one for every card he Piois
plays above a nine, and the other follows him in the fuit; ?
and the highed card of the fuit wins the trick.—Note, Pl“?'
unlefs a trick be won with a card above a nine (except
the lad trick), nothing is reckoned for it; though the
trick ferves afterwards towards winning the cards; and
that he who plays lad does not reckon for his cards,
unlefs he wins the trick.
The cards being played out, he that has mod tricks
reckons ten for winning the cards.—If they have tricks
alike, neither reckons any thing.-—The deal being fi-
niflied, and each having marked up his game, they
proceed to deal again as before, cutting afrefh each time
for the deal.
If both pirtics be within a few points of being up,
the carte blanche is the fird thing that reckons, then
the point, then the fequences, then the quatorzes or
threes, then the tenth cards.
He that can reckon 30 in hand by carte blanche,
points, quintes, &c. without playing, ere the other
has reckoned any thing, reckons 90 for them ; and
this is called a repique.—If he reckons above 30, he
reckons fo many above 90. If he can make up 30,
part in hand and part play, ere the other has told any
thing, he reckons for them 60. And this is called
a pique. Whence the name of the game.—He that
wins all the tricks, indead of ten, which is his right
for winning the cards, reckons 40. And this is called
a capot.
PICRIS, Ox-tokoue; a genus of the polygamia
aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies, pf which the only re¬
markable one is the echioides, or common ox-tongue,
growing fpontaneoufly in corn fields in Britain. It
has undivided leaves embracing the dem, with yellow
bloflbms, which fometimes clofe foon after noon, at
other times remain open till nine at night. It is an
agreeable pot-herb while young. The juice is milky,
but not too acrid.
PICKLE, a brine or liquor, commonly compofed
of fait, vinegar, See. fometimes with the addition of
fpices, wherein meat, fruit, and other things are pre-
ferved and feafoned.
PICTS, the name of one of thofe nations who an- Nani(%
ciently poflefled the north of Britain. It is generally
believed that they were fo called from their cuttom of
painting their bodies. But as this cuftom prevailed
among the other ancient inhabitants of Britain, who
ufed the glajlum of Pliny and the vitrum of Mela for
the like purpofe, it may be afked, Why the name of
Pilii was confined by the Romans to only one tribe,
when it was equally applicable to many others ? Why
(hould they defign them only by an epithet without
ever annexing their proper name ? Or why (hould they
impofe a new name on this people only, when they
give their proper name to every other tribe which they
have occafion to fpeak of ? As tbefe quedions cannot
be anfwered in any fatisfa&ory manner, it is plain we
mud look for fome other derivation of the name.
The Highlanders of Scotland, who fpeak the an¬
cient language of Caledonia, exprefs the name of this
once famous nation by the term Pittich; a name fa¬
miliar to the ears of the mod illiterate, who could
never have derived it from the Roman authors. The
word Piflich means pilferers or plunderers. The appel¬
lation
PIC [ 6176 ] PIC
Pifts. lation was probably impofed upon this people by their
neighbours, or affumed by themfelves, fome time after
the reign of Caracalla, when the unguarded Rate of
the Roman province, on which this people bordered,
gave them frequent opportunities of making incurfionS
thither, and committing depredations. Accordingly
this name feems to have been unknown till the end of
the 3d century. Eumenius the Panegyrift is the
firft Roman author who mentions this people under
their new name of Piftich, or, with a Latin termina¬
tion, Pifti. When we fay that this name may have
been probably affumed for the reafon juft now men¬
tioned, we muft obferve, that, in thofe days of violence,
the chara&er of a robber was attended with no dif-
grace. If he had the addrefs to form his fchemes
well, and to execute them fttccefsfully, he was rather
praifed than blamed forhis conduft; providing he made
no encroachments on the property of his own tribe, or
any of its allies. We mean this as no peculiar ftigma
upon the Pidls; for other nations of antiquity, in the
like rude ftate, thought and afted as they did. See
Thucydides, lib. 3. p. 3. and Virg. iEn. 7. 7+5
& 749-
Origin. Concerning the origin of the Pi6ts, authors are
much divided. Boethius derives them from the Aga-
thyrfi, Pomponius Lmtus from the Germans, Bede
from the Scythians, Cambden and father Innes from
the ancient Britons, Sullingfleet’ from a people in¬
habiting the Cherfonefus Cymbrica, and Keating and
OFlaherty, on the authority of the Pfalter} Calhel,
derive them from the Thracians. But the moft pro¬
bable opinion is, that they were the defeendents of
the old Caledonians. Several reafons are urged in
fupport of this opinion by Dr Macpherfon ; and the
words of Eumenes, “ Caledonum, aliorumque Pi&or-
um, filvas, fStf.” plainly imply that the Pids and Ca¬
ledonians were one and the fame people.
As there has been much difpute about the origin of
the Pids,fo there has been likewife about their language.
There are many reafons which make it plain that
their tongue was the Gaelic or Celtic ; and thefe rea¬
fons are a further confirmation of their having been of
Caledonian extrad. Through the eaft and north-eaft
coafts of Scotland (which were poffefled by the Pids)
we meet with an innumerable lift of names of places,
Language, rivers, mountains,&c. which are manifeftlyGalic. From
a very old regifter of the priory of St Andrews (Dai¬
ry mple’s Colledions, p. 122.) it appears, that in the
days of Hungus, the laft Pidilh king of that name,
St Andrew’s was called Mukrofs ; and that the town
nowcalled Shicensferry had the name of Ardchinneachan.
Both thefe words are plain Gaelic. The firft fignifies
“ the heath or promontory of boars;” and the latter,
“ the height or peninfula of Kenneth.” In the lift of
Pidifh kings publiftied by father Innes, moft of the
names are obvioufly Galic, and in many inftances the
fame with the names in the lift of Seottifti or Caledonian
kings publilhed by the fame author. Had Innes un-
derftood any thing of this language, he would'not
have fuppofed with Cambden that the Pids fpoke the
Britilh tongue. It was unlucky that the two words
on which they built their conjedure [Strath zn&Aber)
are as common in the Galic as they could have been
in the Britifh, and at this day make a part of the
names of places in countries to which the Pidiih
empire never extended. The names of Strathfllan
and Lochaler may ferve as inftances.
The venerable Bede, as much a ftranger to the
Celtic as either of the antiquaries juft how mentioned,
is equally unhappy in the fpecimen which he gives of
the Pidifh language in the word penuahel, “ the head
of the wall.” Allowing the commutation of the ini¬
tial p into c, as in fome other cafes, this word has ftdl
the fame meaning in Gaelic, which Bede gives it in the
Pidifii. It is true, there might have been then, as
well as now, a confiderable difference between different
dialeds of the Celtic; and thus, perhaps, that pious
author was led to difeover five languages in Britain
agreeably to the five books of Mofes : A conceit from
which the good man derived a great deal of harmlefs
fatisfadion.
The Pids of the earlieft ages, as appears from the
joint teftimony of all writers who examined the fubjed,
poffeffed only the eaft and north-eaft coaft of Scotland.
On one fide, the ancient Drumalbin, or that ridge
of mountains reaching from Lochlomond near Dumbar¬
ton to the frith of Taine, which feparates the county
of Sutherland from a part of Rofs, was the boundary
of the Pidifh dominions. Accordingly we find in
the life of Columba, that, in travelling to the palace
of Brudius, king of the Pids, he travelled over
Drumalbin, the Dorfiun Britannia of Adamnan. On
the other fide, the territory of the Pids was bounded by
the Roman province. After Britain was relinquifhed
by the emperor Honorius, they and the Saxons by turns
were mafters of thofe countries which lie between the
frith of Edinburgh and the river Tweed. We learn
from Bede, that the Saxons were mafters of Galloway
when he finifhed his Ecclefiaftical Hillory. The Pids,
however, made a conqueft of that country foon after ;
fo that, before the extiudion of their monarchy, all
the territories bounded on the one fide by the Forth
and Clyde, and one the other by the Tweed and Sol¬
way, fell into their hands. *
The hiftory of the Pids, as well'as of all the other
ancient inhabitants of Britain, is extremely dark.
The Irifh hiftorians give us a long lift of Pidifh kings,
who reigned over Pidavia for the fpace of eleven or
thirteen centuries before the Chriilian sera. After
them Tunes, in his Critical Effay, gives us a lift of a-
bove fifty, of whom no lefs than five held the feeptre,
each for a whole century. It is probable that thefe
writers had confounded the hiftory of the Pids with
that of their anceftors the old Caledonians. In any
other view, their accounts of them are highly fabu¬
lous; and have been long ago confuted by. Dr Mac¬
pherfon of Slate, an antiquary of much learning and
refearch. The Pids, as has been already obferved,
were probably not known by that name before the
2d or 3d century. Adamnan, abbot of Jona, is the
firft author that exprefsly mentions any Pidifh king ;
and the oldeft after him is Bede. We are informed
by thefe two writers that St Columba converted Bru¬
dius king of the Pids to the Chriftian faith. Co¬
lumba came into Britain in the year of the vulgar sera
565. Before that period we have no general record
to afeertain fo much as the name of any Pidifh king.
The hiftory of Drujl or Dreji, who is faid to have
reigned over the Pids in the beginning of the fifth
century, when St Ninian firft preached the gofpel to
Territorj!
Hiftory.
PIC [ 6177 ] PIC
Pitfs. that nation, has all the appearance of fidtion. His
' having reigned a hundred years, and his putting an
end to a hundred wars, are {lories which exceed all the
bounds of probability.
Brudius, the cotemporary of Columba, is the firft
Pidlilh king mentioned by any writer of authority.
What figure his anceftors made, or who were his
fucceffors on the throne of Pi&avia, cannot be afcer-
tained. Bede informs us, that, during the reign of one
of them, the Pidls killed Egfred king of Northum¬
berland in battle, and deftroyed the greateft part of
his army. The fame author mentions another of their
kings called Naitan, for whom he had a particular
regard. It was to this Naitan that Ceolfrid, abbot of
.Wiremouth, wrote his famous letter concerning Eafter
and the Tonfure; a letter in which Bede himfelf is
fuppofed to have had a principal hand. Roger Ho-
veden and Simon of Durham mention two other
Pidlifii kings Onnuji and Kinoth, the firft of whom
died in 761, and the latter flourifhed about the 774,
and gave an afylum to Alfred of Northumberland,
who was much about that time expelled his kingdom.
The accounts given by the Scots hiftorians of feveral
other Pi&ifti kings cannot be depended on ; nor are
the (lories told by the Britifti hiftorians, Geoffry of
Monmouth and the author of the Eulogium Britannia?,
worthy of much greater credit.
In the ninth century the Piclifti nation was totally
fubdued by the Scots in the reign of Kenneth Mac-
Alpin. Since that time their name has been loft in
that of the conquerors, with whom they were incor¬
porated after this conqueft ; however, they feem to
have been treated by the Scottifti kings with great le¬
nity, fo that for fome ages after they commanded a
great deal of refped. The prior of Hogulftead, an
old Englifti hiftorian, relates that they made a con-
fiderable figure in the army of David the Saint, in his
difputes with king of England. In a battle
fought in the year 1136, by the Englifti on one fide,
and the Scots and Pifts on the other, the latter in-
fifted on their hereditary right of leading the van of
the Scots army, and were indulged in that requeft by
the king.
The principal feat of the Pi&ifti kings was at A-
bernethy. Brudius, however, as appears from the
accounts given by Adamnan, in his life of Columba,
had a palace at Invernefs, which was probably near
the extremity of his territory in that quarter ; for,
there is no good reafon for believing, with Cambden,
that this king had an ypropertyin the Weftern Ifles, or
that he had made a gift of Jona to St Columba when
he vifited him in that place.
With refpecl to the manners and cuftoms of the
Pifts, there is no reafon to fuppofe they were any
other than thofe of the old Caledonians and Scots, of
which many particulars are related in the Greek and
Roman writers who have occafion to fpeak of thofe
nations.
Piers Wall, in antiquity,- a wall begun by the em¬
peror Adrian, on the northern bounds of England, to
prevent the incurfions of the Pids and Scots. It was
firft made only of turf ftrengthened with palifadoes,
till the emperor Severus, coming into Britain in per-
fon, built it with folid Hone. This wall, part of
which ftill remains, begun at the entrance of the Sol-
Vol. VIIL s
way Frith in Cumberland, and running north-eaft Pitfore,
extended to the German Ocean. See Adrian and Picus-
Severus.
PICTURE, a piece of painting, or a fubjed re-
prefented in colours, on wood, canvas, paper, or the
like. See Painting.
PICUS, the Woodpecker, in ornithology, a genus
belonging to the order of picae. The beak is ftraight,
and confifts of many Tides, and like a wedge at the
point; the noftrils are covered with briftly feathers ;
the tongue is round like a worm, very long, and (harp
at the point, which is befet with bridles bent back¬
wards. There are 2 1 fpecies, principally diftinguiftied
by their colour. The following are known in Britain,
viz.
1. The viridis, or green woodpecker, weighs fix
ounces and a half. Its length is 13 inches, the breadtli
20 and a half; the bill is duiky, triangular, and near
two inches long : the crown of the head is crimfon,
fpotted with black ; the eyes are furrounded with
black, and the males have a rich crimfon mark beneath
the blacknefs. The back, neck, and lefler coverts of
the wings, are green : the rump, of a pale yellow.
The whole of the under part of the body is of a
very pale-green ; and the thighs and vent are marked
with duiky lines. The legs and feet are of a cinereous
green. The tail confifts of ten ftiff feathers, whofe
ends are generally broken, as the bird refts on
them in climbing: their tips are black; the reft of
each is alternately barred with duiky and deep green.
Thefe birds feed entirely on infefts ; and their prin¬
cipal aftion is that of climbing up and down the bo¬
dies or boughs of trees: for the firft purpofe they are
provided with a long flender tongue, armed with a
lharp bony end barbed on each fide, which by the
means of a curioils apparatus of mufcles they can exert
at pleafure, darting it to a great length into the
clifts of the bark, transfixing, and drawing out the in—
fedls that lurk there. They make their nefts in the
hollows of trees: in order therefore to force their way
to thofe cavities, their bills are formed ftrong, very
hard, and wedge-like at the end ; Dr Derham ob-
ferves, that a neat ridge runs along the top, as if an
artift had defigned it far ftrength and beauty. Yet it
has not power to penetrate a found tree : their per¬
foration of any tree is a warning to the owner to throw
it down. Their legs are Ihort, but ftrong; their
thighs very mufcular: their toes difpofed, two back¬
wards, two forward the feathers of the tail are very
ftiff, lharp-pointed, and bending downwards. The
three firft circumftancesdo admirably concurTo enable
them to run up and down the Tides of trees with great
fecurity and the ftrength of the tail fupports them
firmly when they continue long, in one place, either-
where they find plenty of food, or while they are
forming an accefs to the interior part of the timber.
This form of the tail makes their flight very auk-
ward, as it inclines their body down, and forces them
to fly with Ihort and frequent jerks when they would
afeend, or even keep in a line. This fpecies feeds of-
tener on the ground than any other of the genus : all
of them make their nefts in the hollows of trees;-
and lay five or fix eggs, of a beautiful femi-tranf-
parent white.
2. The major, or great fpotted woodpecker, weighs
34 T two
P I c
two ounces three quarters; the length is nine inches ;
the breadth is 16. The bill is one and a quarter long,
of a black horn colour. The irides are red. The fore¬
head is of a pale buff colour; the crown of the head a
glofly black; the hind-part marked With a rich deep
crimfon fpot. The cheeks are white ; bounded be¬
neath by a black line that pafles from the corner of
the mouth and furrounds the hind-part of the head.
The neck is encircled with a black colour. The throat
and bread are of a yellowifh white ; the vent-feathers
of a fine light crimfon. The back, rump, and co¬
verts of the tail, and lefier coverts of the wings, are
black ; the fcapular feathers and coverts adjoining to
them, are white. The quill- feathers are black, elegant¬
ly marked on each web with round white fpots. The
four middle feathers of the tail are black, the next tip¬
ped with dirty yellow ; the bottoms of the two out-
mod, black; the upper parts, a dirty white. The ex¬
terior feathers marked on each web with two black
fpots; the next with two on the inner web, and only
one on the other. The legs are of a lead colour. The
female wants that beautiful crimfon fpot on the head ;
in other refpefts the colours of both agree. This fpe-
cies is much more uncommon than the preceding; and
keeps altogether in the woods.
3. The medius, or middle-lized woodpecker, agrees
with the preceding in colours and fize, excepting that
the crown of the head in this is of a rich crimfon; the
crown of the head in the male of the former, black ;
and the crimfon is in form of a bar on the hind part.
Birds thus marked have been fliot in Lancalhire and
other parts of England ; but Mr Pennant is doubtful
whether they are varieties, or didindf fpecies.
4. The minor, or lead fpotted woodpecker, fcarce
weighs an ounce; the length is fix inches; the breadth
eleven. The forehead is of a dirty white : the crown
of the head (in the male) of a beautiful crimfon : the
cheeks and fides of the neck are white, bounded by a
bed of black beneath the former. The hind part of
the head and neck, and the coverts of the wings, are
black: the back is barred with black and white : the
fcapulars and quill-feathers fpotted with black and
white : the four middle feathers of the tail ai^e black;
the others varied with black and white: the bread and
belly are of a dirty white : the crown of the head (in
the female) is white ; the feet are of a lead colour. It
has all the characters and actions of the greater kind,
but is not fo often met with.
PICUS (John), earl of Mirandula, a prodigy of
parts and learning, was the younged child of John
Francis Picus, earl of Mirandula and Concordia ; and
was born in the year 1463. The progrefs that he
made in letters was fo extremely rapid, that it was
matter of adonilhment to fee even a boy one of the
fird poets and orators of his age. After vifiting the
mod famous univerlities of France and Italy, he went
to Rome ; where, in i486, before he was 24 years of
age, he publifhed 900 propofitions in logic, mathe¬
matics, phyfics, divinity, cabalidic learning, and ma¬
gic, drawn not only from Greek and Latin, but even
from Jewifh and Arabian writers: fubjoining to his
advertisement, that, “ if any philofopher or divine
would come to Rome to difpute with him, upon any
or all of them, he would defray the expences of
his journey from the reraoteft corners of Italy.” He
P I E
enjoyed, however, the honour of this difputatious chal¬
lenge quietly, without danger to his credit; for envy
procured fome of his propofitions to be charged with
herefy, and he was forbid to difpute upon them. At
the age of 28, he confined himfelf wholly to the dudy
of the fcriptures; and undertook to combat the Jews
and Mahometans, as well as to confound judicial a-
ftrology; but in this intention his credit was alfo fa-
ved, tho’ with the lofs of his life, by his dying in 1494,
in his 32d year. He was called the phoanix of bis age;
and compofed a great number of works, which have
often been printed both feparately and together.
Picus (John Francis), prince of Mirandula, ne¬
phew of John Picus mentioned above, was born about
the year 1469. He cultivated learning and thefciences
after the example of his uncle; but he had a principa¬
lity and dominions tcrfuperintend, which involved him
in great troubles, and at lad cod him his life. He was
twice driven from his principality, and twice redo-
red ; and at lad, in 1533, was, together with his
elded fon Albert, adaflinated in his own cadle by his
nephew Galcoti. He was a great lover of letters; and
fuch of his works as were then compofed, were infert-
ed in the Stralburgh edition of his uncle’s in 1504,
and continued in future impreffions, befides fome
others, which were never collected.
PIECE, in matters of money, fignifies fometimes
the fame thing with fpecies; and fometimes, by adding
the value of the pieces, it is ufed to exprefs fuch as
have no other particular name. For the piece of eight,
or piadre, fee Money-Ttf/’/<?.
Piece, is alfo a kind of money of account, or ra¬
ther a manner of accounting ufed among the negroes
on the coad of Angola in Africa. See Money-T'^/i?.
Piece, in heraldry, denotes an ordinary or charge.
—The honourable pieces of the fiiield are the chief,
fefs, bend, pale, bar, crofs, faltier, chevron, and in
general all thofe which may .take up one-third of
the field, when alone, and in what manner foever it
be. See Heraldry.
Pieces, in the military art, include all forts of
great guns and mortars. Battering pieces are the
larger fort of guns ufed at fieges for making the
breaches ; fuch are the 24-pounder and culverine, the
one carrying a 24 and the other an 18 pound ball.
Field-pieces are 12-pounderS, demiculverines, 6-poun-
ders, fackers, minions, and 3-pounders, which march
with the army, and encamp always behind the fecond
line, but in day of battle are in the front.—A foldier’s
firelock is likewife called his piece.
PIEDMONT, a country of Italy, with the title of
a principality ; bounded on the north by Vallois ; on
the call, by the duchy of Milan and the duchy of
Montferrat; on the fouth, by the county of Nice and
the territoryof Genoa ; and on the weft, by Dauphiny
and Savoy. It comprehends 11 fmall provinces, Pied¬
mont Proper, the valleys between France and Italy,
the valley of Saluza, the county of Nice, the marqui-
fate of Sufa, the duchy of Aoft, the Canavefe, the
lordfhip of Verfail, the county of Aft, and the Langes.
It was formerly a part of Lombardy; but now belongs
to the king of Sardinia ; and lies at the foot of the
Alps, which feparate France from Italy. It is 175
miles in length, and 40 in breadth. It contains many
high mountains; among which there are rich and fruit-
1 6178 ]
PIE [ 6179 ] P I K
Pieria ful valleys, as pleafant and populous as any part of
II Italy. In the mountains are mines of feveral kinds,
tepoudre. an(j tj,e forefts a{For(l a great deal of game. The
Piedmontefe have more fenfe than the Savoyards, but
then they are not fo fincere. They are generally
ftrongly attached to the Roman Catholic religion; and
carry on fo great a trade in raw fiik, that the Englifh
alone have purchafed to the value of 200,000 pounds
in a year. Befides this, they have corn, rice, wine,
fruits, hemp, flax, and cattle. Their fovereign is the
king of Sardinia; who generally refides at Turin, the
capital of this country. The valleys between France
and Italy are inhabited by the Vaudefe, who are Pro-
teftants. Towards the end of the laft century, the
French king perfuaded the duke of Savoy to drive
them out of the country, in confequence of which
20,000 of them retired to Germany, England, and
Holland ; and yet they are not at all extirpated, tho’
they are obliged to have a Roman Catholic church in
every parifh.
PIERIA (anc.geog.), a diftrift of Macedonia, con¬
tained between the mouths of the rivers Ludias and
Peneus; extended by Strabo beyond the Ludias, to
the river Axios on the north, and on the fouth no far¬
ther than the Aliacmon, along the welt fide of the Si¬
nus Thermaicus.—Another Pieria of Syria, the north
part of Seleucis, or the Antiochena^ fituate on the Si¬
nus Iflicus, and lying next Cilicia to the north-weft.
PIERIS (anc. gcog.), a mountain which is thought
to have given name to Pieria of Macedonia; taking its
name from Pierus a poet, who was the firft that fa-
crificed to the Mufes, thence called Pierides, if cre¬
dit may be given to an ancient fcholiaft on Juvenal.
PIEPOUDRE {Court of), the lowett, and at
the fame time the moft expeditious, court of juftice
known to the law of England. It is called piepoudre,
(curia pedis pulverizati), from the dully feet of the
fuitors; or, according to Sir Edward Coke, becaufe
juftice is there done as fpeedily as dull can fall from
the foot: Upon the fame principle that juftice a-
mong the Jews was adminillered in the gate of the
city, that the proceedings might be the more fpeedy,
as well as public. But the etymology given os by a
learned modern writer is much more ingenious and fa-
tisfa&ory; it being derived, according to him, from
piedpuldreaux, “ a pedlar,” in old French, and there¬
fore iignifying the court of fuch petty chapmen as re¬
fort to fairs or markets. It is a court of record, inci¬
dent to every fair and market; of which the Reward of
him who owns or has the toll of the market, is the
judge. It was inftituted to adminifter juftice for all
commercial injuries done in that very fair or market,
and not in any preceding one. So that the injury muft
be done, complained of, heard, and determined, with¬
in the compafs of one and the fame day, unlefs the fair
continues longer. The court hath cognizance of all
matters of contraft that can poffibly arife within the
precind of that fair or market; and the plaintiff muft
make oath that the caufe of an aftion arofe there.
From this court a writ of error lies, in the nature of
an appeal, to the courts at Weftminller. The reafon
of its inftitution feems to have been, to do juftice ex-
peditioufly among the variety of perfons that refort
from diftant places to a fair or market; fince it is pro¬
bable, that no other inferior court might be able to
2
ferve its procefs, or execute its judgments, on both or
perhaps either of the parties; and therefore, unlefs this
court had been ere&ed, the complaint muft neceffarily _
have reforted even in the firft inftance to fome fuperior
judicature.
PIER, in building, denotes a mafs of ftone, &c.
oppofed by way of fortrefs to the force of the fea, or a
great river, for the fecurity of fhips that lie at har¬
bour in any haven.
PIERIDES, in fabulous hiftory, the daughters of
Pierus a Macedonian prince, prefuming to difpute with
the mufes for the prize of poetry, were turned in¬
to magpies. The name of Pierides was alfo given to
the mufes, from mount Pieris in Theffaly, which was
confecrated to them ; or, according to others, from
Pierus, a Thefialian poet, who was the firft who facri-
ficed to them. See Pieris.
PIERINO del Vaga, an eminent Italian painter,
born of poor parents in Tufcany, about the year 1500.
He was placed apprentice with a grocer in Florence,
and got fome inftru&ions from the painters to whom
he was lent with colours and pencils ; but a painter
named Vaga taking him to Rome, he was called Del
Vaga, from living with him, his real name being 2?zw-
nacorft. He ftudied anatomy with the fciences necef-
fary for his profefiion ; and had fomewhat of every
thing that was good in his compofitions. After Ra¬
phael’s death, he joined with Julio Romano and Fran-
eifeo Penni to finilh the works in the Vatican which
were left imperfeft by their common mafter; and to
confirm their friendfhip, married Penni’s filler. He
gained the higheft reputation by his performances in
the palace of prince Doria at Genoa : but the multi¬
plicity of his bufinefs and the vivacity of his imagina¬
tion, drained his fpirits in the flower of his age; for he
died in the year 1547.
PIETISTS, a religious fe£l fprung up among the
Proteftants of Germany, feeming to be a kind of mean
between the Quakers of England, and the Quietifts of
the Romifli church.
They defpife all forts of ecclefiaftical polity, all
fchool theology, and all forms and ceremonies, and
give themfelves up to contemplation and the myftic
theology.
* PIG, in zoology. See Sus.
Guinea-P\G. See Mus.
Pig of Lead, the eighth part of a fother, amount¬
ing to 250 pounds weight.
PIGEON, in ornithology. See Columba.
Carrier Pigeon. See Carrier, and ColumbAc
PIGMENTS, preparations ufed by painters, dyers,
&c. to impart colours to bodies, or to imitate parti¬
cular colours. SeeCoLOUR-71fafi«^, and Dyeing.
PI-HAHIROTH, (Mofes); underftood to be a
mouth or narrow pafs between two mountains, called
Chiroth, or Eiroth, and lying not far from the bottom
of the weftern coaft of the Arabian gulf; before which
mouth the children of Ifrael encamped, juft before their
entering the Red Sea, (Wells).
PIKE, in ichthyology. See Esox.
The pike never fwims in fhoals as moft other fifh do,
but always lies alone; and is fo bold and ravenous, that
he will feize upon almoft any thing lefs than himfelf.
This fifh breeds but once in a year, which is in March.
It is found in almoft all frefh waters j but is very dif-
34 T 2 ferent
Piet
- II
Pike.
P I K [ 61
ferent in goodnefs, according to the nature of the places
where it lives. The fined pike are thofe which feed
in clear rivers; thofe in ponds and meres are inferior to
thefe, and the word of all are thofe of the fen ditches.
They are very plentiful in thefe lad places, where the
water is foul and coloured ; and their food, fuch as
frogs and the like, very plentiful, but very coarfe; fo
that they grow large, but are yellowifh and high bel¬
lied, and differ greatly from thofe which live in the
clearer waters.
The fifhermen have two principal ways of catching
the pike; by the ledger, and by the walking-bait.
The ledger-bait is fixed in one certain place, and
may continue while the angler is abfent. This mud be
a live bait, a filh or frog : and among filh, the dace,
roach, and gudgeon, are the bed; of frogs, the only
caution is to choofe the larged and yellowed that can
be met with. If the bait be a filh, the hook is to be
ftuck through the upper lip, and the line mud be 14
yards at lead in length; the other end of this is to be
tied to a bough of a tree, or to a flick driven into the
ground near the pike’s haont, and all the line wound
round a forked flick, except about half a yard. The
bait will by this means keep playing fo much under wa¬
ter, and the pike will foon lay hold of it.
If the bait be a frog, then the arming wire of the
hook fhould be put in at the mouth, and out at the
fide; and with a needle and fome drong filk, the hin¬
der-leg of one fide is to be faffened by one flitch to the
wire-arming of the hook. The pike will foon feize
this, and mud have line enough to give him leave to
get to his haunt and poach the bait.
The trolling for pike is a pleafant method alfo of ta¬
king them: in this a dead bait ferves, and none is fo
proper as a gudgeon.
This is to be pulled about in the water till the pike
feizes it; and then it is to have line enough, and time
to fwallow it: the hook is fmall for this fport, and has
a fmooth piece of lead fixed at its end to fink the bait;
and the line is t»ery long, and runs through a ring at
the end of the rod, which mud not be too flender at
top.
The art of feeding pike, fo as to make them very
fat, is the giving them eels; and without this it is not
to be done under a very long time ; otherwife perch,
while fmall, and their prickly fins tender, are the bed
food for them. Bream put into a pike-pond are a very
proper food: they will breed freely, and their young
■ones make excellent food for the pike, who will take
care that they (hall not increafe over much. The nu¬
merous (hoals of roaches and ruds, which are continu¬
ally changing place, and often in floods get into the
pike’s quarters, are food for them for long time.
Pike, when ufed to be fed by hand, will come up to
the very fhore, and take the food that is given them
out of the fingers of the feeder. It is wonderful to
fee with what courage they will do this, after a while
pra&ifing; and it is a very diverting fight when there
are feveral of them nearly of the fame fize, to fee what
driving and fighting there will be for the bed bits
when they are thrown in. The mod convenient place
is near the mouth of the pond, and where there is
about half a yard depth of water; for, by that means,
the offal of the feedings will all lie in one place, and
the deep water will ferve for a place to retire into and
80 ] P I L
red in, and will be always clean and in order. Pike.
Carp will be fed in the fame manner as pike; and p,.11
though by nature a fifh as remarkably fliy and timo- 1 c ar *
rous as the pike is bold and fearlefs, yet by cudom
they will come to take their food out of the perfon’s
hand; and will, like the pike, quarrel among one ano¬
ther for the niced bits.
PIKE, in war, an offenfive weapon, confiding of a
wooden fliaft, 12 or 14 feet long, with a flat flee] head,
pointed, called the fpear. This weapon was long in
ufe among the infantry; but now the bayonet, which
is fixed on the muzzle of the firelock, is fubdituted in
its dead. It is dill ufed by fome of the officers of in¬
fantry, under the name of fponton.—The Macedonian
phalanx was a battalion of pike-men.
PILASTER, in architefture. See there, n0 55.
PILCHARD, in ichthyology, a fifh which has a
general likenefs to the herring, but differs in fome par¬
ticulars very effential. The body of the pilchard is lefa
compreffed than that of the herring, being thicker and
rounder: the nofe is (horter in proportion, and turns
up: the under jaw is fhorter. The back is more ele¬
vated; the belly lefs fliarp: the dorfal fin of the pil¬
chard is placed exa&ly in the centre of gravity, fo that
when taken up by it, the body preferves an equilibri¬
um, whereas that of the herring dips at the head: The
fcales of the pilchard adhere very clofely, whereas
thofe of the herring very eafily drop off. The pil¬
chard is in general lefs than the herring; but it is fat¬
ter, or more full of oil.
The pilchard appears in vaff ffioals off the Corniffi
coads about the middle of July, difappearing the be¬
ginning of winter, yet fometimes a few return again
after Chriflmas. Their winter retreat is the fame with
that of the herring, and their motives for migrating
the fame J. They affeft, during fummer, a warmer la- f See C/«-
titude; for they are not found in any quantities on pea.
any of our coads except thofe of Cornwall, that is to
fay, from Fowey harbour to the Scilly ifles, between
which places the fhoals keep fhifting for fome weeks.
The approach of the pilchard is known by much the
fame figns as thofe that indicate the arrival of the her^
ring. Perfons, called in Cornwall huers, are placed on
the cliffs, to point to the boats flationed off the land
the courfe of the filh. By the td of James I. c. 23,
filhermen are empowered to go on the grounds of others
to hue, without being liable to a&ions of trefpafs,
which before occafioned frequent lawfuits.
The emoluments that accrue to the inhabitants of
that county are great, and are bed expreffed in the
words of Dr W. Borlafe, in his account of the Pil¬
chard Filhery. “ It employs a great number of men
on the fea, training them thereby to naval affairs; em¬
ploys men, women, and children, at land, in falling,
preffing, walhing, and cleaning, in making boats, nets,
ropes, calks, and all the trades depending on their con-
flru&ion and fale. The poor is fed with the offals of
the captures; the land with the refufe of the filh and
fait; the merchant finds the gains of commiffion and
honed commerce ; the filherman, the gains of the
filh. Ships are often freighted hither with fait, and
into foreign countries with the fifh, carrying off at
the fame time part of our tin. The ufual produce
of the number of hoglheads exported each year, for
ten years, from 1747 to 1756 inclufive, from the
P I L r 6181 1 P I L
four ports of Fowy, Falmouth, Penzance, and St Ives,
it appears that Fowy has exported yearly 1732 hogs¬
heads; Falmouth, 14,631 hogftieads and two-thirds;
Penzance and Mounts-Bay, 12,149 hogfheads and one-
third; St Ives, 1282 hogtheads: in all amounting to
29,795 hogfheads. Every hogfhead for ten years laft
pad, together with the bounty allowed for every hogs¬
head exported, and the oil made out of each hogfhead,
has amounted, one year with another at an average,
to the price of 1/. i$s. ^d.', fo that the cafh paid for
pilchards exported has, at a medium, annually amount¬
ed to the fum of 49,532/. to/.” The numbers that
are taken at one fhooting out of the nets, is amazingly
great. Mr Pennant fays, that Dr Borlafe affured him,
that on the 5th of Odober 1767, there were at one
time inciofed in St Ives’s Bay 7000 hogfheads, each
hogfhead containing 35,000 fifh, in ail 245,000,000.
PILE, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of a wedge,
contrading from the chief, and terminating in a point
towards the bottom of the fhield.
Pile, in antiquity, a pyramid built of wood, on
which the bodies of the deceafed were laid in order to
be burnt.
Pile, in building, is ufed for a large ftake rammed
into the ground in the bottom of rivers, or in marfhy
land, for a foundation to build upon.
Pile is alfo ufed amongarchiteds fora mafs of build-
ing*
Pile, in coinage, denotes a kind of puncheon, w’hich,
in the old way of coining with the hammer, contained
the arms or other figure and infcription to be {truck
on the coin. See Coinage.
Accordingly we ftill call the arms-fide'of a piece of
money the//'/?, and the head the crofs; becaufe in an¬
cient coin, a crofs ufually took the place of the head
in ours.
Vthv-Engin&i a very curious machine invented by
Mr Vauloue for driving the piles of Weftminfter bridge.
It is reprefented Plate CCXLV. A is a great up¬
right fhaft or axle, on which are the great wheel B,
and the drum C, turned by horfes joined to the bars
S, S. The wheel B turns the trundle X, on the top
of whofe axis is the fly O, which ferves to regulate the
motion, and alfo to ad againft the horfes, and to keep
them from falling when the heavy ram QJs difcharged
to drive the pile P down into the mud in the bottom
of the river. The drum C is loofe upon the fhaft A,
but is locked to the wheel B by the bolt Y. On this
drum the great rope HH is wound ; one end of the
rope being fixed to the drum, and the other to the fol¬
lower G, to which it is conveyed over the pulleys I and
K. In the follower G is contained the tongs F, that
takes hold of the ram Q_by the flaple R, for drawing
it up. D is a fpiral or fufy fixed to the drum, on which
is wound the fmall ropeT that goes over the pulley U,
under the pulley V, and is faftened to the top of the
frame at 7. To the pulley-block V is hung the coun-
terpoife W, which hinders the follower T from acce¬
lerating as it goes down to take hold of the ram; for
as the follower tends to acquire velocity in its defcent,
the line T winds downwards upon the fufy, on a larger
and larger radius, by which means the counterpoife W
adts ftronger and ftronger againft it; and fo allows it
4o come down with only a moderate and uniform velo¬
city. The bolt Y locks the drum to the great wheel,
being pufhed upward by the fmall lever 2, which goes
through a mortoife in the fhaft A, turns upon a pin in
the bar 3, fixed to the great wheel B, and has a weight
4, which always tends to pufh up the bolt Y through
the wheel into the drum. L is the great lever turn¬
ing on the axis m, and refling upon the forcing bar
5,5, which goes through a hollow in the fhaft A, and
bears up the little lever 2.
By the horfes going round, the great rope H is
wound, about the drum C, and the ram Qjs drawn up
-by the tongs F in the follower G, until the tongs comes
between the inclined planes E; which, by (hutting the
tongs at the top, opens it at the foot, and difcharges
the ram which falls down between the guides bb upon
the pile P, and drives it by a few ftrokes as far into the
mud as it will go; after which, the top part is fawed
off clofe to the mud by an engine for that purpofe.
Immediately after the ram is difcharged, the piece 6
upon the follower G takes hold of the ropes a a, which
raife the end of the lever L, and caufe its end N to de¬
scend and prefs down the forcing bar 5 upon the little
lever 2, which, by pulling down the bolt Y, unlocks the
drum C from the great wheel B; and then the follower
being at liberty, comes down by its own weight to the
ram; and the lower ends of the tongs flip over the
flaple R, and the weight of their heads caufes them to
fall outward, and fhuts upon it. Then the weight 4
pufhes up the bolt Y into the drum, which locks it
to the great wheel, and fo the ram is drawn up as be¬
fore.
As the follower comes down it caufes the drum to
turn backward, and unwinds the rope from it, whilfl
the horfes, great wheel, trundle and fly, go on with au
uninterrupted motion; and as the drum is turning back¬
ward, the counterpoife W is drawn up, and its rope T
wound upon the fpiral fufy D.
There are feveral holes in the under fide of the drum,
and the bolt Y always takes the firfl one that it finds
when the drum flops by the falling of the follower up¬
on the ram; until which floppage the bolt has not time
to flip into any of the holes.
This engine was placed upon a barge on the water,
and fo was eafily conveyed to any place defired. The
ram was a ton weight; and the guides £3, by which it
was let fall, were 30 feet high.
PILES, in medicine, the fame with haemorrhoids.
See Medicine, n° 354, 358.
PILGRIM, one who travels through foreign coun¬
tries to vifit holy places, and to pay his devotion to the
reliques of dead faints. See Pilgrimage.
The word is formed from the Flemifh pelgrim, or
Italian pelegrim, which fignifies the fame; and thofe
originally from the Latin peregrinus, a “ flranger or
traveller.”
PILGRIMAGE, a kind of religious difeipline,
which confifls in taking a journey to fome holy place,
in order to adore the relics of fome deceafed faint. Pil¬
grimages began to be made about the middle ages of
the church ; but they were mod in vogue after the
end of the nth century, when every one was for vilit-
ing places of devotion, not excepting kings and princes
themfelves; and even bifhops made no difficulty of be¬
ing abfent from their churches on the fame account.
Pile
II
Pilgrimage.
P I L [ 6182 1 P I L
pilltington The places mod vifited were Jerufalem, Rome, Com-
H poftella, and Tours; but the greateft numbers now re-
Flllory' fort to Loretto, in order to vifit the chamber of the
blefied virgin, in which {he was born, and brought up
her fon Jefus till he was 12 years of age.
PILKINGTON (Laetitia), a famous poetical ge¬
nius, the daughter of Dr Van Lewin, a phyfician of
Dublin, where fhe was born in 1712. She was mar¬
ried very young to the rev. Matthew Pilkington, a poet
alfo of no inconfiderable merit; and thefe two wits, as
is often the cafe, lived very unhappily together. They
were at length totally feparated, on the hufband acci¬
dentally difcovering a gentleman in her bedchamber at
two o’clock in the morning; a circumftance which fhe
accounted for in a very unfatisfaftory manner. The
{lory is told at large in her Memoirs; where {he fays,
“ Lovers of learning, I am fure, will pardon me, as I
folemnly declare it was the attra&ive charms of a new
book, which the gentleman would not lend me, but
confented to day till I read it through, that was
the foie motive of my detaining him.” As there are
not wanting fome who form obje&ions to the marry¬
ing learned wives, the chance of fueh literary appoint¬
ments may perhaps be added to the lift of them. Af¬
ter this unlucky adventure, Mrs Pilkington came to
London; and having recourfe to her pen for fubfift-
ence, through the means of Colley Cibber, fhe lived
fome time on the contributions of the great. She was
however thrown into the Marftialfea for debt; and be¬
ing fet at liberty, opened a pamphlet {hop. She raifed
at length a handfome fubfcription for her Memoirs ;
which are written with great fprightlinefs and wit,
containing feveral entertaining anecdotes of dean Swift,
■with whom {he was intimate, at well as many pretty
little pieces of her poetry. This ingenious but unhappy
woman is faid at laft to have killed herfelf with drink¬
ing, at Dublin, in 1750.
PILL, in pharmacy, a form of medicine refembling
a little ball, to be fwallowed whole; invented for fuch
as cannot take bitter and ill-tafted medicinal draughts;
as alfo to keep in readinefs for occafional ufe without
decaying. See Pharmacy, n° 854, &c.
PILLAR, in architecture. See Architecture,
«° 38-
Pillar, in the manege, is the centre of the ring, or
manege-ground, round which a horfe turns, whether
there be a pillar in it or not. Befides this, there are
pillars on the circumference or Tides of the manege-
ground, placed at certain diftances, by two and two,
from whence they are called the two pillars, to di-
ftinguifh them from that of the centre. The ufe
of the pillar in the centre, is for regulating the ex¬
tent of ground, that the manege upon the volts
may be performed with method and juftnefs, and that
they may work in a fquare, by rule and meafure,
upon the four lines of the volts; and alfo to break
unruly high-mettled horfes, without endangering the
rider. The two pillars are placed at the diftance of
two or three paces one from the other, and the horfe
is put between thofe, to teach him to rife before, and
yerk out behind, and put himfelf upon raifed airs, &c.
either by the aids, or chaftifements.
PILLORY, (collijlrigium, “ collum ftringens
pilloria, from the French pilleur, i. e. depeculator, or
pelori; derived from the Greek 7rv^,jaKuat a “ door,”
becaufe one {landing on the pillory puts his head as Pllotjj
it were through a door; and video), is an engine 
made of wood to punifti offenders, by expofing them to
public view, and rendering them infamous. There is a
Jlatute of the pillory, 51 Hen. III. And by ftatute it is
appointed for bakers, foreftallers, and thofe who ufe j
falfe weights, perjury, forgery, &c. $ Inji. 219. Lords
of leets are to have a pillory and tumbrel, or it will be
the caufe of forfeiture of the leet ; and a vill may be
bound by prefcription to provide a pillory, &c. 2 Hawk.
P. C. 73.
PILOT, the officer who fuperintends the naviga¬
tion, either upon the fea-coaft or on the main ocean.
It is, however, more particularly applied by our mari¬
ners to the perfon charged with the direftion of a {hip’s
courfe on or near the fea-coaft, and into the roads,
bays, rivers, havens, &c. within his refpeftive diftrift.
Pilots of {hips, taking upon them to conduCt any {hip
from Dover, &c. to any place up the river Thames,
are to be firft examined and approved by the mafter
and wardens of the fociety of Trinity Houfe, &c. or
{hall forfeit 10I. for the firft offence, 20I. for the fe- j
cond, and 401. for every other offence; one moiety to
the informer, the other to the mafter and wardens; but
any mafter or mate of a {hip, may pilot his own veffel
up the river: and if any {hip be loft through the ne¬
gligence of any pilot, he {hall be for ever after difabled j
to aft as a pilot. 3 Geo. I. c. 13. Alfo the Lord War- :
den of the Cinque Ports may make rules for govern¬
ment of pilots, and order a fufficient number to ply at
fea to conduft {hips up to the Thames: 7 Geo. I. c. 21.
No perfon fliall aft as a pilot on the Thames, &c. (ex¬
cept in collier {hips) without a licence from the mailer
and wardens of Trinity-Houfe at Deptford, on pain of
forfeiting 20I. And pilots are to be fubjeft to the go¬
vernment of that corporation ; and pay ancient dues,
not exceeding 1 s. in the pound, out of wages, for the
ufe of the poor thereof. Stat. 5 Geo. II. c. 20.
By the laws of France, no perfon Ihall be received
as pilot, till he has made feveral voyages, and paffed a
drift examination; and after that, on his return in long
voyages, he is to lodge a copy of his journal in the ad¬
miralty: and if a pilot occafion the lofs of a {hip, he
iS to pay 100 livres fine, and to be for ever deprived of
the exercife of pilotage ; and if he doth it defignedly,
be puniftied with death. Lex. Mercat. 70, 71.
The laws of Oleron ordain, That if any pilot delign-
edly mifguide a {hip, that it may be caft away, he {hall
be pot to a rigorous death, and hung in chains: and
if the lord of a place, where a {hip be thus loft, abet
fuch villains in order to have a {hare of the wreck, he
Ihall be apprehended, and all his goods forfeited for
the fatisfaftion of the perfons fuffering; and his per¬
fon {hall be faftened to a ftake in the midft of his own
manfion, which, being fired on the four corners, {hall
be burned to the ground, and he with it. Leg. 01.
c. 25. And if the fault of a pilot be fo notorious, that
the {hip’s crew fee an apparent wreck, they may lead
him to the hatches, and ftrike off his head; but the
common law denies this hafty execution: an ignorant
ilot is fentenced to pafs thrice under the {hip’s keel,
y the laws of Denmark. Lex Mercat. 70.
The regulations, with regard to pilots in the royal
navy, areas follow: The commanders of the king’s
{hips, in order to give all reafonable encouragement to
fo
P I M [ 6183 1 P I M
(pot f0 ufeful a body of men as pilots, and to remove all
f [I jj their obje&ions to his Majelly’s fervice, are ftri&ly
!*jPine ^ charged to treat them with good ufage, and an equal
refpeft with warrant-officers.
“ The purfer of the (hip is always to have a fet of
bedding provided on board for the pilots; and the cap¬
tain is to order the boatfwain to fupply them with ham-
mocs, and a convenient place to lie in, near their duty,
and apart from the common men; which bedding and
hammocs are to be returned when the pilots leave the
(hip.
“ A pilot, when conducing one of his Majefty’s
(hips in pilot-water, (hall have the foie charge and com¬
mand of the (hip, and may give orders for fleering, fet-
ting, trimming, or furling the fails; tacking the (hip;
or whatever concerns the navigation : and the captain
is to take care that all the officers and crew obey his
orders. But the captain is diligently to obferve the
condudt of the pilot; and if he judges him to behave fo
ill as to bring the (hip into danger, he may remove him
from the command and charge of the (hip, and take
fuch methods for her prefervation as (hall be judged
neceflary; remarking upon the log-book, the exa&
hour and time when the pilot was removed from his of¬
fice, and the reafons affigned for it.
“ Captains of the king’s (hips, employing pilots in
foreign parts of his majefty’s dominions, (hail, after
performance of the fervice, give a certificate thereof to
the pilot, which being produced to the proper naval
officer, he (hall caufe the fame to be immediately paid;
but if there be no naval-officer there, the captain of his
majefty’s (hip (hall pay him, and fend the proper vouch¬
ers, with his bill, to the navy-board, in order to be
paid as bills of exchange.
“ Captains of his majefty’s (hips, employing foreign
pilots to carry the (hips they command into or out of
foreign ports, (hall pay them the rates due by the efta-
blilhment or cuftom of the country, before they dif-
charge them; whofe receipts being duly vouched, and
fent, with a certificate of the fervice performed, to the
navy-board, they (hall caufe them to be paid with the
fame exaftnefs as they do bills of exchange.” Regu¬
lations and Injiruciions of the Sea-fervice, &c.
PIMENTO, in botany, Jamaica pepper, ox All-
fpice. See Myrtus, of which it is a fpecies.
The fruits are gathered when green, and are expo-
fed to the fun for many days on cloths, frequently
(baking and turning them till they are thoroughly
dry: great care is taken that they be not wetted by
the morning and evening dews; and when thus dry,
they are fent over to us.
Pimento abounds with a fragrant effential oil, which
is feparated in great quantity in diftillation, and is fo
heavy that it finks in water. This fpice is much ufed
in our foods, and fometimes in medicine : it is indeed
a very good aromatic, and imitates the flavour of all
the reft ; fo that the effential oil of Jamaica pepper is
frequently fubftituted in the room of thofe drawn from
the more coftly fpices.
PIMPINELLA, burnet saxifrage ; a genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There are feven fpecies ; the moft remark¬
able of which are, 1. The major, or greater burnet
faxifrage, growing naturally in chalky woods, and on
the fides of the banks near hedges, in feveral parts of
England. The lower leaves of this fort are winged ; Plmpinella*
the lobes are deeply fawed on their edges, and fit
clofe to the midrib, of a dark green. The ftalks are
more than a foot high, dividing into four or five
branches. The lower part of the (talk is garnilhed
with winged leaves, (haped like thofe at the bottom,
but fmaller : thofe upon the branches are (hort and
trifid : the branches are terminated by fmall umbels of
white flowers, which are compofed of fmalkr umbels
or rays. The (lowers have five heart-ffiaped petals,
which turn inward, and are fucceeded by two narrow,
oblong, channelled feeds. 2. The anifum, or com¬
mon anife, is an annual plant, which grows naturally
in Egypt; but is cultivated in Malta and Spain, from
whence the feeds are annually imported into Britain.
The lower leaves of this plant are divided into three
lobes, which are deeply cut on their edges : the ftalk
rifes a foot and a half high, dividing into feveral (len¬
der branches garniftied with narrow leaves, cut info
three or four narrow fegments, terminated by pretty
large loofe umbels, compofed of fmaller umbels or
rays, which (land on pretty long foot-ftalks. The
flowers are fmall, and of a yellowiin white ; the feeds
are oblong and fwelling.-—The former fpecies requires
no culture ; the latter is too tender to be cultivated
for profit in this country. However, the feeds will
come up if fown, in the beginning of April, upon a
warm border. When they come up, they (hould be
thinned, and kept clear of weeds ; which is all the
culture they require.
Uses. Both thefe fpices are ufed in medicine. The
roots of pimpinella have a grateful, warm, very pun-
pent tafte, which is entirely extrafted by redified fpi-
rit: in diftillation the menftruum arifes, leaving all
that it had taken up from the root united into a pun?
gent aromatic refin. This root promifes, from its
fenfible qualities, to be a medicine of confiderable uti¬
lity, though little regarded in common pra&ice : the
only officinal coropofition in which it is an ingredient
is the pulvis art compofttus. Stahl, Hoffman, and
other German phyficians, are extremely fond of it;
and recommend it as an excellent ftomachic, refolvent,
detergent, diuretic, diaphoretic, and alexipharmac.
They frequently gave it, and not without fuccefs, in
fcorbutic and cutaneous diforders, foulnefs of the
blood and juices, tumours and obftru&ions of the
glands, and difeafes proceeding from a deficiency of
the fluid fecretions in general. Boerhaave dire&s the
ufe of this medicine in afthmatic and hydropic cafes,
where the ftrongeft refolvents are indicated: the form
he prefers is a watery infufion; but the fpirituous
tinfture poffeffes the virtues of the root in much greater
perfe&ion.
Anifeeds have an aromatic fmell, and a pleafant
warm tafte, accompanied with a degree of fweetnefs.
Water extra£ls very little of their flavour, redtified
fpirit the whole.
Thefe feeds are in the number of the four greater
hot feeds : their principal ufe is in cold flatulent dif¬
orders, where tenacious phlegm abounds, and in the
gripes to which young children are fubjedl. Frederic
Hoffman ftrongly recommends them in weaknefs of
the ftomach, diarrhoeas, and for ftrengthening the tone
of the vifeera in general; and thinks they well de-
ferve the appellation given them by Helmont, intefi-
norwn
Pin,
Pindar.
P I N
norumfolamen. The fmaller kind of anifeeds brought
from Spain are preferred.
PIN, in commerce, a little neceflary inftrument,
made of brafs wire, chiefly ufed by women in adjuft-
ing their drefs.
The perfeftion of pins confifts in the ftiffnefs of the
wire and its fmoothnefs, in the heads being well
turned, and in the finenefs of the points. The Lon¬
don pointing and whitening are in moft repute ; be-
caufe the pin-makers in that city, in pointing, ufe
two fteel mills; one of which forms the point, and the
other takes of all irregularities, and renders it fmooth
and as it were polifhed. In whitening, they ufe block-
tin granulated ; whereas in other countries they are
faid to ufe a mixture of tin, lead, and quickfilver.
The confumption of pins is incredible, and there is no
commodity fold cheaper. The number of hands em¬
ployed in this manufa&ure is very great, each pin
paffing through the hands of fix different workmen,
between the drawing of the brafs wire and the flicking
of the pin in the paper.
PIN (Lewis Ellies du), a very learned French
writer, was born at Paris in 1657. In 1685 he un¬
dertook to publifli an univerfal bibliotheque of all the
ecclefiaftical writers, containing the hiftory of their
lives, &c. 5 which vaft defign he accordingly accom-
plifhed. The freedom our author ufed in his judge¬
ments on the fiyle, charafter, and do&rine of the ec¬
clefiaftical writers, having difpleafed fome perfons, it
was complained of to the archbifhop of Paris, who
publifhed a decree or ordonnance againft it. To this
decree was annexed Mr du Pin’s retraftation ; not-
withftanding which, his work was fupprefied by an
arret of parliament. However, he continued it un¬
der another title. His many different books (hew his
prodigious readinefs in compofing. He was at the
fame time a divine, canonift, hiftorian, critic, and
philofopher. At laft being exhaufted by his labours,
and by a regimen which contributed to fhorten his
days, he died in 1719.
PINDAR, the prince of lytic poets, was born at
Thebes, about 520 years B. C. He received his firft
mufical inftru&ions from his father, who was a flute-
player by profeffion ; after which, according to Sui-
das, he was placed under Myrtis, a lady of diftin-
guifhed abilities in lyric poetry. It was during this
period that he become acquainted with the poetefs
Corinna, who was likewife a ftudent under Myrtis.
Plutarch tells us, that Pindar profited from the lef-
fons which Corinna, more advanced in her ftudies,
gave him at this fchool. It is very natural to fup-
pofe, that the firft poetical eflfufions of a genius fo
full of fire and imagination as that of Pindar would
be wild and luxuriant; and Lucian has preferved fix
verfes, faid to have been the exordium of his firft ef-
fay ; in which he crowded almoft all the fubjefts for
fong which ancient hiftory and mythology then fur-
nifhed. Upon communicating this attempt to Corin-
na, {he told him, fmiling, that he fhould fow with
the hand, and not empty his whole fackat once. Pin¬
dar, however, foon quitted the leading-ftrings ofthefe
ladies, his poetical nurfes, and became the difciple of
P I N
Simonides, now arrived at extreme old age ; after Pindai
which he foon furpaffed all his matters, and acquired j
great reputation over all Greece: but, like a true |
prophet, he was lefs honoured in his own country than •
elfewhere ; for at Thebes he was frequently pronoun¬
ced to be vanquifhed, in the mufical and poetical con- \
lefts, by candidates of inferior merit.
The cuftom of having thefe public trials of {kill in
all the great cities of Greece was now fo prevalent,
that but little fame was to be acquired by a mufician
or poet, any other way than by entering the lifts ; jj
and we find, that both Myrtis and Corinna publicly
difputed the prize with him at Thebes. He obtained
a vhStory over Myrtis, but. was vanguifhed five differ- j
ent times by Corinna. The judges, upon occafions
like thefe, have been frequently accufed of partiality
or ignorance, not only by the vanquifhed, but by po- J
fterity : and if the merit of Pindar was pronounced
inferior to that of Corinna five feveral times, it was,
fays Paufanias, becaufe the judges were more fenfible
to the charms of beauty than to thofe of mufic and j
poetry (a). Was it not ftrange, faid the Scythian
Anacharfis, that the Grecian artifts were never judged i
by artifts, their peers ?
Pindar, before he quitted Thebes, had the vexa¬
tion to fee his Dithyrambics traduced, abufed, and
turned into ridicule, by the comic poets of his time *
and Athenaeus tells us, that he was feverely cenfured
by his brother lyrics, for being a lipogrammatift, and
compofing an ode from which he had excommunicated
the letter S. Whether thefe cenfures proceeded from
envy, or contempt, cannot now be determined ; but
they were certainly ufeful to Pindar, and it was necef-
fary that he fhould be lafiied for fuch puerilities.
Thebes feems to have been the purgatory of our
young bard; when he quitted that city, as his judg¬
ment was matured, he avoided moft of the errors for
which he had been chaftifed, and fuddenly became the
wonder and delight of all Greece. Every hero, prince,
and potentate, defirous of lafting fame, courted the
Mufe of Pindar.
He feems frequently to have been prefent at the
four great feftivals, of the Olympian, Pythian, Ne-
mean, and Ifthmian games, as may be inferred from
feveral circumftances and expreflions in the odes, which
he compofed for the vi&ors in them all. Thofe at O-
lympia, who were ambitious of having their atchieve-
ments celebrated by Pindar, applied to him for an
ode, which was firft fung in the Prytaneum, or town-
hall of Olympia, where there was a banqueting room,
fet apart for the entertainment of the conquerors.
Here the ode was rehearfed by a chorus, accompanied
by inftruments. It was afterwards performed in the
fame manner at the triumphal entry of the viftor in¬
to his own country, in proceffions, or at the facrifi-
ces that were made with great pomp and folemnity on
the occafion.
Pindar, in his fecond Ifthmian ode, has apologized
for the mercenary cuftom among poets, of receiving
money for their compofitions. “ The world (fays
he) is grown interefted, and thinks in general with
the Spartan philofopher Ariftodemus, that money only
makes
[a) Paufanias fays, that Corinna was one of the moft beautiful women of her time, as he judged by a pidture of
her, which he faw at Tanagris, in the place where the public exercifes were performed. She was reprefented with
her head ornamented by a riband, as a memorial of the vidiories Ibe had obtained over Pindar at Thebes.
[ 6184 ]
P I N
phuter. makes the man : a truth which this fage himfelf expe-
rienced, having with his riches loft all his friends.”
It is fuppofed that Pindar here alludes to the avarice
of Simonides, who firft allowed his mufe to fell her fa¬
vours to the higheft bidder.
There is no great poet in antiquity, whofe moral
charafter has been lefs cenfured than that of Pindar.
Plutarch has preferved a Angle verfe of his Epicedium,
or Dirge, that was fung at his funeral; which, fhort
and Ample as it is, implies great praife : This man nuas
pleafing to Jirangers, and dear to his fellow-citizens.
His works abound with precepts of the pureft mora¬
lity : and it does not appear that he ever traduced even
his enemies; comforting himfelf, for their malignity,
by a maxim which he inferted in his Arft Pythic, and
which afterwards became proverbial, That it is better
to be envied than pitied.
Paufanias fays, that the chara&er of poet was truly
confecrated, in the perfon of Pindar, by the God of
verfe himfelf, who was pleafed, by an exprefs oracle,
to order the inhabitants of Delphos to fet apart, for
Pindar, one half of the ftrft-fruit offerings brought
by the religious to his (hrine, and to allow him a con-
fpicuous place in his tempi* ; where, is an iron chair,
he ufed to At and Ang his hymns in honour of that
god. This chair was remaining in the time of Pau¬
fanias, feveral centuries after, and fhown to him as a
relic not unworthy of the famStity and magniAcence
of that place.
But though Pindar’s mufe was penAoned at Delphos,
and well paid by princes and potentates elfewhere, ftie
feems, however, fometimes to have fung the fponta-
neous ftrains of pure friendfhip. Of this kind were,
probably, the verfes beftowed upon the mufician Mi¬
das, of Agrigentum in Sicily, who had twice obtain¬
ed the palm of viftory by his performance on the
flute at the Pythic games (b). It is in his 12th Pythic
Ode, that Pindar celebrates the viftory of Midas over
all Greece, upon that injlrument which Minerva her-
felf had invented (c).
Fabricius tells us, that Pindar lived to the age of
90; and, according to the chronology of Dr Blair, he
died 435 years B. C. aged 86. His fellow-citizens
erefted a monument to him in the Hippodrome at
Thebes, which was ftill fubflfting in the time of Pau¬
fanias ; and his renown was fo great after his death,
that his pofterity derived very conflderable honours and
privileges from it. When Alexander the Great at¬
tacked the city of Thebes, he gave exprefs orders to
his foldiers to fpare the houfe and family of Pindar.
The Lacedtemonians had done the fame before this pe¬
riod ; for when they ravaged Bceotia and burned the
capital, the following words were written upon the
door of the poet: Forbear to burst this houfe, it was
the dwelling of Pistdar. Refpeft for the memory of
this great poet continued fo long, that, even in Plu¬
tarch’s time, the beft part of the facred viftim at
the Theoxenian feftival was appropriated to his de-
fcendanta.
Vol. VIII.
[ 6185 ]
P I N
PINDARIC ODE, in poetry, an ode formed in
imitation of the manner of Pindar. See Poetry, n°
59.—61.
PINDUS, (anc. geog.), not a Angle mountain, but
a chain of mountains, inhabited by different people of
Fpints and Theffaly; feparating Macedonia, Thef-
faly, and Epirus: An extenflve chain, having Ma¬
cedonia to the north, the Perrhcebi to the weft, the
Dolopes to the fouth, and the mountain itfelf of Thef¬
faly, {Strabo).
Pindus, a Doric city of ACtolia, Atuate on the
cognomina! river, which falls into the Cephiffus,
(Strabo).
PINE, in botany. See Pinus.
Pw?.-Apple. See Bromelia.
The method of raiflng pine-apples in this country
by means of artiftcial heat has long been known : of
late, however, fome very conflderable improvements
have been made in this article. The leaves of the oak
have been fubftituted to the more expenflve bark; and
by treating the pines with them, they are found to
thrive as well, and to produce as good fruit, as in the
other method ; and of the proper way of managing
thefe leaves for the rearing of exotic plants, an account
is given under the article Oky.-Leaves. But the moft
conflderable improvement is that mentioned in the 67th
volume of the Philofophical Tranfaflions, where a
method is fliown by William Baftard, efq; of Devon-
ihire, of raiflng thefe fruits in water. His account of
this method is as follows.
“ Before I enter into the particulars of railing pine¬
apples in water, it will be neceffary to tell you that my
hot-houfe is covered with the beft crown-glafs, which I
apprehend gives more heat than the common fort
of green glafs generally ufed for hot-houfes. In the
front part of the houfe, and indeed any where in the
loweft parts of it, the pine-apple plants will not thrive
well in water. The way in which I treat them is as
follows. I place a Ihelf near the higheft part of the
back wall, fo that the pine-plants may (land without
abfolutely touching the glafs, but as near it as can be:
on this Ihelf I place pans full of water, about feven or
eight inches deep; and in thefe pans I put the pine¬
apple plants, growing in the fame pots of earth as they
are generally planted in to be plunged into the bark-
bed in the common w’ay ; that is, I put the pot of
earth, with the pine-plant in it, in the pan-full of wa¬
ter, and as the water decreafes I conftantly All up the
pan. I place either plants in fruit, or young plants
as foon as they are well rooted, in thefe pans of wa¬
ter, and And they thrive equally well : the fruit rear¬
ed this way is always much larger, as well as better
flavoured, than when ripened in the bark-bed. I have
more than once put only the plants themfelves with¬
out any earth, I mean after they had roots, into thefe
pans of water, with only water fufffeient to keep the
roots always covered, and found them flourifh beyond
expedlation. In my houfe, the fhelf I mention is
fupported by irons from the top, and there is an inter-
34 U vening
(b) This Midas is a very different perfonage from his long-eared majefty of Phrygia, whofe deciflon in favour of
Pan had given fuch offence to Apollo ; as is manifeft, indeed, from his having been cotemporary with Pindar.
(cl The moft extraordinary part of this mulician’s performance, that can be gathered from the fcholiaft upon Pin¬
dar, was his finifhing the folo, without a reed or mouth-piece, which broke accidentally while he was playing. The
legendary account given by the poet in this ode, of the occafion upon which the flute was invented by Minerva, is di¬
verting: “ It was (fays he) to imitate the howling of the Gorgons, and the hilling of their lhakes, which the goddefs
had heard when the head of Medufa (one of thefe three anti-graces) was cut off by Perfeus.”
Pimtenc
Pine.
PIN [ 6186 ] PIN
Pine vening fpace of about 10 inches between the back wall
II and the fhelf. A neighbour of mine has placed a iea-
Pingmcuk. jen c[^ern Up0n the top of the back flue, (in which,
as it is in contaft with the flue, the water is always
warm when there is fire in the houfe), and finds his
fruit excellent and large. My (helf does not touch t'f*
black flue, but is about a foot above it; and confe-
quently the water is only warmed by the air in the
houfe. Both thefe methods do well. The way I ac¬
count for this fuccefs is, that the warm air always
afcending to the part where this fhelf is placed, as be¬
ing the higbeft part of the houfe, keeps it much hot¬
ter than in any other part. The temperature at that
place is, I believe, feldom lefs than what is indicated
* by the 73d degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and
when the fun fhines it is often at above 100: the wa¬
ter the plants grow in feems tp enable them to bear
the greateft heat, if fufficient air be allowed ; and I
often fee the roots of the plants growing out of the
holes in the bottom of the pot of earth, and (hooting
vigoroufly in the water.
“-My hot-houfe (the dimenfions of which it may
be proper to know) is 60 feet long, and 11 feet wide,
the flues included ; fix feet high in the front, and 11
feet at the back of the infide of the houfe. It is warm¬
ed by two fires. A leaden trough or ciftern on the
top of the back flue is preferable to my fhelf, as in it
the pine-plants grow much fafter in the winter, the
water being always warmed by the flue : of this I
have feen the great benefit thefe laft two months in my
neighbourhood. It is not foreign to this purpofe to
mention, that, as a perfon was moving a large pine-
plant from the hot-bed in my houfe laft fummer, which
plant was juft fhowing fruit, by fome accident he broke
off the plant juft above the earth in which it grew,
and there was no root whatever left to it : by way of
experiment I took the plant, and fixed it upright in a
pan of water (without any earth whatever) on the
fhelf; it there foon threw out roots, and bore a pine¬
apple that weighed upwards of two pounds.”
PINEAL gland. See Anatomy, n° 397, c.
PINGUICULA, Butterwort ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants. There are four fpecies; of which the moft re¬
markable is the vulgaris, or common butterwort, grow¬
ing commonly on bogs or low moift grounds, in Eng¬
land and Scotland. Its leaves are covered with loft,
upright pellucid prickles, fecreting* a glutinous liquor.
The flowers are pale red, purple, or deep violet co¬
lour, and hairy within. If the frefh-gathered leaves
of this plant are put into the (trainer through which
warm milk from the cow is poured, and the milk fet
by for a day or two to become acefcent, it acquires a
confiftency and tenacity, and neither whey nor cream
ieparatefrom it. In this ftate it is an extremely grate¬
ful food, and as fuch is ufed by the inhabitants of the
north of Sweden. There is no further occafion to have
recourfe to the leaves ; for half a fpoonful of this pre¬
pared milk, mixed with frefh warm milk, will convert
it to its own nature, and this again will change ano¬
ther quantity of frefh milk, and fo on without end.
The juice of the leaves kills lice; and the common
people ufe it to cure the cracks or chops in cows ud¬
ders. The plant is generally fuppofed injurious to
fheep, by occafioning in them that difeafe called the Pim<
rot. But from experiments mode on purpofe, and con- , li
dufted with accuracy, it appears, that neither fheep, Pinna
cows, goats, horfes, or twine, will feed upon this
plant.
PINION, in mechanics, an arbor, or fpindie, in
the body whereof are feveral notebes, which catch the
teeth of a wheel that ferves to turn it round, or it is a
lefler wheel that plays in the teeth of a larger.
PINK, a name given to a fbip with a very narrow
ftern ; whence all veffels, however fmall, whofe fterns
are fafliioned in this manner, are called pink-Jlerned.
• Pink, in botany. See Dianthus.
PINNA, in zoology, a genus belonging to the or-p]ate 1
der of vermes teftacea. The animal is a (lug. The CCXLIII,
fhell is bivalve, fragile, and furnifned with a beard; fig-a.
gapes at one end ; the valves hinge without a tooth.
The largeft and moft remarkable fpecies inhabits the
Mediterranean. It is blind, as are all of the genus ‘r
but furnifhed with very ftrong calcareous valves. The
fcuttle-fifh (Sep/a), an inhabitant of the fame fea, is a
deadly foe tothis animal: As foon as the pinna opens its
fhell, he rufhes upon her like a lion; and would always
devour her, but for another animal whom fhe proledts
within her fhell, and from whom in return fhe re¬
ceives very important fervices. It is an animal of the
crab kind, (fee Cancer, n° 15.), naked like the her¬
mit, and very quick-fighted. This cancer or crab the
pinna receives into her covering ; and when fhe opens
her valves in queft of food, lets him out to look for
prey. During this the fcuttle-fifh approaches; the
crab returns with the utmoft fpeed and anxiety to his
hoftefs, who being thus warned of the danger fhuts
her doors, and keeps out the enemy. That very fa-
gacious obferver Dr Haffelquift, in his voyage towards
Paleftine, beheld this curious phenomenon, which thoT
well known to the ancients had efcaped the moderns.
Ariftotle (Hiji. lib. 5. c. 15.) relates, that the pinna
kept a guard to watch for her: That there grew to the
mouth of the pinna a fmall animal, having claws, and
ferving as a caterer, which was like a crab, and was
called the pinnophylax. Pliny (lib. 9. 51.) fays. The
fmalleft of all the kinds is called the pinmteresy and
therefore liable to injury ; this has the prudence to
hide itfelf in the fhells of oyfters. Again, lib. 9. 66.
he fays, The pinna is of the genus of fheli-fifh; it is
produced in muddy waters, always eredl, nor ever
without a companion, which fome call the pinnoteresy
others the pinnopbylax. This fometimes is a fmall fquill,
fometimes a crab, that follows the pinna for the fake
of food. The pinna is blind; and when, upon opening
its fhell, it expofes itfelf as a prey to the fmalleft kind
of fifties, thefe immefliately affault her, and growing
bolder upon finding no refiftance venture in. The
guard watching its time gives notice by a bite ; upon
which the pinna, clofing its fliell, fhuts in, kills, and
gives part of whatever happens to be there to its com¬
panion.
The pinna and the crab together dwell,
For mutuaf fnccour, in one common (hell.
They both to gain a livelihood combine;
That takes the prey, when this has given thejign.
From hence this crab, above his fellows fam’d.
By ancient Greeks was pinnoteres nam’d. OppiAN.
PINNACE, a fmall vefiel navigated with oars and
fails,,
:
PIN [ 6187 ] PIN
if Pinnace fails, and having generally two mails, which are rig-
I II, . ged like thofe of a fchooner.
{PmOjnccio. pINNACE>;sa]f0 a boat ufuallyrowed with eight oars.
See the article Boat.
PINNACLE, in archite&ure, the top or roof of
an houfe, terminating in a point. This kind of roof
among the ancients, was appropriated to temples;
their ordinary roofs were all flat, or made in the plat¬
form way.
PINNATED leaves, in botany. See Botany,
p. 1206. col. 2. n° 59.
PINT, (pinta), a veffel, or meafure, ufed in efti-
mating the quantity of liquids, and even fometimes of
dry things.—Budseus derives the word from the Greek
inv3-a; others from the German pint, a little meafure
of wine ; Nicod from the Greek wmiv, « to drink.’’
The Englijb pint is twofold ; the one for wine-
meafure, the other for beer and ale-meafure. See
Measure.—Two pints make a quart, two quarts
a pottle, two pottles a gallon, &c. See Gallon,
Quart, &c.
The Scots pint was formerly regulated by a ftan-
dard jug of call metal, the cuftody of which was com¬
mitted to the borough of Stirling. This jug was fup-
pofed to contain 105 cubic inches ; and though after
feveral careful trials it has been found at a medium
to contain only about I03x inches, yet,, in compliance
with eftablilhed cuftom, founded on that opinion, the
pint-ftoups are ftill regulated to contain 105 inches.—
It was ena&edby James I. of Scotland, that the pint
ftiould contain 41 ounces Trone-weight of the clear
water of Tay, and by James VI. that it fhould con¬
tain 55 Scots Troy-ounces of the clear water of Leith.
This affords another method of regulating the pint,
and alfo afeertains the ancient ftandard of the Trone-
weight. As the water of Tay and Leith are alike,
the Trone-weight mull have been to the Scots Troy-
weight as 55 to 41 ; and therefore the pound Trone
muft have contained about 214 ounces Scots Troy.
See Trone.—The Scots pint contains two chopins,
the chopin two mutchkins, and the mutchkin four
gills.—Two pints make a quart, and four pints a Scots
gallon.
PINTADA, a fpecies of Procellaria.
PINTLES, certain pints or hooks, faftened upon
the back part of the rudder, with their points down¬
wards, in order to enter into, and reft upon, the goo-
gings, fixed in the ftern-poft, to hang the rudder. See
Helm.
PINTURICCIO (Bernardino), a celebrated Ita¬
lian painter, born at Perufia in 1454. He was the
difciple of Peter Perugino, under whom he became fo
good an artift, that he employed him on many occa-
lions as his affiftant. *He principally painted hiftory
and grotefque; but he alfo excelled in portraits, a-
mong which thofe of pope Pius II. and Innocent VIII.
of Giulia Farnefe, Csefar Borgia, and queen Ifabella
of Spain, are particularly diftingutfhed. The moft
memorable performance of Pinmriccio is the hiftory of
Pius II. painted in ten compartments in the hiftory of
Siena ; in which undertaking, Raphael, then a young
man, and bred under the fame matter, affixed-him fo
far as to fketch out cartoons of many parts of the com-
pofuion. The ftory of his death is worth relating,
efpecially as it iiluftrates his charader. The laft'work
he was engaged in was a Nativity for the monaftery Piuns.
of St Francis at Siena : the monks accommodated him '
with a chamber to work in, which they cleared of all
the furniture, except one old trunk or chelt that ap¬
peared too rotten to move ; but Pinturiccio, naturally
pofitive and peevifh, infifting on its being taken away,
the monks, willing to gratify him, complied. It was
no fooner ftirred than one of the planks burfting, out
tumbled 500 pieces of gold, which had been fecreted
there for many years. The monks were overjoyed at
finding this treafure, and the painter proportionably
mortified at lofing his chance of the difeovery by his
indifereet obftinacy : it affefted his fpirits fo much
that he furvived but a few months, and it was general¬
ly looked on as the caufe of his death.
PINUS, the Pine-tree ; a genus of the monadel-
phia order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants.
There are 14 fpecies ; of which the moft remarkable
are, 1. The pinca, pineafter, or wild pine, grows
naturally on the mountains in Italy and the fouth of
France. This grows to the fize of a large tree ; the
branchss extend to a confiderable diftance; and while
the trees are young, they are fully garnilhed with
leaves, efpecially where they are not fo clofe as to ex¬
clude the air from thofe within ; but as they advance
in age, the branches appear naked, and all thofe
which are fituated below become unfightly in a few
years, for which reafon they are now much lefs inefteem
than formerly. 2. The rubra, commonly called the
Scots fir or pine. It is common throughout Scot¬
land, whence its name ; though it is alfo found in
moft of the other countries of Europe. M. du Ha¬
mel, of the Royal Academy of Sciences, mentions his
having received fome feeds of it from St Domingo in
the Weft Indies; and thence concludes, that it grows
indifferently in the temperate, frigid, and torrid zones.
The wood of this tree is the red or yellow deal, which
is the moft durable of any of the kinds yet known.
The leaves of this tree are much ftiorter and broader
than thofe of the former fort, of a greyifh colour,
growing two out of one /heath ; the cones are fmall,
pyramidal, and end in narrow points; they are of a
light colour, and the feeds are fmall. 3. Theftrobus,
Lord Weymouth’s pine, or North American white
pine. This grows fometimes to the height of 100
feet and upwards, and is highly valued on account of
its beauty. The bark of the tree is very fmooth and
delicate, efpecially when young; the leaves are long
and flender, five growing out of one (heath; the
branches are pretty clofely garni/hed with them, and
thus make a fine appearance. The cones are long,
/lender, and very loofe, opening with the firft warmth
of the fpring ; fo that if they are not gathered in win¬
ter, the leaks open and let out the feeds. The wood
of this fort is efteemed for making mafts for /hips. In
Queen Anne’s time there was a law made for the pre¬
servation of thefe trees, and for the encouragement of
their growth in America. Within thefe laft 50 years
they have been propagated in Britain in confiderable
plenty.
Culture. All the forts of pines are propagated by
feeds produced in hard woody cones. The way to
get the feeds out of thefe cones is to lay them before
a gentle fire, which will caufe the cells to open, and
then the feeds may be eafily taken out. If the cones
34 U 2 are
PIN [6
Pinus. are kept entire, the feeds will remain good for fome
years ; fo that the fureft way of preferring them is to
let them remain in the cones till the time for (owing
the feeds. If the cones are kept in a warm place in
fummer, they will open and emit the feeds; but if
they are not expofed to the heat, they will remain
clofe for a long time. The bed feafon for fowing the
pines is about the end of March. When the feeds are
fown, the place (hould be covered with nets to keep
off the birds ; otherwife, when the plants begin to
appear with the hufk of the feed on the top of
them, the birds will peck off the’tops, and thus de-
ilroy them.
Ufes. From the firft fpecies is extra&ed the com¬
mon turpentine, much ufed by farriers, and from
which is drawn the oil of that name. A decoftion of
the nuts or feeds of this fpecies in milk, or of the ex¬
tremities of the branches pulled in fpring, is faid, with
a proper regimen, to cure the mod inveterate fcurvy.
The wood of this fpecies is not valued; but that of
the Scots pine is fuperior to any of the red. It is ob-
fervable of the Scots pine, that when planted in bogs,
or in a moid foil, though the plants make great pro-
grefs, yet the wood is white, foft, and little edeem-
ed ; but when planted in a dry foil, tho’ the growth
of the trees is there very flow, yet the wood is pro-
portionably better. Few trees have been applied to
more ufes than this. The tailed and draighted are
formed by nature for mads to our navy. The timber
is refinous, durable, and applicable to numberlefs do-
medic purpofes, fuch as flooring and wainfcotting of
rooms, making of beds, cheds, tables, boxes, &c.
From the trunk and branches of this, as well as
mod others of the pine tribe, tar and pitch is ob¬
tained. By incifion, barras, Burgundy pitch, and
turpentine, are acquired and prepared. The reli-
nous roots are dug out of the ground in many parts
of the Highlands, and, being divided into fmallfplin-
ters, are ufed by the inhabitants to burn indead of
candles. At Loch-Broom, in Rofsfhire, the fifliermen
make ropes of the inner bark ; but hard neceflSty has
taught the inhabitants of Sweden, Lapland, and
Kamfchatka, to convert the fame into bread. To ef-
fed this, they, in the Spring feafon, make choice of
the tailed and faired trees; then dripping off carefully
the outer bark, they colled the foft, white, fucculent
interior bark, and dry it in the (hade. When they
have occafion to ufe it, they fird toad it at the fire,
then grind, and, after deeping the flour in warm wa¬
ter to take off the refinous tade, they make it into
thin cakes, which are baked for ufe. On this drange
food the poor inhabitants are fometimes condrained to
live for a whole year; and, we are told, through cu-
llom, become at lad even fond of it. Linnaeus re¬
marks, that this fame bark-bread will fatten fwine ;
and humanity obliges us to wifli, that men might ne¬
ver be reduced to the neceflity of robbing them of
fuch a food. The interior bark, of which the above-
mentioned bread is made, the Swedifli boys frequent¬
ly peel off the trees in the fpring, and eat raw with
greedy appetite. From the cones of this tree is pre¬
pared a diuretic oil, like the oil of turpentine, and a
refinous extradl, which has fimilar virtues with the
balfam of Peru. An infufion or tea of the buds is
highly commended as an antifcorbutic. The farina,
88 1 PIP
or yellow powder, of the male-flowers, is fometimes in Pioneers
the fpring carried away by the winds, in fuch quanti- jl
ties, where the trees abound, as to alarm the igno- Pipe^
rant with the notion of its raining brimdone. The
tree lives to a great age; Linnaeus affirms, to 400
years.
PIONEERS, in the art of war, are fuch as are
commanded in from the country, to march with an
army for mending the ways, for working on intrench-
ments and fortifications, and for making mines and
approaches. The foldiers are likewife employed in
all thefe things.—Mod of the foreign regiments of ar¬
tillery have half a company of pioneers, well inftruc-
ted in that important branch of duty. Our regiments
of infantry and cavalry have three or four pioneers
well inftrufted in that important branch of duty. Our
regiments of infantry and cavalry have three or four
pioneers each, provided with aprons, hatchets, faws,
fpades, and pick-axes. Each pioneer muff have an
ax, a faw, and an apron ; a cap with a leather crown,
and a black bears-fkin front, on which is to be the
king’s crell in white, on a red ground ; alfo an ax and
a faw. The number of the regiment to be on the
back part of the cap.
PIP, or Pep, a difeafe among poultry, confifting
of a white thin fkin, or film, that grows under the tip
of the tongue, and hinders their feeding. It ufually
arifes from want of water, or from the drinking
puddle-water, or eating filthy meat. It is cured by
pulling off the film with the fingers, and rubbing the
tongue with fait. Hawks are particularly liable to
this difeafe, efpecially from feeding on (linking flelh.
PIPE, in building, &c. z canal, or conduit, for
the conveyance of water and other liquids. Pipes for
water, water-engines, &c. are ufually of lead, iron,
earth, or wood : the latter are ufually made of oak or
elder. Thofe of iron are caff in forges ; their ufual
length is about two feet and a half: feveral of thefe
are commonly fattened together by means of four
fcrews at each end, with leather or old hat between
them, to flop the water. Thofe of earth are made by
the potters; thefe are fitted into one another, one end
being always made wider than the other. To join
them the clofer, and prevent their breaking, they are
covered with tow and pitch : their length is ufually
about that of the iron pipes. The wooden pipes are
trees bored with large iron augres, of different fixes,
beginning with a kfs, and then proceeding with a lar¬
ger fucceffively ; the firft being pointed, the reft be¬
ing formed like fpoons, increafing in diameter, from
one to fix inches or more : they are fitted into the ex¬
tremities of each other (as reprefented fig. c.), and are
fold by the foot. CCXUV.
Wooden pipes are bored as follows. The ma¬
chine reprefented fig. 4. is put in motion by the
wheel A, which is moved by a current of water; upon
the axle of this wheel, is a cog-wheel B, which caufes
the lanterns C, D, to turn horizontally, whofe com¬
mon axis is confequently in a perpendicular dire&ion.
The lantern D turns at the fame time two cog¬
wheels, E and F: the firft, E, which is vertical, turns
the augre which bores the wood; and the fecond, F,
which is horizontal, caufes the carriage bearing the
piece to advance by means of the arms H, I, which
takes hold of the notches in the wheel K. The firft,
H,
PIP [ 61
jsj'ipes H, by means of the notches, draws the wheel towards
_ll F; and the other, I, pufhes the under-poft of the
1 ,per* wheel in an oppofite dire&ion ; both which motions
T tend to draw the carriage towards F, and confequent-
ly caufe the augre to pierce the wood. The aogre be¬
ing from 9 to 12 feet in length, and of a propor-
■i tionable bignefs, it will be neceffary to have two pie¬
ces, as L, L, to fupport its weight, and caufe it
to enter the piece to be bored with the fame unifor¬
mity.
For the conflruftion of leaden pipes, fee the article
Plumbery.
yf/>-PipEs. See AiK-Pipes.
Pipes of an Organ. See Organ.
Z?tf£-PiPE. See ¥>KG-Pipe.
Tobacco-Yivv, a machine ufed in the finoking of
tobacco, confifting of a long tube, made of earth or
clay, having at one end a little cafe, or furnace, call¬
ed the bowl, for the reception of the tobacco, the
fumes whereof are drawn by the mouth through the
other end. Tobacco-pipes are made of various fa-
Ihions; long,- fhort, plain, worked, white, varnifhed,
unvarnilhed, and of various colours, &c. The Turks
life pipes three or four feet long, made of rulhes, or of
wood bored, at the end whereof they fix a kind of a
pot of baked earth, which ferves as a bowl, and which
they take off after fmoking.
Pipe, alfo denotes a veffelor meafure for wine, and
things meafuredby wine-meafure. See the article Mea¬
sure.
Pipe, in mining, is where the ore runs forwards
endwife in a hole, and doth not fink downwards or in
a vein.
Pipe, Pipa, in law, is a roll in the exchequer, call¬
ed alfo the great rgll. See the next article.
Y\?t-Office, is an office wherein a perfon called the
dlerk of the pipe, makes out leafes of crown-lands, by
warrant from the lord-treafurer, or commiffioners of
the treafury, or chancellor of the exchequer. The
clerk of the pipe makes out alfo all accounts of flie-
riffs, &c. and gives the accountants their quietus ejl.
To this office are brought all accounts which pafs the
remembrancer’s office, and remain there, that if any
ftated debt be due from any perfon, the fame may be
drawn down into the great roll of the pipe : upon which
the comptroller iffiies out a writ, called the fummons of
the pipe, for recovery thereof; and if there be no
goods or chattels, the clerk then draws down the
debts to the lord treafurer’s remembrancer, to write
eftreats againft their lands. All tallies which vouch
the payment of any fum contained in fuch accounts,
are examined and allowed by the chief fecondary of
the pipe. Befides the chief clerk in this office,
there are eight attorneys, or fworn clerks, and a comp¬
troller.
Pipe-Fijh, in ichthyology. See Syngnathus.
PIPER, in ichthyology. SccTrigla.
Piper, Pepper; a genus of the tfigynia order, be¬
longing to the diandria clafs of plants. There are 20
fpecies, of which the moft remarkable is the firiboa,
with oval, heart-ihaped, nerved leaves, and reflexed
fpikes. This is the plant which produces the pepper fo
much ufed in food. It is a fhrub whofe root is fmall,
fibrous, and flexible; it rifes into a ftem, which re¬
quires a tree or a prop to fupport it. Its wood has the
89 ] pip
fame fort of knots as the vine ; and when it is dry, it Piper
exaflly refembles the vine-branch. The leaves, which . H
have a ftrong fmell and a pungent tafte, are of an oval Pi,|'acy'
ffiape ; but they diminifli towards the extremity, and
terminate in a point. From the flower-buds, which
are white, and are fometimes placed in the middle
and fometimes at the extremity of the branches, are
produced fmall berries refembling thofe of the curant-
tree. Each of thefe contains between 20 and 30 corns
of pepper ; they are commonly gathered in O&ober,
and expofed to the fun feven or eight days. The fruit,
which was green at firft, and afterwards red, when
ftripped of its covering affumes the appearance it has
when we fee it. The largeft, heavieft, and leaft ffiri-
velled, is the beft.
The pepper-plant flouriflies in the iflands of Java,
Sumatra, and Ceylon, and more particularly on the
Malabar coaft. It is not fown,but planted; and great
nicety is required in the choice of the fhoots. It pro¬
duces no fruit till the end of three years; but bears
fo plentifully the three fucceeding years, that fome
plants yield between fix and feven pounds of pepper.
The bark then begins to (brink; and the (hrub declines
fo faft, that in 12 years time it ceafes bearing.
The culture of pepper is not difficult: it is fufficient
to plant it in a rich foil, and carefully to pull up the
weeds that grow in great abundance round its roots,
efpecially the three firft years. As the fun is highly
neceflary to the growth of the pepper-plant, when it is
ready to bear, the trees that fupport it muft be lopped
to prevent their (hade from injuring the fruit. When
the feafon is over, it is proper to crop the head of the
plant. Without this precaution, there would be too
much wood, and little fruit.
The pepper exported from Malabar, which was for¬
merly entirely in the hands of the Portuguefe, and is
at prefent divided between the Dutch, Britilh, and
French, amounts to about 10,000,000 weight.
PIRiEEUS portus, (anc. geog.), a celebrated
port to the weft of Athens, confiding naturally of
three harbours or bafons, (Thucydides); which lay
neglefted, till Themiftocles put the Athenians on
making it a commodious port, (Nepos) ; the Phalerus
a fmall port, and not far from the city, being what
they ufed before that time, (Paufanias, Nepos). Pi¬
raeus was originally a village of Attica, (Paufanias);
an ifland, (Strabo); and though diftant 40 ttadiafrom
Athens, was joined to it by two long walls, (Thucy¬
dides), and itfelf locked or walled round, (Nepos) :
A very commodious and fafe harbour. The whole of
its compafs was 60 ftadia, including the Munichia.
Not far from the Pirteeus, flood the fepulchre of The¬
miftocles; whither his friends conveyed his bones from
Magnefia, into the Hither Afia, (Cicero, Plutarch,
Paufaoias). It is ftill at this day a famous port, much
frequented, and called Porto Lione.
PIRACY, the crime of robbery and depredation
upon the high feas.
By the ancient common law, piracy, if committed
by a fubjeft, was held to be a fpecies of treafon, being
contrary to his natural allegiance ; and by an alien, to
be felony only: but now, fince the ftatute of treafons,
25 Edw. III. c. 2. it is held to be only felony in a
fubjeft. Formerly is was only cognizable by the ad¬
miralty courts, which proceed by the rules of the
Piracy,
Pirate.
P I R [ 6190 ] P I R
civil law. But, it being inconfiftent with the liberties
of the nation, that any man’s life (hould be taken
away, unlefs by the judgment of his peers, or the
common law of the land, the ftatute 28 Hen. VIII.
c. 15. eftabliftied a new jurifdi&ion for this purpofe ;
which proceeds according to the courfe of the common
law.
The offence of piracy, by common law, confifts
in committing thofe a&s of robbery and depredation
upon the high feas, which, if committed upon land,
would have amounted to felony there. But, by ftatute,
feme other offences are made piracy alfo : as, by
ftatute 11 & 12 W. III. c. 7. if any natural born
fubje& commits any aft of hoftility upon the high
feas, againft others of his majefty’s fubjefts, under
colour of a commiffion from any foreign power; this,
though it would only be an aft of war in an alien,
fhall be conftrued piracy in a fubjeft. And farther,
any commander, or other feafaring perfon, betraying
his truft, and running away with any (hip, boat,
ordnance, ammunition, or goods; or yielding them
up voluntarily to a pirate; or confpiring to do thefe
afts ; or any perfon affaulting the commander of a
veffel, to hinder him from fighting in defence of his
ftu’p ; or confining him, or caufing or endeavouring to
caufe a revolt on board ; fhall, for each of thefe of¬
fences, be adjudged a pirate, felon, and robber, and
fhall fuffer death, whether he be principal, or merely
acceffory by fetting forth fuch pirates, or abetting
them before the faft, or receiving or concealing them
or their goods after it. And the flatute 4 Geo. I.
c. 11. exprefsly excludes the principals from the benefit
of clergy. By the ftatute 8 Geo. I. c. 24. the tra¬
ding with known pirates, or furnifhingthem with am¬
munition, or fitting out any veffel for that purpofe,
or in any wife confulting, combining, confederating,
or correfponding with them; or the forcibly boarding
any merchant veffel, though without feizing or carry¬
ing her off, and deftroying or throwing any of the
goods overboard ; fhall be deemed piracy: and fuch
acceffories to piracy as are deferibed by the ftatute of
king William are declared to be principal pirates,
and all pirates convifted by virtue of this aft are made
felons without benefit of clergy. By the fame ftatutes
alfo, (to encourage the defence of merchant veffels
againft pirates), the commanders or feamen wounded,
and the widows of fuch feamen as are fiain, in any
piratical engagement, fhall be entitled to a bounty to
be divided among them, not exceeding one fiftieth
part of the value of the cargo on board : and fuch
wounded feamen fhall be entitled to the penfion of
Greenwich hofpital ; which no other feamen are, ex¬
cept only fuch as have ferved in a (hip of war. And
if the commander (hall behave cowardly, by not de¬
fending the fhip, if fhe carries guns or arms; or fhall
difeharge the mariners from fighting, fo that the fhip
falls into the hands of pirates ; fuch commander fhall
forfeit all his wages, and fuff'er fix months imprifon-
ment. Laftly, by ftatute 18 Geo. II. c. 30. any na¬
tural born fubjeft or denizen, who in time of war
fliall commit hoftilities at fea againft; any of his fellow-
fubjefts, or fhall affift an enemy on that element, is
liable to be tried and convifted as a pirate.
PIRATE, («rf/£a7»r, Gr.) ; a fea-robber, or an
armed fhip that roams the feas without any legal
commiffion, and feizes or plunders every veffel fhe Pirend
meets indiferiminately, whether friends or enemies.
The colours ufually difplayed by pirates are faid
to be a black field, with a death’s bead, a battle-axe*
and hour-glafs. The laft inftrument is generally fup-
pofed to determine the time allowed to the prifoners,
whom they take, to confider whether they will join
the pirates in their felonious combination, or be put
to death, which is often perpetrated in the moft cruel
manner.
Amongft the moft celebrated pirates of the north
is recorded Alvilda, daughter of a king of the Goths
named Sypardus. She embraced this occupation to
deliver herfelf from the violence impofed on her incli¬
nation, by a marriage with Alf, fon of Sigarus king
of Denmark. She dreffed herfelf as a man; and com-
pofed her band of rowers, and the reft of her crew,
of a number of young women attired in the fame
manner. Amongft: the firft of her cruizes, fhe touched
at a place where a company of pirates bewailed the
death of their captain. The ftrangers were captivated
with the agreeable manners of Alvilda, and chofe her
for their chief. By this reinforcement fhe became fo
formidable upon the fea, that prince Alf came t» en¬
gage her. She fuftainedhis attacks fora confiderable
time: but, in a vigorous aftion, Alf boarded her
veffel, and having killed the greateft part of her crew,
feized the captain, namely herfelf; whom neverthelefs
he knew not, becaufe the princefs had a cafque which
covered her vifage. Being mafter of her perfon, he
removed the cafque ; and in fpite of her difguife, in-
ftantly recognized her, and offered her his hand in
wedlock.
PIRENE, (Pliny); a fountain facred to the mufes,
fpringing below the top of the Acrocorinthus, a high
and deep mountain which hangs over Corinth. Its
waters were agreeable to drink, (Paufanias); extremely
clear, (Strabo); very light (Athenaeus), and pale
(Perfius): having relation either to the grief of Pirene,
mother of Cencbrea, from whofe tears this fountain
arofe, (Paufanias) ; or to the palenefs brought on by
the too eager purfuits of the mufes.
PISA, a large town of Tufcany in Italy, fituated
on the river Arno, 52 miles from Florence. It was
a famous republic, till fubdued, firft by the duke of
Milan, and then by the Florentines in the year 1406.
Before it loft its freedom, it is faid to have contained
near 150,00 inhabitants, but nowit has not above 16,000
or 17,000. Its territory is very fruitful; abounding
in corn, wine, and fruit, and fine cattle. The houfes
are well built, and the ftreets even, broad, and well
paved ; but in many places over-run with grafs. The
univerfity is well endowed, and has able proftffors,
but is not in a very flourifhing condition. The ex¬
change is a (lately (trufture, but little frequented.
The great duke’s galleys are built, and commonly
ftationed here. This city is alfo the principal refi-
dence of the order of St Stephen, and the fee of an
archbifhop. The cathedral, a large Gothic pile,
contains a great number of excellent paintings and
other curiofuies. The echo of the Baptiftery is faid
to exceed that near Milan, though the repetitions are
not quite fo diftinft. Hard by the cathedral is the
city burying ground, called II Campo Santo; and in
that the famous leaning tower, the inclination of
which
which is fo great, that a plumb-line let down from the
top touches the ground at the diftance of near 15 feet
from the bottom. In the church della Spina, they
pretend to have one of the thorns of the crown that
was placed on our Saviour’s head. The city for its
defence has a moat, walls, a caftie, fort, and citadel;
the lad of which is a modern work. The Arno is
of a confiderable breadth here, and has three bridges
over it, one of them of marble: two leagues below
the town, it falls into the fea. The phylie-garden is
very fpacious, contains a great number of plants, and
is decorated with water-works: over the door leading
into it are tbefe words, Hie Argus fed mn Briareus
ejio ; i.e. Employ the eye of Argus, but not the hands
of Briareus. The air is faid to be unwholfome here
in fummer, on account of the neighbouring moraffes.
Many buffaloes are bred in the neighbouring country,
and their flefh commonly eaten. A canal runs from
this city to Leghorn; and between it and Lucca are
hot baths.
PISCARY, in our ancient ftatutes, the liberty of
fiflung in another man’s waters.
PISCES, in aftronomy, the 12th fign or conftella-
tion of the zodiac.
PISCIDIA, a genus of the decandria order, be¬
longing the diadelphia clafs of plants. There are two
two fpecies, viz. 1. The erythrina, or dog-wood tree.
This grows plentifully in Jamaica, where it rifes to the
height of 25 feet or more; the item is alraoft as large
as a man’s body, covered with a light-coloured fmooth
bark, and fending out feveral branches at the top with¬
out order; the leaves are about two inches long, wing¬
ed, with oval lobes. The flowers are of the butterfly
kind, and of a dirty white colour; they are fucceeded
by oblong pods, with four longitudinal wings, and
jointed between the cells which contain the feeds.
2. The Carthaginienfis, with oblong oval leaves, is alfo
a native of the Weft Indies. It differs from the for¬
mer only in the (liape and confidence of the leaves,
which are more oblong and ftiffer than the former; but
in other refpefts they are very fimilar. Both fpecies
are eafdy propagated by feeds; but require artificial
heat to preferve them in this country.—The negroes
in the Weft Indies make ufe of the bark of the firft
fpecies to intoxicate fifti. When any number of gen¬
tlemen have an inclination to divert themfelves with
fifhing, or, more properly fpeaking, with fifh-hunting,
they fend each of them a negro-Have to the woods, in
order to fetch fome of the bark of the dog-wood tree.
This bark is next morning pounded very fmall with
ftones, put into old facks* carried into rocky parts of
the fea, fteeped till throughly foaked.with falt-water,
and then well fqueezed by the negroes to exprefs the
juice. This juice immediately colours the fea with a red-
difti hue; and, being of a poifonous nature, will in an
hour’s time make the fifties, fuch as groopers* rock-
fifti, old wives, Welchmen, &c. fo drunk or intoxica¬
ted, as to fwim on the furface of the water, quite heed-
lefs of the danger: the gentlemen then fend in their
negroes, who purfue, both fwimming and diving, the
poor inebriated fifties, till they catch them with their
hands; their mafters mean time (landing by, on high
rocks, to fee the paftime.
It is remarkable, that though this poifon kills mil¬
lions of the fmall fry, it has never been known to im¬
part any bad quality to the fifti which have been caught
in confequence of the intoxication.
The wood of this tree, although pretty hard, is only
fit for fuel; and even for this purpofe the negroes very
feldom, if ever, employ it, on account of its Angular
quality juft mentioned. The bark is rough, brown,
and thick ; the tree fends for^h a confiderable number
of branches, and is well cloathed with leaves, which re¬
ferable thofe of the pea, are thick, cottony, and of a
deep green. The bark ufed for the above-mentioned
purpofe is chiefly that of the roots.
PISCINA, in antiquity, a large bafon in a public
place or fquare, where the Roman youth learned to
fwim; and which was fnrrourrded with a high wall, to
prevent filth from being thrown into it.—This worcHs
alfo ufed for a lavatory among the Turks, placed in the
middle court of a mofque or temple, where the Mufful-
men vvafh themfelves before they ofl'er their prayers.
PISISTRATUS, a famous general of the Athe¬
nians. He ufurped the fupreme power, and, in order
to obtain it, was a cruel tyrant; but having gained it*
be became a wife legiflator, and an excellent governor.'
IJe died 327 B. C.
PISSAPHALTUM, earth-pitch; a fluid, o-
paque, mineral body, of a thick confiftence, ftrong
fmell, readily ififlammable, but leaving a refiduum of
greyith afties after burning. It arifes out of the cracks
of the rocks, in feveral places in the ifland of Sumatra,
and fome other places in the Eaft Indies, where it is
much efteemed in paralytic diforders.
PISSELiEUM indicum, Barbadoes Tar; a mi¬
neral fluid, of the nature of the thicker bitumens, and
of all others the moft approaching, in appearance, co¬
lour, and confiftence, to the true piffaphaltum, but dif¬
fering from it in other refpefts. It is very frequent in
many parts of America, where it is found trickling
down the fide* of mountains in large quantities, and
fometimes floating on the furface of the waters. It has
been greatly recommended internally in coughs, and
other diforders of the breaft and lungs.
PISTACIA, turpentine-tree, Bijiach'ta-nut
and Majlic tree; a genus of the pentandria order, be¬
longing to the dioecia clafs of plants. There are nine
fpecies; of which the moft remarkable are, 1. The fc-
rebinthus, or piftachia-tree. This grows naturally in
Arabia, Perfia, and Syria, whence the nuts are annu¬
ally brought to Europe. In thofe countries it grows-
to the height of 25 or 30 feet; the bark of the ftem
and old branches is of a dark ruffet colour, but that of
the young branches is of a light brown. Thefe are gar-
nithed with winged leaves, compofed fometimes of two,
at other times of three pair of lobes, terminated by an
odd one: thefe lobes approach towards an oval flrape,
and their edges are turned backward; and thefe, when
bruifed, emit a fmell fimilar to that of the fhell of the
nut. Some of thefe trees produce male, and others fe¬
male flowers, and fome have both male and female on the
fame tree. The male flowers come out from the fides-
of the branches, in loofe bunches or catkins. They
have no petals, but five fmall ftamina crowned by large
four-cornered fummits filled with farina; and when this-
is difeharged, the flowers fall off. The female flowers
come out in clutters from the fides of the branches
they have no petals, but a large oval germen ffipport-
ing three reflexed ftyles,, and are fucceeded by oval
nuts..
Piftacia
(1
Pifum,
PIS [ 6192 ] PIS
nuts. 2. The lentifcus, or common maftic-tree, grows
naturally in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Being an
_ evergreen, it has been preferved in this country in
order to adorn the green-houfes. In the countries
where it is a native, it rifes to the height of 18 or 20
feet, covered with a grey bark on the item ; but the
branches, which are very numerous, are covered with
a reddilh-brown bark, and are garnifhed with winged
leaves, compofed of three or four pair of fmall fpear-
fliaped lobes, without an odd one at the end. 3. The
orientalis, or true maftic-tree of the Levant, from which
the maftic is gathered, has been confounded by moft
botanical writers with the lentifcus, or common maftic-
tree, above defcribed, though there are confiderable
differences between them. The bark of the tree is
brown; the leaves are compofed of two or three pair of
fpear-fhaped lobes, terminated by an odd one : the
outer lobes are the largeft; the others gradually dimi-
ni(h, the innefmoft being the leaft. Thefe turn of a
brownifh colour towards the autumn, when the plants
are e«pofed to the open air; but if they are under
glaffes, they keep green. The leaves continue all the
year; but are not fo thick as thofe of the common fort,
nor are the plants fo hardy.
Culture. The firft fpecies is propagated by its nuts ;
which fhould be planted in pots filled with light kitchen-
garden earth, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed to
bring up the plants: when thefe appear, they fhould
have a large fhare of air admitted to them, and by de¬
grees they fhould be expofed to the open air, which at
Jaft they will bear in all feafons, though not without
great danger of being deftroyed in fevere winters. The
fecond fort is commonly propagated by laying down
the branches, though it may alfo be raifed from the
feed in the manner already dire&ed for the piftachia-
nut tree : And in this manner alfo may the true maftic-
tree be raifed ; but this, being more tender than any of
the other forts, requires to be conftantly fheltered in
winter, and to have a warm fituation in fummer.
Ufes. Piftachia nuts abound with a fweet and well-
tafted oil, which they yield in great abundance on be¬
ing preffed after bruifing them : they are reckoned
wholefome and nutritive; and are very proper to be pre-
fctlbed by way of reftoratives, eaten in fmall quantity,
to people emaciated by long illnefs.
PISTIL, among botanifts, the little upright co¬
lumn which is generally found in the centre of every
flower. According to the Linnaean fyftem, it is the
female part of generation, whofe office is to receive and
fecrete the pollen, and produce the fruit. It coufifts of
three parts, viz. germen, ftylus, and ftigma.
PISTOL, the fmalleft piece of fire-arms, borne at
the faddle-bow, on the girdle, and in the pocket.
PISTOLE, a gold coin, ftruck in Spain, and in fe-
veral parts of Italy, Switzerland, &c.—The piftole has
its augmentations and diminutions, which are quadruple
piftoles, double piftoles, and half piftoles. See Money-
jT able.
PISTON, in pump-work, is a fhort cylinder of me¬
tal or other folid fubftance, fitted exa&ly to the cavity
of the barrel or body of the pump. See Hydrosta¬
tics, feft. v.
PISUM, pease ; a genus of the deeandria order,
belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants. The fpe¬
cies are, 1. The fativum, or greater garden-pea, whofe
lower ftipulse are roundifh, indented, with taper foot-
ftalks and many flowers on a foot-ftalk. 2. The
humile, or dwarf pea, with an ereft branching ftalk,
and leaves having two pair of round lobes. 3. The
umbellatum, rofe, or crown-pea, with four-pointed a-
cuteftipulse, and foot-ftalks bearing many flowers, which
terminate the (talks. 4. The maritimum,or fea-pea, with
foot-ftalks which are plain on their upper fide, an an¬
gular ttalk, arrow-pointed ftipulae, and foot-ftalks bear¬
ing many flowers. 5. The Americanum, commonly
called Cape-Horn pea, with an angular trailing ftalk,
whofe lower leaves are fpear-ftaped, fharply indented,
and thofe at the top arrow-pointed. 6. The ochrus,
with membranaceous running foot-ftalks, having two
leaves and one flower upon a foot-ftalk.
There is a great variety of garden peafe now culti¬
vated in Britain, which are diftinguifhed by the gar¬
deners and feedfmen, and have their different titles; but
as great part of thefe have been feminal variations, fo
if they are not very carefully managed, by taking away
all thofe plants which have a tendency to alter before
the feeds are formed, they will degenerate into their
original date: therefore all thofe perfons who are cu¬
rious in the choice of their feeds, look carefully over
thofe which they defign for feeds at the time when they
begin to flower, and draw out all the plants which they
diflike from the other. This is what they call roguing
Iheirpeaje; meaning hereby, the taking out all the bad
plants from the good, that the farina of the former may
not impregnate the latter; to prevent which, they al¬
ways do it before the flowers open. By thus diligently
drawing out the bad, referving thofe which come ear-
lieft to flower, they have greatly improved their peafe
of late years, and are conftantly endeavouring to get
forwarder varieties ; fo that it would be to little pur-
pofe in this place, to attempt giving a particular ac¬
count of all the varieties now cultivated: therefore we
fhall only mention their titles by which they are com¬
monly known; placing them according to their time of
coming to the table, or gathering for ufe.
The golden hotfpur.
The Charlton.
The Reading hotfpur.
Mailer’s hotfpur.
Effex hotfpur.
The dwarf pea.
The fugar pea.
Spanifh Morotto.
Nonpareil.
Sugar dwarf.
Sickle pea.
Marrowfat.
Rofe or crown pea.
Rouncival pea.
Gray pea.
Pig pea; with fome others.
The Englifh fea-pea is found wild upon the fhore in
Suffex and feveral other counties in England, and is
undoubtedly a different fpecies from the common pea.
The fifth fpecies hath a biennial root, which continues
two years. This was brought from Cape Horn by
Lord Anfon’s cook, when he paffed that Cape, where
thefe peafe were a great relief to the failors. It is kept
here as a curiofity, but the peafe are not fo good for
eating as the word fort now cultivated in Britain. It
is a low trailing plants: the leaves have two lobes on
each foot-ftalk: thofe below are fpear-fttaped, and
fharply indented on their edges; but the upper leaves
are fmall, and arrow-pointed. The flowers are blue,
each foot-ftalk fuftaining four or five flowers ; the pods
are taper, near three inches long; and the feeds are
round, about the fize of tares.
The
PIS [6
Pifnm. The fixth fort is annual. This grows naturally a-
 “mong the corn in Sicily and fome parts of Italy, but
is here preferved in botanic gardens for the fake of va¬
riety. It hath an angular ftalk rifing near three feet
high; the leaves (land upon winged foot-ftalks, each
fuftaining two oblong lobes. The flowers are of a pale
yellow colour, fhaped like thofe of the other fort of
pea, but are fmall,each foot-ftalk fuftaining one flower;
thefe are fucceeded by pods about two inches long,
containing five or fix roundifh feeds, which are a little
comprefled on their fides. Thefe are by fome perfons
eaten green; but unlefs they are gathered very young,
they are coarfe, and at beft not fo good as the common
pea. It may be fown and managed in the fame way as
the garden pea.
We (hall now proceed to fet down the method of
cultivating the feveral forts of garden peafc, fo as to
continue them throughout the feafon.
It is a common praftice with the gardeners near
London, to raife peafe upon hot-beds, to have them
very early in the fpring; in order to which, they fow
their peafc upon warm borders, under walls or hedges,
about the middle of O&ober; and when the plants
come up, they draw the earth up gently to their ftems
with a hoe, the better to proteft them from froft. In
thefe places they let them remain until the latter end
of January, or the beginning of February, obferving
to earth them up from time to time as the plants ad»
vance in height (for the reafons before given); as alfo
to cover them in very hard froft with peafe-haulm,
ftraw, or fome other light covering, to preferve them
from being deftroyed; then, at the time before-men¬
tioned, they make a hot-bed (in proportion to the
quantity of peafc intended), which mull be made of
good hot dung, well prepared and properly mixed to¬
gether, that the heat may not be too great. The dung
fliould be laid for two or three feet thick, according as
the beds are made earlier or later in the feafon; when
the dung is equally levelled, then the earth (which
fiiould be light and frefli, but not over rich), muft be
laid thereon about fix or eight inches thick, laying it
equally all over the bed. This being done, the frames
(which fliould be two feet high on the back fide, and
about 14 inches in front), muft be put on, and covered
with glades; after which, it (hould remain three or four
days, to let the fteam of the bed pafs off before you
put the plants therein, obferving every day to raife the
glaffes, to give vent for the rifing fteam to pafs off;
then, when you find the bed of a moderate tempera¬
ture for heat, you (hould, with a trowel, or fome other
inftrument, take up the plants as carefully as poffible
to preferve the earth to their roots, and plant them into
the hot-bed in rows about two feet afunder, and the
plants about an inch diftant from each other in the
rows, obferving to water and fliade them until they
have taken root; after which you muft be careful to
give them air at all times when the feafon is favour¬
able, otherwife they will draw up very weak, and be
fubjedl to grow mouldy and decay. You {hould alfo
draw the earth up to the (hanks of the plants as they
advance in height, and keep them always clear from
weeds. The water they fhould have muft be given
them fparingly; for if they are too much watered, it
will caufe them to grow too rank, and fometimes rot
off the plants at their (hanks juft above ground. When
V01.. VIII. 2
>93 ] . pis
the weather is very hot, you (hould cover the glaffes Pifijm.
with mats in the heat of the day, to fereen them from
the violence of the heat of the fun, which is then tpo
great for them : but when the plants begin to fruit,
they (hould be watered oftener, and in greater plenty
than before; for by that time the plants will have near¬
ly done growing, and the often refrefliing them will
occafion their producing a greater plenty of fruit.
The fort of pea which is generally ufed for this pur¬
pose, is the dwarf; for all the other forts ramble too
much to be kept in frames: the reafon forfowing them
in the common ground, and afterwards tranfplanting
them on a hot-bed, is to check their growth, and caufe
them to bear in lefs compafs; for if the feeds were fown
upon a hot-bed, and the plants continued thereon, they
would produce fuch luxuriant plants as could not be
contained in the frames, and would bear but little
fruit.
The next fort of pea, which is fown to fucceed thofe
on the hot-bed, is the hotfpur, of which there are
reckoned feveral varieties, as the golden hotfpur, the
Charlton hotfpur, the Mafters’s hotfpur, the Reading
hotfpur, and fome others; which are very little differ¬
ing from each other, except in their early bearing, for
which the golden and Charlton hotfpurs are chiefly
preferred; though if either of thefe forts are cultivated
in the fame place for three or four years, they are apt
to degenerate, and be later in fruiting; for which rea¬
fon, mod curious perfons procure their feeds annually
from fome diftant place ; and in the choice of thefe
feeds, if they could be obtained from a colder (ituation
and a poorer foil than that in which they are to be
fown, it will be much better than on the contrary, and
they will come earlier in the fpring.
Thefe muft alfo be fown on warm borders, toward
the latter end of O&ober; and when the plants are
come up, you (hould draw the earth up to their (hanks
and treat them in every other refpeft as above direc¬
ted.
In the fpring you muft carefully clear them from
weeds, and draw fome fre(h earth up to their ftems;
but do not raife it too high up to the plants, left by-
burying their leaves you (hould rot their ftems, as is
fometimes the cafe, efpecially in wet feafons. You
(hould alfo obferve to keep them free from vermin,
which, if permitted to remain amongft the plants, will
increafe fo plentifully as to devour the greateft part of
them. The chief of the vermin which infeft peafe are
(lugs, which lie all the day in the fmall hollows of the
earth, near the ftems of the plants, and in the night¬
time come out and make terrible deftrudion of the
peafe; and thefe chiefly abound in wet foils, or where
a garden is neglefted and over-ru nwith weeds: there¬
fore you (hould make the ground clear every way round
the peafe to deftroy their harbours; and afterwards in
a fine mild morning very early, when thefe vermin are
got abroad from their holes, you (hould (lake a quan¬
tity of lime, which (hould be ftrewed over the ground
pretty thick, which will deftroy the vermin wherever
it happens to fall upon them, but will do very little in¬
jury to the peafe, provided it be not fcatteredtoo thick
upon them.
If this crop of peafe fucceeds, it will immediately
follow thofe on the hot-bed; but for fear this (hould
mifearry, it will be proper to fow two more crops at
34 X about
P I s
[ 6194 ]
P I T
Pifum. about a fortnight or three weeks dlflance from each
“ other, fo that there may be the more chances to fiic-
ceed. This will be fufficient till the fpring of the year,
when you may fow feveral more crops of thefe peafe at
a fortnight diftance from each other. The late fow-
ings will be fufficient to continue the early fort of
peafe through the feafon, but it will be proper to
have fome of the large fort to fucceed them for the
life of the family; in order to which, you ffiould fow
fome of the Spanifh Morotto, which is a great bearer
and a hardy fort of pea, about the middle of February,
upon a clear open fpot of ground. Thefe mull be fown
in rows about four feet afunder, and the peafe (hould
be dropped in the drills about an inch diftance, cover¬
ing them about two inches deep with earth, being very
careful that none of them lie uncovered, which will
draw the mice, pigeons, or rooks, to attack the whole
fpot; and it often happens, by this negleft, that a
whole plantation is devoured by thefe creatures ; where¬
as, when there are none of the peafe left in fight, they
do not eafily find them out.
About a fortnight after this you (hould fow another
fpot, either of this fort or any other large fort of pea,
to fucceed thofe ; and then continue to repeat fowing
once a fortnight, till the middle or latter end of May ;
only obferving to allow the marrowfats, and other very
large forts of peafe, at lead four feet and a half be¬
tween row and row; and the rofe-pea fliould be allow¬
ed at lead eight or ten inches diftance plant from plant
in the rows; for thefe grow very large, and if they have
not room allowed them, they will fpoil each other by
drawing them up very tall, and will produce no fruit.
When the plants come up, the earth fhould be drawn
up to their (hanks- (as was before directed), and the
ground kept entirely clear from weeds; and when the
plants are grown eight or ten inches high, you (hould
flick fome bruftiwood into the ground clofe to the peafe
for them to ramp upon, which will fupport them from
trailing upon the ground, which is very apt to rot the
growing forts of peafe, efpecially in wet feafons; be-
fides, by thus fupporting them, the air can freely pafs
between them, which will preferve the bloflbms from
falling off before their time, and occafion them to bear
much better than if permitted to lie upon the ground,
and there will be room to pafs between the rows to ga¬
ther the peafe when they are ripe.
The dwarf forts of peafe may be fown much clofer
together than thofe before-mentioned; for thefe feldom
rife above a foot high, and rarely fpread above half a
foot in width, fo that thefe need not have more room
than two feet row from row, and not above an inch a-
funder in the rows. Thefe will produce a good quan¬
tity of peafe, provided the feafon be not over-dry; but
they feldom continue long in bearing, fo that they are
not fo proper to fow for the main crop when a quan¬
tity of peafe is expefted for the table, their chief ex¬
cellency being for hot-beds, where they will produce
a greater quantity of peafe (provided they are well ma¬
naged) than if expofed to the open air, where the heat
of the fun foon dries them up.
The large growing forts may be cultivated for the
common ufe of the family, becaufe thefe will produce
in greater quantities than the other, and will endure
the drought better; but the early kind are by far the
fweeter-tailed peafe.
The beft of all the large kinds is the marrowfat, Pitealrnei«
which, if gathered young, is a well-tafted pea; and this
wilt continue good through the month of Auguft, if
planted on a ftrong foil.
The gray and other large winter-peafe are feldom
cultivated in gardens, becaufe they requires great deal
of room, but are ufually fown in fields. For the pro¬
per method of managing them, fee Agriculture,
n° 124.
P1TCAIRNE (Dr Archibald), a mod eminent
phyfician and ingenious poet, was defcended from the
ancient family of the Pitcairnes of Pitcairne in Fife-
fhire, and was born at Edinburgh on the 25th of De¬
cember 1652. He commenced his ftudies atthefchool
of Dalkeith ; and from thence he was removed to the
univerfity of Edinburgh, where he improved himfelf
in claffical learning, and completed a regular courfeof
philofophy. His friends, according to the authors of
the Biographia Britannica, were defirous that he (hould
follow the profeffion of theology. The unpleafant
gloOm, however, which at that time hung over reli¬
gion and its profeflbrs in Scotland, could not but very-
ill fuit with that native cheerfulnefs of temper and li¬
berality of mind which made him, long after, a mark
for the arrows of precifenefs and grimace. The law
feems to have been his own choice, and to this fcience
he turned his attention. With an ardour peculiar to
himfelf, and an ambition to excel in whatever he un¬
dertook, he purfued it with fo much intenfenefs, that
his health began to be impaired. On this account,
his phyficians advifed him to fet out for the fouth of
France. By the time he reached Paris, he was hap¬
pily fo far recovered, that he determined to renew his
ftudies; but being informed that there was no able
profeflbr of law in that city, and finding feveral gentle¬
men of his acquaintance engaged in the ftudy of phy-
fic, he went with them to the lectures and hofpitals,
and employed himfelf in this manner for feveral months,
till his affairs called him home.
On his return, he applied himfelf chiefly to the ma¬
thematics. It is not ufual to fee the briars of this
fcience and the flowers of poetry growing in the fame
foil. Here, however, they were happily united; and
to this union perhaps was owing that Angular command
of judgment, over one of the livelieft of fancies, which
appears in every part of his works. His intimacy with
Dr David Gregory, the celebrated mathematical pro-
fefibr, began about the fame time ; and probably con¬
duced to cherifh his natural aptitude for this ftudy. It
was then, in a great meafure, new to him ; it foon
became his principal delight; his progrefs in it was
rapid, and correfpondent to his progrefs in other pur-
fuits. His improvements on the method of infinite
feries then adopted, which Dr Wallis of Oxford after¬
wards publifhed, were a confpicuous and early proof
of his abilities in this fcience.
Had Dr Pitcairne continued to profecute the ftudy
of the law, and could he have moulded his principles
to the times, the firft offices and honours of the ftate
might have been looked for without prefumption as
the probable reward of fuch talents as he pofleffed.
Struck, however, with the charms of mathematical
truth which had been lately introduced into the philo¬
fophy of medicine, and hoping to reduce the healing
art to geometrical method, he unalterably determined
Pitcaii nc.
PIT [ 6195 ] PIT
on this lefs afpiring profefiion. At the period when
he formed this refolution, the ideas of the medical
world, already fufficiently confufed, were ftill farther
jumbled by the difcovery of the circulation of the
blood, which had as yet produced nothing but doubt,
uncertainty, and aftonifhment. In Edinburgh at that
time there was no fchool, no hofpital, no opportunity
of improvement but the chamber and the fhop. He
therefore foon after returned to Paris. Genius and
induftry are unhappily not often united in the fame
chara&er: of fuch an union Dr Pitcairne is a celebra¬
ted inftance. During his refidence in France, he cul¬
tivated the objeft of his purfuit with his natural en-
thufiafm, and with a fteadinefs from which he could
not be diverted by the allurements of that joy, which,
in his hours of focial and feftive intercourfe, he always
felt and always gave. Among his various occupa¬
tions, the ftudy of the ancient phyficians feems to have
had a principal (hare. This appears from a treatife
which he publiflred fome time after his return ; and it
(hows, that he wifely determined to know the pro-
grefs of medicine from its earlieft periods, before he
attempted to reform and improve that fcience.
On the 13th of Auguft 1680, he received, from the
faculty of Rlieims, the degree of DoiSlor ; which, on
the 7th of .Augull 1699, was likewife conferred on
him by the univerfity of Aberdeen ; both being at¬
tended with marks of peculiar diftindtion. Other me¬
dical honours are faid to have been conferred on him
in France and elfewhere ; but nothing affords a more
unequivocal teftimony to his abilities than that which
the furgeons of Edinburgh gave, in admitting him,
freely and unfolicited, a member of their college.
None had fuch opportunities of judging of his merit as
a pra&itioner, and on no phyfician did they ever bellow
the fame public mark of refpeft. Soon after his gra¬
duation at Rheims, be returned to Edinburgh; where,
on the 29th of November 1681, the Royal Col¬
lege of Phyficians was ;nftituted; and his name, a-
mong others, graced the original patent from the
Crown.
In his Solutio problematis de inventoribus, the trea¬
tife above alluded to, he drfcovers a wonderful degree
of medical literature, and makes ufe of it in a man¬
ner that does great honour both to his head and his
heart. His objedl is to vindicate Dr Harvey’s claim
to the difcovery of the circulation of the blood. The
difcovery was, at firft, controverted by envy, and re¬
probated by ignorance. When at length its truth
was fully eftablilhed, many invidioufly attempted to
tear the laurels from the illuftrious Englilhman, and to
plant them on the brows of Hippocrates and others.
Had the attempt been dire&ed againft himfelf, the
generous foul of Pitcairne could not have exerted
more zeal in a defence; and his arguments remain un-
anfwered.
During his refidence in Scotland, his reputation
became fo confiderable, that, in the year 1691, the
univerfity of Leyden folicited him to fill the medical
chair, at that time vacant. Such an honourable tefti* Pitcairne.
mony of refpeft, from a foreign nation, and from fuch 
a univerfity, cannot perhaps be produced in the me¬
dical biography of Great Britain. The luftre of fuch
characters refle&s honour on their profefiion, and on
the country which has the good fortune of giving
them birth ; and ferves to give the individuals of that
country not only a ufeful eftimation in their own eyes,
but in thofe alfo of the reft of the world.' Dr Pit-
cairne’s well-known political principles excluded him
from public honours and promotion at home : he,
therefore accepted the invitation from abroad ; and,
ou the 26th of April 1692, delivered, at Leyden, his
elegant and mafterly inaugural oration : Oratio qua
qjlenditur med'tcinam ab omni philofophorum [efta ejfe
liberam. In this he clears medicine from the rnbbifh
of the old philofophy; feparates it from the influence
of the different fefts ; places it on the broad and only
fure foundation of experience; (hows how little good
inquiries into the manner how medicines operate have
done to the art; and demonftrates the neceflity of a fe-
dulous attention to their effeCls, and to the various ap¬
pearances of difeafe.
Nothing (fays an elegant panegyrift # of our author) * f)r Ch.
marks a fuperiority of intelled fo much as the cou- Webftcr, in
rage requifite to ftem a torrent of obtlinately Preva'I-
ing and groundlefs opinions. For this the genius and n5«atE(Hi -
talents of Pitcairne were admirably adapted ; and, in burgh for
his oration, he difplays them to the utmoft. It was t*,c >’car
received with the higheft commendations; and the ad-fr°r™
miniftrators, to teftify their fenfe of fuch an acquifition^rmanc^
to their univerfity, greatly augmented the ordinary ap- the prefect
pointment of his chair. article is
He difcharged the duties of his office at Leyden fo ex"
as to anfwer the moft fanguine expectations. He
taught with a perfpicuity and eloquence which met
with univerfal applaufe. Independently of the enco¬
miums of Boerhaave and Mead, who were his pupils,
the numerous manufcHpt copies of his leCtures, and
the mutilated fpecimen of them -f which found its way
into the world without his knowledge, (how how juft-
ly it was bellowed. At the fame time, he was not
more celebrated as a profeffor^than as a practical phy¬
fician ; and notwithftanding the multiplicity of his
bufinefs in both thefe characters, he found leifure to
publilh feveral treatifes on the circulation and fome
other of the moft important parts of the animal (Eco¬
nomy (a).
At the clofe of the fefiion, he fet out for Scotland,
with an intention of returning in time for the fucceed-
ing one. On his marrying (b) the daughter of Sir
Archibald Stevenfon, the objeft of his journey, her
relations would on no account confent to part with
him again. He was therefore reluctantly obliged to
remain ; and he wrote the univerfity a polite apolo¬
gy, which was received with the utmoft regret. He
even declined the moft flattering folicitations and temp¬
ting offers to fettle in London. Indeed he foon came
into that extenfive praCtice to which his abilities en-
34 X 2 titled
(a) Dr Boerhaave gives the following character of thefe and fome other of Dr Pitcairne’s differtations, which were
collected and publilhed at Rotterdam, anno 1701: “ Haec fcripta optima funt et perfeCta, five legas Difiertationem
de Motu Sanguinis per Pulmones, five alia opufcula, five ultimum traCtatum de Opio.” Methodus Jludii, ab Hallero
edit a, p.jCp.
( b ) He had been married before to a daughter of Colonel James Hay of Pitfour, by whom he had a fon and daug li¬
ter, who both died young.
PIT [ 6.96 ] PIT
Pitcairne. titled him, and was alfo appointed titular profeffor of
Medicine in the univerfity of Edinburgh.
The uniformity of a profeflional life is feldom inter¬
rupted by incidents worthy of record. Specimens,
however, of that brilliant wit with which he delighted
his friends in the hours of his leifure, continue to en¬
tertain us (c) ; and the effe&s of that eminent fldll
which he exerted in the cure of difeafe, ftill operate to
the good of pofterity.
The difcovery of the circulation, while in fome
meafure it exploded the chemical and Galenical doc¬
trines, tended to introduce mathematical and mecha¬
nical reafoning in their (lead. Of this theory (d)
Dr Pitcairne was the principal fupport, and the
firft who introduced it into Britain. A mathema¬
tical turn of mind, and a wifh for mathematical cer¬
tainty in medicine, biafled him in its favour, and he
pufhed it to its utmoft extent. One is at a lofs
whether moft to admire or regret fuch a wafte of ta¬
lents in propping a theory, which, though fubverfive
of former ones, was to fall before others but a little
more fatisfa&ory than itfelf. Mechanical phyficians
expe&ed more from geometry than that fcience could
grant. They made it the foundation inftead of an
auxiliary to their inquiries, and applied it to parts of
nature not admitting mathematical calculations. By
paying more attention afterwards to the fupreme in¬
fluence of the living principle, the fource of all the
motions and funflions of the body, it was found that
thefe could not be explained by any laws of chemiftry
or mechanifm. They are ftill, however, involved in
obfcurity; and, notwithftanding the mimberlefs im- Pitcairn
provements which have taken place in the fciences ~“
connefted with medicine, will perhaps remain infcru-
table while man continues in his prefent ftage of ex-
iftence.
In a fcience fo (lowly progrefiive as that of medi¬
cine, Dr Pitcairne did a great deal. By labouring in
vain for truth in one road, he faved many the fame
drudgery, and thereby fhewed the neceffity of ano¬
ther. He not only exploded many falfe notions of
the chemifts and Galenifts, which prevailed in his time,
but many of thofe too of his own fedt. In particu¬
lar, he (hewed the abfurdity of referring all difeafe*
and their cures to an alkali or an acid (e). He refuted
the idea of fecretion being performed by pores diffe¬
rently (haped (f), Bellini’s opinion of effervefcences in
the animal-fpirits with the blood, and Borelli’s of air
entering the blood by refpiration (g). He proved the
continuity of the arteries and veins (h); and feems to
have been the firft who (hewed that the blood flows
from a fmaller capacity into a larger, that the aorta,
with rcfpeft to the arterial fyftem, is the apex of a
cone (1). In this therefore he may be confidered as
the latent fpring of the difcoveries refpefting the pow¬
ers moving the blood. He introduced a fimplicity of
prefcription, unknown in pharmacy before his time(x);
and fuch was the (late of medicine in this country, that
fcarcely have the works of any contemporary or prece¬
ding author been thought worthy even of preferva-
tion (l). As to the errors of his philofophy, let it
be remembered, that no theory has as yet ftood the
tell
(c) Vide Pitcarnii Peewa/tf.---Several of his poems, however, are obfcure, and fome of them totally unintelli¬
gible without a key. In thofe of them which are of a political kind, he wiftied not to exprefs himfelf too clearly;
and in others, he alludes to private occurrences which were not known beyond the circle of his companions. His
poem [ad Lindttfnim), addrefled to his friend Lindfey, is commented on by the authors of the Biographia Britan-
nica; and it is to be regretted that it is the only one on which they have been folicitous to throw light. “ Some
“ parts (fay they) of this poem are hardly intelligible, without knowing a circumftance in the Dolor’s life, which
‘‘ he often told, and never without fome commotion. It is a well-known ftory of the two Platonic philofophers,
“ who promifed one another, that which ever died firft (hould make a vifit to his furviving companion. This ftory
“ being read together by Mr Lindfey and our author, they, being both then very young, entered into the fame en-
“ gagement. Soon after, Pitcairne, at his father’s houfe in Fife, dreamed one morning, that Lindfey, who was
“ then at Paris, came to him, and told him he was not dead, as was commonly reported, but ftill .alive, and lived
^ in a very agreeable place, to which he could not yet carry him. By the courfe of the poft, news came of Lind-
“ fey’s death, which happened very fuddenly the fnorning of the dream. When this is known, the poem is eafily un-
“ derftood, and (hines with no common degree of beauty.
“ Lyndefi! Stygias jam dudum vedte per undas,
“ Stagnaque Cocyti non adeunda mihi;
“ Excute paulifper Lethsei vincula fomni,
“ Ut feriant animum carmina noftra tuum.
“ Te nobis, te redde tuis, promifl'a daturus
“ Gaudia ; fed proavo fis comitante redux :
“ Namque novos viros mutataque regna videbis,
“ Paflaque Teutonicas fceptra Britanna manus #. [* Written in 1689. J
" He then proceeds to exclaim againft the principles and practices which produced this Teutonic violence upon the
“ Britifh fceptre; and concludes with a wifh, that Lindfey might bring Radamanthus with him to punifti them.
“ Unus abeft fcelerum vindex Radamanthus ; amice,
“ Dii faciant reditus fit comes ille tui !
“ Every one fees how much keener an edge is given to the fatire upon the Revolution, by making it an additional
“ reafon for his friend’s keeping his promife to return him a vifit after his death.”
(d) See the article Medicine, n° 99.—Borelli, Bellini, &c. efpoufed the fame.
(e) Pitcarnii Differtationes, Edin, edit. 1713. De opera quam prseftant corpora acida vel alkalica in curatione
morborum.
( f) De circulatione fanguinis per vafa minima.
(g) De diverfa mole qua fanguis fluit per pulmones.
(h) De circulatione fanguinis per vafa minima.
(1) De circulatione fanguinis in animalibus genitis et non genitis.
(k) Elementa Medicinse, lib. i. cap. zr. etpaflim.
(n) The fhft medical publication which diftinguifhed this country, after Dr Pitcairne’s, was that of the Edinburgh
Medical Effays, in theyear xyjj- Vid. the article Mon8,0.
PIT [ 6197 ] PIT
wjpitcaime ted of many years in an enlightened period. His
II. own hung very loofely about him (m), and the prefent
notching. genera|]y received pra&ice differs from his very little
in reality. He treated inflammatory and haemorrhagic
difeafes by bleeding, purging, and bliftering, as has
been done uniformly and folely on the different theo¬
ries fince. His method of adminiftering mercury and
the bark is obferved at this day ; and with refpedl to
febrile, nervous, glandular, and dropfical affedions,
they feem to be as often the opprobriums of the art
now, as they were then.
Dr Pitcairne was univerfally confidered as the firfl
phyfician of his time. No one appears ever to have
had fo much praftice in this country, or fo many con-
fultations from abroad ; and no one, from all accounts,
ever pradifed with greater fagacity and fuccefs. The
higheft thought themfelves honoured by his acquaint¬
ance, and the lowed were never denied his affillance
and advice. The emoluments of his profeffion muft
have been great; but his charities are known to have
been correfpondent. The poffeffion of money he poft-
poned to more liberal objeds : he colleded one of the
fined private libraries in the world; which was purcha-
fed, after his death, by the Czar of Mufcovy. Not-
withflanding the fatigues he underwent in the exercife
of his profeffion, his conditution was naturally deli¬
cate. About the beginning of Odober 1713, be be¬
came affeded with his lad illnefs; and on the 23d he
died, regretted by fcience as its ornament, by his coun¬
try as its boad, and by humanity as its friend. He
left a foh and four daughters; of whom only one of the
latter now furvives. The prefent noble family of Kelly
are his grandchildren.
Some anonymous publications are attributed to Dr
Pitcairne, particularly a treatife De Legibus Hijiorite
Natural is, See.; but the only ones he thought proper
to legitimate are his Dijfertatienes Mediae, and a
fhort eflay De Salute.
PITCH, a tenacious oily fubdance, drawn chiefly
from pines and firs, and ufed in fhipping, medicine,
and various arts : or it is more properly tar infpiffated
by boiling it over a flow fire. See Tar.
PITCHING, in fea-affairs, may be defined, the
vertical vibration which the length of a fhip makes
about her centre of gravity; or the movement by which
fhe plunges her head and after part alternately into
the hollow of the fea. This motion may proceed from
two caufes: the waves, which agitate the veflel ; and
the wind upon the fails, which makes her floop to every
blad thereof. The fird abfolutely depends upon the
agitation of the fea, and is not fufceptible of inquiry ;
and the fecond is occafioned by the inclination of the
mads, and may be fubmitted to certain edablifhed
maxims.
When the wind a£ts upon the fails, the mad yields
to its effort, with an inclination, which increafes in
proportion to the length of the mad,.to the augmenta¬
tion of the wind, and to the comparative weight and
didribution of the fhip’s lading.
The repulfion of the water, to the effort of gravity,
oppofes itfelf to this inclination, or at lead fudains it,
by as much as the repulfion exceeds the momentum.
or abfolute effort of the mad, upon which the wind Pulicaus
operates. At the end of each blad, when the wind
fufpends its aftion, this repulfion lifts the veflel ; and ‘ s‘
thefe fucceflive inclinations and repulfions produce the
movement of pitching, which is very inconvenient;
and, when it is confiderable, will greatly retard the
courfe, as well as endanger the mail, and drain the
veflel.
PITH, in vegetation, the foft fpungy fubdance
contained in the central parts of plants and trees *. * See Plan!.
PITISCUS (Samuel), a learned antiquary, born
at Zutphen, was re&or of the college of that city,
and afterwards of St Jerome at Utrecht, where he
died on the id of February 1717, aged ninety.
He wrote, 1. Lexicon Antiquitatum Romanorum, in
two volumes folio ; a work which is edeemed. 2. E-
ditions of many Latin authors, with notes; and other
works.
PITS (John), the biographer, was born in 1560,
at Aulton in Hampfhire; and educated at Wykeham’s
fchool, near Wincheder, till he was about 18 years of
age; when he was fent to New-college in Oxford, and
admitted probationer fellow. Having continued in
that univerfity not quite two years, he left the king¬
dom as a voluntary Romifh exile, and retired to
Doway: thence he went to the Euglifh college at
Rheims, where he remained about a year; and then
proceeded to Rome, where he continued a member of
the Englifh college near feven years, and was made a
pried. In 1589 he returned to Rheims; and there,
during two years, taught rhetoric and the Greek
language. He now quitted Rheims, on account of
the civil war in France ; and retired to Pont a Mouf-
fon in Loraine, where he took the degrees of mafier
of arts and bachelor in divinity. Hence he travelled
into Germany; and refided a year and a half at Triers,
where he commenced licentiate in his faculty. From
Triers he vifited feveral of the principal cities in Ger¬
many ; and continuing three years at Ingolfladt in
Bavaria, took the degree of do&or in divinity. Thence
having made the tour of Italy, he returned once more
to Loraine; where he was patronifed by the cardinal
of that duchy, who preferred him to a canonry of Ver¬
dun ; and about two years after, he became confeflbr to
to the duchefs of Cleves, daughter to the duke of
Loraine. During the leifure he enjoyed in this em¬
ployment, he wrote in Latin the lives of the kings,
bifliops, apoftolical men, and writers of England.
The laft of thefe, commonly known and quoted by this
title, De illuJlribus\Anglia; feriptoribus, was publifhed
after his death. The three firll remain ftill in manufeript,
among the archives of the collegiate church of Liver-
dun. The duke of Cleves dying, after Pits had been
about twelve years confeflbr to the duchefs, (he re¬
turned to Loraine, attended by our author, who was
promoted to the deanery of Liverdun, which, with
a canonry and officiallhip, he enjoyed to the end of
his life. He died in 1616, and was buried in the
collegiate church. Pits was undoubtedly a fcholar,
and not an inelegant writer; but he is juftly accufed
of ingratitude to Bale, from whom he borrowed his
materials, without acknowledgment. He quotes Le-
land
(m) Patet, fays he, medicinam efie memoriam eorum quae cuilibet morbo ufus oftendit fuifie utilia. Nam nptas
non efle corporum intra venas fluentium aut confiftentium naturas, adeoque fola obfervatione innotefcerequidcuique
morbo conveuiat, poftquam fiepius eadem eidem morbo profuiffe comperimus. DeDiv. Morb,
PIT [6
Pitt- land with great familiarity, without ever having feen
”his book: his errors are innumerable, and his par¬
tiality to the Romiih writers mod obvious; neverthe-
lefs we are obliged to him for his account of feveral
popifh authors, who lived abroad at the beginning
of the Reformation.
PITT (Chriftopher), an eminent Englilh poet,cele¬
brated for his excellent tranflation of Virgil’s iEneid,
was born in the year 1699. Having ft tid ied four
years at New-college, Oxford, he was prefented to
the living of Pimperne in Dorfetftiire, which he held
during the remainder of his life. He had fo poetical a
turn, that while he was a fchool-boy he wrote two large
folios of manufcript poems, one of which contained
an entire tranflation of Lucan. He was much efteemed
while at the univerfity; particularly by the celebrated
Dr Young, who ufed familiarly to call him his fon.
Next to bis fine tranfiation of Virgil, Mr Pitt gained
the greateft reputation by his excellent Englifti tranfla¬
tion of Vida’s art of poetry. This amiable poet died
in the year 1648, without leaving, it is laid, one
enemy behind him.
Pitt (William) earl of Chatham, a mod cele¬
brated Britifh ftatefman and patriot, was born in No¬
vember 1708. He was the youngeft fon of Robert
Pitt, Efq; of Boconnock in Cornwall ; andgrandfon of
Thomas Pitt, Efq; governor of Fort St George in the
Eaft Indies, in the reign of queen Anne, who fold an
extraordinary fine diamond to the king of France for
135,000!. and thus obtained the name of Diamond
Pitt. His intelledlual faculties and powers of elocu¬
tion very foon made a diftinguifhed appearance ; but,
at the age of 16, he felt the attacks of an hereditary
and incurable gout, by which he was tormented at
times during the reft of his life.
His lordfbip entered early into the army, and ferved
in a regiment o-f dragoons. Through the intereft of
the duchefs of Marlborough, he obtained a feat in
parliament before he was 21 years of age. His firft
appearance in the houfe was as reprefentative of the
borough of Old Sarum, in the ninth parliament of
Great Britain. In the 10th he reprefented Seaford,
Aldborough in the nth, and the city of Bath in the
12th; where he continued till he was called up to the
houfe of peers in 1766. The intention of the duchefs in
bringing him thus early into parliament was to oppofe
Sir Robert Walpole, and whom he kept in awe by
the force of his eloquence. At her death the duchefs
left him 10,0001. on condition, as was then reported,
that he ftiould never receive a place in adminiftration.
However, if any fuch condition was made, it certainly
was not kept on his Lordftiip’s part. In 1746 he
was appointed vice-treafurer of Ireland, and foon after
paymafter general of the forces, and fworn a privy-
counfellor. He difcharged the office of paymafter
with fuch honour and inflexible integrity, refufing
even many of the perquifites of his office, that his
bittereft enemies could lay nothing to his charge, and
he foon became the darling of the people. In 1755
he refigned the office of paymafter, on feeing Mr Fox
preferred to him. The people were alarmed at this
refignaticn; a-nd being difgufted with the unfuccefs-
ful beginning of the war, complained fo loudly, that,
on the 4th December 1756, Mr Pitt was appointed fe¬
ci etary of ftate in the room of Mr Fox afterwards Lord
98 ] PIT
Holland ; and other promotions were made in order
to fecond his plans. He then took fuch meafures as
were neceffary for the honour and intereft of the na¬
tion; but in the month of February 1757, having
refufed to affent to the carrying on a war in Ger¬
many for the fake of his majefty’s dominions on the
continent, he was deprived of the feals on the 5th of
April following. Upon this the complaints of the
people again became fo violent, that on the 29th of
June he was again appointed fecretary, and his friends
toother important offices. The fuccefs with which the
war was now condufted is univerfally known ; yet on
the 5th of Oftober 1761, Mr Pitt, to the aftonifti-
ment of almoft the whole, kingdom, refigned the feals
into his majefty’s own hands. The reafon of this was,
that Mr Pitt, having received certain intelligence that
the family-compaft was figned between Fiance and
Spain, and that the latter was about to join France
again!! us, thought it neceflary to prevent her by com¬
mencing hoftilities firft. Having communicated this
opinion in the privy-council, the other minifters urged
that they would think twice before they declared war
again!! this kingdom. “ I will not give them leave
to think, (replied Mr Pitt) ; this is the time, let us
crufti the whole houfe of Bourbon. But if the mem¬
bers of this board are of a different opinion, this is the
laft time I ffiall ever mix in its councils. I was called
into the miniftry by the voice of the people, and to
them I hold myfelf anfwerable for my conduct. I am
to thank the minillers of the late king for their fup-
port; I have ferved my country with fuccefs ; but I
will not be refponfihle for the conduff of the war any
longer than while I have the diredfion of it.” To this
bold declaration, the lord who then prefided in coun¬
cil, made the following reply. “ I find the gentleman
is determined to leave us; nor can I fay that I am forry
for it, fince he would otherwife have certainly compelled
us to leave him. But if he is refolved toaffume the right
of advifing his majefty, and diredting the operations of
the war, to what purpofe are we called to this council ?
When he talks of being refponfible to the people, he
talks the language of the houfe of commons, and for¬
gets that at this board he is refponfihle only to the
king. However, though he may poffibly have con¬
vinced hiftifelf of his infallibility, (fill it remains that
we ftiould be equally convinced before we can refign
our underftandings to his diredlion, or join with him
in the meafnre he propofes.”
This converfation, whiclTwas followed by Mr Pitt’s
refignation, is fufficient to ftiew the haughtinefs and
imperious temper of our minifter. However, thefe very
qualities were fometimes produdlive of great and good
confequences, as appears from the following anecdote.
—Preparatory to one of the fecret expeditions during
the laft war, the minifter had given orders to the dif¬
ferent prefiding officers in the military, navy, and ord¬
nance departments, to prepare a large body of forces,
a certain number of ftiips, and a proportionable quan¬
tity of (lores, &c. and to have them all ready again!!
a certain day. To thefe orders he received an anfwer
from each of the officers, declaring the total impoffibi-
lity of a compliance with them. Notwithftanding it
was then at a very late hour, he fent immediately for
his fecretary; and after expreffing his refentment at
the ignorance or negligence of his majefty’s fer-
vant5,
PIT [6
Pitt, vants, he gave the following commands:—“ I defire,
Mr Wood, that you will immediately go to Lord
Anfon ; you need not trouble yourfelf to fearch the
admiralty, he is not to be found there; you muft pur-
fue him to the gaming-houfe, and tell him from me,
that if he does not obey the orders of government
which he has received at my hands, that I will moft
afluredly impeach him. Proceed from him to Lord
Ligonier; and though he fhould be bolftered with har¬
lots, undraw his curtains, and repeat the fame meflage.
Then dire& your courfe to Sir Charles Frederick, and
affure him, that if his majelty’s orders are not obeyed,
they fhall be the laft which he fhall receive from me.”
In confequence of thefe commands, Mr Wood pro¬
ceeded to White’s, and told his errand to the firft lord
of the admiralty; who infilled that the fecretary of
ftate was out of his fenfes, and it was impoffible to
comply with his wilhes: “ however, (added be), as
madmen muft be anfwered, tell him that I will do my
utmoft to fatisfy him.” From thence he went to the
commander in chief of the forces, and delivered the
fame meffage. He alfo faid that it was an impoffible
fcufinefs; “ and the fecretary knows it, (added the old
lord) : neverthelefs, he is in the right to make us do
what we can; and what is poffible to do, inform him,
ftiall be done.” The furveyor-general of the ordnance
was next informed of Mr Pitt’s refolution ; and, after
fome little confideration, he began to think that the
orders might be completed within the time prefcribed.
The confequence, at laft, was, that every thing, in
fpite of impoffibilities themfelves, was ready at the time
appointed.
After his refignation in 1761, Mr Pitt never had
any (hare in adminiftration. He received a penfion of
30001. a-year, to be continued after his deceafe, du¬
ring the furvivancy of his lady and fon ; and this gra¬
tuity was dignified with the title of Baronefs of Cha¬
tham to his lady, and that of baron to her heirs-male.
Mr Pitt at that time declined a title of nobility; but
in 1766 accepted of a peerage under the title of Ba¬
ron Pynfent and Earl of Chatham, and at the fame time
he was appointed lord privy-feal.
This acceptance of a peerage proved very prejudi¬
cial to his lordlhip’s character. However, he conti¬
nued ftedfaft in his oppofition to the meafures of ad¬
miniftration. His laft appearance in the Houfe of
Lords was on the 2d of April 1778. He was then
very ill and much debilitated: but the queftion was
important; being a motion of the duke of Richmond
to addrefs his majefty to remove the minifters, and
make peace with America on any terms. His lord-
fhip made a long fpeech, which had certainly overcome
his fpirits: for, attempting to rife a fecond time, be
fell down in a convulfive fit; and though he recovered
for that time, his diforder continued to Lncreafe till the
1 ith of May, when he died at his feat at Hayes. His
death was lamented as a national lofs. As foon as the
news reached the houfe of commons, which was then
fitting, Colonel Barre made a motion, that an addrefs
fhould be prefented to his majefty, requefting that the
Earl of Chatham Ihould be buried at the public ex¬
pence. But Mr Rigby having propofed the erefting
of a ftatue to his memory, as more likely to perpetuate
the fenfe of his great merits entertained by the public,
this was unanimoully carried. A bill was foon after
99 ] P L A
paffed, by which 4000I. a-year was fettled upon John, Pituitary
now Earl of Chatham, and the heirs of the late Earl II
to whom that title may defeend.—His lordfhip was
married in 1754 to Lady Heller, filler to the earl of
Temple; by whom he had three fons and two daugh¬
ters.
PITUITARY Gland. See Anatomy, n° 397, c.
PIVAT, or Pivot, a foot or Ihoe of iron or
other metal, ufually conical or terminating in a point,
whereby a body, intended to turn round, bears on
another fixed at r»ft, and performs its revolutions.
The pivot ufually bears or turns round in a foie, or
piece of iron or brafs, hollowed to receive it.
P1ZARRO (Francis), a celebrated Spanilh gene¬
ral, the difeoverer and conqueror of Peru, in conjunc¬
tion with Diego Almagro, a Spanilh navigator.
They are both charged with horrid cruelties to the in¬
habitants ; and they fell vidlims to their own ambition,
jealoufy, and avarice. Almagro revolting, was de¬
feated, and beheaded by Pizarro, who was afiaffinated
by Almagro’s friends, in 1541. See Peru.
PLACE, locus, in philofophy, a mode of fpace,
or that part of immoveable fpace which any body
pofleffes. See Metaphysics, n° 50.
Place in aftronomy. The place of the fun, a
flar, &c. denotes the fign and degree of the zodiac
which the luminary is in ; or the degree of the ecliptic,
reckoning from the beginning of aries, which the
planet or liar’s circle of longitude cuts ; and therefore
coincides with the longitude of the fun, planet, or
ftar. As the fine of the fun’s greateft declination
23° 3°': to the fine of any prefent declination given
or obferved, for inflance, 230 15':: fo is the radius
10 : to the fine of his longitude 8i° 52'; which, if
the declination were north, would give 20° 52' of ge-
mini ; if fouth, 20° 52' of capricorn, for the fun’s
place. See Declination, &c.
The place of the moon being that part of her orbit
wherein (he is found at any time, is of various kinds,
by reafon of the great inequalities of the lunar motions,
which render a number of equations and redudlions
neceftary before the juft point be found. The moon’s
fidlitious place is her place once equated ; her place
nearly true, is her place twice equated; and her true
place thrice equated. See Astronomy, paffim.
Place, in war, a general name for all kinds of
fortrefles where a party may defend themfelves. Thus,
1. A ftrong or fortified place, is one Hanked, and co¬
vered with baftions. 2. A regular place, one whole
angles, fides, bullions, and other parts, are equal;
and this is ufually denominated from the number of its
angles, as a pentagon, hexagon, &c. 3. Irregular
place, is one whofe fides and angles are unequal.
4. Place of arms, is a llrong city or town pitched up¬
on for the chief magazine of an army; or, in a city
or garrifon, it is a large open fpot of ground, ufually
near the centre of the place where the grand guard is
commonly kept, and the garrifon holds its rendezvous
at reviews, and in cafes of alarm to receive orders
from the governor. 5. Places of arms of an attack,
in a fiege, is a fpacious place covered from the enemy
by a parapet or epaulement, where the foldiers are
polled ready to fuftain thofe at work in the trenches
againft the foldkrs of the garrifon. 6. Place of arms
particular, in a garrifon, a place near every baftion,
where
P L A r 6200 1 P L A
ce where the foldters fent from the grand place to the
quarters affigned them relieve thofe that are either
ary~ upon the guard or in fight. 7. Place of arms without,
is a place allowed to the covert-way for the planting
of cannon, to oblige thofe who advance in their ap*
proaches to retire. 8. Place of arms in a camp, a
large place at the head of the camp for the army to be
ranged in and drawn up in battlia. There is alfo a
place for each particular body, troop, or company, to
afiemble in.
Common-PtACE, See Common-Place.
PLACENTA, in anatomy and midwifery, a foft
roundifh mafs, found in the womb of pregnant women;
which, from its refemblance to the liver, was called by
the ancients hepar uterinum, uterine liver.
PLACENTIA, a town of Italy, and capital of a
duchy of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee. It is
feated about too paces from the river Po, in a very
fertile pleafant plain, watered by a great numberof rivu¬
lets, and furrounded with hills, abounding in all forts
of fruits. In its territory there are falt-fprings, from
which they make a very white fait; and there are alfo
mines of iron, woods, and warrens. It is very popu¬
lous, and contains a great number of merchants. It
is defended by a wall and a ftrong citadel, and is
reckoned three miles in circumference. The houfes
are low, generally built of brick, and fome of them
are prettily painted. The cathedral is an ancient
ftru&ure, but well adorned within. The number of
the inhabitants is about 18,000, among whom there
are 2000 ecclefiaftics. This city has been taken fe-
veral times in the wars of Italy. The king of Sardi¬
nia took pofieffion of it in 1744, it being ceded to
him by the queen of Hungary ; but it was taken from
him in 1746, after a bloody battle. It has a famous
univeriity, and the inhabitants are much elteemed for
their politenefs. There is a great fair here every year
on the 15th of April, which is much frequented.
Placentia is feated on the river Po, in E. Long. 9. 43.
N. Lat. 45. 5.
PLAGIARY, in philology, the purloining ano¬
ther man’s works, and putting them off as our own.
A.mong the Romans, plagiarius was properly a per-
fon who bought, fold, or retained a freeman for a
fiave ; and was fo called, becaufe, by the Flavian law,
fuch perfons were condemned adplagas, “ to be whip¬
ped.”
Thomafius has an exprefs treatife Deplagio literario ;
wherein he lays down the laws and meafures of the
right which authors have to one another’s writings.—
“ Diftionary-writers, at leatl fuch as meddle with arts
andfriences, (as is pertinently obferved by Mr Cham¬
bers), feem exempted from the common laws of meum
and tuum ; they do not pretend to fet up on their own
bottom, nor to treat you at their own coil. Their
works are fuppofed, in great meafure, compofitions
of other peoples’; and what they take from others,
they do it avowedly, and in the open fun In effeft,
their quality gives them a title to every thing that may
be for their purpofe, wherever they find it ; and if
they rob, they do not do it any otherwife, than as the
bee does, for the public fervice. Their occupation is
not pillaging, but colle&ing contributions; and if you
afk them their authority, they will produce you the
pra&ice of their predeceflbrs of all ages and nations.” Plagium i;
PLAGIUM, in law. See Kidnapping. If. ;
PLAGUE, Pestilence, or Pejlilential Fever. See Plit'11‘ |
Medicine, n° 325.
The commifiion at Mofcow, having, in the year
1770, invented a fumigation-powder, which, from fe-
veral lefler experiments, had proved efficacious in pre¬
venting the infe&ion of the plague ; in order more
fully to afeertain its virtue in that refpeft, it was de¬
termined, towards the end of the year, that ten male-
fa&ors under fentence of death, (hould, without un¬
dergoing any other precautions than the fumigations,
be confined three weeks in a lazarette, be laid upon
the beds, and drefled in the cloaths, which had been
ufed by perfons lick, dying, and even dead, of the
plague in the hofpital. The experiment was accord¬
ingly tried, and none of the ten malefaftors were then
infefted, or have been fince ill. The fumigation-
powder is prepared as follows.
Ponuder of the firfl frengtk.~] Take leaves of juni¬
per, juniper-berries pounded, ears of wheat, guaiacum-
wood peunded,of each fix pounds; common faltpetre
pounded, eight pounds ; fulphur pounded, fix pounds;
Smyrna tar, or myrrh, two pounds ; mix all the above
ingredients together, which will produce a pood of the
powder of fumigation of the firft ftrength. [N.B. A
pood is 40 pounds Ruffian, which are equal to 35
pounds and a half or 36 pounds Englifh averdupoife.J
Powder of the fecond flrength.~\ Take fouthern-
wood cut into fmall pieces, four pounds; juniper-ber¬
ries pounded, three pounds ; common faltpetre pound¬
ed, four pounds ; fulphur pounded, two pounds and a
half; Smyrna tar, or myrrh, one pound and a half:
mix the above together, which will produce half a
pood of the powder of fumigation of the fecond
ftrength.
Odoriferous powder."] Take the root called kalmus
cut into fmall pieces, three pounds; leaves of juni¬
per cut into fmall pieces, four pounds; frankincenfe
pounded grofsly, one pound; ftorax pounded, and
rofe-flowers, half a pound ; yellow amber pounded,
one pound ; common faltpetre pounded, one pound
and a half; fulphur, a quarter of a pound : mix all
the above together, which will produce nine pounds
and three quarters of the odoriferous powder.
Remark on the pcrxder of fu?nigation.~] If guaiacum
cannot be had, the cones of pines or firs maybe ufed
in its dead ; likewife the common tar of pines and firs
may be ufed inftead of the Smyrna tar or myrrh,
and mugwort may fupply the place of fouthernwood.
PLAIN, or Plane, in general, an appellation given
to whatever is fmooth and even, or Ample, obvious,
and eafy to be underftood ; and, confequently, ftands
oppofed to rough, enriched, or laboured.
A plain figure, in geometry, is an uniform furface;
from every point of whofe perimeter right lines may
be drawn to every other point in the fame.
A plain angle is one contained under two lines, or
furfaces, in contradiftin&ion to a folid angle. See
Angle.
The do&rine of plain triangles, as thofe included
under three right lines, is termed plain trigonometry.
See the article Trigonometry.
Plain Chart. See the article Chart.
Plain-
P L A [ 6201 ] P L A
^ Plain Plain- Sailing. See Navigation, § 1.
I|| PLAISE, the EngliHi name of a fpeciea ofpleuro-
‘1 dae' nefles. See Pleuronectes.
PLAN, in genera], denotes the reprefentation of
fomething drawn on a plane: fuch are maps, charts,
inchnographies, &c. See Map, Chart, &c.
The term plan, however, is particularly ufed for a
draught of a building, fuch as it appears, or is intend¬
ed to appear, on the ground ; (hewing the extent, di-
vifion, and diftribution of its area, or ground-plot,
into apartments, rooms, paflages, &c.
A geometrical plan is that wherein the folid and
vacant parts are reprefented in their natural propor¬
tions.
The raifed plan of a building, is the fame with what
is otherwife called an elevation, or orthography. See
Orthography.
A perfpedtive plan, is that exhibited by degrada¬
tions, or diminutions, according to the rules of per-
fpective. See Perspective.
To render plans intelligible, it is ufual to diftinguilh
the maflives, with a black wafli; the projeftures on
the ground are drawn in full lines, and thofe fuppo-
fed over them in doited lines. The augmentations,
or alterations to be made, are diftinguilhed by a colour
different from what is already built; and the tints of
each plan made lighter, as the ftories are raifed.
In large buildings, it is ufual to have three feveral
plans, for the three firft ftories.
PLANE, in geometry, denotes a plain furface, or
one that lies evenly between its bounding lines : and
as a right line is the fhorteft extenfion from one point
to another, fo a plane furface is the fhorteft extenfion
from one line to another.
In aftronomy, conics, &c. the term plane is fre¬
quently ufed for an imaginary furface, fuppofed to cut
and pafs through folid bodies ; and on this foundation
is the whole do&rine of conic fe&ions built. See A-
stronomy, Conic Sections, &c.
In mechanics, planes are either horizontal, that is,
parallel to the horizon, or inclined thereto. See
Mechanics.
The determining how far any given plane deviates
from an horizontal line, makes the whole bufinefs of
levelling. See the article Levelling.
In optics, the planes of refleftion and refraftion, are
thofe drawn through the incident and refle&ed or re¬
fracted rays. See Optics.
In perfpe&ive, we meet with the perfpedlive plane,
which is fuppofed to be pellucid, and perpendicular to
the horizon ; the horizontal plane, fuppofed to pafs
through the fpeftator’s eye, parallel to the horizon ;
the geometrical plane, likewife parallel to the horizon,
wherein the objedt to be reprefented is fuppofed to be
placed, &c. See Perspective.
The plane of projection in the ftereographic pro-
jedtion of the fphere, is that on which the projection
is made, correfponding to the perfpedtive plane. See
Project ion.
Plane, in joinery, an edged tool or inftrument for
parting and (having o’f wood fmooth.—It confifts of
a piece of wood very fmooth at bottom, as a flock or
fhaft ; in the midft of which is an aperture, through
■which a fleel edge, or chiffel, placed obliquely, paffes;
Vol. VIII. 1
which, being very (harp, takes off the inequalities of Plane
the wood along which it Aides. U
Plane-Tree, in botany. See Platanus. rium'.1
PLANET, a celeftial body, revolving round the__ ^
fun as a centre, and continually changing its pofi-
tion with refpedt to the fixed ftars; whence the
name planet, which is a Greek word, fignifying “ wan¬
derer.”
The planets are ufually diftinguifhed into primary,
and fecondary. The primary ones, called by way of
eminence planets, are thofe which revolve round the
fun as a centre; and the fecondary planets, more
ufually called fatellites, or moons, are thofe which re¬
volve round a primary planet as a centre, and conftant-
ly attend it in its revolution round the fun.
The primary planets, are again diftinguiftied into
fuperior and inferior. The fuperior planets, are thofe
further from the fun than our earth ; as Mars, Jupi¬
ter, and Saturn : and the inferior planets, are thofe
nearer the fun than our earth, as Venus and Mercury.
See Astronomy.
That the planets are opake bodies, like our earth,
is thought probable^for the following reafons. 1. Since
in Venus, Mercury, and Mars, only that part of the
diik illuminated by the fun, is found to fhine; and
again, Venus and Mercury, when between the earth
and the fun, appear like dark fpots or maculae on the
fun’s difk ; it is evident, that Mars, Venus, and Mer¬
cury, are opake bodies, illuminated with the borrowed
light of the fun. And the fame appears of Jupiter,
from its being void of light in that part to which the
Aiadowof the fatellites reaches, as well as in that part
turned from the fun ; and that his fatellites are opake,
and refled the fun’s light, is abundantly fhown. Where¬
fore, fince Saturn, with his ring and fatellites, only
yield a faint light, fainter confiderably than that of the
fixed ftars, tho’ thefe be vaftly more remote ; and than
that of the reft of the planets; it is paft doubt, that
he too, with his attendants, are opake bodies. 2. Since
the fun’s light is not tranfmitted through Mercury
and Venus, when placed againft him, it is plain they
are denfe opake bodies ; which is likewife evident of
Jupiter, from his hiding the fatellites in his fhadow;
and therefore, by analogy, the fame may be concluded
of Saturn. 3. From the variable fpots of Venus,
Mars, and Jupiter, it is evident thefe planets have a
changeable atmofphere ; which changeable atmofphere
may, by a like argument, be inferred of the fatellites
of Jupiter; and therefore, by fimilitude, the fame may
be concluded of the other planets. 4. In like man¬
ner, from the mountains obferved in Venus, the
fame may be fuppofed in the other planets. 5. Since
then, Saturn, Jupiter, both their fatellites, Mars,
Venus, and Mercury, are opake bodies, Alining
with the fun’s borrowed light, are furnifhed with
mountains, and encompaffed with a changeable at¬
mofphere; they have, of confequence, waters, feas,
&c. as well as dry land, and are bodies like the
moon, and therefore like the earth. E. D.
And hence, it feems alfo highly probable, that the
other planets have their animal inhabitants, as well as
our earth.
PLANETARIUM, an aftronomical machine, fo
called from its reprefenting the motions, orbits, &c.
34 Y of
P L A
Planetary of the planets, agreeable to the Copernican fyftem. See
pH Astronomy, n° 317. and Plate LI.
an ' PLANETARY, fomething that relates to the pla¬
nets. Heneewefay, planetary worlds, planetary in¬
habitants, &c. Huygens and Fontenelle bring feveral
probable arguments for the reality of planetary ani¬
mals, plants, men, &c. See Planet.
Planetary Syjlem, is the fyftem or aflemblage of
the planets, primary and fecondary, moving in their
refpe&ive orbits, round their common centre the
fun. See Astronomy.
Planetary Days.—Among the ancients, the week
was fhared among the feven planets, each planet having
its day. This we learn from Dion Caffius and Plu¬
tarch, Sympof. 1. 4. q. 7. Herodotus adds, that it was
the Egyptians who firft difcovered what god, that is,
what planet, prefides over each day ; for that among
this people the planets were dire&ors. And hence it
is, that in moft European languages, the days of the
week are ftill denominated from the planets; Sunday,
Monday, &c. See Week.
Planetary Tears, the periods of time where the
feveral planets make their revolutions round the fun, or
earth—As from the proper revolution of the fun, the
folar year takes its original ; fo from the proper revo¬
lutions of the reft of the planets about the earth, fo
many forts of years do arife, viz. the Saturnian year,
which is defined by 29 Egyptian years, 174 hours, 58
minutes, equivalent in a round number to 30 folar
years.—The Jovial year, containing 317 days, 14
hours, 59 minutes.—The Martial year, containing 321
days, 23 hours, 31 minutes.—For Venus and Mer¬
cury, as their years, when judged of with regard to
the earth, are alsnoft equal to the folar year ; they are
more ufually eftimated from the fun, the true centre
of their motions: in which cafe, the former is equal to
224 days, 16 hours, 40 minutes; the latter to 87
days, 23 hours, 14 minutes.
PLANIMETRY, that part of geometry which
confiders lines and plain figures, without confidering
their height or depth. See Geometry.
PLANISPHERE, fignifies a proje&ion of the
fphere, and its various circles on a plane ; in which
fenfe, maps, whereon are exhibited the meridians, and
other circles of the fphere, are planifpheres. See Map.
PLANT, is defined to be an organical body, defti-
tute of fenfe and fpontaneous motion, adhering to an¬
other body in fuch a manner as to draw from it its
nourilhment, and having a power of propagating itfelf
by feeds.
The vegetation and ceconomy of plants is one of
thofe fubjedls in which our knowledge is extremely cir-
cumfcribed. A total inattention to the ftrufture and
ceconomy of plants is the chief reafon of the fmall pro-
grefs -hat has been made in the principles of vegeta¬
tion, and of the inftability and flu&uation of our theo¬
ries concerning it ; for which reafon we (hall give a
(hort defcription of the ftru&ure of plants, beginning
with the feed, and tracing its progrefs and evolution to
a (late of maturity.
1. Of Seeds.~^ The feeds of plants are of various
figures and fizes. Moft of them are divided into two
lobes; though fome, as thofe of the crefs-kind, have
fix; and others, as the grains of -corn, are not divided,
- but entire.
6202 ] P L A
Bur, as the effential properties of all feeds are the
fame, when confidered with regard to the principles of ~
vegetation, our particular defcriptions (hall be limited
to one feed, viz. the great garden-bean. Neither is
the choice of this feed altogether arbitrary; for, after
it begins to vegetate, its parts are more confpicuous
than many others, and confequently better calculated
for inveftigation.
This feed is covered with two coats or membranes.
The outer coat is extremely thin, and full of pores ;
but may be eafily feparated from the inner one (which,
is much thicker), after the bean has been boiled, or
lain a few days in the foil. At the thick end of the
bean, there is a fmall hole vifible to the naked eye, im¬
mediately over the radicle or future root, that it may
have a free paffage into the foil; fig. 1. A. When
thefe coats are taken off, the body of the feed appears,
which is divided into two fmooth portions or lobes.
The fmoothnefs of the lobes is owing to a thin film or
cuticle with which they are covered.
At the bafis of the bean is placed the radicle or fu¬
ture root, fig. 3. A. The trunk of the radicle, juft
as it enters into the body of the feed, divides into two
capital branches, one of which is inferted into each
lobe, and fends off fmaller ones in all direftions thro’
the whole fubftance of the lobes; fig. 7. AA. Thefe
ramifications become fo extremely minute towards the
edges of the lobes, that they require the fined glades
to render them vifible. To thefe ramifications Grew
and Malpighius have given the name of ferninal root;
becaufe, by means of it, the radicle and plume, be¬
fore they are expanded, derive their principal nourifti-
ment.
The plume, bud, or germ, fig. 3. is inclofed in two
fmall correfponding cavities in each lobe. Its co¬
lour and confiftence is much the fame with thofe of
the radicle, of which it is only a continuation; but ha¬
ving a quite contrary dire&ion: for the radicle de-
feends into the earth, and divides into a great number
of fmaller branches or filaments ; but the plume af-
cends into the open air, and unfolds itfelf into all the
beautiful variety of ftem, branches, leaves, flowers,
fruit, &c. The plume in corn (hoots from the fmaller
end of the grain, and, among maltfters, goes by the
name of acrofpire.
The next thing to be taken notice of is the fub¬
ftance, or parenchymatous part, of the lobes. This is
not a mere concreted juice, but is curioufly organifed,
and confifts of a vaft number of fmall bladders refem-
bling thofe in the pith of trees; fig. 4.
Befides the coats, cuticle, and parenchymatous parts,
there is a fubftance perfeftly diftinA from thefe, di-
ftributed in different proportions through the radicle,
plume, and lobes. This inner fubftance appears very
plainly in a tranfverfe fe&ion of the radicle or plume.
Towards the extremity of the radicle, it is one entire
trunk; but higher up, it divides into three branches;
the middle one runs dire&ly up to the plume, and the
other two pafs into the lobes on each fide, and fpread
out into a great variety of fmall branches through the
whole body of the lobes, fig. 7. .This fubftance is very
properly termed the feminal root: for when the feed is
fown, the moifture is firft abforbed by the outer coats,
which are every where furniftied with fap and air-vef-
fels; from thefe it is conveyed to the cuticle; from the
cuticle
P L A [ 6203 ] P L A
Plant, cuticle it proceeds to the pulpy part of the lobes; when
it has got thus far, it is taken up by the mouths of
the fmall branches of the feminal root, and paffes from
one branch into another, till it is all collefted into the
main trunk, which communicates both with the plume
and radicle, the two principal involved organs of the
future plant. After this the fap, or vegetable food,
runs in two oppofitedireftions: part of it afcends into
the plume, and promotes the growth and expanfion of
that organ; and part of it defcends into the radicle, for
notirifhing and evolving the root and its various fila¬
ments. Thus the plume and racicle continue their pro-
grefs in oppofite diredtions, till the plant arrives at ma¬
turity.
It is here worth remarking, that every plant is
really poffefled of two roots, both of which are con¬
tained in the feed. The plume and radicle, when the
feed is firft depofited in the earth, derive their nourifh-
ment from the.feminal root: but, afterwards, when
the radicle begins to fhoot out its filaments, and to ab-
forb fome moilture, not, however, in a fufficient quan?
tity to fupply the exigencies of the plume, the two
lobes, or main body of the feed, rife along with the
plume, affume the appearance of two leaves, refembling
the lobes of the feed in fize and (hape, but having no
refemblance to thofe of the plume, for which reafon
they have got the name of dijtmtlar leaves.
Thefe difiimilar leaves defend the young plume
from the injuries of the weather; and at the fame time,
by abforbing dew, air, &c. affift the tender radicle in
nouriihing the plume, with which they have ftill a con¬
nexion by means of the feminal root above deferibed.
But, when the radicle or fecond root has defeended
deep enough into the earth, and has acquired a fuffi¬
cient number of filaments or branches for abforbing as
much aliment as is proper for the growth of the plume;
then the feminal or diffimilar leaves, their utility be¬
ing entirely fiiperfeded, begin to decay and fall off.
Plate Fig. 1. A, the foramen or hole in the bean through
CCXXXIX which the radicle fhoots into the foil.
Fig. 2. A tranverfe feXion of the bean; the dotes
being the branches of the feminal root.
Fig. 3. A, the radicle. B, the plume or bud.
Fig. 4. A, a longitudinal feXion of one of the lobes
of the bean a little magnified, to fhow the fmall blad¬
ders of which the pulpy or parenchymatous part is
compofed.
Fig. 5, 6. A, a tranfverfe feXion of the radicle.
B, a tranfverfe feXion of the plume, fhowing the or¬
gans or veffels of the feminal root.
Fig. 7. A view of the feminal root branched out
upon the lobes.
Fig. 8. The appearance of the radicle, plume, and
feminal root, when a little further advanced in growth.
Having thus briefly deferibed the feed, and traced
its evolution into three principal organic parts, viz.
the plume, radicle, and feminal leaves, we {hall next
take an anatomical view of the root, trunk, leaves, &c.
2. Of theRoot.~\ In examining the root of plants,
the firit thing that prefents itfelf is the {kin, which is
of various colours in different plants. Every root, after
it has arrived at a certain age, has a double flein. The
firll is coeval with the other parts, and exifts in the
feed : but afterwards there is a ring fent off from the
bark, and forms a fecond Ikin; e.g. in the root of the
dandelion, towards the end of May, the original or Plant,
outer fkin appears (hriveled, and is eafily feparated
from the new one, which is freffier, and adheres more
firmly to the bark. Perennial plants are fupplied in
this manner with a new {kin every year; the outer one
always falls off in the autumn and winter, and a new
one is formed from the bark in the fucceeding fpring.
The lkin has numerous cells or veffels, and is a conti¬
nuation of the parenchymatous part of the radicle.
However, it does notconfift folely of parenchyma; for
the microfcope {hews that there are many tubular lig¬
neous veffels interfperfed through it.
When the lkin is removed, the true cortical fub-
flance or bark appears, which is alfo a continuation of
the parenchymatous part of the radicle, but greatly
augmented. The bark is of very different fizes. In
moil trees, it is exceeding thin in proportion to the
wood and pith. On the other hand, in carrots, it is
almoft One half of the femidiameter of the root; and,
in dandelion, it is nearly twice as thick as the woody
part.
The Bark is compofed of two fubftances; the pa¬
renchyma, or pulp, which is the principal part; and
a few woody fibres. The parenchyma is exceeding¬
ly porous, and has a great refemblance to a fpunge ;
for it ffirivels confiderably when dried, and dilates to
its former dimenfions when infufed in water. Thefe
pores or veffels are not pervious fo as to communicate
with each other; but confift of diflinX little cells or
bladders, fcarcely vifible without the affillance of the
microfcope. In all roots, thefe cells are conftantly
filled with a thin watery liquor. They are generally
of a fpherical figure; though in fome roots, as the bu-
glofs and dandelion, they are oblong. In many roots,
as the horfe-radilh, peony, afparagus, potatoe, See.
the parenchyma is of one uniform liruXure. But in
others it is more diverfified, and puts on the {hape of
rays running from the centre towards the circumfe¬
rence of the bark. Thefe rays fometimes run quite
through the bark, as in lovage; and fometimes advance
towards the middle of it, as in melilot and moft of the
leguminous and umbelliferous plants. Thefe rays ge¬
nerally {land at an equal diftance from each other in
the fame plant; but the diftance varies greatly in dif¬
ferent plants. Neither are they of equal fizes: in car¬
rot they are exceedingly fmall, and fcarcely difeern-
ible; in melilot and chervil, they are thicker. They
are likewife more numerous in fome plants than in
others. Sometimes they are of the fame thicknefs
from one edge of the bark to the other ; and fome
grow wider as they approach towards the flan. The
veffels with which thefe rays are amply furnilhed, are
fuppofed to be air-veffels, becaufe they are always found
to be dry, and not fo tranfparent as the veffels which
evidently contain the fap.
In all roots, there are ligneous veffels difperfed in
different proportions through the parenchyma of the
bark. Thefe ligneous veffels run longitudinally through
the bark in the form of fmall threads, which are tu¬
bular, as is evident from the rifing of the fap in them
when a root is cut tranfverfely. Thefe ligneous fap-
veffels do not run in direX lines through the bark, but,
at fmall diftances, incline towards one another in fuch
a manner, that they appear to the naked eye to be in-
ofculated ; but the microfcope difeovers them to be
34 Y 2 only
P L A [ 6204 ] P L A
Plant, only contiguous, and braced together by the parenchy-
ma. Thefe braces or coarftations are very various
both in fize and number in different roots; but in all
plants they are moft numerous towards the inner edge
of the bark. Neither are thefe veffels Angle tubes ; but,
like the nerves in animals, are bundles of 20 or 30
fmall contiguous cylindrical tubes, which uniformly
run from the extremity of the root, without fending off
any branches, or fuffering any change in their fize or
fhape.
In fame roots, as parfnip, efpecially in the ring
next the inner extremity of the bark, thefe veffels con¬
tain a kind of lymph, which is fweeter than the fap
contained in the bladders of the parenchyma. From
this circumftance they have got the name of lymph-
duttu
Thefe lymph-dufts fometimes yield a mucilagi¬
nous lymph, as in the comphrey ; and fometimes a
white milky glutinous lymph, as in the angelica, fon-
chus, burdock, fcorzonera, dandelion, &c. The lymph-
duds are fuppofed to be the veffels from which the
gums and balfams are fecerned. The lymph of fennel,
when expofed to the air, turns into a clear tranfparent
balfam ; and that of the fcorzonera, dandelion, &c.
condenfes into a gum.
The fituation of the veffels is various. In fome
plants, they ftand in a ring or circle at the inner edge
of the bark, as in afpafagus; in others, they appear in
lines, or rays, as in borage; in the parfnip, and feve-
ral other plants, they are moft confpicuous toward the
outer edge of the bark; and in the dandelion, they are
difpofed in the form of concentric circles.
The Wood of roots is that part which appears
after the bark is taken off, and is firmer and lefs
porous than the bark or pith. It confifts of two di-
itind fubftances, viz. the pulpy or parenchymatous,
and the ligneous. The wood is conneded to the bark
by large portions of the bark inferted into it. Thefe
infertions are moftly in the form of rays, tending to
the centre of the pith, which are eafily difcernible by
the eye in a tranfverfe fedion of moft roots. Thefe
infertions, like the bark, confift of many veffels, moftly
of a round or oval figure.
The ligneous veffels are generally difpofed in col¬
lateral rows running longitudinally through the root.
Some of thefe contain air, and others fap. The air-
vejfels are fo called, becaufe they contain no liquor.
Thefe air-veffels are diftinguiihed by being whiter than
the others.
The Pith is the centrical part of the root. Some
roots have no pith, as the ftramonium, nicotiana,
&c.; others have little or none at the extremities of the
roots, but have a confiderable quantity of it near the
top. The pith, like every other part of a plant, is
derived from the feed: but in fome it is more immedi¬
ately derived from the bark. For the infertions of the
bark running in betwixt the rays of the wood, meet
in the centre, and conftitute the pith- It is owing to
this circumftance, that, among roots which have no
pith in their lower parts, they are amply provided with
it towards the top, as in columbine, lovage, &c.
The bladders of the pith are of very different
fixes, and generally of a circular figure. Their pofition
is more uniform than in the bark. Their fides are not
mere films, but a compofition of fmall fibres or threads;
which gives the pith, when viewed with a microfcope, Plant.’ ^
the appearance of a piece of fine gauze or net-work. ' “4
We ihall conclude the defcription of roots, with
obferving, that their whole fubftance is nothing but a
congeries of tubes and fibres, adapted by nature for-the
abforption of nourilhment, and of courfe the extenfion
and augmentation of their parts. p]ate
Fig. 9. A tranfverfe fe£tion of the root of worm- CCXXXIX;
wood, as it appears to the naked eye.
Fig. 10. A fe&ion of fig. 9. magnified. AA, the
ikin, with its veffels. BBBB, the bark. The round
boles CCC, &c. are the lymph-du&s of the back : All
the other holes are little cells and fap veffels. DDD,
parenchymatous infertions from the bark, with the
cells, &c. EEEE, the rays of the wood, in which
the holes are the air-veffels. N. B. This root has no
pith.
3. Of the Trunk, Stalk, or Stem.'] In defcribing
the trunks of plants, it is neceffary to premife, that
whatever is faid with regard to them, applies equally
to the branches.
The trunk, like the root, confifts of three parts,
viz. the bark, wood, and pith. Thefe parts, though
fubftantially the fame in the trunk as in the root, are
in many cafes very different in their texture and ap¬
pearance.
The (kin of the Bark is compofed of very mi¬
nute bladders, interfperfed with longitudinal woody
fibres, as in the nettle, thiftle, and moft herbs. The
outfide of the (kin is vifibly porous in fome plants, par¬
ticularly the cane.
The principal body of the bark is compofed of
pulp or parenchyma, and innumerable veffels much
larger than thofe of the (kin. The texture of the pulpy
part, though the fame fubftance with the parenchyma
in roots, yet feldom appears in the form of rays run¬
ning towards the pith; and when thefe rays do appear,
they do not extend above half way to the circumfe¬
rence. The veffels of the bark are very differently fi-
tuated, and deftined for various purpofes in different
plants. For example, in the bark of the pine, the in-
moft are lymph du6fs,and exceedingly fmall; theout-
moft are gum or refiniferous veffels, deftined for the
fecretion of turpentine; and are fo large, as to be di-
ftinftly vifible to the naked eye.
The Wood lies between the bark and pith, and
confifts of two parts, viz. a parenchymatous, and lig¬
neous. In all trees, the parenchymatous part of the
wood, though much diverfified as to fize and confift-
ence, is uniformly difpofed in diametrical rays, or in¬
fertions running betwixt fimilar rays of the ligneous
part.
The true wood is nothing but a congeries of old
dried lymph-dufts. Between the bark add the wood
a new ring of thefe du&s is formed every year, which
gradually loofes its foftnefs as the cold feafon ap¬
proaches, and, towards the middle of winter, is con-
denfed into a folid ring of wood. Thefe annual rings,
which are diftinftly vifible in moft trees when cut thro’,
ferve as natural marks to diftinguifti their age, (fig. 1, 1
2.) The rings of one year are fometimes larger, fome¬
times lefs, than thofe of another, probably owing to
the favourablenefs or unfavourablenefs of the feafon.
The Pith, though of a different texture, is ex-
adlly of the fame fubftance with the parenchyma of
the
I’lafc C( '.XXXIX
I
P L A
P L A [ 6205 ]
Plant, the bark, anrl the infertions of the wood. The quan-
  tity of phh is various in different plants. Inftead of
being increafed every year like the wood, it is an¬
nually diminiihed, its veflels drying up, and afiuming
the appearance and ftrufture of wood ; infomuch, that
in old trees there is fcarce fuch a thing as pith to be
difcerned.
A ring of fap-veffels are ufually placed at the
outer edge of the pith, next the wood. In the pine,
fig, and walnut, they are very large. The parenchy¬
ma of the pith is compofed of fmall cells or bladders,
of the fame kind with thofe of the bark, only of a
larger fize. The general figure of thefe bladders is
circular ; though in fome plants, as the thiftle and
borage, they are angular. Though the pith is ori¬
ginally one conne&ed chain of bladders; yet as the
plant grows old, they fhrivel, and open in different di-
reftions. In the walnut, after a certain age, it appears
in the form of a regular tranfverfe hollow divifion. In
fome plants, it is altogether wanting ; in others, as the
fonchus, nettle, &c. there is only a tranfverfe partition
of it at every joint. Many other varieties might be
mentioned ; but thefe muft be left to the obfervation
of the reader.
Plate Fig. t. A tranfverfe feilion of a branch of afh, as
CCXL. it appears to the eye.
Fig. 2. The fame feftion magnified. A A, the
bark. B B B, an arched ring of fap-veffels next the
fliin. CCC, the parenchyma of the bark with its cells,
and another arched ring of fap-veffels. DD, a circu¬
lar line of lymph-du&s immediately below the above
arched ring. EE, the wood. F, the firft year’s
growth. G, the fecond. H, the third year’s growth.
Ill, the true wood. K K, The great air-veffels.
L L, the leffer ones. M M M, the parenchymatous
infertions of the bark reprefented by the white rays.
NO, the pith, with its bladders or cells.
4. Of the Leaves.~\ The leaves of plants confift of
the fame fubftance with that of the trunk. They are
full of nerves, or woody portions, running in all di¬
rections, and branching out into innumerable fmall
threads, interwoven with the parenchyma like fine lace
or gauze.
The Ikin of the leaf, like that of an animal, is
full of pores, which both ferve for perfpiration, and
for the abforption of dews, air, &c. Thefe pores, or
orifices, differ both in fhape and magnitude in diffe¬
rent plants, which is the caufe of that variety of tex^-
ture or grain peculiar to every plant.
The pulpy or parenchymatous part confifts of very
minute fibres, wound up into fmall cells or bladders.
Thefe cells are of various fizes in the fame leaf.
All leaves, of whatever figure, have a margi¬
nal fibre, by which all the reft are bounded. The
particular fhape of this fibre determines the figure of
the leaf.
The veffels of leaves have the appearance of in-
ofculating ; but, when examined by the microfcope,
they are found only to be interwoven, or laid along
each other.
What are called air-vejfels, or thofe which carry
no fap, are vifible even to the naked eye in fome
leaves. When a leaf is flowly broke, they appear like
fmall woolly fibres, connected to both ends of the. bro¬
ken piece. Plant.
Fig. 1. The appearance of the air-veffels to the eye, ~~
in a vine-leaf drawn gently afunder. Plate
Fig. 2. A fmall piece cut off that leaf. CCXLI.
Fig. 3. The fame piece magnified, in which the
veffels have the appearance of a fcrew.
Fig. 4. The appearance of thefe vefiels as they exift
in the leaf before_they are ftretched out.
5. Of the Flo’wer.'] It is needlefs here to mention
any thing of the texture, or of the veffels, &c. of
flowers, as they are pretty fimilar to thofe of the leaf.
It would be foreign to our prefent purpofe, to take any
notice of the characters and diftinCtions of flowers.
Thefe belong to the fcience of Botany, to which the
reader is referred.
There is one curious faCt, however, which muft
not be omitted, viz. That every flower is perfectly
formed in its parts many months before it appears out¬
wardly ; that is, the flowers which appear this year,
are not, properly fpeaking, the flowers of this year,
but of the laft. For example, mezereon generally
flowers in January ; but thefe flowers were completely
formed in the month of Auguft preceding. Of this faft
any one may fatisfy himfelf by feparating the coats of
a tulip-root about the beginning of September ; and
he will find that the two innermoft form a kind of cell,
in the centre of which (lands the young flower, which
is not to make its appearance till the following April
or May. Fig. 5. exhibits a view of the tulip-root
when difleded in September, with the young flower
towards the bottom.
6. Of the Fruit.’] In defcribing the ftrufture of
fruits, a few examples (hall be taken from fuch as are
moft generally known.
A pear, befides the (kin, which is a production of
the (kin of the bark, confifts of a double parenchyma .
or pulp, fap, and air-veflels, calculary, and acetary.
The outer parenchyma is the fame fubftance con¬
tinued from the bark, only its bladders are larger and
more fucculent.
It is every where interfperfed with fmall globules
or grains, and the bladders refped thefe grains as
a kind of centres, every grain being the centre of
a number of bladders. The fap and air-veflels in this
pulp are extremely fmall.
Next the core is the inner pulp or parenchyma,,
which confifts of bladders of the fame kind with the
outer, only larger and more oblong, correfponding to
thofe of the pulp, from which it feems to be derived..
This inner pulp is much fourer than the other, and has
none of the fmall grains interfperfed thro’ it; and hence
it has got the name of acetary.-
Between the acetary and outer pulp, the glo¬
bules or grains begin to grow larger, and gradually
unite into a hard ftony body, efpecially towards the
corculum, or ftool of the fruit; and from this circum-
ftance it has been called the calculary.
Thefe grains are not derived from any of the or-
ganical parts of the tree ; but feem rather to be a
kind of concretions precipitated from the fap, fimilar
to the precipitations from wine, urine, and other li¬
quors.
The core is a roundifti cavity in the centre of
the pear, lined with a hard woody membrane, in
which;
P L A [ 6206 1 P L A
Plant, which the feed is inclofed. At the bottom of the
~core there is a fmall du& or canal, which runs up to
the top of the pear ; this canal allows the air to get
into the core, for the purpofe of drying and ripening
the feeds.
Plate Fig. x. A tranfverfe fe&ion of a pear, as it appears
CCXLN. to tjie naked eye. A, the {kin, and a ring of fap-vef-
fels. B, the outer parenchyma, or pulp, with its vef-
fels, and ligneous fibres interfperfed. C, the inner
parenchyma, or acetary, with its vefiels, which are
larger than the outer one. D, the core and feeds.
Fig. 2. a piece out off fig. 1.
Fig. 3. is fig. 2. magnified. AAA, the fmall
grains or globules, with the veffels radiated from them.
Fig. 4. A longitudinal feftion of the pear, {hew¬
ing a different view of the fame parts with thofe of
fig. 1. A, the channel, or dudf, which runs from
the top of the pear to the bottom of the core.
In a lemont the parenchyma appears in three
different forms. The parenchyma of the rind is of a
coarfe texture, being compofed of thick fibres, woven
into large bladders. Thofe neareft the furface con¬
tain the effential oil of 'the fruit, which burfts into a
flame when the lkin is fqueezed over a candle. From
this outmoft parenchyma nine or ten infertions or la-
mellte are produced, which run between as many por¬
tions of the pulp, and unite into oqe body in the cen¬
tre of the fruit, which correfponds to the pith in
trunks or roots. At the bottom and top of the le¬
mon, this pith evidently joins with the rind, without
the intervention of any lamella. This circumftance
{hows, that the pith and bark are a&ually connefted
in the trunk and roots of plants, though it is difficult
to demonftrate the connexion, on account of theclofe-
nefs of their texture, and the minutenefs of their fibres.
Many veffels are difperfed thro’ the whole of this pa¬
renchyma ; but the largeft ones ftand on the inner
edge of the rind, and the outer edge of the pith, juft
at the two extremities of each lamella.
The fecond kind of parenchyma is placed be¬
tween the rind and the pith; is divided into diftindt
bodies by the lamella ; and each of thefe bodies forms
a large bag.
Thefe bags contain a third parenchyma, which is
a clufter of fmaller bags, diftindl and unconnedled
with each other, having a fmall ftalk by which they
are fixed to the large bag. Within each of thefc fmall
bags are many hundreds of bladders, compofed of ex¬
tremely minute fibres. Thefe bladders contain the acid
juice of the lemon.
Plate Fig. 3. A longitudinal fe&ion of a lemon. AAA,
CCXL. the rind with the veffels which contain the effential oil.
B B, the fubftance correfponding to the pith, formed
by the union of the lamellae, or infertions. C C, its
continuation and connexion with the rind, independent
of the infertions.
Fig. 4. A tranfverfe feflion of the lemon. B B B,
&c. the'nine pulpy bags, or fecond parenchyma, pla¬
ced between the rind and the pith ; and the clufter of
fmall bags, which contain the acid juice, inclofed in
the large ones. C C, the large veffels that furround
the pith. DD, two of the large bags laid open, fliow-
ijig the feeds, and their connedion with the lamellae
or membrane:! which form the large bags.
Of the Perforation of Plants, and the quantity of
moijlure daily imhihed by them.—Thefe curious parti- Plant,
culars have been determined with great accuracy by “
Dr Hales. The method he took to accomplifh his
purpofe was as follows.—In the month of July, com¬
monly the warmeft feafon of the year, he took a large
fun-flower three feet and an half high, which had been
purpofely planted in a flower-pot when young. He
covered the pot with thin milled lead, leaving only a
fmall hole to preferve a communication with the exter¬
nal air, and another by which he might occafionally
fupply the plant with water. Into the former he in-
ferted a glafs tube nine inches long, - and another ffior-
ter tube into the hole by which he poured in the wa¬
ter ; and the latter was kept clofe flopped with a
cork, except when there was occafion to ufe it. The
holes in the bottom of the pot were alfo flopped up
with corks, and all the crevices {hut with cement.—
Things being thus prepared, the pot and plant were
weighed for 15 feveral days; after which the plant was
cut off clofe to the leaden plate, and the flump well
covered with cement. By weighing, he found that
there perfpired through the unglazed porous pot two
ounces every 12 hours; which being allowed for in
the daily weighing of the plant and pot, the grea-
teft perfpiration, in a warm day, was found to be one
pound 14 ounces; the middle rate of perfpiration, one
pound four ounces: the perfpiration of a dry warm
night without any fenfible dew, was about three
ounces; but when there was any fenfible though fmall
dew, the perfpiration was nothing; and when there
was a large dew, or fome little rain in the night,
the plant and pot was increafed in weight two or three
ounces.
In order to know what quantity was perfpired from
a fquare inch of furface, our author cut off all the
leaves of the plant, and laid them in five feveral par¬
cels, according to their feveral lizes; and then mea-
fured the furface of a leaf of each parcel, by laying
over it a large lattice made with threads, in which each
of the little fquares were ^ of an inch; by numbering
of which, he had the furface of the leaves in fquare
inches ; which, multiplied by the number of leaves in
the correfponding parcels, gave the area of all the
leaves. By this method he found the furface of the
whole plant above ground to be 5616 fquare inches,
or 39 fquare feet. He dug up another fun-flower
of nearly the fame fize, which had eight main roots,
reaching 15 inches deep and fideways, from the Item.
It had befides a very thick bufh of lateral roots from
the eight main roots, extending every way in a he-
mifphere about nine inches from the Item and main •
roots. In order to eftimate the length of all the roots,
he took one of the main roots with its laterals, and
meafured and weighed them ; and then weighed the
other feven with their laterals; by which means he
found the fum of all their lengths to be 1448 feet.
Suppofing then the periphery of thefe roots at a me¬
dium to be 0.131 of an inch, then their furface will be •
2276 fquare inches, or 15.8 fquare feet; that is, equal
to 0.4 of the furface of the plant above ground. From
calculations drawn from thefe obfervations it appears,
that a fquare inch of the upper furface of this plant
perfpires part of an inch in a day and a night;
and that a fquare inch of the furface underground im¬
bibed of an inch in the fame time.
The
JtMate CCXL.
IMafe CCXLI
P L A [ 6207 ] P L A
I Plant. The quantity perfpired by different plants, however,
“ is by no means equal. A vine-leaf perfpires only-j-^.,-
of an inch in 12 hours ; a cabbage perfpires of an
inch in the fame time ; an apple-tree in 12 hours;
and a lemon in 12 hours.
Of the Circulation ofthe Sap /« Plants.—Concerning
this there have been great difputes; fome maintaining,
that the vegetable fap has a circulation analogous to
the blood of animals; while others affirm, that it only
afcends in the day-time, and defcends again in the
night. In favour of the do&rine of circulation it has
been urged, that upon making a tranfverfe incifion in¬
to the trunk of a tree, the juice which runs out, pro¬
ceeds in greater quantity from the upper than the
lower part ; and the fwelling in the upper lip is alfo
much greater than in the lower. It appears, however,
that when two fimilar incifions are made, one near the
top, and the Oliver near the root, the latter expends
much more fap than the former. Hence it is con¬
cluded, that the juice afcends by one fet of veffels, and
defcends by another. But, in order to (hew this clear,
ly, it would be neceffary, firft to prove, that there is
in plants, as in animals, fome kind of centre from
which the circulation begins, and to which it returns :
but no fuch centre has been difcovered by any natura-
lift; neither is there is the leaft provifion apparently
made by nature whereby the fap might be prevented
from defcendingin the very fame veffels thro’ which it
afcends. In the ladleal veffels of animals, which we
may fuppofe to be analogous to the roots of vegetables,
there are valves which effe&ually prevent the chyle
when once abforbed from returning into the inteftines;
but no fuch thing is obferved in the veffels of vege¬
tables ; whence it mud be very probable, that when
the propelling force ceafes, the juice defcends by the
very fame veffels through which it afeended. This
matter, however, has been cleared up almoft as well
as the nature of the fubjeft will admit of by the expe-
' 1- Vegetalk riments of Dr Hales f. Thefe experiments are fo nu-
S/anrfo, merous, that for a particular account of them we muft
l 142. re^cr t0 the work itfelf; however, his reafoning againft
' the circulation of the fap will be fufficiently intelli¬
gible without them. “ We fee, (fays he), in many
of the foregoing experiments, what quantities of moi-
fture trees daily imbibe and perfpire : now the ce¬
lerity of the fap muft be very great, if that quantity
of moifture muft, moft of it, afeend to the top of the
tree, then defeend, and afeend again, before it is car¬
ried off by perfpiration.
“ The defeft of a circulation in vegetables feems in
fome meafure to be fupplied by the much greater
quantity of liquor, which the vegetable takes in, than
the animal, whereby its motion is accelerated; for we
find the fun-flower, bulk for bulk, imbibes and per¬
fpires 17 times more frelh liquor than a man, every 24
hours.
“ Befides, Nature’s great aim in vegetables being
only that the vegetable life be carried on and main¬
tained, there was no occafion to give its fap the ra-
Jpid motion which was neceffary for the blood of ani¬
mals.
“ In animals, it is the heart which fets the blood
in motion, and makes it continually circulate ; but in
vegetables we can difeover no other caufe of the fap’s
motion, but the llrong attraftion of the capillary fap-
veffels, affifted by the bride undulations and vibrations Plant,
caufed by the fun’s warmth, whereby the fap is car-
ried up to the top of the tailed trees, and is there
perfpired off thro’ the leaves: but when the furface of
the tree is greatly diminifhed by the lofs of its leaves,
then alfo the gerfpiration and motion of the fap is
proportionably diminiflied, as is plain from many of
the foregoing experiments: fo that the afeending ve¬
locity of the fap is principally accelerated by the plen¬
tiful perfpiration of the leaves, thereby making room
for the fine capillary veffels to exert their vaftly at-
tra&ing power, which perfpiration is effe&ed by the
bride rarefying vibrations of warmth ; a power that
does not feem to be any ways well adapted to make
the fap defeend from the tops of vegetables by diffe¬
rent veffels to the root.
“ If the fap circulated, it muft needs have been
feen defeending from the upper part of large gaffies
cut in branches fet in water, and with columns of wa¬
ter preffing on their bottoms in long glafs tubes. In
both which cafes, it is certain that great quantities of
water paffed through the Item, fo that it muft needs
have been feen defeending, if the return of the fap
downwards were by trufion or pulfion, whereby the
blood in animals is returned through the veins to the
heart: and that pulfion, if there were any, muft ne-
ceffarily be exerted with prodigious force, to be able
to drive the fap through the finer capillaries. So that,
if there be a return of the fap downwards, it muft be
by attra&ion, and that a very powerful one, as we
may fee by many of thefe experiments. But it is hard
to conceive, what and where that power is, which can
be equivalent to that provifion nature has made for the
afeent of the fap in confequence of the great perfpira¬
tion of the leaves.
“ The inftances of the jeffamine-tree, and of the
paffion tree, have been looked upon as ftrong proofs
of the circulation of the fap, becaufe their branches,
which were far below the inoculated bud, were gild¬
ed : but we have many vifible proofs in the vine, and
other bleeding trees, of the fap’s receding back, and
puffing forwards alternately, at different times of the
day and night. And there is great reafon to think,
that the fap of all other trees has fuch an alternate, re¬
ceding, and progreffive motion, occafioned by the al-
ternacies of day and night, warm and cool, moift and
dry.
“ For the fap in all vegetables does probably recede
in fome meafure from the tops of the branches, as the
fun leaves them ; becaufe its rarefying power then
ceafing, the greatly rarefied fap, and air mixed with it,
will condenfe, and take up lefs room than they did, and
the dew and rain will then be ftrongly imbibed by the
leaves; whereby the body and branches of the vege¬
table which have been much exhaufted by the great
evaporation of the day, may at night imbibe fap and
dew from the leaves; for by feveral experiments, plants
were found to increafe confiderably in weight, in
dewy and moift nights. And by other experiments
on the vine, it was found, that the trunk and branches
of vines were always in an imbibing ftate, caufed by
the great perfpiration of the leaves, except in the
bleeding feafon ; but when at night that perfpiring
power ceafes, then the contrary imbibing power will
prevail, and draw the fap and dew from the leaves, as
P L A [ 6208 ] P L A
Plant, well as moifture from the roots.
“ And we have a farther proof of this by fixing mer¬
curial gages to the Hems of feveral trees which do
not bleed, whereby it is found that they are always
in a ftrongly imbibing date, by drawing up the mer¬
cury feveral inches : whence it is eafy to conceive,
how fome of the particles of the gilded bud in the ino¬
culated jeflamine may be abforbed by it, and thereby
communicate their gilding miafma to the fap of other
branches; efpecially when, fome months after the
inoculation, the dock of the inoculated jeflamine is
cut off a little above the bud; whereby the flock,
which was the countera&ing part to the ftem, being
taken away, the ftem attracts more vigoroufly from
the bud.
“ Another argument for the circulation of the fap, is
that fome forts of the grafts will infe& and canker the
flocks they are grafted on : but by mercurial gages
fixed to fre(h-cut ftems of trees, it is evident that thofe
ftems were in a ftrongly imbibing ftate ; and confe-
quently the cankered flocks might very likely draw
fap from the graft, as well as the graft alternately
from the flock ; juft in the fame manner as leaves and
branches do from each other, in the viciflitudes of day
and night. And this imbibing power of the dock
is fo great, where only fome of the branches of a tree
are grafted, that the remaining branches of the flock
will, by their ftrong attradfion, ftarve thofe grafts ;
for which reafon it is ufual to cut off the greateft part
of the branches of the flock, leaving only a few finall
ones to draw up the fap.
“ The inftance of the ilex grafted upon the Engli/h
oak, feems to afford a very confiderable argument
againft a circulation. For, if there were a free uni¬
form circulation of the fap through the oak and ilex,
why fhould the leaves of the oak fall in winter, and
not thofe of the Ilex ?
“ Another argument againft an uniform circulation
of the fap in trees, as in animals, may be drawn from an
experiment where it was found by the three mercurial
gages fixed to the fame vine, that while fome of its
branches changed their ftate of protruding fap into
a ftate of imbibing, others continued protruding fap
one nine, and the other thirteen days longer.’1
To this reafoning of Dr Hales we ftiall fubjoin an
experiment made by Mr Muftel of the Academy of
Sciences at Rouen, which feems decifive againft the
doftrine of circulation. His account of it is as fol¬
lows.—“ On the 12th of January I placed feveral
fhrubs in pots againft the windows of my hot-houfe,
fome within the houfe, and others without it. Thro’
holes made for this purpofe in the panes of glafs, I
pafl'ed a branch of each of the ftirubs, fo that thofe on
the infide had a branch without, and thofe on the out-
fide one within ; after this, I took care that the holes
fhould be exa6iiy clofed and luted. This inverfe ex¬
periment, I thought, if followed clofely, could not
fail affording fufficient points of comparifon, to trace
out the differences, by the obfervation of the effe&s.
“ The 20th of January, a week after this difpofi-
tion, all the branches that were in the hot-houfe be¬
gan to difclofe their buds. In the beginning of Fe¬
bruary there appeared leaves; and towards the end of
it, (hoots of a confiderable length, which prefented
the young flowers.. A dwarf apple-tree, and feveral.
rofe-trees, being fubmitted to the fame experiment. Plant.
(hewed the fame appearance then as they commonly 
put on in May ; in fhort, all the branches which were
within the hot-houfe, and confequently kept in the
warm air, were green at the end of February, and had
their (hoots in great forwardnefs. Very different were
thofe parts of the fame tree which were without and
expofed to the cold. None of thefe gave the lead fign
of vegetation ; and the froft, which was intenfe at that
time, broke a rofe-pot placed on the outfide, and kill¬
ed fome of the branches of that very tree which, on
the infide, was every day putting forth more and more
fhoots, leaves, and buds, fo that it was in full vege¬
tation on one fide, whilft frozen on the other.
“ The continuance of the froft occafioned no change
in any of the internal branches. They all continu¬
ed in a very bride and verdant ftate, as if they did
not belong to the tree which, on the outfide, ap¬
peared in the ftate of the greateft fuffering. On
the 15th of March, notwithftanding the feverity of the
feafon, all was in full bloom. The apple-tree had its
root, its ftem, and part of its branches, in the hot-
houfe. Thefe branches were covered with leaves and
flowers ; but the branches of the fame tree, which were
carried on the outfide, and expofed to the cold air,
did not in the lead partake of the a&ivity of the reft,
but were abfolutely in the fame ftate which all trees
are in during winter. A rofe-tree, in the fame pofi-
tion, (bowed long (hoots with leaves and buds ; it had
even (hot a vigorous branch upon its ftalk; whilft a
branch which paffed through, to the outfide, had not
begun to produce any thing, but was in the fame
ftate with other rofe-trees left in the ground. This
branch is four lines in diameter, and 18 inches high.
“ The rofe-tree on the outfide was in the fame
ftate; but one of its branches drawn through to the
infide of the hot-houfe, was covered with leaves and
rofe-buds. It was not without aftoniftiment that I faw
this branch (hoot as brilkly as the rofe-tree which was
in the hot-houfe, whofe roots and ftalk, expofed as
they were to the warm air, ought, it (hould feem, to
have made it get forwarder than a branch belonging
to a tree, whofe roots, trunk, and all its other
branches, were at the very time froft-nipped. Not¬
withftanding this, the branch did not feem affe&ed by
the ftate of its trunk ; but the aftion of the heat upon
it produced the fame effeft, as if the whole tree had
been in the hot-houfe.
9. Of the Food of Plants.—This hath been fo fully
difeuffed under the article Agriculture f, that itfPartl.
remains here only to take notice of thofe difeoveriesfeft. 1.
which have been made fince that article was written.—
The method of making dephlogifticated air novo^
or of depriving common air of its phlogifton, is now fo
much improved, that numberlefs experiments may be
made with it both on animals and vegetables. It is
now pretty clear, that thefe two parts of the creation
are a kind of counterbalance to one another ; and the
noxious parts or excrements of the one prove falutary
food to the other. Thus, from the animal body con¬
tinually pafs off certain effluvia, which phlogifticate
the air. Nothing can be more prejudicial to animal
life than an accumulation of thefe effluvia : on the
other hand, nothing is more favourable to vegetables
than thofe excrementitious effluvia of animals; and ac¬
cordingly
r l a r 6209 ] p l a
fui| Plant, cordingly they greedily abforb them from the earth,
or from the air. With refpedl to the excrementitious
parts of living vegetables, the cafe is reverfed. The
pureft dephlogifticated air is the common effluvium
which pafles off from vegetables ; and this, however
favourable to animal life, is by no means fo to vege¬
table ; whence we have an additional proof of the
doflrine concerning the food of plants delivered under
the article Agriculture.
With regard to the effe&s of other kinds of air on
vegetation, a difference of fome confequence took
place between Dr Prieftley and Dr Percival. The
former, in the firft volume of his Experiments and
Obfervations on Air, had afferted that fixed air is fatal
to vegetable as well as to animal life. This opinion,
however, was oppofed by Dr Percivai, and thecontrary
one adopted by Dr Hunter of York in the Georgical
Effays, vol. V. The experiments related by thefe two
gentlemen would indeed have been deciiive, had they
been made with fufficient accuracy. That ibis'was
the cafe, however, Dr Ptieftley denies, and in the
third volume of his Treatife on Air has fully de¬
tected the millakes in Dr PercivaPs experiments;
which proceeded in fad from his having ufed, not
fixed air, but common air mixed with a fmall quan¬
tity of fixed air. His experiments, when repeated
with the purelt fixed air, and in the moil careful man¬
ner, were always attended with the fame effect, namely,
the killing of the plant.
It had alfo been afferted by Drs Percival and Hun¬
ter, that water impregnated with fixed air was more
favourable to vegetation than fimple water. This
-opinion was likewife examined by Dr Prieftley: how¬
ever, his experiments were indecifive ; but feem ra¬
ther unfavourable to the ufe of fixed air than other-
wife.
Another very remarkable faft with regard to the
food of plants has been difeovered by Dr Prieftley ;
namely, that fome of them, fuch as the willow, com-
frey, and duck-weed, are nourilhed by inflammable
Prieftley on air. The firft, he fays, flaurifhes in this fpecies of air
4ir, vol.v. foremarjta{5jy.j that, «< it may be faid to feed upon it
with great avidity. This procefs terminates in the
change of what remains of the inflammable air into
phlogifticated air, and fometimes into a fpecies of air
as good as common air, or even better; fo that it
mult be the inflcnnviable principle in the air that the
plant takes, converting it, no doubt, into its proper
nourifhment.”
From what has been faid under the article Phlo¬
giston, it muft appear evident, that phlogifticated
air and inflammable air are clofely allied to each other,
fo that it is no wander they fliould ferve promifeuoufly
for the food of plants. The reafon why both are not
agreeable to all kinds of plants' moft probably is the
different quantity of phlogiftic matter contained in
them, and the different aftion of the latent fire they
contain : for all plants do not require an equal quan¬
tity of nourilhment; and fuch as require but little,
will be deftroyed by having too much. The aCtion
of heat alfo is effentially neceflary to vegetation, and
it is probable that very much of this principle is ab-
; forbed from the air by vegetables. But if the air by
which plants are partly nouriftied contains too much
of that principle, it is very probable that they may be
Voi. VIII.
deftroyed from this caufe as well as the other; and Plant,
thus inflammable air, which contains a vaft quautity of
that aftive principle, may deftroy fuch plants as grow
in a dry foil, though it preferves thofe which grow in
a wet one. See Vegetation.
Diffemination c/’Plants.—So great are the prolific
powers of the vegetable kingdom, that a fingle plant
almoft of any kind, if left to itfelf would, in a fliort
time, over-run the whole world. Indeed, fuppofing
the plant to have been only a fingle annual, with two
feeds, it would, in 20 years, produce more than a
million of its own fpecies ; what numbers then muft
have been produced by a plant whofe feeds are fo
numerous as many of thofe with which we are ac¬
quainted? From a fingle root of the helenium (bafl-
ard fun-flower), Laurembergius reckons 3000 feeds;
from the zea, 2000 ; which in Virginia muft' be
doubled, becaufe the plant is there fown twice a-
year. In the helianthus (fun-flower), 4000 feeds
were obterved by Camerarius; and in a poppy, Tre-
vius numbered 3200 feeds: but of all-others the to¬
bacco feems to produce the greateft number of feeds,
40320 being counted from a fingle plant.
If nature had appointed no means for the fcattering
of thefe numerous feeds, but allowed them to fall
down in the place where they grew', the young vege¬
tables muft of neceffity have choaked one another as
they grew up, and not a fingle plant could have
arrived at perfe&ion. But fo many ways are there
appointed for the diffemination of plants, that we not
only fee they not hinder each others growth, but
a iingle plant will in a (hurt time fpread througli
different countries. The moft evident means for this
purpofe are,
1. The force of the air.—That the efficacy of this
may be the greater, nature has raifed the feeds of
vegetables upon (talks, fo that the wind has thus an
opportunity of acting upon them with the greater ad¬
vantage. The feed-capfules alfo open at the apex, left
the ripe feeds fliould drop out without being widely
difperfed by the wind. Others are furniflied with
wings, and a pappous down, by which, after they
come to maturity, they are carried up into the air,
and have been known to fly the diftance of 50 miles:
138 genera are found to have winged feeds.
2. In fome plants the feed-veffels open with violence
when the feeds are ripe, and thus throw them to a
confiderable diftance ; and we have an enumeration of
50 genera whofe feeds are thus difperfed.
3. Other feeds are furnifhed with hooks, by which,
when ripe; they adhere to the coats of animals, and
are carried by them to their lodging places. Linnaeus
reckons 50 genera armed in thus manner.
4. Many feeds are difperfed by means of birds, and
other animals; who pick up the berries, and afterwards
ejeft the feeds uninjured. Thus the fox diffeminates
the privet, and man many fpecies of fruit. The plants
found growing upon walls and houfes, on the tops of
high rocks, &c. are moftly brought there by birds ;
and it is univerfally known, that by manuring a
field with new dung, innumerable weeds will fpring
up, which did not exift there before : 193 fpecies
are reckoned up which may be diffeminated in this
manner.
5. The growth of other feeds is promoted by anf-
34 Z mala
p L A [ 6210 ] P L A
Plant., mals [n a different way. While fome are eaten, others
~ " are feattered and trodden into the ground by them'.
The fquirrel gnaws the cones of the pine, and many
of the feeds fall out. When the loxica eats off their
bark, almoll his only food, many of their feeds are
commuted to the earth, or mixed in the morafs with
mofs, where he had retired. The glandularia, when
fhe hides up her nuts, often forgets them, and they
ffrike root. The fame is obfervable of the walnut ;
mice colled and bury great quantities of them, and
being afterwards killed by different animals, the nuts
germinate.
6. We are ailonilhed to find moffes, fungi, byffus,
and mucor, growing every-where ; but it is for want
of refleding that their feeds are fo minute that they
are almoll invilible to the naked eye. They float in
the air like atoms, and are dropped every-where, but
grow only in thofe places where there was no vegeta¬
tion before, and hence we find the fame moffes in
North America and in Europe.
7. Seeds are alfo difp.erfed by the ocean, and by
Amosnii. rivers. “ In Lapland, (fays Linnaeus), we fee the
- mo[\ evident proofs how far rivers contribute to depofit
the feeds of plants. I have feen Alpine plants grow¬
ing upon their fliores frequently 36 miles diftant from
the Alps; for their feeds falling into the rivers, and
being carried along and left by the dream, take root
there.—We may gather likewife from many circum-
ftances how much the fea furthers this bufinefs.—In
Roflagia, the ifland of Graefcea, Oeland, Gothland,
and the Ihores of Scania, there are many foreign and
German plants not yet naturalized in Sweden. The
centaury is a German plant, whofe feeds being carried
by the wind into the fea, the waves landed this
foreigner upon the coails of Sweden. I was aftonilhed
to fee the veronica maritima, a German plant, grow¬
ing at Tornea, which hitherto had been found only in
Grsefcea: the fea was the vehicle by which this plant
was tranfported thither from Germany ; or poffibly it
was brought from Germany to Grasfoea, and from thence
to Tornea. Many have imagined, but erroneoufly, that
feed corrupts in water, and lofes its principle of vegeta¬
tion. Water at the bottom of the fea is feldom warm
enough to deftroy feeds; we have feen water cover
the furface of a field for a whole winter, while the
feed which it contained remained unhurt, unlefs at
the beginning of fpripg the waters were let down fo
low by drains, that the warmth of the fun-beams
reached to the bottom. Then the feeds germinate,
but prefently become putrefeent ; fo that for the reit
of the year the earth remains naked and barren.
Rain and (bowers carry feeds into the cracks of the
earth, dreams, and rivers ; which lad, conveying them
to a didance from their native places, plant them in a
foreign foil.”
8. Lallly, fome feeds aflld their proje&ion to a
didance in a very furprifing manner. The crupina,
a fpecies of centaury, has its feeds covered over with
ere& bridles, by whofe affidance it creeps and moves
about in fuch a manner, that it is by no means to be
kept in the hand. If you confine one of them between
the docking and the foot, it creeps out either at the
fleeve or neck-band, travelling over the whole body.
If the bearded oat, after harved, be left with other
grain in the barn, (it extricates itfdf. from the glume,
nor does it dop in its progrefs till it gets to the walls PhntJl
of the building. Hence, fays Linnaeus, the Dale- «
carlian, after he has cut and carried it into the barn,
in a few days finds all the glumes empty, and the
oats feparate from them ; for every oat has a fpiral
arida or beard annexed to it, which is contracted in
wet, and extended in dry weather. When the fpiral
is contra&ed, it drags the oat along with it: the
arida being bearded with minute hairs pointing down¬
ward, the grain nectffarily follows it ; but when
it expands again, the oat does not go back to its
former place, the rottghnefs of the beard the contrary
way preventing its return. If you take the feeds of
equifetum, or fern, thefe being laid upon paper, and
viewed in a microfcope, will be feen to leap over any
obfiacle as if they had feet; by which they are fepa-
rated and difperled one from another ; fo that a per-
fon ignorant of this-property, would pronounce thefe
feeds to be fo many mites or fmall infe£ts. See Na¬
tural Hijlory, Se<£l, III.
Plants growing on Animals. See Insects giving
root to Plants.
Method of Drying and Preferving Plants for Bota-
ni/ls. Many methods have been deviled for the pre-
fervation of plants; we (hall relate only thofe that have
been found mod fuccefsful.
Firll prepare a prefs, which a workman will make
by the following directions. Take two planks, of
a wood not liable to warp. The planks mult be
two inches thick, 18 inches long, and 12 inches tVitherin^
broad. Get four male and four female (crews, fuchjl
as are commonly ufed for fecuring fafh-windows.
Let the four female ferews be let into the four cor-Introd. ]
ners of one of the planks, and correfponding holesP-
made through the four corners of the other plank
for the male ferews to pafs through, fo as to allow
the two planks to be (crewed tightly together. It
will not be amifs to face the bearing of the male ferews
upon the wood with iron plates; and if the iron plates
went acrofs from corner to corner of the wood, it
would be a good fecurity againd the warping.
Secondly, get half a dozen quires of large foft fpon-
gy paper, fuch as the dationers call bloffom Hotting
paper is the bed, and a few (beets of drong padc-
board.
The plants you wi(h to preferve (hould be gathered
in a dry day, after the fun hath exhaled the dew; ta¬
king particular care to colled them in that date where¬
in their generic and fpecific characters are mod con-
fpicuous. Carry them home in a tin-box nine inches
long, four inches and a half wide, and one inch and a
half deep. Get the box made of the thinned tinned
iron that can be procured ; and let the lid open upon
hinges. If any thing happens to prevent the imme¬
diate ufe of the fpecimens you have collected, they
will be kept frefh two or three days in this box much
better than by putting them in water. When you
are going to preferve them, fuffer them to lie upon a
table until they become limber; and then they (hould
be laid upon a padeboard, as much as poflible in their
natural form, but at the fame time with a particular
view to their generic and fpecific characters. For this
purpofe it will be advifeable to feparate one of the
flowers, and to difplay the generic character. If the
fpecific character depends upon the flower or upon the
root.
P L A [ 6211 ] P L A
root, a particular difplay of that -will be likewife ne-
ceiTary. When the plant is thus difpofed upon the
patteboard, cover it with eight or ten layers of fpongy
paper, and put it into the prefs. Exert only a fmall
degree of preffure for the firft two or three days ; then
examine it, unfold any unnatural plaits, rectify any
miftakes, and, after putting frefh paper over it, fcrew
the prefs harder. In about three days more feparate
the plant from the pafteboard, if it is fufficiently firm
to allow of a change of place ; put it upon a frefh
pafteboard, and, covering it with frefh bloffom-paper,
let it remain in the prefs a few days longer. The
prefs fhould (land in the fun-fhine, or within the in¬
fluence of a fire.
When it is perfeftly dry, the ufual method is to fa¬
tten it down, with pafte or gum-water, on the right-
hand inner page of a fheet of large ftrong writing-
paper. It requires fome dexterity to glue the plant
neatly down, fo that none of the gum or pafte may
appear to defile the paper. Prefs it gently again for
a day or two, with a half fheet of bloffom-paper be¬
twixt the folds of the writing-paper. When it is quite
dry, write upon the left-hand inner page of the paper
the name of the plant ; the fpecific character; the
place where, and the time when, it was found ; and
any other remarks you may think proper. Upon the
back of the fame page, near the fold of the paper,
write the name of the plant, and then place it in your
cabinet. A fmall quantity of finely powdered arfenic,
or corrofive fublimate, is ufually mixed with the pafte
or gum-water, to prevent the devaftations of infe&s ;
but the feeds of ftaves-acre finely powdered will an-,
fwer the fame purpofe, without being liable to cor¬
rode or to change the colour of the more delicate
plants. Some people put the dried plants into the
fheets of writing-paper, without faftening them down
at all ; and others only fatten them by means of fmall
flips of paper, palled acrofs the ttem or branches.
Where the fpecies of any genus are numerous, and the
fpecimens are fmall, Several of them may be put into
one Iheet of paper.
Another more expeditious method is to take the
plants out of the prefs after the firft or fecond day ;
let them remain upon the pafteboard ; cover them with
five or fix leaves of bloflom-paper, and iron them with
a hot fmoothing-iron until they are perfeftly dry. If
the iron is too hot, it will change the colours; but
fome people, taught by long pradlice, will fucceed
very happily. This is quite the bell method to treat
the orchis and other flimy mucilaginous plants.
Another method is to take the plants when frefh
gathered, and, inftead of putting them into the prefs,
immediately to fallen them down to the paper with
ftrong gum-water : then dip a camel-hair pencil into
fpirit-varnilh, and varnilh the whole furface of the
plant two or three times over. This method fucceeds
very well with plants that are readily laid flat, and it
preferves their colours better than any other. The
fpirit varnilh is made thus. To a quart of highly rec¬
tified fpiritof wine, put five ounces of gum fandarach ;
two ounces of mallich in drops; one ounce of pale
gum elemi, and one ounce of oil of fpike-lavender.
Let it Hand in a warm place, and fhake it frequently
to expedite the folution of the gums.
Where no belter convenience can be had, the fpe¬
cimens may be difpofed fyllematically in a large folio Plant
book ; but a vegetable cabinet is upon all accounts l|
more eligible. In Plate CCXLVI. there is a fedion of planlag
a cabinet, in the true proportions it ought to be made,
for containing a complete colledion of Britilh plants.
By the affiftance of this drawing, and the adjoining
fcale, a workman will readily make one. The drawers
mull have backs and fides, but no other front than a
fmall ledge. Each drawer will be 14 inches wide,
and 10 inches from the back to the front, after allow¬
ing half an inch for the thicknefs of the two fides,
and a quarter of an inch for the thicknefs of the back.
The fides of the drawers, in the part next the front,
nuift be floped off in a Terpentine line, fomething
like what the workmen call an ogee. The bottoms of
the drawers muft be made to Hide in grooves cut in
the uprights, fo that no fpace may be loft betwixt
drawer and drawer. After allowing a quarter of an
inch for the thicknefs of the bottom of each drawer,
the clear perpendicular fpace in each muft be as in the
following table.
I. Two tenths of an inch.
11. One inch and two tenths.
III. Four inch, and fix tenths.
IV. Two inches and three
tenths.
V. Seven inches and eight
VI. Two inches and two
tenths.
VII. Two tenths of an inch,
VIII. One inch and four tenths.
IX. Two tenths of an inch.
X. Two inches and eight
tenths.
XI. One inch and two tenths.
XII. Three inches and five
tenths.
XIII. Two inches and four
tenths.
XIV. Three inches and eight
tenths.
XV. Three inches and four
tenths.
XVI. One inch and three
tenths.
XVII. Two inches and eight
XVIII. Six tenths of an inch.
XIX. Ten inches,
XX. One inch and nine
tenths.
XXI. Four inches and four
tenths.
XXII. Two inches and fix
tenths.
XXIII. One inch and two
tenths.
XXIV. Seventeen inches.
This cabinet fhuts up with two doors in front ; and
the whole may Hand upon a bafe, containing a few
drawers for the reception of duplicates and papers.
Moving Plant. See Hedysarum.
Sen/itive Plant. See Mimosa and SensitiveP/W.
Plant-Z,/ci?, Vine-fret ter5, or Pucerons. See Aphis.
PLANTA, a plant. See Plant.
Planta Fceminex, a female plant, is one which bears
female flowers only. It is oppofed to a male plant,
which bears only male flowers; and to an androgynous
one, which bears flowers ofbothfexes.—Female'plants
are produced from the fame feed with the male, and
arrange themfelves under the clafs of dicecia in the
fexual method.
PLANTAGENET, the furname of the kings of
England from Henry II. to Richard III. inclufive.
Autiquariaus are much at a lofs to account for the
origin of this name ; and the bell derivation they can
find for it is, that Fulk, the firft earl of Anjou of that
name, being (lung with remorfe for fome wicked ac¬
tion, went in pilgrimage to Jerufalem as a work of
atonement; where being foundly fcourged with broom-
twigs, which grew plentifully on the fpot, he ever af¬
ter took the furname of Plantagenet, or broomJlalk,
which was retained by his noble pofterity.
PLANPAGO, plantain ; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants.
To this genus Linnaeus has joined the coronopus
34 Z 2 and
P L A
plantago and pfyllium of Tournefort. The firft of thefe is
H called hartfnorti) the latter fleaivort. Of thefe there
anter ip. fever3i diftinft fpecies, and fomo varieties; but as
they are rarely cultivated in gardens, we fhall not
enumerate them here, and (hall only mention fuch of
them as grow naturally in Britain. Of the plantain
there are the following forts: The common broad¬
leaved plantain, called nueybread; the great hoary
plantain, or lambs-tongue; the narrow-leaved plantain,
or ribwort: and the following varieties have alfo been
found in England, which are accidental ; the befom-
plantain and role-plantain. The plantains grow na¬
turally in paftures in mod parts of England, and are
frequently very troublefome weeds. The common
plantain, and ribwort plantain, are both ufed in me¬
dicine, and are fo well known as to need no defcrip-
tion. They are faid to be flightly aftringent; and the
green leaves are commonly applied to frelh wounds by
the common people.
Of the coronopus, or buckiliorn plantain, there are
two varieties growing in England, viz. the common
bucklhorn, which grows plentifully on heaths every
where ; and the narrow-leaved Welch fort, which is
found upon many of the Welch mountains. The firft
of thefe was formerly cultivated as a falad herb in
gardens, but has been long baniihed from thence for
its rankdifagreeable flavour; it is fometimes ufed in
medicine.—There has been one fpecies of pfyllium or
fleawort found growing naturally in England, which
is the fort ufed in medicine. This was found in the
earth thrown out of the bottom of the canals which
were dug for the Chelfea water-works, where it grew
in great plenty. The feeds of this mull have been
buried there fome ages ; for no perfon remembers any
of the plants growing in that neighbourhood before.
The feeds of this are fometimes ufed, which are im¬
ported from the fouth of France.
PLANTAIN. See Plantago.
Plantain Tree. See Musa.
PLANTATION, in the Weft Indies, denotes a
fpot of ground which a planter, or perfon arrived in a
new colony, pitches on to cultivate for his own ufe,
or is afiigned for that purpofe. However, the term
plantation is often ufed in a term fynonimous with co¬
lony. See Colony.
PLANTERSHIP, in a general fenfe, the bufmefs
of a planter.
PtANTERSHip, in the Weft Indies, denotes the ma¬
nagement of a fugar plantation, including not only the
cultivation of the cane, but the various procefles for
the extraction of the fugar, together with the making
of fugar-fpirits. See Rum, Saccharum, and Sugar.
To effeci aedeiign fo comprehenfive, it is neceflary
for a planter to underftand every branch of the art
precifely, and to ufe the utmoft attention and caution
both in the laying down and executing of his plans.
It is therefore the duty of a good planter to infpeft
every part of his plantation with his own eyes; to
place his provifions, (lores, and utenfils, in regular
order, and in fafe repofitories ; that by preferring them
in perfection, all kinds of wafte may be prevented.
But as negroes, cattle, mules, and horfes, are, as
it were, the nerves of a fugar-plantation, it is expe¬
dient to treat that fubject with fome accuracy.
Of Negroes, Cattle, &c.] In the firft place, then, as it
P L A
is the intereftof every planter to preferve his negroes in PLnteifhipl
health and (Length; fo every a6l of cruelty is not lefs re- ‘ f
pugnant to the mafter’s real profit, than it is contrary to
thelawsofhumanity: and ifa manager confiders hisown
eafe, and his employer’s intereft, he will treat all negroes
under his care with due benevolence ; for good difeipline
is by no means inconfiftent with humanity : on the con¬
trary, it is evident from experience, that he who feeds
his negroes well, proportions their labour to their age,
fex, and (Length, and treats them with kindnefs and
good-nature, will reap a much larger produfl, and
with infinitely more eafe and felf-fatisfadlion, than the(
mod cruel talk-mailer, who ftarves his negroes, orPlcwt<.rjh:j>l
chaftifes them with undue feverity. Every planter then
who wilhes to grow rich with eafe, mud be a good
ceconomift ; muft feed his negroes with the mod whole- J
fome food, fufficient to preferve them in health and vi¬
gour. Common experience points out the methods by
which a planter may preferve his people in health and
(Length. Some of his mod fruitful land (hould be al¬
lotted to each negro in proportion to his family, and
a fufficient portion of time allowed for the cultivation
of it; but becaufe fuch allotment cannot in long
droughts produce enough for his comfortable fupport,
it is the incumbent duty of a good planter to have al¬
ways his (lores well filled with Guinea corn, yams, or
eddoes, befides potatoes growing in regular fucceffion :
for plenty begets cheerfulnefs of heart, as well as
(Length of body ; by which more work is effected in
a day by the fame hands, than in a week when ener¬
vated by want and feverity. Scanty meals may fuftain
life ; but it is evident, that more is requifite to enable
a negro, or any other perfon, to go through the ne¬
ceflary labours. He therefore who will reap plenti¬
fully, muft plant great abundance of provifions as well
as fugar-canes: and it is nature’s oeconomy fo to fruc¬
tify the foil by the growth of yams, plantains, and
potatoes, as to yield better harvefts of fugar, by that
very means, than can be produced by many other arts
of cultivation. Plantains are the principal fupport of
all the negroes at Jamaica ; and are alfo much culti¬
vated, at great expence of manure, in Barbadoes; but
ought not to be folely depended upon in climates fub-
jedt to hurricanes. A celebrated planter and oecona-
mift of the laft-mentioned ifland, who raifed an immenfe
fortune from very fmall beginnings only by planting, af¬
firmed, that he fed conftantly at lead 300 negroes out of
12 acres of plantains. How that excellent produce came
to be fo long negledted in fome of the iflands, is hard to
guefs ;butatprefentthenegledl feemsto be founded upon
a vulgar error, that plantains cannot thrive in any other
than low moift foils. In fuch places (no doubt) they
flouriftt mod luxuriantly; but yet they thrive and bear
fruit abundantly on mountains and in marfltes, and in
the dried black mold upon marie or rocks, and even
in (harp gravely foils, as may be evinced by number-
lefs inftances.
However plenty of wholefome food may be condu¬
cive to health, there are alfo other means, equally ne-
ceflary to (Length and the longevity of negroes, well
worth the planter’s attention : and thofe are, to choofe
airy dry fituations for their houfes; and to obferve fre¬
quently that they be kept clean, in good repair, and
perfedlly water-tight; for naftinefs, and the inclemen¬
cies of weather, generate the mod malignant difeafes.
f 6212 ]
P L A [62
'lanterfhip. If thefe houfes are fituated alfo in regular order, and
' at due diftances, the fpaces may at once prevent ge¬
neral devaluations by fire, and Furnifh plenty of fruits
and pot-herbs, to pleafe an unvitiated palate, and to
purify the blood. Thus then bught every planter to
treat his negroes with tendernefs and generofity, that
they may be induced to love and obey him out of
mere gratitude, and become real good beings by the
imitation of his behaviour ; and therefore a good
planter, for his own eafe and happinefs, will be care¬
ful of fetting a good example.
Having thus hinted the duties of a planter to his
negroes, let the next care be of cattle, mules, and
horfes. The planters of Barbadoes (who are perhaps
the mod Ikilful of all others, and exa£l to a nicety in
calculations of profit and lofs) are, with refpeft to their
cattle, the moll remifs of any in all the illands ; as if
the carriage of canes to the mill, and of plantation-
produce to the market, was not as eflential as any
other branch of planterlhip. At Barbadoes, in par¬
ticular, the care of thefe animals is of more import¬
ance ; becaufe the foil, worn out by long culture,
cannot yield any produce without plenty of dung.
Some planters are neverthelefs fo ingenioufly thrifty, as
to carry their canes upon negroes heads ; adfing in that
refpedl diametrically oppofite to their own apparent
intereft, which cannot be ferved more effeflually than
by faving the labour of human hands, in all cafes where
the labour of brutes can be fnbftituted ; and for that
end, no means of preferving thofe creatures in health
and flrength ought to be negledled.
The firft care therefore is to provide plenty and va¬
riety of food. In crop-time, profufion of cane-tops
may be had for the labour of carriage ; but they will
be more wholefome and nutritious if tedded like hay
by the fun’s heat, and fweated by laying them in
heaps a few days before they are eaten. In this fea-
fon of abundance, great ricks of cane-tops (the butt
ends turned inwards) fhould be made in the moll con¬
venient coiner of each field, to fupply the want of
pallurage and other food : and thefe are very whole¬
fome if chopped into fmall parts, and mixed fometimes
with common fait, or fprinkled with melafles mixed
with water: but yet the cattle require change of food
to preferve them in flrengih ; fuch as Guinea corn,
and a variety of grafs, which every foil produces with
a little care in moift weather ; and indeed this variety
is found neceffary in all climes.
But lince that variety is not to be had during thore
fevere droughts to which hot climates are liable, and
much lefs in thofe fmall iflands which cannot furnilh
large tradls of meadow-lands for hay, the only re-
fonrce is the fodder of cane-tops or tedded Guinea-
corn leaves ; which are very nutritious, and may be
preferved in perfeilion for more than a whole year,
provided the tops or Guinea-corn are well tedded for
three or four hot days as they lie fpread in the field ;
and then, being tied into bundles or (heaves, mull lie
in the hot fun for three or four days more, when they
may be fit to be put up into ricks. The bed method
of making them is in an oblong figure, about 30
feet in length, and 16 or 18 feet wide; feven feet
high at the fides, and from thence doping like the
roof of an houfe, the ridge of which mull be thatched
very carefully ; for the fides may be fecured from wet
13 1 , . p L A
by placing the bundles with the butts upwards towards PkuUerfliip,
the ridge, in courfes, and lapping the upper over the
lower courfe.
The bell method of forming thofe ricks, is to place
the nrll courfe of bundles all over the bafe one way ;
the fecond courfe reverfely ; and fo alternately till the
rick be finillied.
When cattle are to be fed with this fodder, it mull
be obferved to take down the bundles from the top,
at the well end of the rick, to the bottom ; for all
thefe ricks mull Hand call and well lengthvvife, as
well to fecure them from being overturned by high
winds, as for the convenience of preferving them from
wet, which cannot be done when ricks are made
round. By this hufbandry, an herd of cattle may be
kept in ftrength, either in fevere droughts, or in wet
feafons, when grafs is purgative : and thus the necef-
fity or expence of large paftures may be totally faved.
The hay-knife ufed in England for cutting hay, an-
fwers for cutting ricks of tops.
The method,of tedding Guinea-corn to make a kind
of hay, will require a little explanation here. When
Guinea corn is planted in May, and to be cut down
in July, in order to bear feed that year, that cutting,
tedded properly, will make an excellent hay, which
cattle prefer to meadow-hay. In like manner, after
Guinea corn has done bearing feed, the after-croy
will furnifh a great abundance of that kind of fodder
which will keep well in ricks for two or three years.
The next care of a planter is to provide (hade for
his cattle; either by trees where they are fed in the
heat of the day, if his foil requires rot dung; or by
building a flat (hade over the pen where cattle are con¬
fined for making it. That fuch (hades are eflentially
nect(fary to the well being of all animals in hot wea¬
ther, is apparent to every common obferver, who can¬
not fail of feeing each creature forfaking the mod lux¬
uriant paftures in the heat of the day, for the fake of
(hade; thus convincing the owners by inllindlive argu¬
ment, thatf (hade is almoft as necefiary to the well-be¬
ing of the brute creatures, as food. Yet, notwith-
ftanding that demonftration from the unerring courfe
of nature, throughout all our iflands (except in a very
few inftances) thefe poor creatures are expofed to the
fcorching fun-beams without mercy. Such inhuman
negleft is not always fo much the effect of inattention,
as of a miftaken notion that (hades are impedimen¬
tal to the making of much dung; but a flat (hade co¬
vered with cane-trafli, may be fo made as to let rain
pafs through it, without admiffion of fun-beams. This
will do for cattle; but mules, which are Spirited crea¬
tures, and work themfelves by draught into a foaming
heat, fhould be put into a warm liable, until quite cool;
for turning them loofe to pafture when fo hot, is pro¬
bably the caufe of their deltruilion by the glanders.
If the care of providing (hade for brute creatures is
fo much the duty and intereft of their owners, how
much more is it agreeable to the laws of humanity to
provide (hade for human creatures travelling upon the
high roads in this hot climate ? Nothing furely of fo
much beauty, cofts fo little expence as planting cocoa-
nut or fpreading timber trees in avenues along the high¬
ways, if each proprietor of the lands adjoining hath
any tafte of elegance, or feeling for other men : but
both thofe kinds of trees will yield alfo great profit to
P L A [62
Pknterfhip. the proprietor, by furnifhing him with timber, when
“ perhaps not otherwife to be had ; or with a delicious
milk, fitted by nature to cool the effervefcence of the
blood in this hot region; and alfo to improve the fpi-
rits made from fugar to the delicacy and foftnefs of ar¬
rack. Cocoa-nut, and cabbage trees are both very
beautiful and fitady, bearing round heads of great ex-
panfion, upon natural trunks, or pillars of elegant pro¬
portion, and of fuch an height as to furnifh a large
(hade, with a free circulation of air equally refrefhing
to man and bead.
The common objedlion of injury to canes by the
roots of fuch trees growing on their borders, may be
eafily removed by digging a fmall trench between the
canes and trees, which may intercept their roots, and
oblige them to feek fulfenance in the common road?
JLet it alfo be confidered, befides the benefits above
fuggefted, that the planter will thus beautify his eftate
to the refemblance of a mod fumptuous garden. And
probably that very beauty might not only render the
iflands more healthful to the inhabitants, by preferving
them from fevers kindled by the burning fun-beams,
but alfo much more fruitful by feafonable weather: for
as, by cutting down all its woods, an hot country be¬
comes more fubjeft to exceffive droughts; fo by re¬
planting it in the manner above defcribed, it would
probably become more feafonable.
Let then the planter be kind not only to his fellow-
creatures, but merciful to his beads; giving them
plenty and variety of wholefome food, clear water,
cool lhade, and a clean bed, bleeding them after a long
conrfe of hard labour, currying their hides from filth
and ticks (a); affording them fait, and other phyfic,
when neceffary; prote&ing them from the flaying rope-
lafhes of a cruel driver (who needs no other inftru-
ment than a goad); proportioning their labour to their
ftrength ; and by every art rendering their work as
eafy as poffible. The general management of planters
is not, perhaps, more defe&ive in any other refpeft
than in this: for, by pairing the cattle unequally, and
by the drivers ill condnft in writhing to the right and
left, the poor creatures are fatigued by needlefs labour.
An horfe ought therefore to be harnelfed before them
as a leader. This docile creature, by being led in a
ftraight line, will foon learn to be an unerring guide,
and the cattle will follow in the fame diredtion with
united ftrength, and confequently with more effedt
and lefs fatigue to each individual.
The Portuguefe of Madeira, by their poverty and
fcantinefs of pafture, breed the fmalleft kind of cattle;
and yet one yoke of them will draw a much greater
weight than a pair of our largeft: oxen, folely by an
equal exertion of their joint ftrength. That equality
or evennefs of draught is preferred by boring gimblet
holes through their horns, within two inches of the
points, and running a thong of leather through thofe
holes, fo as to tie the horns of each pair at fix inches
diftance from each other. By this ligature the pair of
cattle are abfolutely hindered from turning different
ways, and draw in an even dirediion with united
14 ] P L A
force. Thus it appears evidently from reafon, as well Pbnterfhip,
as from experience, that the labour of our beafts may, ' i
by a little contrivance, be rendered more eafy and ef-
fedtual.
Of the Culture of various Soils.~\ In the Britifh fu-
gar-colonies there is as great a variety of foils as in any
country of Europe; fome naturally very rich or fruit¬
ful, yielding a luxuriant prodiidt with little labour or
culture. This fruitful foil is of three kinds: a loofe
hazel mould mixed with fand, like that of St Chrifto-
pher’s, and is the bed in the known world for produ¬
cing fugar in great quantity, and of the beft quality.
The brick mould of Jamaica is fomewhat of the fame
nature, and next in value ; and then the various mix¬
tures of mould and gravel, to be found in veins or
plats over all the other iflands. When any of thefe •
foils are exhaufted of their fertility by long and inju¬
dicious culture, they may be reftored by any kind of
dung well rotted; for thtfe (b) warm foils cannot bear
hot unrotten dung, without being laid fallow for a con-
fiderable time after it. Another improvement is by
fea-fand or fea-weed ; or by digging in the cane-trafh
into fteep lands, and by letting it lie to rot for fome
months. A third method is, by ploughing and laying
it fallow; and the fourth method (the beft of all), is
by folding the fallows by Iheep. But this can be prac-
tifed only where there are extenfive paftures ; nor can
the plough be employed where the foil abounds with
large ftones. In that cafe, however, the former me¬
thod of digging in trafh will be nearly as effeftual,
tho’ more expenfive, by hand-labour, or hoe-plough-
ing.
The next bed foil for producing good fugar, is a
mould upon clay, which if (hallow, requires much cul¬
ture and good labour, or its produce will be fmall in
quantity, though of a ftrong grain and bright colour,
fo as to yield moft profit to the refiner of any fugar,
except that produced from an hazel or gravelly foil, as
before mentioned. All the black-mould foils upon
marie are generally fruitful, and will take any kind of
dung; but yield not fo ftrong or large-grained fugar.
Marie, however, of a white, yellow, or blue colour, or
rich mould from wafties, or allies of every kind, are
excellent for every ftrong foil, as the chief ingredient
in the compoft of dung : either of them will do alone
for ftiflF lands; but the yellow and chocolate marie are
the mod foapy, and the richeft kind of manure (except
fine mould) for all (tifflands. If thefe are well open¬
ed, pulverized by culture, and mixed with hot dung,
or any kind of loofe earth or mafle, they will produce
as plentifully as lighter foils: and all kinds of clay
foils, except that of a white colour, have thefe two ad¬
vantages above the fined gravel foils, that they do not
fcorch foon by dry weather, and never grow weary of
the fame manure, as moft other foils do.
The extraordinary hand-labour beftowed in making
dung, may be faved by the art of caving, now in ge¬
neral ufe in England.^ Ten mules or horfes, and two
light tumbrels with broad wheels, and ten able ne¬
groes, may, by the common ufe of fpades, (hovels, and
light
(a) One pound of native fulphur, a quart of lamp-oil, and the like quantity of hog’s-lard, intimately mixed and
made into an ointment, is a cure for the mange, lice, &c.
( b) Thefe foils which are naturally loofe and upon marie, Mr Martin calls hot foils; and thefe, he fays, have been
much injured in fome of the iflands by dung haftily made with marie: but if the fediment of lees were thrown into
thefe pens, after being turned over, it would much improve the dung.
P L A [62
ntwfhip.light mattocks, or grubbing-hoes, make more dung
than 60 able negroes can do in the p-refent methods.
If marie lies upon rifing ground, or in hillocks, as it
often does, the pit is to be opened at the foot of the
declivity ; which being dug inwards, till the bank is
three feet high, then it is to be caved thus. Dig an
hollow fpace of 12 or 18 inches deep under the.foot of
the bank; then dig into each fide of it, another per¬
pendicular cut of the fame depth, and 18 inches wide,
from the top of the bank to the bottom : that being
finifhed, make a fmall trench a foot or two from the
brink of the bank; pour into it water till full; and
when that is done, fill it again, till the water foaking
downward makes the marie feparate and fall down
all at once. This may be repeated till the pit rifes to
50 feet high ; and then many hundreds of cart-loads
of marie may be thrown down by four negroes in
two honrs ; from whence it may be carted into cattle-
pens, or laid out upon lands, as occaiion requires. Five
or fix negroes with fpades or fhovels will keep two or
three tumbrels employed, according to the diftance of
cartage : and thus as much dung may be made by ten
negro men, as will dung richly at leail 70 or 80 acres
of land every year, and laid out alfo with the affiftance
of cattle carts: An improvement highly worth every
planter’s confideration, when negroes, and feeding
them are fo expenfive ; and this is no fpeculation, but
has been confirmed by pratfice. In level lands, the
fame operation may be as effedual, provided the mouth
of the pit be opened by gradual defcent to any depth:
but when marie is to be found on the fide of hills, the
operation is lefs laborious for the horfes. But if the
furface of the marle-pits (as it often happens) be co¬
vered with clay, or ftiff foil, fo that the water cannot
quickly foak from the trench above ; in that cafe,
pieces of hard wood, made like piles, four feet long,
and four inches fquare, pointed at one end, and fecu-
red at the other (quare head, by an iron clamp, may
be driven by heavy mauls into the trench, as fo many
wedges, which will make the caved part tumbledown :
but a Ikilful eye mult watch the lad operation, or the
labourers may be buried or hurt.
But then clay-foils that are level, and fubjeft to be
drowned, or to retain water in ftagnated pools, can
never be made fruitful by any kind of manure, with¬
out being firft well drained : for water lying upon any
foil will molt certainly transform it to f ft iff unfruitful
day ; as appears evidently by the bogs of Ireland, the
fens of Lincoln and Cambridgelhire, and even by the
ponds of Barbadoes fituated in the deepeft and lighted
black mould; for that fine fpil being wafhed into thofe
ponds, becomes the ttiffeft black clay, not fit even for
an ingredient in dung, until it lias been laid dry, and
expofed to the fun for a whole yearbut when thefe
bogs and fens are well drained, they become the mod
fruitful foils. Natural clay the celebrated Boerhaave
thinks the fatted of all foils ; but then it mud be
opened by culture, marie, or fandy manures. It is
hard to conje&ure how the opinion prevailed in the
1 Britidi plantations, that fandy gut-mould was mod un¬
fit for clay-foils, as being the means of binding them to
the compa&nefs of brick ; whereas it is proved, from
long experience, to be one of the bed means of open¬
ing clay-foils, and rendering them abundantly fruit¬
ful. Brick is made of clay alone; no fand being ufedih
■5 ] P L A
it, farther than to fprinkle the board on which it isPlanlcrfhip..
moulded into fhape. From repeated experience, it
appears, that a mixture,of fand in gut-mold is the bed
of all manure for did and barren clay-lands; provided
they be well drained, by throwing the whole foil into
round ridges of 12 feet wide, with furrows of three
feet wide between each ridge. And this is done with
httle more hand-labour than that of hoe-ploughing
well in the common way. For if a piece of land be
marked in lines at feven feet and a half diftance from
each other, and the labourers are fet in to hoe-plough
at the fecond line, hailing back each clod 12 inches;
half the ridge, and near half the furrow, is made at -
the fame time: and thus a piece of land may be round-
ridged, and the furrows all made at once, by the
common operation of hoe-ploughing, provided the dig¬
ger drives his hoe up to the eye at every ftroke. Hoe-
ploughing in clay-foils that have lain long under water,
is indeed hard labour ; but it will every year grow the
lighter by being well drained by round-ridging: and
in the mean while the labour may be rendered much
more eafy by the plough conduced by the lines above
defcribed. As therefore fandy mould is the bed ma¬
nure for ftiff clay ; fo by parity of reafon, confirmed
by long experience, ftiff day is the bed manure for
fandy or chaffy foils.
The method of round-ridging before defcribed, is,
by feveral years experience, found the mod effential
improvement of flat clayey foils: and yet there are
feme who will prefer fpeculation to ocular demonftra-
tion, fancying that all kinds of ridges will carry off
the mould in heavy rains. The faft is otherwife in clay-
foils : and plain reafon, without experience, vouches,
that where great confluxes of water are divided into
many fmall rills, the force is broken ; and therefore
lefs mould carried off the land. Another objedion
made to round-ridging, is, that by digging much clay
to form the iides of the ridge, the foil is impoverifhed :
but this objedion flands good only againft thofe ridges
which are raifed too high, and made too broad ; but
if land is ridged in the manner before direded, that is,
12 feet broad, and not above fix or eight inches higher
in the middle than at the fides, the objedron vanifnes.
Ridges were never propofed for light foils or deep
lands ; and even in flat foils upon loam they fhould be
made with great caution, becaufe loam melts away by
water. But there are poachy lands of a white clay,
even upon fmall defeents, too retentive of water;
thefe may certainly be improved much by ridges of
12 feet wide, as above defcribed, without fear of
wadies.
But fuppofing, as the objedion urges, that a little
clay fhould be turned up at the fides of fuch ridges ;
can it not be manured fomewhat more than the other
parts, with marie, or fandy mould, fo as to become
equally good with any other part of the foil ? And
is not this well worth the labour, fince round-ridging
not only improves the foil by draining it to a furprifing
degree, but adds one fifth part to the depth of the
flaple ? And will not a ridge made a little rounding,
throw off the water much better than a flat ridge?
The general maxim of not burning cane-trafli (which
may be called the Jlubble of cane-lands} upon any kind
of foil, rs furely a great miftake ; as may be evinced
by obferving the contrary pradlice of the bed hufhand-
men.
P L A [ 6216 } P L A
Pianterfhip men in England, where burn-baiting or baftard burn-
~~ baiting, is found by experience an admirable method
of fertilizing cold, ftiff, or clayey lands. It muft in¬
deed be a conftant pra&ice, not only for the fake of
contributing to warm and divide the foil, but as the on¬
ly effectual means of deftroying pernicious infedfs, and
weeds of various kinds, fuch as French weed, wild
peafe, and wild vines.
Soon after the difufe of burning trafh upon onr
lands in this ifland, the blah made its firft appearance
with incredible devaftation: to revive that pradbice
therefore feems to be the mod obvious means of ex¬
pelling it. It may be prefumed that the difufe of
burning trafli was founded upon the miftaken notion
of burn-baiting, which is turning up a thick fod of
very dry, light, and (hallow foils, and burning the
whole fuperficies, or ftaple, to afhes. This pra&ice
the writers upon hufbandry condemn univerfally, and
very juftly : for though by this practice the land will
produce two or three crops more plentifully tiian ever,
yet the foil is blown away by the wind, and the fub-
llratum being generally an hungry gravel, pr chalk,
can never be rehored to fertility by the common arts
of hufbandry. But furely this has no rcfemblance to
pur fuperficial burning of the little trafh we can fpare
from dung; and though this method of burn-baiting
light and (hallow foils be juftly condemned, yet the bed
writers recommend that very pradice, in cold, moift,
and heavy foils, as is obfer.ved abovej and long expe¬
rience juftifies it.
Deep mould upon clay or loam, being fubjeft to the
grub-worm (c), will not take any kind of dung, till
perfedly rotten, except that of the fheep-fold ; which
is the beft manure for all kinds of light foils, and is of
all others the leaft expenfive, as not requiring hand-la¬
bour. But the ufe of the fold is impradicable in any
idand not abounding with large favannas, or (heep-
paftures, as in Jamaica.
Thofe.foils therefore winch are fubjed to the grub,
and muft be fertilized by common dung, which is a
proper neft for the mother-beetle to depofit its eggs,
rnuft be well impregnated with the brine of diffolved
fait, after the dung is firft cut up ; two large hogs¬
heads of fait will make brine enough for a dung-pen of
50 feet fquare.
This cure for the grub is a late difcovery; and which
has been attended with fuccefs, fo far as the experi¬
ment is made. But though it proves effedual to de-
liroy that pernicious infed in plant-canes, it pro¬
bably will not be fufficient to fav,e rattoons, without a
new application of fait in powder ; becaufe the firft
brine muft be waftied away, by the time when rat-
toons fpring up.
The planter who w-ould fave his rattoons from the
grub, ought therefore to cut off the heads of his (fools
with (harp hoes three inches below the furface of the foil,
and then drew an handful of fait round each (tool, and
cover it up to a level with fine mold taken from the
edges.
In foils where there is no grub* and the planter
wifties to have very good rattoons, let him, as foon as Planterd*
his canes are cut, draw all the trafli from the (fools in-
to the alternate fpaces, if planted in that manner ; or
into the furrows, if his land be round-ridged; and then
cut off the head of his (tools with (harp hoes, as above
direded. Experience has (hown the advantage of this
pradiee, and reafon demonftrates the great benefit of
the rattoon-fprouts riling from three inches below the
furface, inftead of fuperficial (hoots which came to no¬
thing, and orlly ftarve the ftrong fprouts. Befides,
the ftubbs which are left upon the (fools after the canes
are cut, canker, and rot the (tools; which is one
reafon why good rattoons are uncommon in foils long
cultivated. Yet it is the opinion of fome, that by
hoe-ploughing and even dunging rattoons, the produce
might be as good as plant-canes, which would fave
the labour of holing and planting fo often as planters
commonly do.
Fallowing is of incredible advantage to every foil,
not only by being divided into theminuteft parts, but
alfo by imbibing thofe vegetative powers, with which
the air is impregnated by the bountiful hand of Pro¬
vidence, whenever rain falls. ' What thofe powers are,
has been explained under the articles Agriculture
and Plant ; and experience evinces, that the tender
vegetables of the earth are envigorated more by the
fmalldt (bower of rain, than by all the water which
human art can bellow. Let it therefore be a conftant
maxim of the planter, never to plant his ground until
the foil is well mellowed by fallowing, even though he
beftows upon it a due proportion of dung : we fay a
due proportion ; for too much will force up rank
canes, which never yield good fugar; and though fome
advantage may be reaped from the rattoons, yet it will
be found by experience not to compenfate the lofs by
the plants. In ftony or fteep foils, where the plough
cannot be ufed, or where a fufficient (Length of cattle
cannot be fupported for that purpofe, hand-labour or
hoe-ploughing muft be fufcftitutedbut even in that
cafe, much labour may be faved by fpreading the dung
according to the Engiifli hufbandry, and digging it in¬
to the (oil. To evince this truth, let any planter com¬
pute his negroes labour of diftributing dung by baf-
kets, and by fpreading it with dung-forks ; and then
judge for himfelf by one (ingle experiment, which is
the mod profitable.
But if fome planters are fo devoted to the old cu-
ftom of diftributing dung by bafkets, inftead of wheel¬
barrows in level ground, or hand-barrows in uneven
land, by which three times the labour may be accom-
plilhed in the fame time and by the fame hands; let
them at leaft fave much of their hand-labour, by the
following method of laying out dung, before the di-
ftribution by balkets.
In holing a piece of land, let a fpace be left after
80 holes from the firft interval, and then the like
fpace after -So holes throughout the whole plat, which
fpaces muft run exaftly parallel to the intervals on the
right and left of the holes. Into thefe fpaces the dung
may be carted., even before it be rotten (d), at the
molt
( c) Tins pernicious infeift is mod apt to engender in dung made from mill-trafli, which therefore never ought to
-he put into dung-compoft, or ftill-ponds ; but after being burnt, the allies will be as good as any other kind. Rouud-
•ridging, with manure of unwet afhes, fea-fand, or lime, or dry marie, kids the grub.
(.o) In order to nuke dung rot the fooner, much labour is bellowed in digging and turning it over by hoes: hut
two-
nterfliip.
P L A [ 6117 ] P I, A
. mofl leifure times, andc overed with mould, or cane-
trafh, to prevent exhalation ; and in fuch quantity
as will fuffice only to dung a row of 40 holes, from
the point oppofite to each fide of it. In the inter¬
vals at each fide of the cane-piece, which are parallel
to thofe fpaces, there muft be dung enough carted
to manure a row of 40 holes, and covered in like
manner.
By thus placing the dung or gut-mould, it is evi¬
dent at the firft fight, that the fartheft diftance can¬
not be above 40 holes in diftributing the dung: and
in cafe it be not fufficiently rotten for prefent ufe, it
may be diftributed even in dry weather, and covered
by the bank; which will both prevent its fpirit from
exhalation, and occafion it to rot fooner, which is no
fmall advantage. Moreover, by being thus laid out
at the moft leifure times, and covered with the banks,
the dung will be more intimately mixed with the foil,
and therefore continue to nourifli the plant for a longer
time than if laid as ufual at the bottom of the holes.
A farther advantage of thus diftributing the dung, and
covering it, refults from the more expeditious planting
the land, after a fhort or hidden (hower: for the la¬
bour of covering the dung, and uncovering it when the
land is planted, however it may appear in fpecula-
tion, is in pradice a trifle ; and befides all the other
advantages arifing by the diftribution of dung from
the fpaces above defcribed, this is not the leaft, that
not a bank is trodden under foot. But it is evident,
that by diftribnting the dung with balkets in the pre¬
fent method, the foil is much trampled under foot;
and by that means, the very end of hoe-ploughing, or
loofening the foil, is much defeated. In like manner,
by the prefent method of hoe-ploughing, the fame ill
effed is produced ; for as the negroes hoe-plough or
dig the foil diredly forward, fo they muft neceflarily
tread the ground as fail as they dig it: whereas, by
putting the labourers to dig fidewife, no one puts a
foot upon the foil after it is dug ; and by lining the
land before it is hoe-ploughed, each negroe may have
an equal fliare to dig. The only difficulty of hoe-
ploughing fidewife is in firft fetting the negroes to
that work ; but may be done without lols of time
when working in a contiguous field. Whether hoe-
ploughing before or after the land be holed for canes,
is moft eligible, experience muft determine ; but cer¬
tainly both operations will be moft effedual: and there¬
fore it will be advifeable (e), firft to plough the foil
where the land will admit the plough ; and where it
will not, to hoe-plough it with, or without dung, as
requifite ; then let it lie fallow till perfe&ly mellowed ;
then hole and plant it; and inftead of weeding in the
ufual manner, let the weeds in all the fpaces be dug
into the foil: but as this is not to be done fo well with
the hoe, it is fubmitted to future experience, whether
the dexterous ufe of fpades, as in England, will not
anfwer the purpofe much better, and with equal dif-
patch. But whatever method is preferred, moft cer¬
tain it is, that by loofening the foil in all the fpaces
Vol. VIII.
between the young canes after being come up, their Planterfii'p.
fibres will more eafily expand on every fide, and ac-~r~
quire more nutrition to envigorate their growth. But
where the planter grudges this labour, by thinking it
needlefs in a rich loofe foil, he may difpatch more
weeding-work by the Dutch hoe, than by any other;
which being faftened upon the end of a flick, is pufli-
ed forward under the roots of the fmall weeds, in fuch
a manner as to cut them up a little below the furface
of the foil, and will do more execution at one (hove
than can be done at three ftrokes of the common hoe :
but there is yet another practice of the borfe-hoe
plough, whereby all weeds growing in rows between
beans and peafe, are extirpated with incredible eafe and
expedition. It is a very fimple machine, drawn by one
or two horfes, confiding of a pair of low wheels turn¬
ing upon a common axis ; from whence two fquare
irons are let down at equal diftances, and triangular
hoes made at the ends, the points of the triangles be¬
ing placed forward, and fo fixed as to cut all weeds
an inch below the furface, in the fame manner as the
Dutch garden-hoe abovementioned. By this machine
a man and a boy, with two horfes or mules, will clear
perfectly all the fpaces of a field of ten acres in two
days, and may be of admirable ufe in all loofe and dry
foils in the fugar-iflands : for while two horfes or
mules draw in the fpace before each other, the wheels
pafs on the outfide of each row of canes, without do¬
ing the leaft injury, while the plough-holder attends to
his bufinefs. In ftiff foils which require draining,
neither the horfe-hoe plough nor the Dutch hoe can
be proper ; or any other inllrument fo effe&ual as the
fpade ufed in the manner above hinted, where the
ftaple is deep.
But where the ftaple of land is fhallow, care muft
be taken not to dig much below it, according to the
univerfal opinion of all the beft writers, fupported by
the experience of 100 years. Yet feme good planters
are fallen into the contrary praftiee, and dig up ftiff
clay far below the ftaple. This, Mr Martin fays, was
done in his own lands, during his abfence, by injudi-
cioufly ploughing below the ftaple; and fo injured the
foil, that all the arts of culture for many years hard¬
ly retrieved its former fertility. Indeed where the
ftaple is fhallow, upon a fat clay, there turning up a
little of it at a time, from the bottom of the cane-
holes, and mixing it with rich hot dung, made of
marie, or fandy mold, which may take off its eohefive
quality, will in due time, and by long fallow, be con¬
verted into good foil: but if ftiff clay be turned up,
without any fuch mixture, in large quantities, it will
infallibly difappoint the operator’s hopes ; for though
folid clay will moulder, by expofure, to a feeming fine
earth, yet it will return to its primitive ftate, very foon
after being wet, and covered from the external air, if
not divided, as above fuggefted.
After all, the common horfe-hoeing plough drawn
by two mules in a line before each other, or the
hand-hoe in common, ufe, will anfwer the purpofe
35 A very
two-thirds of that labour may be faved by the ufe of hay-knives, fix of which, ufed dexteroufiy, will cut up 3 pen in
lefs time than 60 negroes can do by hoes: but hay-knives cannot be ufed where gritty mould is ufed in pens.
(e) Deep and loofe foils may be ploughed with a fmall ftrefigth of cattle or mules: but ftiff lands in hot ch'males
require more ftrength of cattle than can be maintained in the fmall paftures of the planters; for if thofe ftrong foils
are either too wet or too dry (as is generally the cafe), ploughing is impracticable.
P L A [ 6218 ] P L A
Planterfhir. very well, where the lands are planted in Mr Tull’s me rows Handing, hoe-ploughing the fpaces after turning Planterlliip.
thod ; that is, where the fpaces are equal to the land all the trafh into furrows till almoft rotten : for if the
planted, in the following manner. tralh is drawn upon the hoe-ploughed fpaces, they
Suppofe fix feet planted in two rows of canes, and will hardly ever moulder ; at leaft not till the tralh is
fix feet of land left as a fpace unplanted ; and fo a quite rotten. This is an infallible proof from experi-
whole piece of land, planted in alternate double ence, of how little advantage tralh is to the foil, un¬
rows (f), with equal fpaces, may be hoe-ploughed lefs it be in great droughts, to keep out the intenfe
with eafe, as before hinted ; and that at any time du- fun-beams: for, in all other refpe&s, it prevents that
ring the growth of canes, when it is moft convenient joint operation of the fun and air in mouldering and
to the planter, which is a confiderable advantage; and fruftifying the foil, as has been proved by repeated
yet it is the leaft of all attending this method of cul- experiments.
ture: for, by leaving thefe fpaces, the canes will have But in flat ftiff foils that are properly drained by
both more air and fun: by hoe-ploughing them, the round-ridging, no culture prevents cracking fo effec-
4 roots of each double row will have large room for ex- tually as hoe-ploughing into them a quantity of loofe
panfion, and confequently, by gaining more nutri- marl, of which that of a chocolate or of a yellow co-
ment, will grow more luxuriantly: by thefe fpaces lour is beft ; and will be ftill much better, by lying
the canes may be cleaned from the blaft with much upon the land, in fmall heaps, or in cane-holes, for
more eafe and convenience ; and will ferve as proper fome time, to imbibe the vegetative powers of the air,
beds to plant great corn, without the leaft injury to before it is intimately mixed with the foil,
the canes ; as well as to contain the trafKtaken off the As to the manner of planting canes, the general
land, where, by rotting, and being hoe-ploughed in- praftice of allowing four feet by five to an hole, and two
to the foil, it will be wonderfully enriched, and well fit- frefh (g) plants, is found by common experience to be
ted to be planted immediately after the canes in the right and good in alternate rows. But the following
neighbouring double rows are cut down. Befides all precautions are neceffary to be obferved. Firft, let all
thefe admirable advantages of planting the land in al- the cane-rows run eaft and weft, that thetrade-wind may
ternate double rows with equal fpaces, the canes, when pafs freely through them ; becaufe air and funfhine are
at full age, may be eafily ftripped of their tralh, and as conducive to the growth and maturation of fugar-
by that means the juice rendered fo mature as to yield canes, as anyother vegetable. Secondly, let not any ac-
double the produce, and much better fugars than un- ceflion of mould be drawn into hills round the young
ftripped canes. This method of culture may be re- canes, except where water ftagnates (h) ; becaufe the
commended for all kinds of foil : for as by this prac- fibres which run horizontally, and near the furface, are
tice the rank luxuriant canes will be more matured, fo much broken and fpoiled by that practice. Thirdly, let
the poor foils will be rendered more fruitful ; and as the fugar-canes be cut at their full maturity ; which,
the roots of the canes which expand into thefe fpaces, in a dry loofe foils, is generally at the end of 14 or 15
will be kept moift by being covered with rotten months after being planted ; but in cold clay-foils, not
trafh, fo they muft bear dry weather much longer in till 16 or 17 months. Fourthly, as the cane-rows run
the burning foils. In thofe low lands which require eaft and weft in as proper a direftion as poffible for cart¬
draining by furrows, the alternate double rows and age to the fugar-work, fo canes muft be cut the con-
fpaces muft be made crofs the ridges; by which means, trary way if the planter expefts any great produce
thofe fpaces, being hoe ploughed from the centre to from his rattoons: for by beginning to cut canes at
the fides, will be always preferred in a proper ftate of the part of his field moft remote from the works, the
roundnefs. By this method of planting, the canes carts cannot often pafs over the fame traft, and con-
may be fo well ripened as to yield double the quantity fequently the cane-ftools cannot be injured, more
of fugar, of canes planted in the clofe manner; which efpecially if he takes due care to cut the canes very
faves half the labour of cartage, half the time of grind- clofe to their roots; for, by leaving a long ftub,
ing and boiling, and half the fuel, befides yielding (which muft perifti) the cane-ftools are much injured,
finer fugar. It may be objected to the practice of the cuttings cane
Yet, how well foever the method of planting in fingle tranfverfely to the rows, that the negroes labour will
or double alternate rows has fucceeded in the loofe and not be fo equally divided : but let every man confider
ftiff foils, experience has fhown that it is a wrong prac both fides of the queftion, and be determined by his
tice in ftiff lands that are thrown into round or flat own experience ; and then he will be convinced, that
ridges: for thefe being moft apt to crack, the fun-beams it matters very little which way he cuts ftraight Handing
penetrate foon to the cane-roots, flop their growth, canes; but in cafes where the fugar-canes lean, or
and have an ill influence upon the fugar. It is there- are lodged by preceding high winds, it is a point of
fore advifeable to plant fuch lands full, but in large great importance to place the labourers fo as to cut the
holes, of 4 feet, by 5 feet towards the banks: after the canes firft at the roots, and then, drawing them, cut
plant-canes are cuty to dig out one, and leave two off the tops: for thus by two ftrokes each cane will
be
(f) In ftiff lands, the fingle alternate rows of four feet diftance, as preventive of much labour in weeding, are
found belt; and alfo yield more fagar by the acre; and are lefs apt to be affected by drought.
(g) It is an odd fancy that ftale plants grew beft, when both reafon and experience vouch that the moft: fucculent
plants are beft: one good plant in the centre of a large hole is fufficient when the land is full holed.
(h) The ftagnation of water in pools (ufual in ftiff level lands) is the moft injurious circumftance attending it;
for that, by long duration, will convert the fineft mould to ftiff clay. The proprietor of fuch a foil muft therefore
grudge no labour to drain it well; and yet by fuch eafy gradation, as to prevent the mould from being walhed away
by great floods, in cafe the under ftratum is. a loam.
tfljjplanterfnip be cut; and twice the quantity cut in the fame time,
;] II. and by the fame hands, more than by cutting in any
Panting^ other direfiion. In round-ridged land, it is proper to
cut canes in the fame dire&ion of the ridges, throwing
the tops and trafh into the furrows to render the cart¬
age eafy, and to preferve the ridges in their proper
form.
It isalmoft needlefs tofuggeft the expediencyofplan-
ning the cane-pieces of a plantation in exaft fquares,
fo that the intervals may interfeA at right angles ;
fince fuch regularity is not only more beautiful, more
fafe in cafe of accidental fires, and a better difpofition
of the whole for dividing and planting one third or
fourth part of a plantation every year, but alfo much
eafier guarded by a few watchmen : for one of thefe
walking in a line from eaft to well, and the other
from north to fouth, look through every avenue, where
the moll fubtile thief cannot efcape the watchful eye.
And if the intervals furrounding the boundary of a
regular plantation be made 24 feet wide, the pro¬
prietor will receive ample recompenfe for fo much
land, by the fecurity of his canes from fires kindled
in the neighbourhood, and by planting all that land in
plantain-trees, which may at once yield food and (hade
to the watchmen, who by that means can have no
excufe for abfence from their proper ftations. But as
fuel grows very fcarce in molt of our iflands, it is
alfo expedient to plant a logwood or flower-fence in
all the boundaries of every plantation, which, being
cut every year, will furnilh good ftore of faggots.
Logwood makes the ftrongeft and quickeft of all fences,
and agrees with every foil: the cuttings make excellent
oven-fuel.
So much for the general operations of planterfhip,
according to the approved dire&ions of Mr Martin.
For the particular cultivation of the fugar-canes, the
extra&ion of the fugar, and the diftillation ot rum,
fee the articles Saccharum, Sugar, and Rum.
PLANTIN (Chriftopher), a celebrated printer,
was born near Tours in 1533, and bred to an art
which he carried to the higheft degree of perfe£Hon.
He went and fettled at Antwerp; and there erefted a
printing-office, which was confidered not only as the
chief ornament of the town, but as one of the moft
extraordinary edifices in Europe. A great number of
ancient authors were printed here; and thsfe editions
were valued not only for the beauty of the charafters,
but alfo for the corrednefs of the text, with regard to
which Plantin was fo very nice, that he procured the
moft learned men to be corre&ors of his prefs. He
got immenfe riches by his profeffion ; which however
he did not hoard up, but fpent like a gentleman. He
died in 1598, aged 65 years; and left a moft fumptu-
ous and valuable library to his grandfon Balthafar.
PLANTING, in agriculture and gardening, is
fetting a tree or plant, taken from its proper place, in
a new hole or pit ; throwing frelh earth over its root,
and filling up the hole to the le.vel of the furface of the
ground.
The firft thing in planting is to prepare the ground
before the trees or plants are taken out of the earth,
that they may remain out of the ground as fhort a
time as poffible; and the next is, to take up the trees
or plants, in order to their being tranfplanted. In
taking up the trees, carefully dig away the earth round
P L A
the roots, fo as to come at their feveral parts to cut Plantin'-'
them off; for if they are torn out of the ground with-  
out care, the roots will be broken and bruifed, to the
great injury of the trees. When you have taken them
up, the next thing is to prepare them for planting by
pruning the roots and heads. And firft, as to the
roots; all the fmall fibres are to be cut off, as near to
the place from whence they are produced as may be,
except they are to be replanted immediately after they
are taken up. Then prune off all the bruifed or
broken roots, all fuch as are irregular and crofs each
other, and all downright roots, efpecially in fruit-trees:
ftiorten the larger roots in proportion to the age, the
ftrength, and nature of the tree; obferving that the
walnut, mulberry, and fome other tender-rooted kinds,
ffiould not be pruned foxlofe as the more hardy forts
of fruit and foreft trees: in young fruit-trees, fuch as
pears, apples, plumbs, peaches, &c. that are one year
old from the time of their budding or grafting, the
roots may be left only about eight or nine inches
long; but in older trees, they muft be left of a much
greater length: but this is only to be underftood of
the larger roots; for the fmall ones muft be chiefly
cut quite out, or pruned very fhort. The next thing
is the pruning of their heads, which muft be different¬
ly performed in different trees ; and the defign of the
trees muft alfo be confidered. Thus, if they are
defigned for walls or efpaliers, it is beft to plant them
with the greateft part of their heads, which fhould
remain on till they begin to fhoot in the fpring, when
they muft be cut down to five or fix eyes, at the fame
time taking care not to difturb the roots. But if the
trees are defigned for ftandards, you fhould prune off all
the fmall branches clofe to the place where they are
produced, as alfo the irregular ones which crofs each
other ; and after having difplaced thefe branches, you
fhouM alfo cut off all fuch parts of branches as have
by any accident been broken or wounded; but by no
means cut off the main leading (hoots which are ne-
ceffary to attra& the fap from the root, and thereby
promote the growth of the tree. Having thus pre¬
pared the trees for planting, you muft now proceed
to place them in the earth : but firft, if the trees have
been long out of the ground, fo that the fibres of the
roots are dried, place them eight or ten hours in
water, before they are planted, with their heads eredt,
and the roots only immerfed therein ; which will fwell
the dried veffels of the roots, and prepare them to im¬
bibe nouriihment from the earth. In planting them,
great regard (hould be had to the nature of the foil:
for if that be cold and moift, the trees {hould be
planted very (hallow ; and if it be a hard rock or
gravel, it will be better to raife a hill of earth where
each tree is to be planted, than to dig into the rock
or gravel, and fill it up with earth, as is too often
praftifed, by which means the trees are planted as it
were in a tub, and have but little room to extend their
roots. The next thing to be obfefved is, to place
the trees in the hole in fuch a manner that the roots
may be about the fame depth in the ground as before
they were taken up; then break the earth fine with a
fpade, and fcatter it into the hole, fo that it may fall
in between every root, that there may be no hollow-
nefs in the earth: then having filled up the hole,
gently tread down the earth with your feet, but do
35 A 2 not
t 62:9 ]
Planting
Plafhing.
P L A I 6220 1 P L A
not make it too hard ; which is a great fault, efpeci-
ally if the ground be ftrong or wet. Having thus
.planted the trees, they fliould be faftened to (takes
driven into the ground to prevent their being dif-
placed by the wind, and fome mulch laid upon the
furface of the ground about their roots ; as to fuch as
are planted againft walls, their roots (hould be placed
about five or fix inches from the wall, to which their
heads fhould be nailed to prevent their being blown
up by the wind. The feafons for planting are various,
according to the different forts of trees, or the foil in
which they are planted. For the trees whofe leaves fall
off in winter, the beft time is the beginning of Oftober,
provided the foil be dry ; but if it be a very wet foil,
it is better to defer it till the latter end of February,
or the beginning of March: and for many kinds of
evergreens, the beginning of April is by far the beft
feafon ; though they may be fafely removed at Mid-
fummer, provided they are not to be carried very
far; but fhould always make choice of a cloudy wet
feafon.
Reverfe Planting, a method of planting in which
the natural pofition of the plant or fhoot is inverted ;
the branches being fet into the earth, and the root
reared into the air. Dr Agricola mentions this mon-
ftious method of planting, which he found to fucceed
very well in moft or all forts of fruit-trees, timber-
trees, &c. Bradley affirms that he has feen a lime-
tree in Holland growing with its firft roots in the air,
which had {hot out branches in great plenty, at the
fame time that its firft branches produced roots and
fed the tree. Mr Fairchild, of Hoxton, has pradlifed
the fame with us, and gives the following diredions
for performing it: Make choice of a young tree of
one fhbot, of alder, elm, willow, or any other tree
that eafily takes root by laying; bend the fhoot gently
down into the earth, and fo let it remain till it has
taken root. Then dig about the firft root, and raife
it gently out of the ground, till the Hern be nearly
upright, and flake it up. Then prune the roots, now
ereded in the air, from the bruifes and wounds they
received in being dug up; and anoint the pruned parts
with a compofition of two ounces of turpentine, four
ounces of tallow, and four ounces of bees wax, melted
together, and applied pretty warm. Afterwards prune
off all the buds or (hoots that are upon the ftem, and
drefs the wounds with the fame compofition, to pre¬
vert anv collateral fhootings, that might fpoil the
beauty of the ftem.
PLANUDES (Maximus), a Greek monk of Con-
ftantinople, towards the end of the 14th century, who
publifhed a colledion of epigrams intitled Anthologia }
a Greek tranflation of Ovid’s Metamorphofes ; a Life
of vEfop, which is rather a romance than a hiftory ;
and fome other works. We know nothing more of
him, than that he fuffered fome perfecution on account
of his attachment to the Latin church.
PLASHING Quickset-hedges, an operation
very neceffary to promote the growth and continuance
of old hedges. See the article Hedge.
It is performed in this manner: The old flubsmuft
be cut off, &c. within two or three inches of the
ground ; and the beft and longeft of the middle-fized
Jlioots mnft be left to Ly down. Some of the ftrong-
eft of thefe muft alfo be left to anfwer the purpofe of
flakes. Thefe are to be cut off to the height at which
the hedge is intended to be left; and they are to (land
at ten feet diflance one from another: when there are
not proper (hoots for thefe at the due diflances, their
places muft be fupplied with common flakes of dead
wood. The hedge is to be firft thinned, by cutting
away all but thofe fhoots which are intended to be ufed
either as flakes, or the other work of the plafhing :
the ditch is to be cleaned out with the fpade ; and it
muft be now dug as at firft, with doping fides each
way ; and when there is any cavity on the bank on
which the hedge grows, or the earth has been wafhed
away from the roots of the fhrubs, it is to be made
good by facing it, as they exprefs it, with the mould
dug from the upper part of the ditch : all the reft of
the earth dug out of the ditch is to be laid upon the
top of the bank : and the owner fhould look carefully
into it that this be done; for the workmen, to fpare
themfelves trouble, are apt to throw as much as they
can upon the face of the bank ; which being by this
means overloaded, is foon wafhed off into the ditch
again, and a very great part of the work undone;
whereas what is laid on the top of the bank always
remains there, and makes a good fence of an indif¬
ferent hedge.
In the plafhing the quick, two extremes are to be
avoided ; thefe are, the hying it too low, and the
laying it too thick. The latter makes the fap run all
into the fhoots, and leaves the plafhes without fufficient
nourifhment ; which, with the thicknefs of the hedge,
finally kills them. The other extreme of laying them
too high, is equally to be avoided ; for this carries
up all the nourifhment into the plafhes, and fo makes
the fhoots fmall and weak at the bottom, and confe-
quently the hedge thin. This is a common error in
the north of England. The beft hedges made any
where in England, are thofe in Hertfordfhire ; for
they are plalhed in a middle way between the two ex¬
tremes, and the cattle are by that prevented both from
croping the young fhoots, and from going through ;
and a new and vigorous hedge foon forms itfelf.
When the fhoot is bent down that is intended to be
plafhed, it muft be cut half way through with the
bill: the cut muft be given (loping, fomewhat down¬
wards, and then it is to be wound about the flakes,
and after this its fuperfluous branches are to be cut
off as they (land out at the fides of the hedge. If for
the firft year or two, the field where a new hedge is
made can be ploughed, it will thrive the better for it;
but if the flubs are very old, it is beft to cut them
quite down, and to fecure them with good dead hed¬
ges on both fides, till the fhoots are grown up from
them ftrong enough to plafh ; and wherever void fpa-
ces are feen, new fets are to be planted to fill them
up. A new hedge raifed from fets in the common
way, generally requires plafhing in about eight or
nine years after.
PLASTER, in pharmacy, an external application
of a harder confidence than an ointment; to be fpread,
according to the different circumftances of the wound,
place, or patient, either upon linen or leather. See
Pharmacy, n° 854, &c.
Plaster, or Plaister, in building, a compofi-
tioa
P L A
[ 6221 3
P L A
Iflaftfr. tion of lime, fometimes with fand, &c. to parget, or
' -cover the nudities of a building. See Pargetting
and Stucco.
Plaster of Paris, a preparation of feveral fpecies
of gypfum dug near Mont Maitre, a village in the
neighbourhood of Paris; whence the name. See
Gypsum ; and Chemistry, n° 127, 128.
The beft fort is hard, white, fhining, and marbly ;
known by the name of plafer-fone or parget of Mount
Maitre. It will neither give fire with fteel, nor fer¬
ment with aqua fortis; but very freely and readily cal¬
cines in the fire into a fine plafter, the ufe of which
in building and calling fiatues is well known.
The method of reprefenting a face truly in plafter
of Paris is this : The perfon whofe figure is defigned
is laid on his back, with any convenient thing to keep
off the hair. Into each noftril is conveyed a conical
piece of ftiff paper, open at both ends, to allow of re-
fpiration. Thefe tubes being anointed with oil, are
fupported by the hand of an afliftant; then the face is
lightly oiled over, and the eyes being kept fhut, ala-
bafter frefh calcined, and tempered to a thinnilh con-
fiftence with water, is by fpoonfuls nimbly thrown all
over the face, till it lies near the thicknefs of an inch.
This matter grow^fenfibly hot, and in about a quar¬
ter of an hour hardening into a kind of ftony concre¬
tion ; which being gently taken off, reprefents, on
its concave furface, the minutdl part of the original
face. In this a head of good clay may be moulded,
and therein the eyes are to be opened, and other ne-
cefiary amendments made. This fecond face being
anointed with oil, a fecond mould of calcined alaba-
fter is made, confiding of two parts joined lengthwife
along the ridge of the nofe ; and herein may be call,
with the fame matter, a face extremely like the ori¬
ginal.
If finely powdered alabafter, or plafter of Paris, be
put into a bafon over a fire, it will, when hot, affume
the appearance of a fluid, by rolling in waves, yield¬
ing to the touch, fteaming, &c. all which properties
it again lofes on the departure of the heat; and being
thrown upon paper, will not at all wet it, but imme¬
diately difeover itfelf to be as motionlefs as before it
was fet over the fire ; whereby it appears, that a heap
of fuch little bodies, as are neither fpherical nor other-
wife regularly (haped, nor fmall enough to be below
the difeernment of the eye, may, without fufion, be
made fluid, barely by a fufficiently ftrong and various
agitation of the particles which compofe it ; and more¬
over lofe its fluidity immediately upon the ceffation
thereof.
Two or three fpoonfuls of burnt alabafter, mixed
up thin with water, in a fhort time coagulate, at the
bottom of a vtflel full of water, into a hard lump,
notwithftanding the water that furrounded it. Arti¬
ficers obferve, that the coagulating property of burnt
alabafter will be very much impaired or loft, if the
powder be kept too long, efpecially if in the open air,
before it is made ufe of ; and when it hath been once
tempered with water, and fuflfered to grow hard, they
cannot, by any burning or powdering of it again,
make it ferviceable for their purpofe as before.
This matter, when Wrought into veffrls, &c. isflill
of foloofe and fpongy a texture, that the air has eafy
paffage through it. Mr Boyle gives an account,
among his experiments with the air-pump, of hispre- I’laftenng,
paring a tube of this plafter, clofed at one end and plaftlc~
open at the other ; and on applying the open end to
the cement, as is ufually done with the receivers, it
was found utterly impofiible to exhauft all the air out
of it; for frefh air from without prefled in as fall as
the other, or internal air, was exhaufted, though the
fides of the tube were of a confiderable thicknefs. A
tube of iron was then put on the engine ; fo that be¬
ing filled with water, the tube of plafter of Paris was
covered with it; and on ufing the pump, it was im¬
mediately feen, that the water pafled through into it
as eafily as the air had done, when that was the am¬
bient fluid. After this, trying it with Venice tur¬
pentine inftead of water, the thing fucceeded very
well; and the tube might be perfectly exhaufted, and
would remain in that ftate feveral hours. After this,
on pouring fome hot oil upon the turpentine, the cafe
was much altered ; for the turpentine melting with
this, that became a thinner fluid, and in this ftate ca¬
pable of pa fling like water into the pores of the pla¬
fter. On taking away the tube after this, it was re¬
markable that the turpentine, which had pervaded
and filled its pores, rendered it tranfparent, in the
manner that water gives tranfparency to that Angular
ftone called oculus mundi. In this manner, the weight
of air, under proper management, will be capable of
making feveral forts of glues penetrate plafter of Pa¬
ris ; and not only this, but baked earth, wood, and
all other bodies, porous enough to admit water on this
occafion.
PLASTERING. See Pargetting.
PLASTIC, denotes a thing endowed with a for¬
mative power, or a faoulty of forming or fafhioning a
mafs of matter after the likenefs of a living being ;
fuch a virtue, as fome of the ancient Epicureans, and
perhaps the Peripatetics too, imagined to refide in the
earth, or at lead to have anciently refided therein, by
means whereof, and without any extraordinary inter¬
vention of a Creator, it put forth plants, &c. Some
of them feem to have been of opinion that animals,
and even man himfelf, were the effe&s #f this plaftic
power.
Plastic j4rt, the art of reprefenting all forts of
figures by the means of moulds. This term is deri¬
ved from the Greek word tfXanxn, which fignifies the
“ art of forming, modelling, or calling in a mould.”
A mould, in general, is a body that is made hollow for
that purpofe. The artitl makes ufe of them to form
figures in bronze, lead, gold, filver, or any other me¬
tal, or fufible fubllance. The mould is made of clay,
flucco, or other compofition, and is hollowed into the
form of the figure that is to be produced; they then
apply the jet, which is a fort of funnel, through which
the metal is poured that is to form the figures, and
that is called running the metal into the mould.
It is in this manner, but with much pra&ice and at¬
tention, that the arlitl forms, 1. Equeftrian and pe-
deftrian ftatues of every kind; 2. Groups; 3. Pede-
ftals; 4. Bafs reliefs; 5. Medallions; 6. Cannons,
mortars, and other pieces of artillery; 7. Ornaments
of architefture, as capitals, bafes, &c.; 8. Various
forts of furniture, as luftres, branches, &c. in every
kind of metal: and in the fame manner figures are
call in ftucco, plafter, or any other fufible matter.
Wax
P L A [ 6222 ] P L A
Phftle. Wax being a fubftance that is very eafily put in fu-
“ fion, plaftics makes much ufe of it. There are im-
prtffions which are highly pleafing in coloured wax,
of medallions, baffo and alto relievos, and of detach¬
ed figures; which however are fomewhat brittle.
But this matter has been carried too far: they have
not only formed moulds to reprefent the likenefs and
the buft of a living perfon, by applying the plafter
to the face itfelf, and afterward calling melted wax
into the mould; but they have alfo painted that
waxen buft with the natural colours of the face, and
have then applied glafs eyes and natural hair ; to
which they have joined a fluffed body and limbs,
with hands of wax ; and have, laftiy, dreffed their fi¬
gure in a real habit; and by thefe means have pro¬
duced an objedl the mod Ihocking and deteftable
that it is pomble to conceive. It is not a llatue, a
bull, a natural refemblance that they form; but a dead
body, a lifelefs countenance, a mere carcafe. The
ftiff air, the inflexible mufcles, the haggard eyes of
glafs, all contribute to produce an objeft that is hi¬
deous and difgultful to every man of tafte. Figures
like thefe offend by affording too exa6l an imitation of
nature. In no one of the polite arts ought imitation
ever to approach fo near the truth as to be taken for
nature herfelf. Illufion mull have its bounds; without
which it becomes ridiculous.
There is another invention, far more ingenious and
pleafing, which is that wherein M. Lippart, antiquary
and artift at Drefden, now excels. He has found the
means of refembling, by indefatigable labour, great
expence, and infinite talle, that immenfe number of
Hones, engraved and in camaieu, which are to be feen
in the moll celebrated cabinets. He has made choice
of thofe that are the molt beautiful; and, with a pafte
of his own invention, he takes from thefe Hones an im-
preffion that is furprifingly accurate, and which after¬
ward become as hard as marble : thefe imprefiions he
calls pajii. He then gives them a proper colour, and
indoles each with a gold rim; and, by ranging them
in a judicious order, forms of them an admirable fy-
llerr. They are fixed on palleboards, which form fo
many drawers, and are then inclofed in cafes, which
reprefent folio volumes, and have titles wrote on their
backs; fo that thefe.fiflitious books may conveniently
occupy a place in a library. Nothing can be more in¬
genious than this invention; and, by this method, per-
fons of moderate fortune are enabled to make a com¬
plete collection of all'antiquity has left that is excel¬
lent of this kind; and thefe copies are very little infe¬
rior to the originals.
There is alfo another method of taking the impref-
fions of camaieus, medals, and coins, which is as fol¬
lows : They wafh pr properly clean the piece whofe im-
prtfiion is to be taken, and furround it with a border
of wax. They then diffolve ifinglafs in water, and
make a decodlion of it, mixing with it fome vermilion
to give it an agreeable red colour. They pour this
paite, when hot, on the Hone or medal, to the thick-
nefs of about the tenth part of an inch ; they then
leave it expofed to the fun, in a place free from dull.
After a few days this pafte becomes hard, and offers
to the eye the inoll admirable and faithful reprefenta-
tion of the medal that it is pofiible to conceive: they
are then carefully placed in drawers; and thoufands of
thefe impreflions, which comprehend many ages, may Plata,
be included in a fmall compafs. ''——“
The proficients in plaltics have likewife invented the
art of calling, in a mould, papier mache or diffolved
paper, and forming it into figures in imitation of fculp-
ture, of ornaments and decorations for ceilings, furni¬
ture, &c. and which they afterwards paint or gild.
There are, however, fome inconveniencies attending
this art; as, for example, the imperfedlions in the
moulds, which render the contours of the figures inele¬
gant, and give them a heavy air: thefe ornaments,
moreover, are not fo durable as thofe of bronze or
wood, feeing that in a few years they are preyed on
by the worm.
The figures that are given to porcelain, delpht ware,
&c. belong alfo to plaftics; for they are formed by
moulds, as well as by the art of the fculptor and tur¬
ner ; and by all thefe arts united, are made vafes of
every kind, figures, groups, and other defigns, either
for ufe or ornament.
From this general article the reader is referred to
Founderv, Casting, Glass, China Ware, Papier-
Macbe, Pottery.
PLATA, the name of a very great river of South
America, running through the province of Paraguay;
whence the whole country is fometimes called Plata;
though this name is ufually bellowed only upon a part
of Paraguay. In the latter fenfe it comprehends all
that country bounded on the call and fouth-eaft by the
Atlantic Ocean; on the fouth, by Terra Magellanica;
on the weft, by Tucuman ; and on the north, by the
provinces of Paraguay Proper, and Parana. The great
river La Plata, from which the country has its name,
was firfl difeovered, in 1515, by Juan Diaz de Solis;
but denominated La Plata by Sebaftian Gabato, from
the great quantity of the precious metals he procured
from the adjacent inhabitants, imagining it was the
produce of the country, though in fadt they brought
it from Peru.
The country lies between 320 and 370 of fouth la¬
titude. The climate is pleafant and healthy. Their
winter is in May, June, and July, when the nights are
indeed very cold, but the days moderately warm; the
froft is neither violent nor lading, and the fnows are
very inconfiderable.
The country confifts moftly of plains of a vail ex¬
tent, and exceeding rich foil, producing all forts of Eu¬
ropean and American fruits, wheat, maiz, cotton, fu-
gar, honey, &c. and abounding with fuch excellent
paftures, that the beads brought hither from Spain are
multiplied to fuch a degree, that they are all in com¬
mon, no man claiming any property in them, but every
man takes what he hath occafion for. The number of
black cattle, efpecially, is fo prodigious, that many
.thoufands of them are killed merely for their hides,
every time the (hips go for Spain, and their careafes
left to be devoured by wild beafts and birds of prey,
which are alfo very numerous. Sometimes, when they
cannot vend their hides, they will kill them for their
tongues; and thofe who care not to be at the trouble
to fetch them from the plains, may buy them for a
trifle. There is a curious account in Lord Anfon’a
voyage of the manner of hunting them on horfeback;
and of catching and killing them, by throwing a noofe
on their horns at full gallop, the horfes being trained
to
P L A [ 622.3 ] P L A
to the fport. Hotfes are no lefs numerouaj and in
common, like the other cattle; fo that a man may
have as many as he pleafes for the catching ; and of
thofe that are already broke, one may buy fome of the
beft, and of the true Spanifh breed, fora piece-of eight
per head. Wild-fowl alfo is in great plenty here;
partridges, in particular, are more numerous, and as
large and tame as our hens, fo that one may kill them
with a ftick. Their wheat makes the fineft and whiteft
of bread; and, in a word, they feem to want for no¬
thing here, efpecially the natives, but fait and fuel.
The former the Spaniards have brought to them from
other parts; and the latter they fupply themfelves with,
by planting vaft numbers of almond, peach, and other
trees, which require no other trouble than putting the
kernels into the ground, and by the next year, we are
told, they begin to bear fruit. The return for Euro¬
pean commodities is fo great here, that it almott ex¬
ceeds belief; an ordinary two-penny knife fetching a
crown ; and a gun of the value of to or 12 (hillings,
20 or 30 crowns, and fo of the reft.
The river Plata rifes in Peru, and receives a great
many others in its courfe, the chief of which is the
Paraguay. The water of it is faid to be very clear and
fweet, and to petrify wood ; and contains fuch plenty
and variety of fi(h, that the people catch great quan¬
tities of them without any other inftrument than their
hands. It runs moftly to the fouth and fouth-eaft ;
and is navigable the greater part of its courfe by the
largeft veflels, and full of delightful iflands. All along
its banks are feen the moft beautiful birds of all kinds;
but it fometimes overflows the adjacent country to a
great extent, and is infefted by ferpents of a prodigious
bignefs. From its jun&ion with the Paraguay to its
mouth is above 200 leagues. We may form fome
judgment of its largenefs by the width of its mouth,
which is faid to be about 70 leagues. Before it falls
into the Paraguay, it is called Panama.
PLATVEiE, (anc. geog.), a very ftrong town
of Bceotia, in its fituation expofed to the north wind,
(Theophraftus) ; burnt to the ground by Xerxes,
(Herodotus, Juftinus) ; mentioned much in the courfe
of the Perfian war : Famous for the defeat of Mar-
donins, the Perfian general; and for the moft fig-
nal vi&ory of the Lacedaemonians and other Greeks
under Paufanias the Lacedaemonian, and Ariftides an
Athenian general, (Nepos, Diodorus, Plutarch)-; in
memory of which the Greeks ere&ed a temple to Ju¬
piter Eleutherius, and inftituted games which they
called Eleutheria; and there they (how the tombs of
thofe who fell in that battle, (Strabo). It flood at
the foot of mount Cithaeron, between that and Thebes
to the north, on the road to Athens and Megara,
and on the confines of Attica and Megaris. Now in
ruins.
PLATALEA, the Spoonbill, in ornithology, a
genus belonging to the order of grallae. The beak is
plain, and dilates towards the point into an orbicular
form ; the feet have three toes, and are half pal-
mated. There are three fpecies,. diftinguiftied by their
colour. They inhabit the continent of Europe. See
Plate CCXLIV. fig 3.
PLATANUS, the Plane-tree; a genus of the
polyandria order, belonging to the naonoccia clafs of
plants.
Species, t. The orientalis, oriental or eaftern plane- Platanu?.
tree,'rifes with a very ftraight fmooth branching Item,
to a great height. It has palmated leaves, fix or eight
in:hes long and as much broad, divided into five
large fegments, having the fide ones cut into two fmal-
ler, green above, and pale underneath ; and long pen¬
dulous pedunculi, each fuftaining feveral round heads
of clofe-fitting very fmall flowers; fucceeded by nu¬
merous downy feeds, colledted into round, rough, hard
balls. It is a native of Alia and many parts of
the eaft, and grows in great plenty in the Le¬
vant. 2. The occidentalis, occidental, or weftern
plane-tree, rifes with a ftraight fmooth ftem, to a
great height, branching widely around: it has lobated
leaves, feven or eight inches long, and from nine or
ten to twelve or fourteen broad, divided into three
large lobes; and very fmall flowers, collefted into
round heads, fucceeded by round, rough, balls of feed.
It is a native of Virginia, and other parts of North
America ; where it attains an enormous fize, and is
remarkable for having its ftem all of an equal girt for
a confiderable length: we have an account of fome trees
being eight or nine yards in circumference, and which
when felled afforded 20 loads of wood. The varie¬
ties of thefe two fpecies, are the Spanilh or middle
plane-tree, having remarkably large leaves of three
or five narrower fegments; and the maple-leaved plane-
tree, having fmalleft leaves, fomewhat lobated into
five fegments, refembling the mapple-tree leaf.
All thefe elegant trees are of hardy temperature,
fo as to profper here in any common foil, and expo-
fure in our open plantations, &c. and are fome of the
moft defirable trees of the deciduous tribe. They were
in fingular efteem among the ancients of the eaft, for
their extraordinary beauty,and thedelightful (hade they
afforded by their noble foliage. The leaves common¬
ly expand in May, and fall off early in autumn; and
the flowers appear in fpring, a little before the leaves,
being fucceeded by feeds, which in fine feafons fre¬
quently ripen here in September. Thefe fine trees
have fingular merit for all ornamental plantations.
Their ftraight growth, regular branching heads, and the
lofty ftature they attain, together with the extraordi¬
nary breadth of their luxuriant leaves, render them ex¬
tremely defirable furniture to adorn avenues, lawns,
parks, and woods; fome difpofed in ranges, fome as
fingle ftandards, others in clumps, Tome in groves,
&c. They are moft excellent for (hade ; for it is obfer-
vable, that no tree is better calculated to defend us
from the heat in fummer, by its noble fpreading fo¬
liage, and to admit the fun’s rays more freely in win¬
ter, on account of the diftance of its branches, which
is always in proportion to the fize of the leaves.. They
may alfo be employed in the colleftion of the foreft-
trees, in woods, to grow up to timber, in which they
will alfo prove advantageous in time. In (hort, thefe
noble trees^rlaim the efteem of every one concerned in
plantations of every kind ; but more particularly in
extenfive works, where they may be fo varioufly dif¬
pofed as to have a charming effedf.
The propagation of thefe trees is by feed, layers,
and cuttings. The feeds frequently ripen in thefe
parts, and are alfo procured from other countries, and
may be obtained of the nurferymen or feedfmen.
The beft feafon for lowing them is autumn, if they
cam
P L A [ 6224 ] P L A
Platanus can be then pofiibly procured. Choofe a fomevvhat
1 fliady moift foil : and having dug the ground, and ra*
ate' ked it fine, form it into four-feet wide beds, and ei¬
ther fcatter the feeds evenly on the furface and rake
them in, or previoufly with the back of a rake turn
the earth off the furface near half an inch deep into
the alleys; then fow the feed, and dirediy, with the
rake turned the proper way, draw the earth evenly
over the feeds, and trim the furface fmooth : many of
the plants will rife in fpring, and probably may not
till the fpring following. When they are one or two
years old, plant them out in nurfery rows, two or three
feet afunder, and about half that diftance in the lines;
here to remain till of a proper fize for final tranfplan-
tation. The method of propagation by layers is very
commonly pra&ifed in the nurferies, in default of feed,
and by which they molt readily grow; for which pur-
pofe, fome ftout plants for ftoois mull be planted,
which in a year after muft. be headed down near the
bottom, that they may throw out many (hoots near
the ground, convenient for laying ; which, in the au¬
tumn after they are produced, lay by for flit-laying ;
and by autumn after, they will be well -rooted, and
form plants two or three feet high, fo may be fepara-
ted, and planted in nnrfery-rows, like the feed'lings.
—Ail the forts will take tolerably by cutting off the
ftrong young (hoots; but the platanus cccidentalis more
freely than the oriental kind. Autumn is the bed
feafon: as foon as the leaf falls, choofe ftrong young
(hoots, and plant them in a moift foil ; many of them
will grow, and make tolerable plants by next autumn.
It mould be remarked, that in order to continue
the diftimftion of the varieties more effectually, they
(hould be propagated either by layers or cuttings: for
when raifed from feed, thofe of the refpeCtive fpecies
generally vary.
PLATBAND, in gardening, a border or bed of
(lowers, along a wall, or the fide of a parterre, fre¬
quently edged with box, &c.
Platband of a door or window, is ufed for the
lintel, where that is made fquare, or not much
marked.
PLATE, a term ufed by our fportfmen to ex-
prefs the reward given to the beft horfe at our races.
#/w/ .j/j, The winning a plate is not the work of a few days
Diftionary. to the owner of the horfe ; but great care and prepa¬
ration is to be made for it, if there is any great de¬
pendence on the fuecefs. A month is the lead time
that can be allowed to draw the horfe’s body dear, and
to refine his wind to that degree of perfection that is
attainable by alrt.
It is firft neceflary to take an exaCt view of his bo¬
dy, whether he be low or high in fleih ; and it is al-
fo neceffary to confider whether he be dull and heavy,
or bride and lively, when abroad. If he appear dull
and heavy, and there is reafon to fuppofe it is owing
to too hard riding, or, as the jockeys exprefs it, to
fome greafe that has been diffolved in hunting, and has
not been removed by fcouring, then the proper reme¬
dy is half an ounce of diapente given in a pint of good
fack; this will at once remove the caufe, and revive
the creature's fpirits. After this, for the firft week of
the month, he is to be fed with oats, bread, and fplit
beans ; giving him fometimes the one and fometimes
the other, as he likes beft ; and always leaving fome
in the locker, that he may feed at leifure when he is Plate, ;
left alone. When the groom returns at the feeding- Platform!
time, whatever is left of this muft be removed, and
frefh given ; by this means the creature will foon be- ' i
come high fpirited, wanton, and full of play. Every
day he muft be rode out an airing, and every ocher
day it will be proper to give him a little more ex-
ercife ; but not fo much as to make him fweat too
much. The beans and oats in this cafe are to be put
into a bag, and beaten till the hulls are all off, and
then winnowed clean ; and the bread, inftead of being
chipped in the common way, is to have the cruft clean
cut off. If the horfe be in good flefti and fpirits when
taken up for its month’s preparation, the diapente muft
be omitted ; and the chief bufinefs will be to give him
good food, and fo much exercife as will keep him in
wind, without over-fweating him or tiring his fpirits.
When he takes larger exercifes afterwards, towards
the end of the month, it will be proper to have fome
horfes in the place to run againft him. This will put
him upon his mettle, and the beating them will give
him fpirits. This, however, is to be cautioufly ob-
ferved, that he has not a bloody heat given him for
ten days or a fortnight before the plate is to be run
for; and that the laft heat that is given him the day
before the race, muft be in his clothes : this will
make him run with greatly more vigour, when drip¬
ped for the race, and feeling the cold wind on every
part.
In the fecond week, the horfe (hould have the fame
food, and more exercife. In the laft fortnight, he muft
have dried oats, that have been hulled by beating. After
this they are to be wetted in a quantity of whites of eggs
beaten up, and then laid out in the fun to dry; and
when as dry as before, the horfe is to have them. This
fort of food is very light of digeftion, and very good
for the creature’s wind. The beans in this time (hould
be given more fparingly, and the bread (hould be
made of three parts wheat and one part beans. If he
(hould become coltive under this courfe, he muft then
have fome ale and whites of eggs beaten together:
this will cool him, and keep his body moift.
In the laft week the mafii is to be omitted, and bar¬
ley-water given him in its place, every day, till the
day before the race : he (hould have his fill of hay ;
then he muft have it given him more fparingly, that
he may have time to digeft it ; and in the morning of
the race day, he muft have a toaft or two of white
bread foaked in fack, and the fame juft before he is
led out to the field. This is an excellent method, be-
caufe the two extremes of fullnefs and fading are at
this time to be equally avoided ; the one hurting his
wind, and the other occafioning faintnefs that may
make him lofe. After he has had his food, the litter
is to be (hook up, and the (table kept quiet, that he
may be difturbed by nothing till he is taken out to
run.
PLATFORM, in the military art, an elevation of
earth, on which cannon is placed, to fire on the ene¬
my ; fuch are the mounts in the middle of curtins.
On the ramparts there is always a platform, where the
cannon are mounted. It is made by the heaping up
of earth on the rampart, or by an arrangement of ma-
driers, rifing infenfibly, for the cannon to roll on, ei¬
ther in a cafemate, or on attack in the outworks. All
2 prac-
P L A [ 6225 } P L A
pratform, praftitronere are agreed, that no fhot can be depend-
p*atina‘ ed on, unlefs the piece can be placed on a folid plat¬
form •, for if the platform (hakes with the firft im*
pulfe of the powder, the piece muft likewife (hake,
which will alter its direftions and render the (hot un¬
certain.
Platform, in arehitefture, is a row of beams,
which fupport the timber-work of a roof, and lie on
the top of a wall, where the entablature ought to be
raifed.
This term is alfo ufed for a kind of terrace, or
broad fmooth open walk at the top of a building,
from whence a fair profpeft may be taken of the ad¬
jacent country. Hence an edifice is faid to be cover¬
ed with a platform, when it is fiat at top, and has no
ridge. Mod of the Oriental buildings are thus cover¬
ed, as were all thofe of the ancients.
Platform, or Or/of>, in a man of war, a place on
the lower deck, abaft the main mad, between it and
the cockpit, and round about the main capdan, where
provifion is made for the wounded men in time of ac¬
tion.
PLATINA, a metallic fubdance, analogous to the
perfeft metals, efpecially to gold, as many properties
are common to both.
Although metals, from their great utility, have been
always diligently fearched for, yet this has remained
undiftovered till lately; which is a very furprifing cir-
cumdance, and which feems to prove, that platina is
not, like the other metals, fcattered in different parts
of the world, and in all climates. Platina is found
in the golden mines of Spanidi America, and chiefly
in thofe of Santa Fe near Carthagena, and in the Bail-
liwick of Choco in Peru.
This metal was probably known to the workers of
thefe mines long before it was brought into Europe :
but as its colour is not very fine, and as it is almod
intraftable, efpecially by fufion, without addition,
they feem to have neglefted it, confidering it as fome
refra&ory mineral or marcafite : fome of them, how¬
ever, had attempted to melt it, and to make toys of it,
as tobacco-boxes and other things of that kind ; but
this mud certainly have been by allaying it with other
metals, as we (hall foon fee the impoffibility of their
eloing it otherwife.
Neverthelefs, this metal continued to be fo neglec¬
ted, that it was entirely unknown in Europe till Don
Antonio Ulloa, a Spanifh mathematician, who accom-
-panied the French academicians fent by the king of
France to Peru to determine the figure of the earth
by meafuring a degree of the meridian, fird mention¬
ed it in the relation of his voyage, printed at Madrid
in the year 1748 : but he fays little of it, and repre-
fents it as an untraftable metallic done, which impe¬
ded the extra&ion of gold from the ore when it was
in a large, quantity. This account was not very like¬
ly to excite the curiofity of chemids concerning a new
perfedt metal, and a matter fb intereding and furpri¬
fing as they afterwards found it to be.
But before that time, that is, in 1741, an Englifh
metallurgid, called Woody who had brought from Ja¬
maica fome fpecimens of it, which he was informed
had come from Carthagena, attended more to it, and
made fome good chemical trials of it. Since that time,
feveral chemids, -the chief of which are M. Scheffer,
Vol. VIII. 1
of the Swedifli Academy, and Dr Lewis, of the Royal PlaYina
Society of London, have very particularly cxami-
ned this lingular metal, and have publifhed their ex¬
periments. Dr Lewis has in fome meafure exhauded
this matter, in four excellent memoirs communicated
to the Royal Society. Platina was, neverthelefs,
little known in France till the year 1758, when Mr
Morin collefted, tranllated into French, and publifli-
ed, an account of all that had hitherto been done up¬
on platina, in a work entitled, Platina, •whitegold, an
eighth metal.
This publication excited the curiofity of French
chemids, to whom it was a new and intereding ob-
jeft ; but the difficulty of obtaining a matter fo dear,
prevented all of them from being able to fatisfy their
defire of examining it. Meffrs Macquer and Beaum£
were the only perfons who made experiments upon it,
which they have publilhed amongd the Memoirs of the
Academy for the year 1751.
About the fame time alfo, Mr Margraaf exami¬
ned platina, and publifhed a differtation concern¬
ing it.
Thefe are the only chemids who have examined, at
lead who publiflied their refearches concerning this
new metal. But although their number be fraall, yet
their experiments are fo numerous, made with fuch ac¬
curacy, and in general fo confident with each other,
that, by colle&ing and comparing them, we may ac¬
quire a certain and almod as extenfive knowledge of
platina as of the other metals that have been known
from time immemorial. The mod general and certain
refults of the experiments made by the above-men¬
tioned chemids are the following.
Platina, a Spaniffi word, is a diminutive of plata,
which in that language fignifies Jiher. It is therefore
called by the Spaniards little fiber. This name is im¬
proper ; fince it refembles filver only in being inde-
flruftible, and very imperfeftly in its colour. The
name of white gold, given to it by fome chemids, is
more fuitable : for we (hall fee that it refembles gold
more than any one metal refembles any other; and
hence we (hall chiefly compare it to gold.
We do not certainly know the origin and natural
hidory of platina. We can only affert, that all that
we fee in maffes, or worked into forms, is not pure
nor in its natural date; for we are certain that it is
unfufible, without addition, by the mod violent fire of
our furnaces, unlefs perhaps where the fire is blown
up by dephlogidicated air, or when precipitated from
aqua regia, as we (hall afterwards fee. All the platina
that is found in the cabinets of curious perfons con-
fids of fmall angular grains, the corners of which
are a little rounded. It is mixed with a confiderable
quantity of fmall black fand, as attraftable by mag¬
nets as the bed iron, but unfoluble by acids, unfufible,
and untradiable. This fand is perfeftly fimilar to that
which is found at St Quay in Bretagne. The grains
of platina are alfo frequently interfperfed with par-
ticlesof fparand of quartz, and fometimes with fpangles
of gold. Mefl'rs Macquer and Beaume found a pretty
large fpangle of gold in the platina examined by
them. But thefe heterogeneous matters are quite fo¬
reign to platina, and are not combined with it; for
it contains nothing extraneous excepting a little'gold
and mercury, which latter fubflance it probably receives
35 B during
P L A [ 6226 ] P L A
Platina. during the operations for extra&ing gold from the ores
 by the means of mercury. Thefe matters may ealilybe
feparated from the platina without decompofing it, by
walhing and by magnets. Some chemifts, who know
platina only by name, and deny that it is a peculiar
metal, have therefore, with great impropriety, advan¬
ced, that Mr Margraaf had decompofed it, and had
obtained from it gold, iron, and arfenic. The con¬
trary appears from Mr Margraaf’s Differtation. Mr
Margraaf only feparated the heterogeneous matters
which were merely mixed with platina, as other che¬
mifts have done ; but he is too good a chemift to
pretend that he has decompofed it: on the contrary,
he does not hefitate to call it a perfeft metal, which
name is alfo given to it by all who underftaud me¬
tals.
The colour of the grains of platina is metallic,
white, livid, not very brilliant, intermediate betwixt
the white of filver and the grey of iron. At firft
view they referable large filings of iron. They are
fmooth, and are nearly as hard as iron ; they are
fomewhat ductile ; fo that fome of them may be flat¬
tened upon an anvil, while others are bruifed into fmall
pieces.
The fpecific gravity of platina is very great, and
nearly equal to that of gold. In water it lofes only
fomething betwixt an eighteenth and a nineteenth part
ot its weight.
The tenacity of the parts of this metal has not been
determined, becaufe it cannot be formed into a proper
figure to make the experiment. But if this quality
is proportionable to the duftility and hardnefs of me¬
tals, we may prefume, that as platina is much harder
than gold, its tenacity is alfo greater, if all the duc¬
tility of which it feems fufceptible could be given to
it by art.
Platina is, like pure gold and filyer, free from all
fmell and tafte. It is unalterable by the combined
a£lion of air and water, and is no more fufceptible than
the other perfeft metals of acquiring ruft. Like them
alfo it is indeftru&ible by the moft violent and long-
continued fire : but the property which peculiarly di-
llinguilhes this metal is its unfufibility by the moft in-
tenfe heat.
As fufion is neceflary for the application of metals
to ufe, chemifts have made their utmoft efforts to melt
platina. The moft violent heat which could be railed
in air-furnaces, or by the united aftion of feveral
large bellows, has been applied repeatedly, and con¬
tinued a long time, without fuccefs. In all thefe trials,
the grains of platina remained unaltered in form and
weight, and were only agglutinated to each other,
nearly as fand is by expofure to violent heat, but fo
(lightly, that by the fmalleft effort they were fepa-
rable. Meflrs Macquer and Beaumc expofed platina
during five days and five nights to the greateft heat of
a glafs-houfe furnace, which trial did only confirm the
unfufibility and unalterability of platina by ordinary
fires, as it was found to be only a little agglutinated,
and its weight to be a little increafed ; which latter
phenomenon has been alfo obferved by Mr Margraaf,
and which was undoubtedly owing to the fixed airab-
forbed by the calces of the imperfect metals mixed
with it. Laftly, Mefirs Macquer and Beaume, ha¬
ving expofed platina to the focus of a large burning-
glafs, melted a little of it in a minute. It firft fmoked, Phtii
then emitted fparks, and thofe parts of it melted well
which were expofed to the centre of the focus. Thefe
chemifts carefully examined the properties of this pla¬
tina. According to their memoir, the melted parts were
diftinguifliable from the others by a brilliancy like that
of filver, and by a rounded, (hining, polilhed furface.
They were eafily flattened upon an anvil, and formed
into very thin plates without cracking or fplitting; fo
that thefe grains feemed to be much more malleable
than platina in its natural ftate. Thefe metals by re¬
peated ftrokes of the hammer became hard and brittle,
as all other metals do, particularly gold and filver ;
and by annealing, their malleability was reftored, as
it is alfo to other metals by the fame means. After
experiments fo certain and well authenticated, we can¬
not doubt that platina is truly a metal, and even a
third metal, as perfeft in its kind as gold and filver are
in theirs. This propofition will be further confirmed by
the other properties of platina.
Platina refills as perfeftly as gold the aftion of the
vitriolic, marine, or nitrous acids; in a word, of any
pure acid, in whatever manner applied. Thefe acids,
concentrated or diluted, may be boiled any length of
time upon platina without diflblving an atom of it:
but a mixture of nitrous and marine acids, aqua regia,
the folvent of gold, is alfo the folvent of platina.
Meffrs Macquer and Beaume have obferved, that an
aqua regia compofed of equal parts of the two acids
diffolves moft of this metal. But, however the aqua
regia is made, more of it is required to diflblve platina
than gold. Thefe chemifts employed a pound of
aqua regia to diffolve an ounce of platina. All the
acid of this quantity of aqua regia was not indeed
employed to diffolve the platina, becaufe much of it
was diffipated in vapours during the operation, from
the long time employed in the folution ; and therefore,
if the operation had been performed in clofe veffels,
and by diftillation and cohobation, as Dr Lewis did,
a lefs quantity of aqua regia would have been fuf-
ficient: but this is a matter of fmall importance.
Aqua regia requires to be aflifted by the heat of a
fand- bath, and alfo a confiderable time, to diffolve platina
well. Although the colour of this metal is white, its
folution is very yellow, even deeper than that of golcj.
When a fmall quantity of platina only is diffolved in
aqua regia, or when a faturated folution is much di¬
luted, a beautiful yellow colour is produced, undiftin-
guifliable from that of a folution of gold : but while
the aqua regia becomes more and more faturated
with platina, its colour becomes more and more in-
tenfe, and at laft red ; but this apparent rednefs evi¬
dently proceeds from nothing but the intenfity of the
yellow colour ; for this faturated folution is rendered
yellow by dilution with water. In this circumftance
it is fimilar to tin&ure of faffron.
The folution of platina in aqua regia is acid and
corrofive, and from it a neutral cryftallizable fait may
be obtained. When the acids employed are concen¬
trated, and when the folution is nearly faturated, a
confufed cryftallization is formed at the bottom of the
matrafs, which may be found to be a heap of very
fmall, yellow, tranfparent cryftals. Thefe cryftals of
platina may be obtained much larger and more beauti¬
ful by evaporating the folution of platina with a very
Platina.
P L A [ 6227 ] P L A
flow fire, and by cooling it very flowly. The folu-
tion of platina tinges the Ikin and other animal mat¬
ters with a blackifh brown colour in certain circum-
ftances, (in which refpeA it refembles the folutions
of gpld, filver, and of mercury) ; and ether mixed
with this folution by agitation quickly feparates from
it, and becomes tinged with a fine yellow colour, pre-
cifely as it does when it is treated in the fame manner
with afolution of gold. This experiment (hews, that
ether, and probably other attenuated oily matters,
take platina, as they do gold, for aqua regia ; and
hence we may perceive another inftance of the con¬
formity of thofe two metals. But as ether does not
acquire nearly fo intenfe a colour as the folution of
platina, we may infer that it only receives a fmall
quantity of- this metal. Befides, the platina foon fe-
prarates fpontaneoufly from the ether.
Platina may be precipitated from its folvent by fixed
and volatile alkalis: and thefe precipitates are all of a
yellow brick-colour, when only fo much alkali is em¬
ployed as is neceffary to faturate the acid of the folu¬
tion ; but are of a paler colour when a fuperabundant
quantity of alkali is employed, or when they are di-
gefted in alkali. Mr Margraaf mentions a very lin¬
gular fatft concerning the precipitation of platina by
alkalis; namely, that although vegetable fixed alkali,
and even volatile alkali, precipitated this metal from
aqua regia ; yet the mineral alkali, though in other in-
llances equal in power of union to the former alkali,
and fuperior to the latter, produced no precipitation,
even when fo much of it was added as to faturate the
acid, nor even difturbed the tranfparency of the liquor.
The above colours of precipitates of platina, according
to Mr Macquer,proceed from a large quantity of faline
matters which precipitate along with them, and which
llrongly adhere to them, and not from any calcina¬
tion of this metal, or lofs of its phlogifton. The
proof of this is, that if the cryftals or preciptates of
platina be expofed to ftrong heat, the faline matters
which adhere to them are expelled, the colour occa-
fioned by them is loft, and the platina recovers, with¬
out any addition, its ordinary metallic ftate.—However,
there is no reafon here to fuppofe an adhefion of faline
matter to the precipitate, which never can be proved,
and befides is very improbable, fince we know not any
fnbftance which has fo great an attradlion for falls as
water. Under the article Phlogiston, it is explain¬
ed how the calx of a metal may be revived merely
by heat, without any apparent addition of phlogiftic
matter.
All the above-mentioned phenomena exhibited by
platina treated with acids and alkalis are fimilar to
thofe which gold exhibits in fimilar circumftances: but
platina has alfo in this refpeft fome peculiar proper¬
ties, by which it differs from gold. 1. The folution
of platina aquires a deeper colour than that of gold.
2. The precipitate of platina made by volatile alkali
does not fulminate as that of gold does. 3. Tin does
not produce from the folution of platina a purple pre¬
cipitate, capable of tinging glafs, as it does from a
folution of gold.
Neither nitre, which quickly and effedlually calcines
all imperfeft metals; nor corrdfive fublimate, the acid
of which, being very much concentrated, a&s upon
almoft all metals ; nor any other neutral fait, could
2
occafion the fmalleft alteration upon platina or upon
gold. _
This Angular metal refifts, as well as gold does,
the aftion of fulphur, which fo powerfully diffolvts
other metals. From Dr Lewis’s experiments we find,
that liver of fulphur is capable of diffolving platina,
as it does alfo gold, by fufion. Mr Margraaf’s ex¬
periments leave this matter uncertain: but if, as we
have reafon to believe, liver of fulphur does diffolve p!a-
tina, this is another inftance of the conformity of this
metal with gold.
Almoft all metallic fubftanck are capable of fepa-
rating platina from aqua regia, as they a!fo feparate
gold. Platina precipitated by thefe fubftances has its
metallic appearance. In this refpedl it conforms with
a general rule, that metals precipitated by other me¬
tals have their metallic appearance.
Mr Margraaf relates, in his memoir, a great num¬
ber of experiments which he made to difeover the ef-
fe&s of mixing a folution of platina with other metallic
folutions, and alfo of digefting pure platina with thefe
folutions and other faline fubftances. Thefe experi¬
ments furnilhed many curious and interefting fadsbut
as feveral of them do not feem to be confiftent with
the effential and afeertained properties of platina, nor
even with fimilar experiments made by other chemifts,
there feems reafon to believe that thefe fingulaiities
obferved by this able chemift proceeded from fome ex¬
traneous matters with which his platina was allayed.
From moft of thefe experiments, as, for inftance,
from the yellow flowers obtained by fubliming platina
with fal ammoniac, and from the blue precipitate
formed by mixing his folution of platina with a lixivi¬
um of Pruffian blue, we may conclude, that iron was
the metal with which his platina was allayed, as he
himfelf fays.
Platina, like gold, is capable of being allayed with
all metals, and in thefe allays exhibits interefting phe¬
nomena. Dr Lewis has examined thefe allays more
carefully and fully tbao any other perfon. The fol¬
lowing is an epitome of Dr Lewis’s obfervations on the
fubjeft.
Platina, although very unfufible when alone, may
however be *fufed along with other metals with which
it is capable of combining. Equal parts of gold and
platina may be melted in a violent fire, and the allay
which is formed may be eafily poured into an ingot
mould. It is whitifh, hard, and may be broken by a
violent blow. Neverthelefs, when it has been well an¬
nealed, it is capable of confiderable extenfion under
the hammer. One part of platina and four parts of
gold may be melted and allayed with a much lefs fire
than is requifite in the preceding experiment. This
allay is fo duftile, that it may be extended into very
thin plates, without being broken, or even fplitat the
edges. Dr Lewis obferved a remarkable circumftance
concerning this allay, namely, that the platina, which
was f of the whole mafs, rendered the gold no paler
than guineas are, which contain only ^of filver.
Silver and platina may be melted and allayed toge¬
ther in equal parts with a very violent fire. The allay
which is formed is much harder and darker-coloured
than filver, and of a large grain, although it prefervea
fome du&ility. Thefe qualities are lefs fenfible when
one part of platina is added to feven parts of the filver;
35 B 2 but
P L A [ 6228 1 P L A
Phtina. but this allay ia ftill coarfer-grained and hcfs white than
' filver. This coarfenefs of grain (hows an imperfect
union: and indeed filver and platina do not feem to
unite very intimately ; for Dr Lewis obferves, that
when the allay of thefe two metals was left after fufion
in the crucible, a confiderable part of the platina was
feparated and funk to the bottom. The platina did
not appear to communicate any good quality to the
filver, excepting a greater hardnefs.
Copper feems to be moft improved by being allayed
with platina. When indeed a large proportion of
platina is added to copper, as equal parts or two-
thirds, the allay is hard, brittle, and coarfe; but
when a lefs quantity of platina is added, as from ^
to -yy, or even lefs, a golden-coloured copper is pro¬
duced, very malleable, harder, fufceptible of a finer
polifii, fmoother-grained, and much kfs fubje& to cal¬
cination and ruft, than pure copper.
Dr Lewis was not able to fufe forged iron with
platina ; which is not fuprifing, when we confider the
refradtory qualities of thefe two metals : but he allayed
platina with caft-iron, by throwing one part of platina
to four parts or more of the iron when it was juft be¬
ginning to flow. This allay was much harder, and
much lefs fubjedt to ruft, than pure iron. It was
fufceptible of a very fine polilh.
Platina may be melted with tin in all proportions,
from equal parts of the two metals to 24 parts of tin.
This allay was obferved to be fo much harder, more
brittle, more dark-coloured, and coarfer, as the pro¬
portion of the platina was larger. No advantage
feemed to be acquirable by this allay. Lead alfo may
be allayed in different proportions with platina, nearly
as tin may ; with this difference, that a much greater
fire is neceffary for the formation of this latter allay,
particularly when the quantity of platina is great.
The metal refulting from it has a dark colour, fome-
what approaching to a purple or violet, or it eafily
acquires thefe colours when expofed to the air. When
-the two metals fufed together are left in a crucible to
eool, a confiderable part of the platina feparates and
falls to the bottom, in the fame manner as it does
from the allay of filver.
From Dr Lewis’s experiments, platinn appears to
be capable of amalgamating with mercury, but diffi¬
cultly, and by a very long trituration with water, as,
for inftance, during a week.
If mercury be triturated with an allay of gold and
platina, it feizes the gold, and does not touch the
platina. Dr Lewis propofes this amalgamation as a
method of feparating thefe two metals; and it is that
which is employed in the ores of Peru, in which gold
and platina are mixed together: but we do not yet know
whether this reparation be perfe&ly complete.
Platina may be allayed with bifmuth nearly as with
with lead, and in a fimiiar manner feparates from the
bifmuth after fufion. It gives to bifmuth alfo, as it
does to lead, the property of acquiring, by expofure
to air, violet, purple, or blue colours. This allay is
al ways very brittle.
Of all metallic matters, zinc may be moft eafily al¬
layed with platina, and moft effeftuaily diffolved by
fufiom Dr Lewis obferved, that thefe allays did not
appear very different from pure zinc ; but that when
the proportion of platina is confiderable, their grain is
clofer, their colour lefs clear and more bluifti, than of Platina,
zinc. They do not tarnifh nor change colours by ex- ~
pofure to air. Laftly, they are harder than zinc, and
have not the femi-malleability of this femi-metal.
With regulus of antimony platina formed a darl^r
and harder compound than the pure regulus.
Dr Lewis has combined platina at the fame time
with two metallic matters, fuch as with brafs compo-
fed of copper and zinc, and with bronze compofed of
copper and tin. The moft fingular phenomenon of
this latter allay was, that the copper and tin afting
conjointly upon the platina were capable of diffolving
more of it than they both could do feparately. This
allay was hard, and capable of receiving a fine poliih,
but is fubjeft to tarnifh; which feems to happen to
all the allays of tin or of lead with platina.
Equal parts of platina and brafs formed a compound
very hard and very brittle, capable of receiving a very
fine poliih, and not fubjeA to tarniih. It is poffible,
therefore, that it might be employed for fpeculums of
telefcopes, and would be much preferable to thofe
now ufed ; all which have the great difadvantage of
tarniihing by expofure to air, and even very quickly.
Dr Lewis does not mention the effe&s of allaying
platina with arfenic ; but Mr Scheffer affirms, that if
only a twentieth part of arfenic be added to platina
when red-hot in a crucible, thefe two fubftances will
be perfe&ly fufed, and will form a brittle gray mafs.
This remarkable experiment requires confirmation ;
for Mr Margraaf, having alfo treated thefe two mat¬
ters together, did not perceive any fuch adtion of ar¬
fenic upon platina. From one of his experiments we
find, that having expofed to a violent fire daring an
hour a mixture of an ounce of platina with a fufible
glafs, compofed of eight ounces of minium, two oun¬
ces of flints, and one ounce of white arfenic, he ob¬
tained a regulus of platina, well united and fufed,
which weighed an ounce and 32 grains, the furfaceof
which was fmooth, white and fhining, and the inter¬
nal parts grey, but which neverthdefs appeared fuffi-
ciently white when it was filed.
The cupellation of platina was one of the moft im¬
portant experiments to be made ; becaufe if this ope¬
ration fucceeded perfe&ly, we might thereby obtain
compaft and malleable maffes of pure platina, in the
fame ftate as a metal which had been well fufed, and
of which all forts of utenfils might be made, if not by
calling it, at leaft by forging. All the chemifts who
have examined this metal, and particularly Dr Lewis,
have ufed their utmoil endeavours to cupel it well.
But although they have ufed every expedient to apply
the ftrongeft heat, they have not perfedlly fucceeded.
The fcorification proceeds well at the beginning of the
operation, as when gold and filver are cupelled : but
the cupellation afterwards becomes more and more dif¬
ficult ; becaufe, as the quantity of lead diminiflies,
the matter becomes lefs and lefs fufible, and at laft
ceafes to be fluid, notwithftanding the moft violent
heat; and alfo becaufe, when the quantity of platina
is greater than that of the lead, this latter metal is
protedled, and is not converted into litharge. Hence
the regulus obtained is always dark-coloured, rough,
adhering to the cupel, brittle, and weighing more than
the platina originally employed, from the lead whhch
remains muted with it. Meff. Maequer and Beaume
appear
P L A
Platina. appear nevcrthdefs to have carried this experiment
further than any other chemifts, as they kept the
matter expofed to a violent fire during a longer time,
that is, about 50 hours fuccefiively : therefore, al¬
though their platina was tarnifhed and rough on its
furface, it was internally white and fhining, eafily fe-
parable from the cupel, and a little diminiihed in
weight; a certain proof that no lead remained in it.
This platina was alfo duftile, and capable of extenfion
Under the hammer.
Cupellation is therefore a certain method of applying
platina to ufe, and of forming it into utenfife.
Some further and very important experiments have
been made on this Angular metallic fubftance by
Meff. Buffon, De Lifie, and Morveau. M. BufFon
feparated, by means of a magnet, fix parts out
of feven of a parcel of platina. He diftinguilhed
two different matters in platina ; of which one is black,
friable, and attraftable by magnets; and the other
confifts of larger grains, is of a livid white or yellowilh
colour, much lefs attra&able, and is extenfible. Be¬
tween thefe two different matters are many interme¬
diate particles, fome partaking more of the former,
and fome of the latter. He thinks that the black
matter is chiefly iron ; and he fays, that he has obfer-
veda fimilar black powder in many ores of iron. M.
Morveau found, that a Prufllan blue could be obtained
from the black part of the platina, by pouring upon
it fpirit of nitre, and afterwards adding to the folu-
tion diluted fome phlogifticated alkali ; and that the
particles of platina which could not be attra&ed by
magnets, did not by this method ihew any fign of
their containing iron.
But the mod important difcovery that has been
made concerning platina, is a method of melting
it, by which it becomes a perfeft metal, malleable,
and denfer than gold. M. De Lifle effefted this,
by diffolving crude platina in ^.qua regia, precipi¬
tating it from the acid menftruum by fal ammo¬
niac, and by fufing this precipitate, without addi¬
tion, in a double crucible, expofed to the intenfe heat
of a forge-fire excited by double bellows. M. Mor¬
veau has repeated this experiment. From 72 grains
of platina he obtained a regulus, which weighed 504-
grains, and feemed to have undergone a very imper-
feft fufion ; for it did not adhere to the crucible, nor
take its form, but feemed to be the platina merely re¬
vived. Its fpecific gravity alfo was found to be to
that of water no more than as 10.045 t0 I- ^ut
was found to be nearly as malleable as filver; and
when it had been fufficiently hammered, its fpecific
gravity was found to be to water as 20.170 to 1.
M. Morveau found that he could melt the preci¬
pitate with feveral fluxes; fuch as, a mixture of white
glafs, borax, and charcoal, and a mixture of white
glafs and neutral arfenical fait; and that the regulus
thus obtained was more completely fufed, but was not
malleable, and was capable of being attracted by mag¬
nets ; whereas the regulus obtained without addition
did not give this mark of containing iron. He fur¬
ther found, that by means of the above-mentioned
flux of white glafs, borax, and charcoal, be could
melt crude platina, and could allay together platina
and fteel in various proportions.
The fciences, commerce, and arts, muff receive
great advantages from the application of a. newperfeft-
P L A
metal to ufeful purpofes, which to the fixity and in- Platina,
deftruftibility of gold, unites a hardnefs and folidity plato-
almoft equal to thofe of iron ; which is unalterable by
the aftion of water and air; is not fubjeft to ruft ;
and refills, as well as glafs or earthen veffels, all falts,
even aquafortis and other pure acids. It is to be re¬
gretted, that, although large quantities of it are found
in America, it is fo exceedingly rare here.
The caufe of this great fcarcity of platina is, that
the Spanifli miniftry have prohibited the fale of it, or
the extraflion of it from the mines. Thefe prohibi¬
tions were certainly from good motives and wife in¬
tentions: for this metal was no fooner known, than it
was employed for the adulteration of gold ; for which
purpofe it is very fit, as it fuftains all the ordinary
trials of gold, has the fame fpecific gravity, and ren¬
ders gold much lefs pale than filver. The ufe of a
metal with which frauds fo prejudicial might be
committed with impunity, was neceffarily interdi&ed :
but fince the bell chemills of Europe have examined
platina, they have publilhed certain and eafy methods
by which the fmalleft quantity of platina mixed with
gold may be difcovered, and by which thefe metals
may be feparated, in whatever proportion they may
happen to be united. As a particular detail of thefe
methods would exceed our bounds, we (hall here relate
only one of the mod convenient and lead troublefome.
It is founded on a property which gold has, and not
platina, of being capable of precipitation from aqua
regia by martial vitriol; and upon a property which
platina has, and not gold, of being capable of preci¬
pitation from aqua regia by fal ammoniac. When
therefore we would difcover if gold be allayed with
platina, let it be diffolved in aqua regia ; and to this
folution, which will contain both metals, let fome fal
ammoniac, diffolved in water, be added ; upon which
the platina will be precipitated in form of a brick-
coloured fediment. If, on the other fide, we would
know if platina contained any gold, let this platina be
diffolved in aqua regia, and to the folution add a folu¬
tion of martial vitriol in water; upon which the liquor
will become turbid, and the gold will form a precipi¬
tate which may be eafily feparated by decanting and
filtrating the liquor.
We may then affirm, that the reafons which indu¬
ced the Spanifli miniitry to interdift the ufe of platina
no longer fubfift ; and we hope, that, when they
are once convinced of this, fociety (hall no longer be-
deprived of a fubftance which may be fo advantageous
to them, and which may be a new fource of wealth to
the crown of Spain, the foie proprietor of this pre¬
cious treafure.
PLATO, a mod illuftriousphilofopher of antiquity,,
was born at Athens about 430 B. C. He was a
perfon of very great quality ; being defcended by his
father’s fide from royal anceftors, and by his mother’s
fide from Solon.. He was educated in a manner fuit-
able to his rank : he learned grammar, mathematics,
mufic, and painting. In his firft years he addi&ed
hirafelf much to poetry ; he wrote odes and dithyram-
bics firft, and afterwards epic poetry : which lall,
finding much inferior to Flomer’s, he burned. Then
he betook himfelf to writing tragedies, and had pre¬
pared one to contend for the prize at the Olympic
theatre : but the day before it ftiould have been pre-
fented, he happened to hear Socrates, and was fo
charmed"
[ 6229 ]
P L A [ 6230 ] P L A
to- charmed with his way of difcourfing, that he not only
forbore the conteft at that time, but negle&ed poetry
ever after, and even deftroyed all his poems.
He was about the 20th year of his age, when he
became a follower of Socrates, and began to ftudy
philofophy, This great mafter, foon obferving in
Plato a greater genius than common, was mightily
taken with him; he advifed him to read Homer
often ; and from thence Plato brought himftlf to con¬
ceive and fpeak of things in a lofty, copious, and
flriking manner. Plato was equally attached to So¬
crates : he raifed a confiderable fum of money to pro¬
cure his releafe, after he was imprifoned upon the ac-
cnfations of his enemies; and when this failed, had
the boldnefs to harangue in defence of him to the
people, which he began to do fo pathetically, that
the magiftrates, fearing a tumult, caufed him to be
iilenced. Eight years he lived with Socrates; in
which time he committed, as did Xenophon and his
other difciples, the fubftance of his mailer’s difcourfes
to writing. Of this he compofed dialogues; but with
fo great additions of his own, that Socrates, hearing
him recite his Lyfis, cried out, “ O Hercules! how
many things does this young man feign of me 1” for,
as Laertius adds, many of thofe things which Plato
writ, Socrates never fpoke.
The philofophers who were at Athens were fo
alarmed at the death of Socrates, that moft of them
fled the city to avoid the injuftice and cruelty of the
government. Plato, whofe grief upon this occafion
is fajd by Plutarch to have been exceffive, retired to
Megara; where he was friendly entertained by Eu¬
clid, who had been one of Socrates’s firft fchdars, till
the ftorm was over. Afterwards he determined to tra¬
vel in purfuit of knowledge; and from Megara he
went to Italy, where he conferred with Eurytus, Phi-
lolaus, and Archytas. Thefe were the moft celebra¬
ted of the followers of Pythagoras, whofe doflrine was
then become famous in Greece; and from thefe the
Pythagoreans have affirmed that he had all bis natural
philofophy. He dived into the molb profound and
myfterious fecrets of the Pythagoric do&rines; and
perceiving other knowledge to be conne&ed with them,
he went to Cyrene, where he learned geometry of
Theodorus the mathematician. From thence he paf-
ftd into Egypt, to acquaint himfelf with the theology
of their priefts, to ftudy more nicely the proportions
of geometry, and to inftruft himfelf in aftronomical
obfervations ; and having taken a full furvey of all the
country, he fettled for fome time in the province of
Sais, learning of the wife men there, what they held
concerning the univerfe, whether it had a beginning,
whether it moved wholly or in part, &c. ; and Pau-
fanias affirms, that he learned from thefe the immor-
tdity, and alfo the tranfmigration, of fouls. Some
of the fathers will have it, that he had communication
with the books of Mofes, and that he ftudied under
one Sechnuphis, a learned man of Heliopolis, who
was a Jew : but there is nothing that can be called
evidence for thefe aftertions. St Audio once believed
that Plato had fome conference with Jeremiah ; but
afterwardsdifeovered, that that prophet muft. have been
dead at leaft 60 years before Plato's voyage to Egypt.
Plato’s curiofity was not yet fatistied. He travelled
into Pcrfia, to confult the magi about the religion of
that country : and he defigned to have penetrated even |Plato;
to the Indies, and to have learned of the Brachmans "
their manners and cuftoms; but the wars in Afia hin¬
dered him.
Being returned to Athens from his travels, he ap-
pl!?d to the teaching philofophy, which at that time
was the moft honourable profeffion there. He fet up
his fchool in the academy, a place of exercife in the
fuburbs of the city, befet with woods; and this, not
being a very healthy fituation, brought a quartan ague
on him, which lafted 18 months. The phyficians ad¬
vifed him to remove to the Lycseum; but he refufed,
and anfwered, “ I would not live on the top of Athos,
to linger away life and it was from the academy,
that his fed! took the name of Academics. Yet-fettled
as he was, he afterwards made feveral voyages abroad:
one particularly to Sicily, in order to view the fiery
ebullitions of Mount iEtna. Dionyfius the tyrant
reigned then at Syracufe; a very bad man; for, as Ci¬
cero relates, after he had robbed a temple at Locris,
and was returning by fea to Sicily with a profperous
gale, he faid to his companions, “ You fee, my friends,
how the gods favour facrilege.” Plato went to fee
him ; but inftead of flattering him like a courtier, re¬
proved him for the diforders of his court and the in¬
juftice of his government. The tyrant, not ufed to
difagreeable truths, grew enraged at Plato; and would
have put him to death, if Dion and Ariftomenes, for¬
merly his fcholars, and then favourites of that prince,
had not powerfully interceded in his behalf. Dionyfius
was content to deliver him into the hands of an envoy
of the Lacedaemonians, who were then at war with the
Athenians; and this envoy, touching upon the coaft of
^Egina, fold him for a flave to a merchant of Cyrene,
who as foon as he had bought him fent him away to
Athens. Some time after, he made a fecond voyage
into Sicily in the reign of Dionyfius the Younger;
who fent Dion, his minifter and favourite, to invite
him to court, that he might learn from him the art of
governing his people well. Plato accepted the invi¬
tation, and went; but the intimacy between Dion and
Plato raifing jealoufy in the tyrant, the former was dif-
graced, and the latter fent back to Athens.
His fame was now fpread far and wide; and feveral
ftates, among which were the Arcadians and Thebans,
fent ambafladors with earneft requefts that he would
come over, not only to inftrudl the young men in phi¬
lofophy, but alfo to preferibe them laws of govern¬
ment. The Cyrenians, Syracufians, Cretans, and E-
leans, fent alfo to him: he did not go to any of them,
but gave laws and rules of governing to all. He lived
fingle, yet foberly and cbaftly. He was a man of great
virtues, and exceedingly affable; of which we need no
greater proof, than his civil manner of converfing wiih
the philofophers of his own times, when pride and envy
were at their height. His behaviour to Diogenes is
always mentioned in his hiftory. The Cynic was vaftly
offended, it feems, at the politenefs and fine tafte of
Plato, and ufed to catch all opportunities of fnarling
at him. He dined one day at his table with other com¬
pany, and, trampling upon the tapeftry with his dirty
feet, uttered this brutifh farcafm, “ I trample upon
the pride of Plato;” to which Plato wifely reparteed,
“ With greater pride.”
The fame of Plato drew difciples to him from all
pans;
P L A [ 6231 ] P L A
Pluto, parts: among whom were Speufippus, an Athenian,
hi« filler’s fon, whom he appointed his fuccefibr in the
academy; the great Ariftotle; two ladies, Lafthenia
a Mantinian, and Axiothia a Phliafian, who went ha¬
bited as men, and thereby gave occafion to injurious
fufpicions of Plato; Hyperides, Demofthenes, and I-
focrates, with the laft of whom Plato was very inti¬
mate. In the mean time, as his great reputation gain¬
ed him on the one hand many difciples and admirers,
fo on the other it railed him fome emulators, efpecially
among his fellow-difciples, the followers of Socrates.,
Xenophon and he were particularly difaffefted towards
each other; and their emulation appears in nothing
more than in their having written upon the fame fub-
jeAs. They both writ a Sympofium: they both writ
about Socrates: they both writ upon government; for
the Commonwealth of Plato, and the Inftitution of
Cyrus, are works of the fame nature; the latter being
pronounced by Cicero, as much a work of invention as
the former.
This extraordinary man, being arrived at 81 years
of age, died a very eafy and peaceable death, in the
midll of an entertainment, according to fome; but, ac¬
cording to Cicero, as he was writing. Both the life
and death of this philofopher were calm and undifturb-
ed; and indeed he was finely compofed for happinefs*
Befides the advantages of a noble birth, he had a large
and comprehenfive underftanding, a vail fund of wit
and good tafte, great evennefs and fweetnefs of temper,
all cultivated and refined by education and travel ; fo
that it is no wonder if he was honoured by his coun¬
trymen, efteemed by ftrangers, and adored by his fcho-
lars. The ancients thought more highly of Plato than
of all their philofophers: they always called him the
Divine Plato, and they feemed refolved that his de-
fcent (hould be more than human. “ There are (fays
Apuleius) who aflert Plato to have been fprung from
a more fublime conception ; and that his mother Pe-
riftione, who was a very beautiful woman, was im¬
pregnated by Apollo in the fhape of a fpedlre.” Plu¬
tarch, Suidas, and others, affirm this to have been the
common report at Athens. When he was an infant,
his father Arifto went to Hymettus, with his wife and
child, to facrifice to the mufes; and while they were
bulled in the divine rites, a fwarm of bees came and
diftilled their honey upon his lips. This, fays Tully,
was confidered as a prefage of his future eloquence.
Apuleius relates, that Socrates, the night before Plato
was recommended to him, dreamed that a young fwan
fled from Cupid’s altar in the academy, and fettled in
his lap, thence foared toheaven, and delighted the gods
with its mufic: and when Arifto the next day prefent-
ed Plato to him, “ Friends (fays Socrates), this is the
fwan of Cupid’s academy.”' The Greeks loved fables:
they (how however in the prefent cafe, what exceeding
refpeft was paid to the memory of Plato. Tully per-
fetSlly adored him ; tells us, how he was juftly called
by Panaetius the divine, the moji wife, the moji facred,
X\\e Homer of philofophers ; entitled him to Auicus, Deus
tile nofer; thinks, that if Jupiter had fpoken Greek,
he would have fpoken in Plato’s language ; and made
him fo implicitly his guide in wifdom and philofophy,
as to declare, that he had rather err with Plato than
be right with any one elfe. But, panegyric afide,
Plato was certainly a very wonderful man, of a large
and comprehenfive mind, an imagination infinitely fer- Pbfo
tile, and of a moft flowing and copious eloquence. Ne-
verthelefs, the ftrength and heat of fancy prevailing in 1
his compofition over judgment, he was too apt to foar
beyond the limits of earthly things, to range in the
imaginary regions of general and abftradled ideas ;
and on which account, though there is always a great-
nefs and fublimity in his manner, he did not philofo-
phife fo much according to truth and nature as Ari¬
ftotle, though Cicero did not fcruple to give him the
preference.
The writings of Plato are all in the way of dialogue;
where he feems to deliver nothing for himfelf, but every¬
thing cs the fentiments and opinions of others, of So¬
crates chiefly, of Timseus, &c. He. does not mention
himfelf any where, except once in his Phacdo, and ano¬
ther time in his Apology for Socrates. His ftyle, as
Ariftotle obferved, is betwixt profe and verfe: on which
account, fome have not fcrupled to rank him with the
poets. There is a better reafon for fo doing, than the
elevation and grandeur of his ftyle: his matter is often¬
times the offspring of imagination, inftead of dodlrines
or truths deduced from nature. The firft edition of
Plato’s works in Greek was put out by Aldus at Ve¬
nice in 1513: but a Latin verfion of him byMarfilius
Ficinus had been printed there in 1491. They were
re-printed together at Lyons in 1588, and at Franc-
fort in 1602. The famous printer Henry Stephens,
in 1578, gave a moft beautiful and correft edition of
Plato’s works at Paris, with a new Latin verfion by Ser-
ranus, in three volumes folio; and this defervedly pafles
for the beft edition of Plato: yet Serranus’s verfion is
very exceptionable, and in many refpeflts, if not in all,
inferior to that of Ficinus.
PLATONIC, fomething that relates to Plato, his
fchool-philofophy, opinions, or the like. Thus, plato¬
nic love denotes a pure fpiritual affeAion, for which
Plato was a great advocate, fubfifting between the dif¬
ferent fexes, abftrafted from all carnal appetites, and
regarding no other obje£l but the mind and its beau¬
ties: or it is even a fincere difinterefted friendfliip fub¬
fifting between perfonsof the fame fex, abftra<fted from
any felfifh views, and regarding no other objedl than
the perfon, if any fuch love or friendfhip has aught of
a foundation in nature.
Platonic Hear, or the Great Tear, is a period of
time determined by the revolution of the equinbxes, Oi^
the fpace wherein the liars and conftellations return
to their former places, in refpeft of the equinoxes.
The platonic year, according to Tycho Brahe, is
25816, according to Ricciolus 25920, and according
to Caffini 24800 years.
This period once accomplifhed, it was an opinion
among the ancients, that the world was to begin knew,
and the fame feries of things to turn over again.
PLATONISM, the dodtrine and fentiments of Pla¬
to and his followers, with regard to philofophy, &c.
In phyfics, Plato followed Heraclitus; in ethics and
politics, Socrates; and in metaphyfics he followed Py¬
thagoras. His difciples were called Seethe
articles Academic, &c.
The Platonic philofophy is thought very confiftent
with the Mofaic; and a great many of the primitive
fathers follow the opinions of that philofopher, as be¬
ing favourable to Chriftianity. joftin is of opinion,
that
P L E [ 6232 ] P L E
Plautus, that Plato could not learn many things which he has
. t>lea- faid in his works, from mere natural reafon; but thinks
he might have learned them from the books of Mofes,
which he might have read when in Egypt.
PLAUTUS (Marcus Accius), a comic writer of
ancient fRome, born at Umbria, a province of Italy.
His proper name was Marcus Accius, and he is fup-
pofed to have acquired the furname of Plautus from
having fplay feet. His parentage appears to have been
mean; fo that fome have thought he was the fon of a
Have. Aulus Gellius fays that Plautus was diftinguilh-
ed for his poetry on the theatre, and Cato for his elo¬
quence in the Forum, at the fame time ; and obferves
elfewhere from Varro, that he was fo well paid for his
plays, as to double his flock in trading, in which he
loft all he gained by the mufes. He is faid to have
been reduced to work at a mill for his fubfiftence; but
Varro adds, that his wit was his beft fupport, as he
compofed three of his plays during this drudgery. He
died in the firft year of the elder Cato’s cenforlhip, a-
bout the year of Rome 569, and 184 B. C. We
have 20 of his plays extant, though not all of them en¬
tire. Five of them comedies have been elegantly tran-
flated into Englifh by Mr B. Thornton, and publilh-
ed in 2 vols 8vo. 1767.
PLEA, in law, is what either party alleges for
himfelf in court, in a caufe there depending; and in a
more reftrained fenfe, it is the defendant’s anfwer to the
plaintiff’s declaration.
Pleas are ufually divided into thofe of the crown,
and common pleas. Pleas of the crown are all fuits in
the king’s name, or in the name of the attorney-gene¬
ral in behalf of the king, for offences committed againft
his crown and dignity, and againft his peace; as trea-
fon, murder, felony, &c. See Arraignment.
Common pleas are fuch fuits as are carried on be-
'Blackjl. tween common perfons in civil cafes. Thefe pleas are
Comment, of two forts; dilatory pitas, and pleas/a theaftion. Di¬
latory pleas are fuch as tend merely to delay or put off
the fuit, by queftioning the propriety of the remedy,
rather than by denying the injury: pleas to the a&ion
are fuch as difpute the very caufe of fuit.
I. Dilatory pleas are, 1. To the jurifdiftion of the
court: alleging, that it ought not to hold plea of this
injury, it arifing in Wales or beyond fea ; or becaufe
the land in ^ueftion is of ancient demefne, and ought
only to be demanded in the lord’s court, &c. 2. To
the difability of the plaintiff, by reafon whereof he is
incapable to commence or continue the fuit; as, that
he is an alien enemy, outlawed, excommunicated, at¬
tainted of treafon or felony, under a praemunire, not
in rerum natura (being only a fictitious perfon), an in¬
fant, a feme-covert, or a monk profeffed. 3. In abate¬
ment: which abatement is either of the writ, or the
count, for fome defeft in one of them; as by roifna-
ming the defendant, which is called a mifnomer; gi¬
ving him a wrong addition, as efqUire inftead of knight;
or other want of form in any material refpeft. Or, it
may be that the plaintiff is dead; for the death of ei¬
ther party is at once an abatement of the fuit.
Thefe pleas to the jurifdiClion, to the difability, or
in abatement, were formerly very often ufed as mere
dilatory pleas, without any foundation in truth, and
calculated only for delay; but now by flat. 4 & 5 Ann.
c. 16. no dilatory plea is to be admitted without affi¬
davit made of the truth thereof, or fome probable mat- Pl«.
ter fhown to the court to induce them to believe it true. H*
And with refpeCt to the pleas themfelves, it is a rule,
that no exception lhall be admitted againft a declara¬
tion or writ, unlefs the defendant will in the fame plea
give the plaintiff a better; that isi Ihew him how it
might be amended, that there may not be two objec¬
tions upon the fame account.
All pleas to the jurifdiCtion conclude to the cogni¬
zance of the court; praying “ judgment whether the
court will have farther cognizance of the fuit.” Pleas
to the difability conclude to the perfon ; by praying
“ judgment, if the faid A the plaintiff ought to be an-
fwered:” And pleas in abatement (when the fuit is by
original) conclude to the writ or declaration; by pray¬
ing “ judgment of the writ, or declaration, and that
the fame may be qualhed,” cajfetur, made void, or
abated: but if the a&ion be by bill, the plea rauft
pray “judgment of the bill,” and not of the declara¬
tion; the bill being here the original, and the declara¬
tion only a copy of the bill.
When thefe dilatory pleas are allowed, the caufe is
either difmiffed from that jurifdi&ion, or the plaintiff
is flayed till his difability be removed ; or he is obli¬
ged to fue out a new writ, by leave obtained from the
court, or to amend and new-frame his declaration. But
when, on the other hand, they are overruled as frivo¬
lous, the defendant has judgment of refpondeat oujler,
or to anfwer over in fome better manner. It is then
incumbent on him to plead.
2. A plea to the adion; that is, to anfwer to the
merits of the complaint. This is done by confeffing or
denying it.
A confeffion of the whole complaint is not very u-
fual, for then the defendant would probably end the
matter fooner ; or not plead at all, but fuffer judg¬
ment to go by default. Yet fometimes, after tender
and refufal of a debt, if the creditor haraffes his deb¬
tor with an aftion, it then becomes neceffary for the
defendant to acknowledge the debt, and plead the ten¬
der ; adding that" he has always been ready, tout
temps prijl, and ftill is ready, uncore pri/i, todifeharge
it: for a tender by the debtor and refufal by the cre¬
ditor will in all cafes difeharge the cofts, but not the
debt itfelf; though in fome particular cafes the credi¬
tor will totally lofe his money. But frequently the
defendant confeffes one part of the complaint (by a
cognovit aclionem in refpedt thereof), and traverfes o.r
denies the reft ; in order to avoid the expenfe of car¬
rying that part to a formal trial, which he has no
ground to litigate. A fpecies of this fort of confef¬
fion is the payment of money into court: which is for
the moft part neceffary upon pleading a tender, and is
itfelf a kind of tender to the plaintiff; by paying in¬
to the hands of the proper officer of the court as much
as the defendant acknowledges to be due, together
with the cofts hitherto incurred, in order to prevent
the expence of any farther proceedings. This may
be done upon what is called a motion; which is an oc-
cafional application to the court by the parties or their
counfel, in order to obtain fome rule or order of
court, which becomes neceffary in the progrefs of a
caufe ; and it is ufually grounded upon an affidavit, j
(the perfed tenfe of the verb affido), being a voluntary
oath before fome judge or officer of the court, to e-
vince j I
-P L E [ <5233 ] P L E
vince the truth of certain fads, upon which the mo¬
tion is grounded : though no fuch affidavit is neceflary
for payment of money into court. If, after the money
is paid in, the plaintiff proceeds in his fuit, it is at his
own peril: for if he does not prove more due than is
fo paid into court, he (hall be nonfuited and pay the
defendantVcofts; but he fhall (fill have the money fo
paid in, for that the defendant has acknowledged to
be his due. To this head may alfo be refer¬
red the pradlce of what is called a fet off: whereby
the defendant acknowledges the juftice of the plain¬
tiff’s demand on the one hand ; but on the other, fets
up a demand of his own, to counterbalance that of
the plaintiff, either in the whole or in part : as, if the
plaintiff fues for ten pounds due on a note of hand, the
defendant may fet off nine pounds due to himfelf for
merchandize fold to the plaintiff; and, in cafe he
pleads fuch fet-off, mull pay the remaining balance in.
to court.
Pleas that totally deny the caufe of complaint are
either the general iffue, or a fpecial plea in bar.
1. The general iffue, or general plea, is what tra-
verfes, thwarts, and denies at once, the whole declara¬
tion, without offering any fpecial matter whereby to
evade it. As in trefpafs either vi et arntis, or on the
cafe, “ non cuifabilis, not guilty in debt upon con¬
tract, “ nihil debet, he owes nothingin debt on
bond, “ non ejl fattutn, it is not his deedon an
cffumpfit, “ non ajjumpjit, he made no fuch promife.”
Or in real aft ions, “ nul tort, no wrong done; nul
diffeifin, no diffeitin ;” and in a writ of right, the mife
or iffue is, that *( the tenant has more right to hold
than the demandant has to demand.” Thefe pleas are
called the general iffue, becaufe, by importing an ab-
folute and general denial of what is alleged in the de¬
claration, they amount at once to an iffue ; by which
we mean a faft affirmed on one fide and denied on the
other.
2. Special pleas in bar of the plaintiff’s demands are
very various, according to the circumftances of the de¬
fendant’s cafe. As, in real aftions, a general releafe
or a fine; both of which may deftroy and bar the plain¬
tiff’s title. Or, in perfonal aftions, an accord, arbi¬
tration, conditions performed, nonage of the defen¬
dant, or fome other faft which precludes the plaintiff
from his aftion. A juffijication is likewife a fpecial
plea in bar; as in aftions of affault and battery, fin
affault demefne, that it was the plaintiff’s own origi¬
nal affault; in trefpafs, that the defendant did the
thing complained of in right of fome office which war¬
ranted him fo to do ; or, in an aftion of (lander, that
the plaintiff is really as bad a man as the defendant
faid he was.
Alfo a man may plead the ftatutes of limitation in
bar; or the time limited by certain afts of parliament,
beyond which no plaintiff can lay his caufe of aftion.
This, by the ftatute of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2. in a writ
of right is 60 years : in affifes, writs of entry, or other
poffeffory aftions real, of the feifin of one’s anceftors
in lands; and either of their feifin, or one’s own, in
rents, fuits, and fervices, 50 years : and in aftions
real for lands grounded upon one’s own feifin or pof-
feffion, fuch poffcffion mull have been within 30 years.
By ftatute x Mar. ft. 2. c. 5. this limitation does not
extend to any fuit for avowfons. But by the ftatute
Vox.. VIII. 2
21 Jac. I. c. 2. a time of limitation was extended to Pka-
the cafe of the king; viz. 60 years precedent to 19th
Feb. 1623 : but, this becoming ineffeftual by efflux
of time, the fame date of limitation was fixed by fta¬
tute 9 Geo. III. c. 16. to commence and be reckon¬
ed backwards, from the time of bringing any fuit or
other procefs to recover the thing in queftion ; fo
that a poffeffion for 60 years is now a bar even againll
the prerogative, in derogation of the ancient maxim.
Nullumtenipusoccurritregi. By another (latnte, 21 Jac. I,
c. 16. 20 years is the time of limitation in any writ of
formedon : and, By a confequence, 20 years is alfo
the limitation in every aftion of ejeftment ; for no e-
jeftmentcan be brought, unlefs where the leffor of the
plaintiff is entitled to enter on the lands, and by the
flatiite 21 Jac. I. c. 16. no entry can be made by any
man, unlefs within 20 yeats after his right fhall ac¬
crue. Alfo all aftions of trefpafs (quare claufumfire-
git, or otherwife) detinue, trover, replevin, account,
and cafe, (except upon accounts between merchants),
debt on fimple contraft, or for arrears of rent, are li¬
mited by the ftatute laft mentioned to fix years after
the caufe of aftion commenced: and aftions of af¬
fault, menace, battery, mayhem, and imprifonment,
muft be brought within four years, and aftions for
words two years, after the injury committed. And
by the ftatute 31 Eliz. c. 5. all fuits, indiftments,
and informations, upon any penal ftatutes, where
any forfeiture is to the crown, fhall be fued with¬
in two years, and where the forfeiture is to a
fubjeft, within one year, after the offence commit¬
ted, unlefs where any other time is fpecially limited
by the ftatute. Laftly, by ftatute 10 W. III. c. 14.
no writ of error, feire facias, or other fuit, fhall be
brought to reverfe any judgment, fine, or recovery,
for error, unlefs it be profecuted within 20 years.
The ufe of thefe ftatutes oflimitation is to preferve the
peace of the kingdom, and to prevent thofe innume¬
rable perjuries which might enfue if a man were al¬
lowed to bring an aftion for any injury committed at
anydiftance of time. Upon both thefe accounts the law
therefore holds, that interejl ret public a utfit finis litium:
and upon the fame principle the Athenians laws in
general prohibited all aftions where the injury was
committed five years before the complaint was made.
If therefore, in any fuit, the injury, or caufe of aftion,
happened earlier than the period exprefsly limited by
law, the defendant may plead the ftatutes of limita¬
tions in barx as upon an affiumpjit, or promife to pay
money to the plaintiff, the defendant may plead, Non
affumpfit infra fex annos. He made no fuch promife
within fix years; which is an effeftual bar to the com¬
plaint.
An efioppel is likewife a fpecial plea in bar ; which
happens where a man hath done fome aft, or executed
fome deed, which eftops or precludes him from aver¬
ring any thing to the contrary. As if a tenant for years
(who hath no freehold) levies a fine to another perfon.
Tho’ this is void as to ftrangers, yet it fhall work as
an eftoppel to the cognizor; for, if he afterwards brings
an aftion to recover thefe lands, and his fine is plead¬
ed againft him, he lhall thereby be eftopped from fay¬
ing, that he had no freehold at the time, and therefore
was incapable of levying it.
The conditions and cualities of a plea (which, as
35 C well
P L E [ 6234 ] P L E
Ple». well aa the doftrine of eftoppels, will alfo hold equal-
~ ly, vmtatis mutandis, with regard to other parts of
pleading), are, 1. That it be Angle and containing on¬
ly one matter; for duplicity begets confullon. But
by ftatute 4 & 5 Ann. c. 16. a man, with leave of the
court, may plead two or more diftindl matters or Angle
pleas; as in an action of aflault and battery, thefe
three. Not guilty, fon ajfault demefne, and the ftatute
of limitations. 2. That it be direft and pofitive,
and not argumentative. 3. That it have conve¬
nient certainty of time, place, and perfons. 4. That
it anfwer the plaintiff’s allegations in every mate¬
rial point. 5. That it be fo pleaded as to be capable
of trial.
Special pleas are ufually in the affirmative, forae-
times in the negative, but they always advance fome
new fadl not mentioned in the declaration ; and then
they muft be averred to be true in the common form:
—“ And this he is ready to verify.”—This is not ne-
ceffary in pleas of the general iffue , thofe always con¬
taining a total denial of the fafts before advanced by
the other party, and therefore putting him upon the
proof of them. See Pleadings.
'Blachfi, Plea to Indittment, the defenfive matter alleged by
omment. a crjminal on fjis indjftment; (See Arraignment.)
This is either, 1. A plea to the jurifdi&ion ; 2. A de¬
murrer ; 3. A plea in abatement; 4. A fpecial plea
in bar ; or, 5. The general iffue.
I. A plea to the jurifdi£lion,\* where an indi&ment
is taken before a court that hath no cognizance of
the.offence ; as if a man be indi&ed for a rape at the
fheriff’s tourn, or for treafon at the quarter-feffions:
in thefe or Amilar cafes, he may except to the jurif-
di&ion of the court, without anfwering at all to the
crime alleged.
II. A demurrer to the indi&ment, is incident to
criminal cafes, as well as civil, when the faft as al¬
leged is allowed to be true, but the prifoner joins iffue
upon fome point of law in the indi&ment, by which
he infills, that the faff, as ftated, is no felony, trea¬
fon, or whatever the crime is alleged to be. Thus, for
inftance, if a man be indifted for felonioufly Healing
a gre-hound ; which is an animal in which no valuable
property can be had, and therefore it is not felony,
but only a civil trefpafs, to fteal it; in this cafe the
party indi&ed may demur to the indiftment; denying
it to be felony, though he confeffcs the aft of taking
it. Some have held, that if, on demurrer, the point
of law be adjudged againft the prifoner, he fhall have
judgment and execution, as if convifted by verdift.
But this is denied by others, who hold, that in fuch
cafe he lhall be direfted and received to plead the ge¬
neral iffue. Not guilty, after a demurrer determined
againft him. Which appears the more reafonable, be-
caufe it is clear, that if the prifoner freely difcovers the
faft in court, and refers it to the opinion of the court
whether it be felony or no; and upon the faft thus
fheivn, it appears to be felony, the court will not re¬
cord the confeffion, but admit him afterwards to plead
not guilty. And this feems to be a cafe of the fame
nature, being for the moft part a miftake in point of
law, and in the conduft of his pleading ; and, though
a man by mifpleading may in fome cafes lofe his pro¬
perty, yet the law will not fuffer him by fuch niceties
to lofe his life. However, upon this doubt, demurrers
to indiftmenfs are feldom ufed : Ance the fameadvan- Plea,
tages may be taken upon a plea of not guilty ; or af- ———
terwards, in arreft of judgment, when the verdift has
eftablilhed the faft.
III. A plea in abatement is principally for a mifnof-
msr, a wrong name, or a falfe addition to the pri-
foner. As, if James Allen, gentleman, is indifted
by the name of John Allen, efquire, he may plead that
he has the name of Ja?nes, and not of John; and
that he is ngentleman, and not an efquire. And, if
either faft is found by a jury, then the indiftment fhall
be abated, as writs or declarations may be in ciitil ac¬
tions. But, in the end, there is little advantage ac¬
cruing to the prifoner by means of thefe dilatory
pleas; becaufe, if the exception be allowed, a new
bill of indiftment may be framed, according to what
the prifoner in his plea avers to be his true name and
addition. For it is a rule, upon all pleas'in abate¬
ment, that he who takes advantage of a flaw, muft
at the fame time fhew how it may be amended. Let us
therefore next conftder a more fubftantial kind of
plea, viz.
IV. Special pleas in bar; which go to the merits of
the indiftment, and give a reafon why the prifonee
ought not to anfwtr it at all, nor put himfelf upon his
trial for the crime alleged. Thefe are of four kinds: a
former acquittal, a former conviftion, a former attain¬
der, or a pardon. There are many other pleas which
may be pleaded in bar of an appeal: but thefe are ap¬
plicable to both appeals and indiftments.
1. Firft, the plea of auterfoits acquit, or a former
acquittal, is grounded on this univerfal maxim of the
common law of England, that no man is to be brought
into jeopardy of his life, more than once, for the fame
offence. And hence it is allowed as a confequence,
that when a man is once fairly found not guilty upon
any indiftment, or other profecution, before any court
having competent jurifdiftion of the offence, be may
plead fueh acquittal in bar of any fubfequent accufa-
tion for the fame crime.
2. Secondly, the jdea of auterfoits convifi, or a
former conviftion for the fame identical crime, though
no judgment was ever given, or perhaps will be, (be¬
ing fufpended by the beneAt of clergy or other caules),
is a good plea in bar to an indiftment. And this de¬
pends upon the fame principle as the former, that no
man ought to be twice brought in danger of his life
for one and the fame crime.
3. Thirdly, the plea of auterfoits attaint, or a
former attainder, is a good plea in bar, whether it be
for the fame or any other felony. For wherever a
man is attainted of felony, by judgment of death either
upon a verdift or confeffion, by outlawry, or hereto¬
fore by abjuration , and whether upon an appeal or an
indiftment ; he may plead fuch attainder in bar to
any fubfequent indiftment or appeal, for the fame or
for any other felony. And this becaufe, generally,
fuch proceeding on a fecond profecution cannot be to
any purpofe ; for the prifoner is dead in law by the
Arlt attainder, his blood is already corrupted, and he
hath forfeited all that he had: fo that it is abfurd and
fuperfluous to endeavour to attaint him a fecond time.
Though to this general rule, as to all others, there
are fome exceptions; wherein, cejfante ratione, ceffat
P L E
t 6235 ]
’ JPlea. 4, LafUy, a pardon may be pleaded in bar ; as at
once deftroying the end and purpofe of the indift-
ment, by remitting that punifhment, which the pro*
fecmion is calculated to inflift. There is one ad¬
vantage that attends pleading a pardon in bar, Or in
arrell of judgment, before fentence is pad ; which
gives it by much the preference to pleading it after
fentence or attainder. This is, that by flopping the
judgment it flops the attainder, and prevents the cor¬
ruption of the blood : which, when once corrupted by
attainder, cannot afterwards be reftored, otherwife
than by adt of parliament.
V. The general ijfxe, or plea of not guilty, upon
which plea alone the prifoner can receive his final
judgment of death. In cafe of an indiftment of felony
or treafon, there can be no fpecial juflification put in
by way of plea. As, on an indidtment for murder,
a man cannot plead that it was in his own defence
againft a robber on the highway, or a burglar ; but
he muft plead the general iffue, Not guilty, and give
this fpecial matter in evidence. For (befides that thefe
pleas do in effedt amount to the general iffue; fince,
if true, the prifoner is mod clearly not guilty) as the
fadts in treafon are laid to be done proditorie et contra
ligeantix fua debitum ; and, in felony, that the killing
■was done felonice; thefe charges, of a traiterous or
felonious intent, are the points and very gift of the
indidlment, and muft. be anfwered diredily, by the
general negative, Not guilty; and the jury upon the
evidence will take notice of any defenfive matter, and
give their verdidi accordingly as effedtually as in if it
were or could be fpecially pleaded. So that this is,
upon all accounts, the molt advantageous plea for the
prifoner.
When the prifoner hath thus pleaded not guilty,
non cxlpabilis, or nient culpable: which was formerly
ufed to be abbreviated upon the minutes, thus, Non
(or nient) cul. the clerk of the affife, or clerk of ar¬
raigns, on behalf of the crown replies, that the pri¬
foner is guilty, and that he is ready to prove him fo.
This is done by two monofyllables in the fame fpirit
of abbreviation, cul. prit.: which fignifies firft that the
prifoner is guilty, (cul. culpable, or culpabilis); and
then that the king is ready to prove him fo, {prit,
prcefto fum, or paratus, verificare). By this replication
the king and the prifoner are therefore at iffue : for
when the parties come to a fadi which is affirmed on
one fide and denied on the other, then they are faid to
be at iffue in point of fadl: which is evidently the cafe
here, in the plea of non cul. by the prifoner; and the
replication of cul. by the clerk.
How the courts came to exprefs a matter of this
Importance in fo odd and obfcure a manner, can
hardly be pronounced with certainty. It may per¬
haps, however, be accounted for by fuppofing, that
thefe were at firft fhort notes, to help the memory
of the clerk, and remind him what he was to reply.;
or elfe it was the fhort method of taking down in
court, upon the minutes, the replication and aver¬
ment; cul. prit: which afterwards the ignorance of
fucceeding clerks adopted for the very words to be
by them fpoken (a). pie*,
But however it may have arifen, the joining of iffue Headings,
feems to be clearly the meaning of this obfcure ex-
preffion which has puzzled our moft ingenious ety-
mologifls, and is commonly underftood as if the
clerk of the arraigns, immediately on plea pleaded,
had fixed an opprobrious name on the prifoner, by
afking him, “ culprit, how wilt thou be tried?'’ for im¬
mediately upon iffue joined it is inquired of the pri¬
foner, by what trial he will make his innocence ap¬
pear. This form has at prefent reference to appeals
and approvements only, wherein the appellee has his
choice, either to try the accufation by Battle or by
Jury. But upon indictments, fince the abolition of
Ordeal, there can be no other trial but by jury, per
pais, or by the country : and therefore, if the pri¬
foner refufes to put himfelf upon the inqueft in the
ufual form, that is, to anfwer that he will be tried by
God and the country, if a commoner ; and, if a peer,
by God and his peers ; the indictment, if in treafon,
is taken pro confejfo; and the prifoner, in cafes of
felony, is judged to (land mute, and, if he perfeveres
in his obltinacy, (hall now be convicted of the felony.
When the prifoner has thus pnt himfelf upon his
trial, the clerk anfwers in the humane language of the
law, which always hopes that the party’s innocence
rather than his guilt may appear, “ God fend thee a
good deliverance.” And then they proceed, as foon
as conveniently may be, to the trial. See the article
Trial.
PLEADINGS, in law, are the mutual alterca¬
tions between the plaintiff and defendant, (fee Suit,
Writ, and Process). They form the third part or
ftage of a fad; and at prefent are fet down and de¬
livered into the proper office in writing, though for¬
merly they were ufually put in by their counfel ore
tenus, or viva voce, in court, and then minuted down
by the chief clerks or prothonotaries ; whence, in our
old law-French, the pleadings are frequently denomi¬
nated the parol.
The firlt of thefe is the declaration, narratio, or
count, anciently called the tale; in which the plaintiff
fets forth his caufe of complaint at length : being in¬
deed only an amplification or expofition of the origi¬
nal writ upon which his adion is founded, with xheSiackfl.
additional circumftances of time and place, when and
where, the injury was committed.
In local actions, where poffeffion of land is to be
recovered, or damages for an adual trefpafs, or for
wafte, &c. affeding land, the plaintiff muft lay his
declaration, or declare his injury to have happened in
the very county and place that it really did happen ;
but in tranjitory adions, for injuries that might have
happened any where, as debt, detinue, fiander, and
the like, the plaintiff may declare in what county he
pleafes, and then the trial muft be in that county m
which the declaration is laid. Though, if the defen¬
dant will make affidavit that the caufe of adion, if
any, arofe not in that but in another county, the
court will dired a change of the venue or vi/ne, (that
is, the viemia or neighbourhood in which the injury
35 C 2 is-
( a) Of this ignorance we msy fee daily inftances, in the abufe of two legal terms of ancient French: one, the pro¬
logue to all proclamations, “ Oyei, or Hear ye,” which is generally pronounced, moft unmeaningly, “ O yes:” the
•other, a more pardonable miftake, viz. when a jury are all fwern, the.officer bids the crier number them, for which
the word in law-French is, “ Countez -ft but we now hear it pronounced in very good Engliih, "* Count thefe.”
P L E [ 6236 ] P L E
Pleadings. 1$ declared to be done), and will oblige the plaintiff
to declare in the proper county. For the ftatute
6 Ric. II. c. 2. having ordered all writs to be laid in
their proper counties, this, as the judges conceived,
impowered them to change the venue, if required,
and not to infill rigidly on abating the wr't: which
praftice began in the reign of James the firft. And
this power is difcretionally exercifed, fo as not to
caufe but prevent a defe& of juftice. Therefore the
court will not change the venue to any of the four
northern counties, previous to the fpring circuit} be-
caufe there the aflifes are holden only Once a-year, at
the time of fummer circuit. And it will fometimes
remove the venue from the proper jurifdi&ion, (efpe-
cially of the narrow and limited kind), upon a fug-
geftion, duly fupported, that a fair and impartial trial
cannot be had therein.
It is generally ufual, in a&ions upon the cafe, to fet
forth feveral cafes, by different counts in the fame de¬
claration ; fo that if the plaintiff fails in the proof of
one, he may fucceed in another. As in an a&ion on
the cafe upon an assumpsit for goods fold and deliver¬
ed, the plaintiff ufually counts or declares, firft, upon
a fettled and agreed price between him and the de¬
fendant ; as, that they bargained for 20 1.: and left he
fhould fail in the proof of this, he counts likewife up¬
on a quantum valebant; that the defendant bought
other goods, and agreed to pay him fo much as they
were reafonably worth : and then avers, that they
were worth other 20I. and fo on in three or four dif¬
ferent fhapes; and at laft concludes with declaring,
that the defendant had refufed to fulfil any of thefe
agreements, whereby he is endamaged to fuch a value.
And if he proves the cafe laid in any one of his counts,
though he fails in the reft, he fhall recover propor¬
tionable damages. This declaration always concludes
with thefe words, “ and thereupon he brings fuit,”
&c. inde producit feci am, &c. By which words, fuit
or fetia, (a fequendo), were anciently underflood the
witneffes or followers of, the plaintiff. For in former
times, the law would not put the defendant to the
trouble of anfwering the charge till the plaintiff had
made out at lead a probable cafe. But the adlual
produflion of the fuit, fetta, or followers, is now
antiquated, and hath been totally difufed, at lead ever
fince the reign of Edward III. though the form of it
dill continues.
At the end of the declaration are added alfo the
plaintiff’s common pledges of profecution, John Doe
and Richard Roe ; which, as we elfewhere obferved,
(fee Writ), are now mere names of form ; though
formerly they were of ufe to anfwer to the king for
the amercement of the plaintiff, in cafe he were non-
fuited, barred of his aftion, or had a verdift and
judgment againll him. For if the plaintiff negledls
to deliver a declaration for two terms after the defend¬
ant appears, or is guilty of other delays or defaults
agatnil the rules of law in any fubfequent ftage of the
attion, he is adjudged not to follow or purfue his reme¬
dy as he ought to do; and thereupon a 7ion~fuit, or
non profequitur, is entered, and he is faid to be non-
prof'i. And for thus deferting his complaint, after
making a falfe claim or complaint, (pro falfo clamore
fio), he fhall not only pay colls to the defendant, imt
as liable to be amerced to the king. A retraxit dif¬
fers from a non-fuit, in that the one is negative and P1«4<lings.
the other pofitive: the non-fuit is a default and ne-
gleft of the plaintiff, and therefore he is allowed to
begin his fuit again upon payment of cofts; but a re¬
traxit is an open and voluntary renunciation of his fuit
in court; and by this he for ever lofes his a&ion. A
dif-ccntinuance is fomewhat fimilar to a non-fuit; for
when a plaintiff leaves a chafm in the proceedings of
his caufe, as by not continuing the procefs regularly
from day to day, and time to time, as he ought to do,
the fuit is difeontinued, and the defendant is no longec
bound to attend ; but the plaintiff muft begin again,
by fuing out a new original, ufually paying cofts to
his antagonift.
When the plaintiff hath Hated his cafe in the decla¬
ration, it is incumbent on the defendant, within a rea-
fonable time, to make his defence, and to put in a
lea ; or elfe the plaintiff will at once recover judgment
y default, or nihil dicit, of the defendant.
Defence, in its true legal fenfe, fignifies not a jufti-
fication, proteftion, or guard, which is now its popu¬
lar fignification ; but merely an oppojing or denial (from
the French verb defender} of the truth or validity of
the complaint. It is the contejlatio litis of the civi¬
lians : a general affertion that the plaintiff hath no
ground of action ; which affertion is afterwards ex¬
tended and maintained in his plea.
Before defence made, if at all, cognizance of the
fuit muft be claimed or demanded ; when any perfon
or body-corporate hath the franchife, not only of
holding pleas within a particular limited jurifdi&ion,
but alfo of the cognizance of pleas ; and that either
without any words exclufive of other courts, which
entitles the lord of the franchife, whenever any fuit
that belongs to his jurifdi&ion is commenced in the
courts at Weftminfter, to demand the cognizance
thereof; or with fuch exclufive words, which alfo en¬
title the defendant to plead to the jurifdiclion of the
court. Upon this claim of cognizance, if allowed, all
proceedings lhall ceafe in the fuperior court, and the
plaintiff is left at liberty to purfue his remedy in the
fpecial jurifdi&ion. As, when a fcholar or other pri¬
vileged perfon of the univerfities of Oxford or Cam¬
bridge is impleaded in the courts at Wellminfter, for
any caufe of adlion whatfoever, unlefs upon a queftion
of freehold. In thefe cafes, by the charter of thofe
learned bodies, confirmed by aft of parliament, the
chancellor, or vice-chancellor, may put in a claim of
cognizance; which, if made in due time and form, and
with due proof of the fafts alleged, is regularly al¬
lowed by the courts. It muft be demanded before full
defence is made or imparlance prayed ; for thefe are
a fubmiffion to the jurifdiftion of the fuperior court,
and the delay is a laches in the lord of the franchife :
and it will not be allowed if it occafions a failure of ju¬
ftice, or if an adlion be brough; againft the perfon
himfelf who claims the franchife, unlefs he hath alfo
a power in fuch cafe of making another judge.
After defence made, the defendant muft put in his
plea. But before he defends, if the fuit is commen¬
ced by capias or latitat, without any fpecial original,
he is entitled to demand one imparlance, or licentia lo-
quendi ; and may, before he pleads, have more grant¬
ed by confent of the court, to fee if he can end the
iuatter amicably without farther fuit, by talking with
leadings.
P L E [ 6237 ] P L E
the plaintiff: a praftice which is fuppofed to have ari-
~fen from a principle of religion, in obedience to that
precept of the gofpel, “ agree with thine adverfary
quickly, whilft thou art in the nuay with him.” And
it may beobferved, that this gofpel-precept has a plain
reference to the Roman law of the twelve tables, which
exprefsly direfted the plaintiff and defendant to make
up the matter, while they were in the way, or going
to the praetor ;—in via, rem uti pacunt orato. There
are alfo many other previous fteps which may be taken
by a defendant before he puts in his plea. He may,
in real a&ions, demand a view of the thing in que-
ftion, in order to afcertain its identity and other cir-
cumftances. He may crave oyer of the writ, or of the
bond, or other fpecialty upon which the aftion is
brought; that is, to hear it read to him ; the gene¬
rality of defendants in the times of ancient fimplicity
being fuppofed incapable toread it themfelves: where¬
upon the whole is entered verbatim upon the record;
and the defendant may take advantage of any condi¬
tion, or other part of it, not dated in the plaintiff’s
declaration. In real a&ions alfo the tenant may pray
in aid, or call for afliftance of another, to help him to
plead, becaufe of the feeblenefs or imbecillity of his
own eftate. Thus a tenant for life may pray in aid
of him that hath the inheritance in remainder or rever-
fion ; and an incumbent may pray in aid of the pa¬
tron and ordinary j that is, that they (hall be joined
in the adion, and help to defend the title. Voucher
alfo is the calling in of fome perfon to anfwer the ac¬
tion, that hath warranted the title to the tenant or
defendant. This we ftill make ufe of in the form of
common recoveries, which are grounded on a writ
of entry; a fpecies of adion that relies chiefly
©n the weaknefs of the tenant’s title, who there¬
fore vouches another perfon to warrant it. If the
vouchee appears, he is made defendant inftead of
the vouchor; but if he afterwards makes default,
recovery (hall be had againft the original defendant;
and he fhall recover an equivalent in value againft
the deficient vouchee. In affixes, indeed, where the
principal queftion is, whether the demandant or his
aticeftors were or were not in poffeffion till the oufter
happened, and the title of the tenant is little (if at
all) difcuffed, there no voucher is allowed ; but the
tenant may bring a writ of ivarrantia againft
the warrantor, to compel him t-o affift him with a
good plea or defence, or elfe to render damages and
the value of the land, if recovered againft the tenant.
In many real adions alfo, brought by or againft an
infant under the age of 21 years, and alfo in adions
of debt brought againft him, as heir to any deceafed
ancefW, either party may fugged the nonage of the
infant, and pray that the proceedings may be deferred
till his full age, or, in our legal phrafe, that the in-
'fant may have his age, and that the parol may demur,
that is, that the pleadings may be ftaid ; and then
they fhall not proceed till his full age, unlefs it be ap¬
parent that he cannot be prejudiced thereby. But
by the ftatutes of Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 46. and of
Glocefter, 6 Edw. I. c. 2. in writs of entry fur dif
feifin in fome particular cafes, and in adions aunce-
itrel brought by an infant, the parol fhall not demur ;
otherwife he might be deforced of his whole property;
and even want a maintenance, till he came of age.
So likewife in a writ of dower the heir fhall not have Pleadings.
his age ; for it is neceffary that the widow’s claim be
immediately determined, elfe fhe may want a prefent
fubftftence. Nor (hall an infant patron have it in a
quare impedit, fince the law holds it neceffary and ex¬
pedient, that the church be immediately filled.
When thefe proceedings are over, the defendant
muft then put in hia excufe or plea. See Plea.
It is a rule in pleading, that no man be allowed to
plead fpecially fuch a plea as amounts only to the ge¬
neral iffue, or a total denial of the charge ; but in fuck
cafe he fhall be driven to plead the general iffue in
terms, whereby the whole queftion is referred to a
jury. But if the defendant, in an affile or a&ion of
trefpafs, be defirous to refer the validity of his title
to the court rather than the jury, he may (late his
title fpecially, and at the fame time give colour to
the plaintiff, or fuppofe him to have an appearance
or colour of title, bad indeed in point of law, but of
which the jury are not competent judges. As if his
own true title is, that he claims by feoffment with
livery from A, by force of which he entered on the
lands in queftion, he cannot plead this by itfclf, as it
amounts to no more than the general iffue, nul tort,
mil dijj'eijin, in affize, or not guilty in an aftion of tref¬
pafs. But he may allege this fpecially, provided he
goes farther, and fays, that the plaintiff claiming by
colour of a prior deed of feoffment, without livery,
entered; upon whom he entered ; and may then re¬
fer himfelf to the judgment of the court which of thefe
two titles is the beft in point of law.
When the plea of the defendant is thus put in, if it
does not amount to an iffue or total eontradidtion of
the declaration, but only evades it, the plaintiff may
plead again, and reply to the defendant’s plea : Either
traverfiirg it, that is, totally denying it; as if, on an
aflion of debt upon bond, the defendant pleads folvit
ad diem, that he paid the money when due; here the
plaintiff in his replication may totally traverfe this
plea, by denying that the defendant paid it: Or he may
allege new matter in contradidion to the defendant’s
plea; as when the defendant pleads no award made,
the plaintiff may reply, and fet forth an a&ual award,
and affign a breach: Or the replication may confefs and
avoid the plea, by fome new matter or diftindion, con¬
fident with the plaintiff’s former declaration; as in an
adion for trefpaffing upon land whereof the plaintiff
is feized, if the defendant fhews a title to the land by
defeent, and that therefore he had a right to enter,
and gives colour to the plaintiff, the plaintiff may ei¬
ther traverfe and totally deny the fad of the defeent;
or he may confefs and avoid it, by replying, that true
it is that fuch defeent happened, but that fiuce the de¬
feent the defendant himfelf demifed the lands to the
plaintiff for term of life. To the replication the de¬
fendant may rejoin, or put in an anfwer called a rejoin*
der. The plaintiff may anfwer the rejoinder by a fur-
rejoinder; upon which the defendant may rebut, and
the plaintiff anfwer him by a fur-rebutter. Which
pleas, replications, rejoinders, fur-rejoinders, rebutters,
and fur-rebutters anfwer to the exceptio, replicatio, du¬
plicate, triplicate, and quadruplicate, of the Roman
laws.
The whole of this procefs is denominated the plead¬
ing •, in the feveral ftages of which it muft be carefully
ob-
P L E [ 6238 ] P L E
.Sheadings, obferved, not to depart or vary from tbe title or defence
which the party has once infilled on. For this (which
is called a departure in pleading) might occafion end-
lefs altercation. Therefore the replication mull fup-
-port the declaration, and the rejoinder mull fupport the
plea, without departing out of it. As in the cafe of
pleading no award made in confequence of a bond of
arbitration, to which the plaintiff replies, fetting forth
an aftual award; now the defendent cannot rejoin that
he hath performed this award, for fuch rejoinder would
be an entire departure for his original plea, which al¬
leged that no fuch award was made: therefore he has
now no other choice, but to traverfe the fad of the re¬
plication, or elfe to demur upon the law of it.
Again, all duplicity in pleading mud be avoided.
Every plea mull be limple, entire, conne&ed, and con¬
firmed to one ftngle point: it mud never be entangled
with a variety of diftindl independent anfwers to the
fame matter; which mull require as many different re¬
plies, and introduce a multitude of iffues upon one and
the fame difpute. For this would often embarrafs the
jury, and fometimes the court itfelf, and at all events
would greatly enhance the expence of the parties. Yet
it frequently is expedient to plead in fuch a manner as
to avoid any implied admiffion of a fa£l, which cannot
with propriety or fafety be pofnively affirmed or denied.
And this may be done by what is called a proteftation;
whereby the party interpofes an oblique allegation or
denial of fome fad, protefting (by the gerund, prate-
Jiando) that fuch a matter does or does not exift; and
at the fame time avoiding a direfk affirmation or de¬
nial. Sir Edward Coke hath defined a proteftation
(in the pithy dialeft of that age) to be “ an exclu-
fion of a conclufion.” For the ufe of it is, to fave the
party from being concluded with refpeft to fome fail
or circumftance which cannot be direclly affirmed or
denied without falling into duplicity of pleading; and
which yet, if he did not thus enter his proteft, he might
be deemed to have tacitly waved or admitted. Thus,
while tenure in villenage fubfifted, if a villein had
brought an a6lion againft his lord, and the lord was
inclined to try the merits of the demand, and at the
fame time to prevent any conclufion againft himfelf
that he had waved his figniory ; he could not in this
cafe both plead affirmatively that the plaintiff was his
villein, and alfo take iffue upon the demand; for then
histplea would have been double, as the former alone
would have been a good bar to the aftion : but he
might have alleged the villenage of the plaintiff by
way of proteftation, and then have denied the demand.
By this means the future vaffalage of the plaintiff was
laved to the defendant, in cafe the iffue was found in
his (the defendant’s) favour; for the proteftation pre¬
vented that conclufion which would otherwife have re-
fulted from the reft of his defence, that he had enfran-
chifed the plaintiff, fince no villein could maintain a
civil aftion againft his lord. So alfo if a defendant,
by way of inducement to the point of his defence, al¬
leges (among other matters) a particular mode of fei-
fin or tenure which the plaintiff is unwilling to admit,
and yet defines to take iffue on the principal point of
the defence, he mull deny the feifin or tenure by way
of proteftation, and then traverfe the defenfive matter.
So, la illy, if an award be fet forth by the plaintiff,
and he can affign a breach in one part of it (viz. the
non-payment of a fum of money) and yet is afraid to Pleadings
admit the performance of the reft of the award, or to 
aver in general a non-performance of any part of it,
left fomething fhould appear to have been performed;
he may fave to himfelf any advantage he might here¬
after make of the general non-performance, by alleging
that by proteftation, and plead only the non-payment
of the money.
In any flage of the pleadings, when either fide ad¬
vances or affirms any new matter, he ufually (as was
faid) avers it to be true; “ and this he is ready to ve¬
rify.” On the other hand, when either fide traverfes
or denies the fails pleaded by his antagonift, he ufually
tenders an ijfue, as it is called; the language of which
is different according to the party by whom it is ten¬
dered: for if the traverfe or denial comes from the de¬
fendant, the iffue is tendered in this manner, “ And of
this he puts himfelf upon the country,” thereby fub-
mitting himfelf to the judgment of his peers: but if
the traverfe lies upon the plaintiff, he tenders the iffue
or prays the judgment of the peers againft the defen¬
dant in another form; thus, “ And this he prays may
be inquired of by the country.”
But if either fide (as, for inftance, the defendant)
pleads a fpecial negative plea, not traverfing or deny¬
ing any thing that was before alleged, but difclofing
fome new negative matter; as where the fuit is on at
bond conditioned to perform an award, and the de¬
fendant pleads, negatively, that no award was made;
he tenders no iffue upon this pka, becaufe it does not
yet appear whether the fa6l will be difputed, the plain¬
tiff not having yet affertedthe exiftence of any award:
but when the plaintiff replies, and fets forth an aftual
fpecific award, if then the defendant traverfes the re¬
plication, and denies the making of any fuch award,
he then, and not before, tenders an iffue to the plaintiff.
For when, in the courfe of pleading, they come to a
point which is affirmed on one fide and denied on the
other, they are then faid to be at iffue ; all their de¬
bates being at lad contra&ed into a Angle point, which
muft now be determined either in favour of the plain¬
tiff or of the defendant. See the article Issue, in the
APPENDIX.
PLEASURE and Pain, fays Mr Locke, are fimple
ideas which we receive both from fenfation and reflec¬
tion; thefe being thoughts of the mind, as well as fen-
fations accompanied with pleafure and pain. See Me¬
taphysics, n° 71, 72.
PLEBEIAN, any perfon of the rank of the com¬
mon people. It is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the an¬
cient Romans, who were divided into fenators, patri¬
cians, and plebeians. The diftin&ion was made by
Romulus the founder of the city ; who confined all
dignities, civil, military, and facerdotal, to the rank
of patricians. But, to prevent the feditions which fuch
a diftindtion might produce through the pride of the
higher order and the envy of the lower, he endeavour¬
ed to engage them to one another by reciprocal ties
and obligations. Every plebeian was allowed tochoofe,
out of the body of the partricians, a protedlor, who
fhould be obliged to affift him with his intereil and
fubftance, and to defend himjrom oppreffion. Thefe
protedlors were called patrons; the prote&ed, clients.
It was the duty of the patron to draw up the contiadls
of the clients, to extricate them out of their diffi¬
culties
P L E [ 6239 ] P L E
[4 Pledge culties and perplexities, and to guard their ignorance
! 1 againlt the artfulnefs of the crafty. On the other hand,
i Plenitude, jj- t^e patron was poor, his clients were obliged to con-
tribute to the portions of his daughters, the payment
of his debts, and the ranfom of him and his children
if they happened to be taken in war. The client and
patron could neither accufe, nor bear witnefs againft
each other; and if either of them was conyiAed of ha¬
ving violated this law, the crime was equal to that of
treafon, and any one might with impunity flay the of¬
fender as a vidlim devoted to Pluto and the infernal
gods. For more than 6co years, we find no diflenfions
nor jealoufies'between the patrons and their clients;
not even in the times of the republic, when the peo¬
ple frequently mutinied againlt the great and power¬
ful.
PLEDGE, (Plegius), in common law, a furety, or
age, either real or perfonal, which the plaintiff or
emandant is to find for his profecuting the fuit.
The word is fometimes alfo ufed for Frank Pledge,
which fee.
To Pledge, in drinking, denotes to warrant, or be
furety to one, that he (hall receive no harm while he is
taking his draught.—The phrafe is referred by our
antiquaries, to the pradtice of the Danes, heretofore in
England, who frequently ufed to ftab, or cut the throats
of the natives, while they were drinking.
PLEDGERY, or Pleggery, in law, furetiflnp,
or an undertaking or anfwering for another.
Pledges of Goods for money. See Pawn, in the
APPENDIX.
PLEDGET, Bolster, or Comprefs, in furgery, a
kind of flat tent laid over a wound, to imbibe the fu-
perfluous humours, and to keep it clean.
PLEIADES, in fabulous hiftory, the feven daugh¬
ters of Atlas king of Mauritania, and Pleione, were
thus called from their mother. They were Maia, E-
leftra, Taygete, Afterope, Merope, Halcyone,
and Celceno: and were alfo called Atlantides, from
their father Atlas. Thefe princefies were carried
off by Bufiris, king of Egypt; but Hercules having
conquered him, delivered them to their father: yet
they afterwards fuffered a new perfecution from Orion,
who purfued them five years, till Jove, being prevail¬
ed on by their prayers, took them up into the hea¬
vens, where they form the conftellation which bears
their name.
Pleiades, in aftronomy, an aflemblage-of feven
ftars, in the neck of the conftellation Taurus.
They are thus called from the Greek itx.eii-, navi*
gare, “ to fail;” as being terrible to mariners, by
reafon of the rains and (forms that frequently rife with
them. The Latins called them vcrgilix, from ver,
“ fpring ;” becaufe of their rifing about the time of
the vernal equinox. The largeft is of the third magni¬
tude, and is called lucidts pleiadum.
PLENARY, fomething complete or full. Thus
we fay the pope grants plenary indulgences; i. e. full
and entire remiflions of the penalties due to all fins.
See Indulgence.
PLENIPOTENTIARY, a perfon veiled with full
power to do any thing. See Ambassador.
PLENITUDE, the quality of a tiling that is full,
or that fills another. In medicine, it chiefly denotes
^.redundancy of blood and humours.
PLENUM, in phyfics, denotes, according to the Plenum,
Cartefians, that (late of things wherein every part of P*cnU5-
fpace is fuppoied to be full of matter, in oppofition to
a VACUUM.
PLENUS flos, a full flower ; a term expreflive of
the higheft degree of luxuriance in flowers. The pe¬
tals in full flowers are fo multiplied as to exclude all
the (lamina, and frequently to choak up the female or¬
gan ; fo that fuch (lowers, although the mod delight¬
ful to the eye, are both vegetable monfters, and, ac¬
cording to the fexualills, vegetable eunuchs; the un¬
natural increafe of the petals conftituting the firft; the
confequent exclufion of the (lamina or male organs,
the latter.
Flowers with more petals than one, are mod liable
to this, as well as the inferior degrees of luxuriance.
The following are well known examples; ranunculus,
anemone, marfh-marygold, columbine, fennel-flower,
poppy, paeony, pink, gilliflower, campion, vifcous
campion, lily, crown imperial, tulip, narciffus, roc¬
ket, mallow, Syrian mallow, apple, pear, peach,
cherry, almond, myrtle, rofe, and ftrawberry.
Flowers with one petal, are more rarely fubjeft to
fullnefs; that they are not, however, totally exemp¬
ted, appears from polianthus, hyacinth, primrofe,
crocus, meadow-faffron, and thorn-apple, tho* Kra¬
mer has aflerted that a full flower with one petal is a-
contradi<Sion in terms.
In flowers with one petal, the mode of luxuriance,
or impletion, is by a multiplication of the divjfions of
the limb or upper part ; in flowers with more pe¬
tals than one, by a multiplication of the petals or nec-
tarium.
To take a few examples. Columbine is rendered
full in three different ways : 1. By the multiplication
of its petals, and total exclufion of the nedlaria ;
2. By the multiplication of the neftaria, and exclu¬
fion of the petals; or, 3. By fuch an increafe of the
nedlaria only as does not exclude the petals, between
each of which are interjedled three nedlaria, placed
one within another. Again, fennel-flower is render¬
ed full, by an increafe of the nedlaria only ; narciffus,
either by a multiplication of its cup and petals, or of
its cup only ; lark-fpur, commonly by an increafe of
the petals, and exclufion of the fpur, which is itsnec-
tarium. In faponaria concava anglica, the impletion
is attended with the Angular effedt of incorporating
the petals, and reducing their number from five to
one ; and in gelder rofe, the luxuriance is effedled by
an increafe both in magnitude and number of the plain,
wheel-fliaped,. barren florets of the circumference or
margin of the head of flowers; and an exclufion of
all the bell-lhaped hermaphrodite florets of the centre
or di(k.
Hitherto we have treated of plenitude in Ample
flowers only: the inftancejuft now adduced feems to
connedl the different modes of impletion in them and
compound flowers. Before proceeding further, how¬
ever, it will not be improper to premife, that as a
Ample luxuriant flower is frequently, by beginners,
mitlaken for a compound flower in a natural (late, fuch:
flowers may always be diftinguifhed with certainty by
this rule : That in Ample flowers, however luxuriant,
there is but one pif ilium, or female organ ; whereas in
compound flowers, each floret, or partial flower, is fur-^
niflied.
P L E [ 6240 ] P L E
Plenus. nirtied with its own proper piftillum. Thus in hawk-
weed, a compound flower, each flat or tongue-lhaped
floret in the agregate has its five ftamina and naked
feed ; which latt is, iq effeft, its piJUllum ; whereas,
in a luxuriant lychnis, which is a fimple flower, there
is found only one piftillum, or female organ, common
to the whole.
In a compound radiated flower, which generally
confifts of plain florets in the margin or radius, and
tubular or hollow florets in the centre or difc ; pleni¬
tude is effefted either by an increafe of the florets in
the margin, and a total exclufion ofthofe in the difc;
which mode of luxuriance is termed impletion by thg ra¬
dius, and refembles what happens in the gelder-rofe :
or by an elongation of the hollow florets in the centre,
and a lefs profound divifion of their brims; which is
termed impletion by the difc. In the firft .mode of lux¬
uriance, the florets in the centre, which are always
hermaphrodite or male, are entirely excluded ; and in
their place fucceed florets fimilar in fex to thofe of the
radius. Now, as the florets in the margin of a radia¬
ted compound flower, are found to be always either
female, that is, furniftied with the piftillum only ; or
neuter, that is, furnilhed with neither ftamina nor pi-
Oillum; it is evident, that a radiated compound flower,
filled*by the radius, will either be entirely female,
as in feverfew, daify, and African marygold ; or en¬
tirely neuter, as in fun-flower, marygold, and cen¬
taury : hence it will always be eafy to diftinguifh fuch
a luxuriant flower from a compound flower with plain
florets in a natural ftate ; as thefe florets are all her¬
maphrodite ; that is, furnilbed with both ftamina and
piftillum. Thus the full flowers of African marygold
have each floret furnifhed with the piftillum or female
organ only : the natural flowers of dandelion, which,
like the former, Is compofed of plain florets, are fur-
niftied with both ftamina and piftillum.
In the fecond mode of luxuriance, termed impletion
by the difc, the florets in the margin fometimes remain
unchanged ; but moft commonly adopt the figure of
thofe in the centre, without, however, fuffering any
alteration in point of fex ; fo that confufion is lefs to
be apprehended from this mode of luxuriance than
from the former; befides, the length to which the flo¬
rets in the centre run out is of itfelf a fulficient dt-
itindliqn, and adapted to excite at once an idea of lux¬
uriance. Daify, feverfew, and African marygold,
exhibit inftances of this as well as of the former mode
of impletion.
In luxuriant compound flowers with plain florets,
the femijhfcidoji of Tournefort, the ftigma or fummit
of the tlyle in each floret is lengthened, and the fred-
buds are enlarged and diverge ; by which characters
fuch flowers may always be diftinguiftied from flowers
of the fame kind in a natural ftate. Scorxonera, nipple¬
wort, and goat’s-beard, furnifti frequent inftances of
the plenitude alluded to.
Laftly, the impletion of compound flowers with tu¬
bular or hollow florets, the flofculofi of Tournefort,
feems to obferve the fame rules as that of radiated
flowers juft delivered. In everlafting-flower, the .ve-
ranthernum of Linnceus, the impletion is Angular, be¬
ing effedted by the enlargement and expansion of the
inward chaffy feales of the calix. Thefe feales, which
become coloured, are greatly augmented in length, fo
as to overtop the florets, which are fcarce larger than Pleonafk i
thofe of the fame flower in a natural ftate. The florets H *
too in the margin, which in the natural flower are fe* eut^nec‘|
male, become, by luxuriance, barren j that is, are de-
prived of the piftillum ; the ftyle, which was very fhort,
fpreads, and is of the length of the chaffy feales; and
its fummits, formerly two in number, are metamorpho-
fed into one.
Full flowers are more eafily referred to their refpec-
ttve genera in methods founded upon the calix, as the
flower-cup generally remains unaffe&ed by this higheft
degree of luxuriance.
PLEONASM, a figure in rhetoric, whereby we
ufe words feemingly fuperfluous, in order to exprefs a
thought with the greater energy ; fuch as, “ I faw it
with my own eyes,” &C. See Oratory, n° 64.
PLETHORA, in medicine, from r\>i6oc, «< pleni¬
tude.” A plethora is when the veffeis are too much
loaded with fluids. The plethora maybe fanguine or
ferous. In the firft there is too much craffamentum in
the blood, in the latter too little. In a fanguine ple¬
thora there is danger of a fever, inflammation, apo¬
plexy, rupture of the blood-veffcls, obttrided fecre-
tions, &c.: In a ferotis, a dropfy, &c. A rarefa&ion
of the blood produces all the effeCts of a plethora ; it
may accompany a plethora, and (hould be diftinguiftt-
ed therefrom. Mr Bromfield obferves, that a ianguine
plethora may thus be known to be prefent by th»
pulfe. An artery overcharged with blood is as inca¬
pable .of ptoducing a ftr&ng full pulfe, as one that con¬
tains a deficient quantity; in both cafes, there will be
a low and \tfeak pulfe. To di-ftinguilh rightly, the
pulfe muft not he felt with one or two fingers on the
carpal artery ; but if threeor four fingers cover a con-
fiderable length of the artery, and we prefs hard for
fome time on it, and then fuddenly raife all thefe fin¬
gers except that which is neareft to the patient’s hand,
the influx of the blood, if there is a plethora, will be
fo rapid as to raife the other finger, and make us fen-
fible of the folnefs. The fanguine plethora is relie¬
ved by bleeding; the ferous by purging, diuretics, and
fweating.
PLEURA, in anatomy, a thin membrane covering
the infide of the thorax. ,See Anatomy, n° 377.
PLEURONECTES, in ichthyology, a genus be-
longing to the order of thoracici. Both eyes are on
the fame fide of the head ; there are from four to five
rays in the gill-membrane; the body is compreffed ;
the one fide refembling the back, the other the belly.
There are 17 fpecies ; the moft remarkable are,
1. The hippogloffus, orbolibut. This-is the largeft
of the genus: fome have been taken in our feas weigh¬
ing from too to 300 pounds; but much larger are
found in thofe of Newfoundland, Greenland, and Ice¬
land, where they are taken with a hook and line in
very deep water. They are part of the food of the
Greenlanders, who cut them into large flips, and dry
them in the fun. They are common in the London
markets, where they are expofed to fale cut into large
pieces. They are very coarfe eating, excepting the
part which adheres to the fide-fins, which is extremely
fat and delicious, but furfeiting. They are the moft
voracious of all flat filh. There have been inftances
of their fwallowing the lead weight at the end of a
line, with which the feamen were founding the bot¬
tom
P L
jfakuratiic- tom from on board a fiiip.
its length, is the narrowed of any of this genus except
the foie. It is perfectly fmooth, and free from fpines
either above or below. The colour of the upper part
isdulky ; beneath, of a pure white. We do not count
the rays of the fins in this genus; not only becaufe
they are fo numerous, but becaufe nature hath given
to each fpecies chara&ers fufficient to didinguifh them
E [ 6241 ] P L E
The holibut, in refpe& to very delicate flavour ; but the fmall foies are much fu- Plcuronec-
perior in goodnefs to large ones. By the ancient laws tes‘
of the Cinque Ports, no one was to take fples from the
id of November to the 15th of March ; neither was
any body to fifh from fun-fetting to fun-rifing, that
the filh might enjoy their night-food. The chief fi(h-
ery for them is at Brixham in Torbay.
<5. The maximus, or turbot, grows to a very large
by. Thefe flat fifh fwim fidew*ys ; for which reafon fize ; Mr Pennant has feen them of 23 pounds weight,
Linnaeus hath (fyled them pleuronedes.
2. The platefia, or plaife, are very common on
mod of our coafts, and fometimcs taken of the weight
of 15 pounds; but they feldom reach that fize, one
of eight or nine pounds being reckoned a large fid).
The bed and larged are taken off Rye on the coad
of Suffex, and alfo off the Dutch coads. They fpawn
in the beginning of February. They are very flat,
and much more fquare than the preceding. Behind
the left eye is a row of fix tubercles, that reaches
to the commencement of the lateral line. The upper
part of the body and fins is of a clear brown, marked
with large bright orange-coloured fpots : the belly is
white.
3. The fiefus, or flounder, inhabits every part of
of the Britifh fea, and even frequents our divers at a
great diftance from the fait waters ; and for this rea¬
fon fome writers call it the pajfer fiuviatiUs. It never
grows large in our rivers, but is reckoned fweeter than
thofe that live in the fea. It is inferior in fize to the
plaife, feldom or never weighing more than fix pounds.
It may very eafily be diftinguifhed from the plaife,
,or any other fifh of this genus, by a row of fharp
fmall fpines that furround its upper fides, and are pla¬
ced jud at the jun&ion of the fins with the body.
Another row marks the fide-line, and runs half way
down the back. The colour of the upper part of the
body is a pale brown, fometimes marked with a few
obfcure fpots of dirty yellow: the belly is w'hite.
4. The limanda, or dab, is found with the other
ipecies, but is lefs common. It is in bed feafon du¬
ring February, March, and April: they fpawn in
May and June, and become flabby and watery the
reft of fummer. They are fuperior in goodnefs to the
plaife and flounder, but far inferior in fize. It is ge¬
nerally of an uniform brown colour on the upper fide,
though fometimes clouded with a darker. The fcales
are fmall and rough, which is a chara&er of this fpe¬
cies. The lateral line is extremely incurvated at the
beginning, then goes quite ftraight to the tail. The
lower part of the body is white.
5. The folea, or foie, is found on all our coafts ;
but thofe on the weftern fhores are much fuperior in
fize to thofe of the north. On the former they are
fometimes taken of the weight of fix or feven pounds,
but towards Scarborough they rarely exceed one
pound ; if they reach two, it is extremely uncommon.
They are ufually taken in the trawl-net: they keep
much at the bottom, and feed on fmall (hell-fifti. It
is of a form much more narrow and oblong than any
other of the genus. The irides are yellow ; the pu¬
pils of a bright fapphirine colour : the fcales are fmall,
but has heard of fome that weighed 30. They are
taken chiefly off thg north coaft of England, and others
off the Dutch coaft.
The large turbots, and feveral other kinds of flat
filh, are taken by the hook and line, for they lie in
deep water: the method of taking them in wares, or
flaked nets, is too precarious to be depended on for
the fupply of our great markets, becaufe it is by mere
accident that the great filh itray into them. The fol¬
lowing is the method of fifhing for turbot followed at
Scarborough : When they go out to filh, each perfon
is provided with three lines. Each man’s lines are
fairly coiled upon a flat oblong piece of wicker-work ;
the hooks being baited, and placed very regularly in
the centre of the coil. Each line is furnifhed with 14
fcore of hooks, at the diftance of fix feet two inches
from each other-. The hooks are faftened to the lines
upon fneads of twifted horfe-hair, 27 inches in length.
When filhing, there are always three men in each
coble 5 and confequently nine of thefe lines are faftened
together, and ufed as one line, extending in length
near three miles, and furnifhed with 2520 hooks. An
anchor and a buoy are fixed at the firft end of the line,
and one more of each at the end of each man’s lines ;
in all four anchors, which are commonly perforated
ftones, and four buoys made of leather or cork. The
line is always laid acrofs the current. The tides of
flood and ebb continue an equal time upon our coaft ;
and, when undifturbed by winds, run each way about
fix hours. They are fo rapid, that the fifhermen can
only fhoot and haul their lines at the turn of tide ; and
therefore the lines always remain upon the ground
about fixjiours. The fame rapidity of tide prevents
their ufing hand-lines ; and therefore two of the peo¬
ple commonly wrap themfelves in the fail, and fleep,
while the other keeps a ftrift look-out, for fear of
being run down by fhips, and to obferve the weather.
For itorms often rife fo fuddenly, that it is with ex¬
treme difficulty they can fometimes efcape to the Ihore,
leaving their lines behind. The coble is 20 feet 6
inches long, and 5 feet extreme breadth. It is about
one ton burden, rowed with three pair of ores, and
admirably conftrudted for the purpofe of encountering
a mountainous fea : they hoift fail when the wind fuits.
The five-men boat is 40 feet long and 15 broad, and
of 25 tons burden ; it is fo called, though navigated
by fix men and a boy, becaufe one of the men is com¬
monly hired to cook, &c. and does not fhare in the
profits with the other five. All our able filhermen go
in thefe boats to the herring-fifliery at Yarmouth the
latter end of September, and return about the middle
of November. The boats are then laid up until the
and very rough : the upper part of the body is of a beginning of Lent; at which time they go off in them
deep brown ; the tip of one of the pe&oral fins, black; to the edge of the Dogger, and other places, to filh
the under part of the body, white: the lateral line is for turbot, cod, ling, Ikaits, &c. They always take
ftraight; the tail rounded at the end, It is a filh of a two cobles on board ; and when they come upon their
Von. VIII. 2 35 D ground,
P L E [ 6242 ] P L E
Heurontc- ground, anchor the boat, throw out the cobles, and
^js fifh in the fame manner as thofe do who go from the
' piica, fhore in a coble ; with this difference only, that here
— each man is provided with double the quantity of lines,
and inftead of waiting the return of tide in the coble,
return to the boat and bait their other lines; thus
bawling one fet, and (hooting another every turn of
tide. They commonly run into harbour twice a-week
to deliver their fifh. The five-men boat is decked at
each end, but open in the middle, and has two large
lug-fails. The belt bait for all kinds of fifh is frefh
herring cut in pieces of a proper fize ; and notwith-
flanding what has been faid to the contrary, they are
taken here at any time in the winter, and all the fpring,
whenever the fifhermen put down their nets for that
purpofe. The five-men boats always take fome nets
for that end. Next to herrings are the leffer lam¬
preys, which come all winter by land-carriage from
Tadcafler. The Dutch alfo ufe thefe fifh as baits in
the turbot fifhery, and purchafe annually from the
Thames fifhermen as much as amounts to 700 1. worth
for that purpofe. The next baits in efteem are fmall
haddocks cut in pieces, fand-worms, mufcles, and lim¬
pets (called here flidders) •, and, laflly, when none of
thefe can te had, they ufe bullock’s liver. The hooks
ufed here are much fmaller than thofe employed at
Iceland and Newfoundland. Experience has fhewn,
that the larger fifh will take a living fmall one upon
the hook, fooner than any bait that can be put on;
therefore they ufe fuch as the fmall fifh can fwallow.
The hooks are two inches and an half long in the
(hank, and near an inch wide between the (hank and the
point. The line is made of fmall cording, and is al¬
ways tanned before it is ufed.
Turbots, and all the rays, are extremely delicate
in their choice of baits. If a piece of herring or had¬
dock has been 12 hours out of the fea, and then ufed
as bait, they will not touch it. This fpecies is
of a remarkable fquare form : the colour of the up¬
per part of the body is cinereous, marked with num¬
bers of black fpots of different fizes: the belly is
white; the (kin is without fcales, but greatly wrink¬
led, and mixed with fmall fhort fpines, difperfed with¬
out any Order.
PLEXUS, among anatomifls, a bundle of fmall
veffels interwoven in the form of net-work : thus a
congeries of veffels within the brain is called plexus
choraides, reticularis, or retiformis. See Anatomy,
n° 397, c.
A plexus of nerves is an union of two or more
nerves, forming a fort of ganglion or knot.
PLICA POLONiCA, in medicine, a difeafe of the
hair, almoft peculiar to Poland and Lithuania ; and
hence denominated polonica. It confifts of a preter¬
natural bulk of the hair, which being firmly congluti-
nated and wrapped up in inextricable knots, and ex-
tended to a monftrous length, affords a very unfeemly
V fpedtacle. When thefe are cut off, the blood is dif-
charged from them, the head racked with pain, the fight
impaired, and the patient’s life frequently endangered.
This diforder is fuppofed to arife from the fordid
and nafty manner of life to which thefe people are ad-
difled, and from an hereditary fault conveyed from
the parents, which confifts in too great a bulk of the
pores and bulbous hairs under the fkin of the head;
he^ice the thick and glutinous nutritious juice, prodil- Plinth,
ced by their coarfe aliments and impure waters, is by Plmy.
heat forced into the cavities of the hairs, and fweating
through their pores, produces this terrible difeafe.
A perfeft method of curing this diforder is un¬
known ; undoubtedly becaufe, in thofe parts of Po¬
land in which this difeafe is endemial, there have been
few phyficians who, from what is commonly known
of the nature and cure of the plica polonioa, have
been able to lay down a rational and judicious plan
for treating it. It is certain, that purging and vene-
feftion are fo far from being beneficial in this diforder-
der, that they often prove hurtful, by throwing the
peccant humours into violent commotions, and more
effeftually diftributing them through the whole body.
It is therefore mod fafe and expedient to folicit the
peccant matter to the hairs, to which it naturally
tends : and this intention, Senertus fays, is moft ef¬
fectually anfwered by lotions of bear’s-breech.
PLINTH, orle, or orlo,-in archite&ure, a flat
fquare member, in the form of a brick. It is ufed as
the foundation of columns, being that flat fquare table
under the moulding of the bafe and pedeftal at the
bottom of the whole order. It feems to have been
originally intended to keep the bottom of the original
wooden pillars from rotting. Vitruvius alfo calls the
tufean abacus plinth.
Plinth of a Statue, &c. is a bafe, either flat, round,
or fquare, that ferves to fupport it.
Plinth of a Wall, denotes two or three rows of
bricks advancing out from a wall; or, in general, any
flat high moulding, that ferves in a front-wall to mark
the floors, to fuftain the eaves of a wall, or the lar¬
mier of a chimney.
PLINY the Elder, or Casciiius Plinius Secundus,
one of the moft learned men of ancient Rome, was
defeended from an illuftrious family, and born at Ve¬
rona. He bore arms in a diftinguifhed poft ; was one
of the college of Augurs ; became intendant of Spain ;
and was employed in feveral important affairs by Vef-
pafian and Titus, who honoured him with their e-
fteem. The eruption of Mount Vefuvius, which hap¬
pened in the year 79, proved fatal to him. His ne¬
phew, Pliny the Younger, relates the circumftances
of that dreadful eruption, and the death of his uncles,
in a letter to Tacitus. Pliny the Elder wrote a Na¬
tural Hiftory in 37 books, which is ftill extant, and
has had many editions ; the moft efteemed of which
is that of Father Hardouin, printed at Paris in 1723,
in two volumes folio.
Pliny, the Tounger, nephew of the former, was
born in the ninth year of Nero, and the 6zd ofChrift,
at Novocomum, a town upon the lake Larius, near
which he had feveral beautiful villas. Cascilius was
the name of his father* and Plinius Secundus that of
his mother’s brother, who adopted him. He brought
into the world with him fine parts and an elegant
tafte, which he did not fail to cultivate early; for, as
he tells us himfelf, he wrote a Greek tragedy at 14
years of age. He loft his father when he was young ;
and had the famous Virginius for his tutor or guar¬
dian, whom he has fet in a glorious light. He fre¬
quented the fchools of the rhetoricians, and heard
Quintilian ; for whom he ever after entertained fo high
an efteem, that he beftowed a confiderable portion
upon
P L E [ 6243 ] P L E
liny, upon his daughter at her marriage. He was in his
18th year when his uncle died ; and it was then that
he began to plead in the forum, which was the ufual
road to dignities. About a year after, he affumed
the military charafter, and went into Syria with the
commiffion of tribune : but this did not fuit his tafte
any more than it had done Tully’s; and therefore we
find him returning after a campaign or two. He tells
us, that in his paflage homewards he was detained
by contrary winds at the ifland Icaria, and how he
employed himfelf in making verfes: he enlarges in the
fame place upon his poetical exercitations ; yet poetry
was not the thining part of his charafler, any more
than it had been of Tully’s.
Upon his return from Syria, he married a wife, and
fettled at Rome : it was in the reign of Domitian.
During this moft perilous time, he continued to plead
in the forum, where he was diftinguilhed not more by
his uncommon abilities and eloquence, than by his
great refolution and courage, which enabled him to
fpeak boldly, when none elfe durft fcarcely fpeak at
all. On thefe accounts he was often fingled out by
the fenate, to defend the plundered provinces againlt
their opprtfiive governors, and to manage other cau-
fes of a like important and dangerous nature. One
of thefe was for the province of Bcetica, in their pro-
fecution of Bsebius Mafia ; in which he acquired fo
general an applaufe, that the emperor Nerva, then a
private man, and in baniihment at Tarentum, wrote
him a letter, in which he congratulated not only Pli¬
ny, but the age which had produced an example fo
muth in the fpirit of the ancients, Pliny relates this
affair in a letter to Cornelius Tacitus; and he was fo
pkafed with it himfelf, that he could not help intreat¬
ing this friend to record it in his hiftory. He in¬
treats him, however, with infinitely more modefty than
Tully had intreated Lucceius upon the fame occafion :
and though he might imitate Cicero in the rcqueft, as
he profefles to have conftantly fet that great man be¬
fore him for a model, yet he took care not to tranf-
grefs the bounds of decency in his manner of making
it. He obtained the offices of queftor and tribune,
and luckily went unhurt through the reign of Domi¬
tian : there is, however, reafon to fuppofe, if that
emperor had not died juft as he did, that Pliny would
have fhared the fate of many other great men ; for he
tells us himfelf, that his name was afterwards found
in Domitian’s tablets, among the number of thofe who
were deftined to deftru&ion.
He loft his wife in the beginning of Nerva’s reign,
and foon after took his beloved Calphurnia, of whom
we read fo much in his Epiftles. He had not however
any children by any of his wives: and hence we find
him thanking Trajan for the jus trium liberoruiti, which
he aftewards obtained of that emperor for his friend
Suetonius Tranquillus. He hints alfo, in his letter of
thanks to Trajan, that he had been twice married in
the reign of Domitian. He was promoted to the con-
fulate by Trajan in the year 100, when he was 38 years
of age; and in this office pronounced that famous pa¬
negyric, which has ever lince been admired, as well
for the copioufnefs of the topics, as the elegance of ad-
drefs. Then he was ele&ed augUr, and afterwards
made proconful of Bithynia, from whence he wrote to,
Trajan that cnrious letter concerning the prunitive
Chriftians; which, with Trajan’s refcript, is happily Pliny
extant among his Epiftles. Pliny’s letter, as Mr Mel- li
moth obferves in a note upon the pafiage, is efteemed
as almoft the only genuine monument of ecclefiaftical
antiquity relating to the times immediately fucceeding
the apoftles, it being written at moft not above 40 years
after the death of St Paul. It was preferved by the
Chriftians themfelves, as a clear and unfufpicious evi¬
dence of the purity of their do&rines; and is frequent¬
ly appealed to by the early writers of the church a-
gainft the calumnies of their adverfaries. It is not
known what became of Pliny after his return from Bi-
thynia ; whether he lived at Rome, or what time he
fpent at his country-houfes. Antiquity is alfo fileut
as to the time of his death: but it is conjeftured that
he died either a little before or foon after that excel-
cellent prince, his admired Trajan; that ie, about the
year of Chrift 116.
Piiny was one of the greateft wits, and one of the
worthieft men, among the ancients. He had fine parts,
which he cultivated to the utmoft; and he accomplifh-
ed himfelf with all the various kinds of knowledge
which could ferve to make him either ufeful or agree¬
able. He wrote and publilhed a great number of
things ; but nothing has efcaped the wreck of time,
except the books of Letters, and the panegyric upon
Trajan. This has ever been confidered as a mafter-
piece: and if he has, as feme think, almoft exhaufted
all the ideas of perfeftion in a prince, and gone per¬
haps a little beyond the truth, yet it is allowed that
no panegyrift was ever pofltfled of a finer fubjeft, and
on which he might better indulge in all the flow of elo¬
quence, without incurring the fufpicion of flattery and
lies. His letters feem to have been intended for the
public; and in them he may be confidered as writing
his own memoirs. Every epiftle is a kind of hiftorical
fketch, wherein we have a view of him in fome ftriking
attitude, either of adtive or contemplative life. In
them are preferved anecdotes of many eminent perfons,
whofe works are come down to us, as Suetonius, Si-
1ms Italians, Martial, Tacitus, and Quintilian; and of
curious things, which throw great light upon the hi-
ftory of thofe times. They are written with great po-
litenefs and fpirit; and if they abound too much in
turn and metaphor, we muft impute it to that dege¬
neracy of tafte which was then accompanying the de-
enerate manners of Rome. Pliny however feems to
ave preferved himfelf in this latter rtfpeft from the
general contagion: whatever the manners of the Ro¬
mans were, his were pure and incorrupt. His wri¬
tings breathe a fpirit of tranlcendent goodnefsand hu¬
manity: his only imperfeftion is, he was too defirous
that the public and pofterity fhould knowhow humane
and good he was. We have two elegant Englilh tranf-
lalions of his Epiftles; the one by Mr Meimoth, and
the other by Lord Orrery.
PLOCE. See Oratory, n° 67.
PLOT (Dr Robert), a learned antiquarian and phi-
lofopher, was born at Sutton-barn, in the parifli of Bor¬
den in Kent, in the year 1641, and ftudied in Mag-
dalen-hall, and afterwards in univei fity-college, Ox¬
ford. In 1682 he was ele&ed fecretary of the Royal
Society, and publilhed the Philofophichal Tranfa&ions
from N° 143 to N° 166 inclufive. The next year Elias
Afiunole, Eiq; appointed him firft keeper of his mu-
35 D 2 feum,
P L O [ 6244 j P L O
Plot, feunij and about the fame time the vice-chancellor no-
Plotinas. m;nated him firft profeffbr of chemiftry in that univer-
fity. In 1687 he was made fecretary to the Earl Mar-
Ihal, and the following year received the title of hijio-
riographer to King James II. In 1690 he refigned his
profefforfhip of chemiftry, and likewife his place of
keeper of the mufeum, to which he prefented a very
large colle&ion of natural curiofities; which were thofe
he had defcribed in his hiftories of OxfordThire and
Staffordfhire: the former published at Oxford in 1677,
folio, and reprinted with additions and corre6tions in
1705 ; and the latter was printed in the fame fize in
1686. In January 1694-5, Henry Howard, Earl
Marfhal, nominated him Mobray-herald extraordinary;
two days after which he was conftituted regifter of the
court of honour ; and, on the 30th of April 1696, he
died of the ftone at his houfe in Borden.
As Dr Plot delighted in natural hiftory, the above
works were defigned as eflays towards a Natural Hi-
llory of England; and he had aAually formed a defign
of travelling through England and Wales for that pur-
pofe. He accordingly drew up a plan of his fcheme
in a letter to the learned Bifhop Fell; which is infert-
ed at the end of the fecond volume of Leland’s Itine¬
rary, of the edition of 1744. Befides the above works,
be publilhed De originc fontium tentamen philcfophi-
cum, 8vo. and nine papers in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions.
Plot, in dramatic poetry, is fometimes ufed for the
fable of a tragedy or comedy; but more particularly
the knot or intrigue, which makes the embarras of any
piece. See Poetry.
Plot, in furveying, the plan or draught of any
field, farm, or manor, furveyed with an inftrument,
and laid down in the proper figure and dimenfions.
PLOTINUS, a Platonic philofopher in the third
century. His genius was greatly fuperior to the
vulgar herd of philofophers, and was very lingular
and extraordinary. At 28 years of age he had a
ftrong, defire to ftudy philofophy, on which occafion
he was recommended to the molt famous profeffors of
Alexandria. Pie was not fatisfied with their lectures;
but, upon hearing thofe of Ammonius, he confeffed
that this was the man he wanted. He ftudied for ti
years under that excellent mafter, and then went to
hear the Perfian and Indian philofophers. He after¬
wards read lectures of philofophy at Rome ; and in
the 50th year of his age, Porphyry became his dif-
ciple. Porphyry being refolved to have every thing
fully explained, Plotinus, to give him that fatisfa&ion,
was induced to write many books; 24 of which he
compofcd during the fix years that Porphyry was his
difciple ; and thefe, added to 21 that he had written
before Porphyry’s arrival, with nine he compofed af¬
ter Porphyry’s leaving Rome, made in all 54 books,
which are divided into fix Enneades, and are all upon
very abftrufe fubjedts. However, we may difcover in
them the traces of a fruitful, elevated, vaft, and pe¬
netrating genius, and a clofe method of reafoning. The
Romans had a high veneration for him; and he palled
for a man of fuch judgment and virtue, that many per-
fons of both fexes, when they found themfelves dying,
intruftcdhim, as a kind of guardian angel, with the care
of their eftates and children. He was the arbiter of
numberlefslaw-fuits j and conftamly behaved with fuch
humanity and re&itude of mind,that he did riot create Plough
himfelf one enemy during the 26 years he refided in |j
Rome. He, however, did not meet with the fame iu- Plover.
ftice from all of his own profeffion; for a philofopher of
Alexandria, being envious of his glory, ufcd his utmoft
endeavours, though in vain, to ruin him. The empe¬
ror Gallienus, and the emprefs Salonina, had a very
high regard for him ; and, had it not been for the op-
pofition of fome jealous courtiers, they would have had
the city of Campania rebuilt, and given to him with
the territory belonging to it, to eftablilh a- colony of
philofophers, and to have it governed by the ideal laws
of Plato’s commonwealth. He laboured tinder various
diforders during the laft year of his life, which obliged
him to leave Rome, when he was carried to Campa¬
nia to the heirs of one of his friends, who furnilhed
him with every thing neceflary ; and there he died in
the year 270, aged 66. His 54 books are printed in
Greek, with a Latin verfion, contents, and an analy-
fis of each book, by Marcillus Ficinus. His life was
written by Porphyry, the moft illuftrious of his difciples.
PLOUGH, in agriculture, a machine for turning
up the foil, contrived to fave the time, labour, and ex-
pences, that, without this inftrument, muft have been
employed in digging land, to prepare for the lowing
of all kinds of grain. See Agriculture, n° 77, &c.
PLOUGHMAN, the perfon who guides the plough
in the operation of tilling.
PLOUGHING, in agriculture, the turning up the
earth with a plough. See Agriculture, Part II.
pafim.
PLOVER, in ornithology, a fpecies of Chara-
DR1US.
Thefe birds ufually fly in exceedingly large flocks
in the places they frequent; people talk of 20,000 or
or 30,000 being feen in a flock. They generally come
to us in September, and leave us about the end of
March. In cold weather they are found very com¬
monly on lands lying'near the fea, in queft of food;
but in thaws and open feafons, they go higher up in
the country.
They love to feed on ploughed lands, but never re¬
main long at a time on them, for they are very cleanly
in their nature ; and the dirt which lodges on their
beaks and feet, give them fo much uneafinefs, that they
fly to the neareft water to wafti themfelves. When
they rooft, they do not go to trees or hedges; but fit
fquatting on the ground like ducks or geefe, far from
trees or hedges, when the weather is caltn; but when
it is ftormy, they often get under flielter. In wet wea¬
ther they do not fleep in the night at all, but run about
picking up the worms as they crawl out of the ground ;
during this feeding they are continually making a fmall
cry, that ferves to keep them together, and in the morn¬
ing they take flight. If in their flight they fpy any
others on the ground, they call them up; and if they
refufe to come, the whole body defcends to fee what
food there is in the place that detains them.
Plovers are very eafily taken at the time of their
firft coming over, when they have not got any other
birds mixed among them; but when they afterwards
pick up the teal and other fhy birds among them, it be¬
comes more difficult. The bell feafon for taking them
is in 06lober ; efpecially in the beginning of that
Hiontfi: after this they grow timorous, and are not
P L U
Pkwclen. cafily taken again till March, which is the time of their
kmbery C0UP^ng* The fevereft frofts are not the beft feafon
 Hi for taking them in neft, but variable weather does bet¬
ter. The north-weft wind is found difadvantageous to
the taking of them; and in general, great regard is to
be paid to the courfe of the wind in the fetting of the
nets. All fca-fowl fly againft the wind when the land
lies that way; and the nets for taking them are there¬
fore to be placed in a proper direAion accordingly.
PLOWDEN (Edmund), ferjeant at law, was the
fon of Humphrey Plowden, of Plow'den in Shropfhire,
of an ancient and genteel family. He was firft a ftu-
dent of the univerfity of Cambridge, where he fpent
three years in the ftudy of philofophy and medicine.
He then removed to Oxford, where, having continued
his former ftudies about four years more, in 1552 he
was admitted to the pra&ice of phyfic and furgery :
but probably finding the practice of the art of healing
lefs agreeable than the ftudy, he entered himfelf of the
Middle Temple, and began to read law. Wood fays,
that in 1557 he was fummer-reader to that fociety, and
Lent-reader three years after, being then ferjeant, and
oracle of the law. He died in the year 1584, aged 67;
and was buried in the Temple church, near the north
wall, at the eaft end of the choir. He married the
daughter of William Sheldon of Boley in Worcefter-
fhire; by whom he had a fon, who died foon after his
father. He wrote, 1. Commentaries or Reports of
divers Cafes, &c. in the reigns of king Ed. VI. queen
Mary, and queen Elizabeth; Lond. 1571, 78, 99,
1613, &c. Written in the old Norman language.
2. Queries, or a Moot-book of cafes, &c. tranflated,
methodized, and enlarged, by H. B. of Lincoln’s-inn;
Lond. 1662, 8vo.
PLUG, certain pieces of timber, formed like the
fruftum of a cone, and ufed to ftop the haufe-holes,
and the breaches made in the body of a fhip by can¬
non-balls; the former of wliich are called haufe-plugs,
and the latter>/7;^-/>/agr/, which are formed of various
iizes in proportion to the holes made by the different
fixes of (hot, which may penetrate the drip’s fides or
bottom in battle; accordingly they are always ready
for this purpofe.
PLUKENET (Leonard), a phyfician who flou-
rlfhed in the reign of king Charles II. was one of the
moft excellent and laborious botanifts of that or any
other age. He was author of the Pbytographia. Plu-
cenetiann, the Alniagefiicuni Britannicuw, and other
works of the like kind, on which he fpent the greateft
part of his life and fortune. His Plrytography is men¬
tioned with the higheft encomiums in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfadtions for February 1696-7. Ylis Opera Bo-
tanica, with cuts, were printed at London in 6 vols,
fol. in 1720.
PLUM-tree, in botany. SccPrunus.
PLUMAGE, the feathers which ferve birds for a
covering. See Ornithology, p. 5757.
PLUMB-line, among artificers, denotes a perpen-
[ 6245 ]
P L U
chief article in plumbery is fheets and pipes of lead ;
and as thefe make the bafis of the plumber’s work, v e
(hall here give the procefs of making them.
In Q&ft.\ngjheet-lead, a table or mould is made life of,
which confifts of large pieces of wood well jointed, and
bound with bars of iron at the ends ; on the fides of
which runs a frame confifting of a ledge or border of
wood, three inches thick, and four inches high from
the mould, called the Jharps : the ordinary width of
the mould, within thefe (harps, is from four to five
feet; and its length is 16, 17, or 18 feet. This
(hould be fomething longer than the (heets are in¬
tended to be, in order that the end where the metal
runs off from the mould may be cut off, becaufe it is
commonly thin, or uneven, or ragged at the end.
It muft (land very even or level in breadth, and fome¬
thing falling from the end in which the metal is pour¬
ed in, viz. about an inch, or an inch and a half, in
the length of 16 or 17 feet or more, according to the
thinnefs of the (heets wanted ; for the thinner the flieet,
the more declivity the mould (hould have. At the
upper end of the mould Hands the pan, which is a
concave triangular prifm, compofed of two planks
nailed together at right angles, and two triangular
pieces fitted in between them at the ends. The
length of this pan is the whole breadth of the mould
in which the (heets are caft ; it (lands with its bottom,
which is a (harp edge, on a form at the end of the
mould, leaning with one fide againft it; and on the
oppofite fide is a handle to lift it up by, to pour out
the melted lead ; and on that fide of the pan next the
mould, are two iron-hooks to take hold of the mould,
and prevent the pan from flipping while the melted
lead is pouring out of it into the mould. This pan is
lined on the infide with moiftehed fand, to prevent it
from being fired by the hot metal. The mould isalfo
fpread over, about two inches thick, with fand fifted
and moiftened, which is rendered perfectly level by
moving over it a piece of wood called z jtrike, and
fmoothing it over with a fmoothing plane, which is a
plate of polithed brafs, about one-fourth of an inch
thick, and nine inches fquare, turned up on all the
four edges, and with a handle fitted on to the upper or
concave fide. The fand being thus fmoothed, it is
fit for cafting fheets of lead ; but if they would caft a
ciftern, they meafure out the bignefs of the four fides;
and having taken the dimfenfions of the front or fore¬
part, make mouldings by prefling long flips of wood,
which contain the fame mouldings, into the level fand;
and form the figures of birds, beafts, &c. by preffing
in the fame manner leaden figures upon it, and then
taking them off, ahd at the fame time fmoothing the
furface where any of the fand is railed up by making
thefe impreflions upon it. The reft of the operation
is the fame in cafting either cifterns or plain fheets of
lead : but before we proceed to mention the manner
in which that is performed, it will be neceffary to
give a more particular defcription of the Jirike. The
dicular to the horizon ; fo called, as being commonly itrike, then, is a piece of board about five inches broad.
erefted by means of a plummet.
PLUMBERY, the art of cafting and working
lead, and ufing it in building.
As this metal melts foon and with little heat, it is
eafy to caft it into figures of any kind, by running it
into moulds of brafs, clay, plafter, &c. JJut the
and fomething longer than the breadth of the mould
on the infide; and at each end is cut a notch, about
two inches deep, fo that when it is ufed, it rides up¬
on the (harps with thofe notches. Before they begin
to caft, the ftrike is made ready by tacking on two
pieces of an old hat on the notches, or by flipping a
cafe
Plumfiery.
P L U [ 6246 ] P L U
plumbery, cafe of leather over each end, in order to raife the
under fide about one-eighth of an inch, or fomething
more, above the fand, according as they would have
the Iheet to be in thicknefs; then they tallow the
tinder edge of the ftrike, and lay it acrofs the mould.
The lead being melted, it is put into the pan with
ladles., in which, when there is a fufficient quantity
for the prefent purpofe, the fcum of the metal is fwept
off with a piece of board to the edge of the pan, let¬
ting it fettle on the fand, which is by this means pre¬
vented from falling into the mould at the pouring out
of the metal. When-the lead is cool enough, which
much be regulated according to the thicknefs of the
fheets wanted, and is known by its beginning to Hand
with a Ihell or wall on the fand round the pan, two
men take the pan by the handle, or elfe one of them
lift it by the bar and chain fixed to a beam in the
ceiling, and pour it into the mould, while another
man {lands ready with the llrike, and, as foon as they
have done pouring in the metal, puts on the mould,
fweeps the lead forward, and draws the overplus in¬
to a trough prepared to receive it. The fheets being
thus caff, nothing remains but to roll them up, or cut
them into any meafure wanted: but if it be a ciftern,
it is bent into four Tides, fo that the two ends may
join the back, where they are foldered together; after
which the bottom is foldered up.
The method of cafliug pipes without foldering. To
make thefe pipes they have a kind of little mill, with
arms exr levers to turn it withal. The moulds are of
brafs, and confift x>f two pieces, which open and fhut
by means ofhoolcs and hinges, their inward caliber or
diameter being according to the fizeof the pipe, ufually
two feet and a half. In the middle is placed a core
or round piece of brafs or iron, fomewhat longer than
the mould, and of the thicknefs of the inward dia¬
meter of the pipe. This core is puffed through two
copper rundles, one at each end of the mould, which
they ferve to clofe; and to thefe is joined a little cop¬
per tube about two inches long, and of the thicknefs
the leaden pipe is intended to be of. By means of
thefe tubes, the core is retained in the middle of the
cavity of the mould. The core being in the mould,
with the rundles at its two ends, and the lead melted
in the furnace, they take it up in a ladle, and pour it
into the mould by a little aperture at one end, made
in the form of a funnel. When the mould is full, they
pafs a hook into the end of the core, and, turning the
mill, draw it out; and then opening the mould, take
out the pipe. If they defire to have the pipe length¬
ened, they put one end of it in the lower end of the
mould, and pafs the end of the core into it; then fhut
the mould again, and apply its rundle and tube as
before, the pipe jutt caff ferving for rundle, &c. at
the other end. Things being thus replaced, they
pour in frefh metal, and repeat the operation till they
have got a pipe of the length required.
For making pipes of fheet-lead, the plumbers
have wooden cylinders, of the length and thicknefs
required; and on thefe they form their pipes by wrap¬
ping the iheet around them, and foldering up the edges
all along them.
PLUMBUM, lead. See Lead.
Plumbum Corneum, a combination of lead with
the marine acid. See Chemistky, n® 249.
PLUME, in botany, the bud or germ. See Plum*,
Gemma. IH
PLUMIRE (Charles), a learned Minim, born at Pluni®fe-
Marfeilles, and one of the molt able botanifts of the
17th century. He was inftrufted by the famous
Maignan, who taught him mathematics, turnery, the art
of making fpeftacles, burning-glaffes, microfcopcs,
and other works. He at length went to Rome to
perfect himfelf in his ftudies, and there applied him-
felf entirely to botany under a fkilful Italian. At
his return to Provence, he fettled in the convent at
Bornes, a maritime place near Hieres, where he had the
conveniency of making difeoveries in the fields with
refpect to fimples. He was fome time after fent by
the French king to America, to bring from thence
fuch plants as might be of fervice in medicine. He
made three different voyages to the Antilles, and
flopped at the ifland of St Domingo. The king
honoured him with a penfion ; and he at laft fettled at
Paris. However, at the defire of M Fagon, he pre¬
pared to go a fourth time to America, to examine the
tree which produces the Jefuits bark ; but died at
the port of Santa Maria, near Cadiz, in 1706.
He wrote feveral excellent works ; the principal of
which are, 1. A volume of the plants in the American
Iffands. 2. A treatife on the American fern. 3. The
A-rt of Turnery; a curious work embellilhed with
plates.
PLUMMET, PLUMB-TJa/i?, or Plumb-line, an in-
ftrument ufed by carpenters, mafons, &c. in order to
judge whether walls, &c. be upright planes, horizon¬
tal, or the like. It is thus called from a piece of lead,
faftened to the end of a chord, which ufually conffi-
tutes this inftrument. Sometimes the ftring defeends
along a wooden ruler, &c. raifed perpendicularly on
another; in which cafe it becomes a level.
PLUMM1NG, among miners, is the method of u-
fing a mine-dial, in order to know the exact place of
the work where to fink down an air-lhaft, or to bring
an adit to the work, or to know which way the load
inclines when any flexure happens in it.
It is performed in this manner : A flrilful perfon,
with an afiiftant, and with pen, ink, and paper, and
a long line, and a fun-dial, after his guei'a of the
place above ground, defeends into the adit or work,
and there fallens one end of the line to fome fixed thing
in it; then the incited needle is let to reft, and the
exaft point where it refts is marked with a pen : he
then goes on farther in the line flill faftened, and at
the next flexure of the adit he makes a mark on the
line by a knot or otherwife: and then letting down
the dial again, he there likewife notes down that point
at which the needle Hands in this fecond pofition. In
this manner be proceeds, from turning to turning,
marking down the points, and marking the line, till
he comes to the intended place : this done, heafeends,
and begins to work on the furface of the earth what he
did in the adit, bringing the firft knot in the line to fuch
a place where the mark of the place of the needle will
again anfwer its pointing, and continues this till he
come to the delired place above ground, which is cer¬
tain to be perpendicular over the part of the mine in¬
to which the air-lhaft is to be funk.
PLUMOSE, fomething formed in the manner of
a feather, with a Item afld fibres iffuing from it on
each
P L U [ 6247 ] P L U
"Plural each fide ; fuch are the antennae of certain moths, but-
1 terflies, &c.
Plutarch. PLURAL, In grammar, an epithet applied to that
number of nouns and verbs which Is ufed when we fpeak
of more than one thing. See Grammar.
PLURALITY, a difcrete quantity, confifting of
two or a greater number of the fame kind : thus we
fay, a plurality of gods, &c.
PLUS, in algebra, a charafter marked thus +, ufed
for the fign of addition. See Algebra, n° 2, 3.
PLUSH, In commerce, &c. a kind of fluff, ha¬
ving a fort of velvet knap, or fhag, on one fide, com-
pofed regularly of a woof of a Angle woollen thread,
and a double warp; the one wool, of two threads
twifted ; the other goats or camels hair; tho’there are
fome plufhes entirely of worfted, and others compofed
wholly of hair.
PLUTARCH, a great philofopher and hiftorian
of antiquity, who lived from the reign of Claudius to
that of Hadrian, was born at Chasronea, a fmall city
of Boeotia in Greece. Plutarch’s family was ancient
In Chseronea : his grandfather Lamprias was eminent
for his learning, and a philofopher; and is often men¬
tioned by Plutarch in his writings, as is alfo his fa¬
ther. Plutarch was initiated early In ftndy, to which
he was naturally inclined; and was placed under the
care of Ammonius, an Egyptian, who, having tanght
philofophy with great reputation at Alexandria, from
thence travelled into Greece, and fettled at Athens.
Under this mafter, he made great advances in know¬
ledge ; and like a thorough philofopher, more apt to
regard things than words, he purfued this knowledge
to the negleft of languages. The Roman language,
at that time, was not only the language of Rome, but
of Greece alfo ; and much more ufed there than the
French is now in England. Yet he was fo far from
regarding it then, that, as we learn from himfelf, he
became not converfarit in it till the declenfion of his
life; and, though he is fuppofed to have refided in
Rome near 40 years at different times, yet he never
feems to have acquired a competent fkill in it. But
this was not the worft : he did not cultivate his mother-
tongue with any great exaftnefs ; and hence that
harfhnefs, inequality, and obfcurity in his ftyle, which
has fo frequently and fo juftly been complained of.
After he was principled and grounded by Ammo¬
nius, having a foul infatiable of knowledge, he refolved
to travel. Egypt was at that time, as formerly it had
been, famous for learning; and probably the myfteri-
oufnefs of their do&rine might tempt him, as it had
tempted Pythagoras and others, to go and converfe
with thepriefthood of that country. This appears to
have been particularly his bufinefs, by his treatife,
“ Of Ifisand Ofiris:” in which he fhews himfelf ver-
fed in the ancient theology and philofophy of the wife
men. From Egypt he returned into Greece; and vi-
fiting in his way all the academies and fchools of the
philofophers, gathered from them manyofthofe obfer-
vations with which he has abundantly enriched pofte-
rity. He does not feem to have been attached to any
particular fed, but culled from each of them whatever
he thought excellent and worthy to be regarded- He
could not bear the paradoxes of the Stoics, but yet
was more averfe from the impiety of the Epicureans:
in many things he followed Ariftotlej but his favourites
were Socrates and Plato, whofe memory he revered fo Plutarch,
highly, that he annually celebrated their birth-days “ “
with much folemnity. Befides this, he applied him¬
felf with extreme diligence to colledl, not only all books
that were excellent in their kind, but alfo all the fay¬
ing and obfervations of wife men, which he had heard
in converfation, or had received from others by tradi¬
tion ; and likewife to confult the records and public
inftruments preferred in cities which he had vifited in
his travels. He took a particular journey to Sparta,
to fearch the archives of that famous commonwealth,
to underftand thoroughly the model of their ancient
government, the hittory of their legiflators, their
kings, &nd their ephori; and digefted all their memo¬
rable deeds and fayings with much care. He took the
fame methods with regard to many other common¬
wealths ; and thus was enabled to leave us in his
works fuch a rich cabinet of obfervations upon men
and manners, as, in the opinion of Montaigne and
Bayle, have rendered him the moft valuable author
of antiquity.
The circumftances of Plutarch’s life are not known,
and therefore cannot be related with any exaftnefs.
He was married ; and his wife’s name was Timoxena,
as Rualdus conje&ures with probability. He had fe-
veral children, and among them two fons ; one called
Plutarch after himfelf; the other Lamprias> in memory'
of his grandfather. Lamprias was he, of all his chil¬
dren, who feems to have inherited his father’s philofo¬
phy ; and to him we owe the table or catalogue of
Plutarch’s writings, and perhaps alfo his apophthegms.
He had a nephew, Sextus Chasroneus, who taught the
learned emperor Marcus Aurelius the Greek tongue,
and was much honoured by him. Some think, that the
critic Longinus was of his family ; and Apuleius, in
the firft book of his Metamorphofes, affirms himfelf to
be defcended from him.
On what occafion, and at what time of his life, he
went to Rome, how long he lived there, and when he
finally returned to his own country, are all uncertain.
It is probable, that the fame of him went thither be¬
fore him, not only becaufe he had publifhed feveral of
his works, but becaufe immediately upon his arrival,
as there is reafon to believe, he had a great refort of
the Roman nobility to hear him : for he tells us him¬
felf, that he was fo taken up in giving leftures of phi¬
lofophy to the great men of Rome, that he had not
time to make himfelf mafter of the Latin tongue,
which is one of the firft things that would naturally
have engaged his attention. It appears that he was
feveral times at Rome; and perhaps one motive to his
inhabiting there was the intimacy he had contradted
in fome of thefe journeys with Soffius Senecio, a great
and worthy man, who had been four times conful, and
to whom Plutarch has dedicated many of his lives.
But the great inducement which carried him firft to
Rome, was undoubtedly that which had carried him
into fo many other parts of the world ; namely," to
make obfervations upon men and manners, and to col¬
led! materials for writing the lives of the Roman wor¬
thies, in the fame manner as he had already written
thofc of the Grecian : and accordingly he not only
converfed with all the living, but fearched the records
of the Capitol, and of all the libraries. Not but, as
we learn from SukkjSj he was intruded alfo with the
P L U [ 6248 ] P L U
Plutarch, management of public affairs in the empire, during fernal regions, was the fon of Saturn and Ops, and Pluto
• his refidence in the metropolis: “ Plutarch (fays he) the brother of Jupiter and Neptune. This deity find- il
lived in the time of Trajan, who beftpwed on him the ing himfelf childlefs and unmarried, mounted his rha- Pb^'g-
confular ornaments, and alfo caufed an edift to be riot to vifit the world ; and arriving in Sicily, fell in
paffed, that the magiftrates or officers of Illyria fhould love with Proferpine, whom he faw gathering flowers
do nothing in that province without his knowledge and with her companions in the valley of Enna, near Mount
approbation.” ./Etna; when forcing her into his chariot, he drove her
When, and how, he was made known to Trajan, is to the river Chemarus, thro’ which he opened himfelf
likewife uncertain : but it is generally fuppofed, that a paffage back to the realms of night. Sec Ceres
Trajan, a private man when Plutarch firlt came to and Proserpine.
Rome, was, among other nobility, one of his audi- Pluto is ufuatly reprefented in an ebony chariot
tors. It is alfo fuppofed, that this wife emperor macje drawn by four black horfes; fometimes holding a fcep-
ufe of him in his councils ; at lead, much of the hap- tre, to denote his power; at others, a wand, with which
pinefs of his reign has been imputed to Plutarch. We he drives away the ghofts; and at others, fome keys,
are equally at a lofs concerning the time of his abode to fignify that he had the keys of death. Homer ch¬
in the imperial city; which, however, at different ferves, that his helmet had the quality of rendering'
times, is not imagined to fall much fhort of 40 years, the wearer invilible, and that Minerva borrowed it in
The defire of vifiting his native country, fo natural to order to be concealed from Mars when he fought
all men, and efpecially when growing old, prevailed againfl the Trojans. Pinto was greatly revered both
with him at length to leave Italy ; and at his return, by the Greeks and Romans, who erefted temples
he was unaniraoufly chofen archon or chief magiftrate and altars to him. To this god facrifices were otfer-
of Chaeronea, and not long after admitted into the ed in the night, and it was not lawful to offer them by
number of the Delphic Apollo’s priefis. We have no day.
particular account of his death, either as to the man- PLUTUS, in Pagan worlhip, the god of riches,
ner of it, or the year ; only it is evident that he lived, is frequently confounded with Pluto. He was repre-
and continued his iludies, to an extreme old age. fented as appearing lame when he approached, and
His works have been divided, and they admit of a with wings at his departure ; to ibow the difficulty of
pretty equal divifion, into Lives and Morals: the for- amaffing wealth, and the uncertainty of its enjoy-
mer of which, in his own eftimation, were to be pre- ment. He was alfo frequently reprefented blind, to
ferred as more noble than the latter. His ftyle, as we Ihow that he often beftowed his favours on the molt
have already obferved, has been excepted to with fome unworthy, and left in neceffity thofe who had the
reafon : he has alfo been criticifed for fome mitlakes greateft merit.
in Roman antiquities, and for a little partiality to the PLUVIALIS. See Charadrius.
Greeks. On the other hand, he has been juftly prai- PLYING, in the fea-language, the aft of making,
fed for the copioufnefs of his fine fenfe and learning, or endeavouring to make, a progrefs againft tht di-
for his integrity, and for a certain air of goodnefs reftion of the wind. Hence a Ihip, that advances
which appears in all he wrote. His bufinefs was not well in her courfe in this manner of failing, is faid to
to pleafe the ear, but to inftrudt and charm the mind; be a good plyer. See the articles Beating and Tack-
and in this none ever went beyond him. ing.
PLUTO, in Pagan worlhip, the king of the in-
PNEUMATICS.
PNEUMATICS, called alfo Pneumatology and
Pnenmatofophy, among fchoolmen, the dodrine
and contemplation of fpirits and fpiritual fubftances,
as God, angels, and the human foul; in which fenfe
pneumatics are the fame with what we otherwife call
??ietapbyftcs. See the article Metaphysics.
Pneumatics is. more commonly ufed among us for
that branch of natural philofophy which treats of the
weight, preffure,^and elafticity of the Air, and the ef¬
fects arifing from it.
Sect. I. Of the Properties of Air.
The air is that thin tranfparent fluid body in which
we live and breathe. It encompaffes the whole earth
to a confiderable height; and, together with the
clouds and vapours that float in it, is called the atmo-
fphere. The air is juftly reckoned among the number
of fluids, becaufc it has all the properties by which a
fluid is diftinguilhed. For, it yields to the leaft force
impreffed, its parts are eafily moved among one ano¬
ther, it preffes according to its perpendicular height,
and its preffure is every way equal.
That the air is a fluid, conlifting of fuch particles
as have no cohefion betwixt them, but eafily glide over
one another, and yield to the flightefl impreffion, ap¬
pears from that eafe and freedom with which animals
breathe in it, and move through it without any difficul¬
ty or fenfible refiftance.
But it differs from all other fluids in the three fol¬
lowing particulars. 1. It can be compreffed into a
much lefs fpace than that which it naturally poffeffeth.
2. It cannot be congealed or fixed, as other fluids
may. 3. It is of a different denfityin every part, up¬
ward from the earth’s furface; decreafing in its weight,
bulk for bulk, the higher it rifes; and therefore mull
alfo decreafe in denfity. 4. It is of an elaftic or fpun-
gy nature, and the force of its fpring is equal to its
weight.
That air is a body, is evident from its excluding all
other bodies out of the fpace it poffeffes: for if a
glafs jar be plunged with its mouth downwards into
Sea.
Properties
of the Air
The Tori-
cellian ex¬
periment.
I.
PNEUMATICS.
a veffel of water, there will but very little water get in¬
to the jar, becaufe the *ir of which it is full keeps the
water out.
As air is a body, it muft needs have gravity or
weight: and that it is weighty, is demonftrated by
experiment. For, let the air be taken out of a veflel
by means of the air-pump, then having weighed the
veflel, let in the air again, and upon weighing it, when
re-filled with air, it will be found confiderably heavier.
Thus, a bottle that holds a wine quart, being emp¬
tied of air and weighed, is found to be about 17 grains
lighter than when the air is let into it again ; which
fhews that a quart of air weighs 17 grains. But a
quart of water weighs 14625 grains; thus divided by
17, quotes 860 in round numbers; which fliews, that
water is 860 times as heavy as air near the furface of
the earth.
As the air rifes above the earth’s furface, it grows
rarer, and confequently lighter, bulk for bulk. For
fince it is of an elaltic or fpringy nature, and its lower-
moft parts are prefled with the weight of all that is
above them, it is plain that the air muft be more denfe
or compad at the earth’s furface, than at any height
above it; and gradually rarer the higher up. For
the denfity of the air is always as the force that
comprefleth it: and therefore the air towards the up¬
per parts of the atmofphere being lefs prefled than
that which is near the earth, it will expand itfelf,
and thereby become thinner than at the earth’s fur¬
face.
Dr Cotes has demonftrated, that if altitudes in the
air be taken in arithmetical proportion, the rarity
of the air will be in geometrical proportion. For in-
ftance,
*33
I4°j
And hence it is eafy
1 cubic inch of fuch air
■ 4
- 16
- 64
- 256
1024
4096
16384
65536
262144
1048576
4194304
16777216
67108864
268435456
1073741824
4294967296
17179869184
68719476736
274877906944
1099511627776^
|r to prove by calculation, that
'r as we breathe would be fo
much rarefied at the altitude of 500 miles, that it
would fill a fphere equal in diameter to the orbit of Sa¬
turn.
The weight or preflure of the] air is exa&ly deter¬
mined by the following experiment.
Take a glafs tube about three feet long, and open
at one end; fill it with quickfilver, and, putting your
finger upon the open end, turn that end downward,
Vol. VIII. 2
and immerfe it into a fmall veffel of qiiiekfilver, without
letting in any air: then take away your finger, and
the quickfilver will remain fufpended in the tube ag-jp
inches above its furface in the veflel; fometimes more,
and at other times lefs, as the weight of the air is va¬
ried by winds and other caufes. That the quickfilver
is kept up in the tube by the preffure of the atmo¬
fphere upon that in the bafon, is evident; for, if the
bafon and tube be put under a glafs, and the air be
then taken out of the glafs, all the quickfilver in the
tube will fall down into the bafon ; and if the air be
let in again, the quickfilver will rife to the fame
height as before. Therefore the air’s preffure on the
furface of the earth is equal to the weight of ap-j-
inches depth of quickfilver all over the earth’s furface,
at a mean rate.
A fquare column of quickfilver, 294- inches high,
and one inch thick, weighs juft 15 pounds, which is
equal to the preffure of air upon every fquare inch oE
the earth’s furface; and 144 times as much, or 2160
pounds, upon every fquare foot; becaufe a fquare foot
contains 144 fquare inches. At this rate, a middle-
fized man, whofe furface may be about 14 fquare feet,
fuftains a preffure of 30240 pounds, when the air is
of a mean gravity : a preffure which would be infup-
portable, and even fatal to us, were it not equal on
every part, and counterbalanced by the fpring of the
air within us, which is diffufed through the whole
body, and re-adts with an equal force againft the
outward preffure.
Now, fince the earth’s furface contains (in round
numbers) 200,000,000 fquare miles, and every
fquare mile 27,878,400 fquare feet, there muft be
5,575,680,000,000,000 fquare feet on the earth’s fur¬
face ; which multiplied by 2 160 pounds (the preffure on
each fquare foot) gives 12,043,468,800,000,000,000
pounds for the preffure or weight of the whole atmo¬
fphere.
When the end of a pipe is immerfed in water, and
the air is taken out of the pipe, the water will rife in
it to the height of 33 feet above the furface of the wa¬
ter in which it is immerfed; but will go no higher:
for it is found, that a common pump will draw water
no higher than 33 feet above the furface of the well;
and unlefs the bucket goes wilhin that diftance from
the well, the water will never get above it. Now, as
it is the preffure of the atmofphere on the furface of
the water in the well that caufes the water to afeend
in the pump, and follow the pifton or bucket, when
the air above it is lifted up ; it is evident, that a co¬
lumn of water 33 feet high, is equal in weight to a
column of quickfilver of the fame diameter, 294 inches
high ; and to as thick a column of air, reaching from
the earth’s furface to the top of the atmofphere.
In ferene calm weather, the air has weight enough
to fupport a column of quickfilver 31 inches high;
but in tempeftuous ftormy weather, not above 28
inches. The quickfilver thus fupported in a glafs
tube, is found to be a nice counterbalance to the weight
or preffure of the air, and to fliew its alterations at dif¬
ferent times. And being now generally ufed to de¬
note the changes in the weight of the air, and of the
weather confequent upon them, it is called the baro¬
meter or 'weather-glafs. See Barometer.
The preflure of the air being equal on all fides of a
35 E body
6249
Properlie5
of the Air-
6250 PNEUMATICS. Sea. II.
Experi- body expofed to it, the fofteft bodies fuftain this pref-
ments- fure without fuffering any change in their figure ; and
fo do the moft brittle bodies without being broke.
Sect. II. Experiments with the Air-pump^ flaw¬
ing the Rejijiancey Weighty and ElaJHcity of the
Air.
Plate The Air-pump being in efFeft the fame as the water-
CCXL1II.I pump, whoever underftands the one will be at no lofs
8' to underftand the other.
»[. Having put a wet leather on the plate LL of the
The air- air-pump, place the glafs-receiver M upon the leather,
p mf’' fo that the hole i in the plate may be within theglafs.
Then turning the handle F backward and forward,
the air will be pumped out of the receiver ; which will
then be held down to the plate by the preffure of the
external air or atmofphere : for as the handle (fig. 9.)
is turned backwards, it raifes the pifton d ein the bar¬
rel BK, by means of the wheel F and rack T>d ; and
as the pifton is leathered fo tight as to fit the barrel
exaflly, no air can get between the pifton and barrel:
and therefore all the air above d in the barrel is lifted
up towards B, and a vacuum is made in the barrel
from e to b , upon which, part of the air in the recei¬
ver M (fig. 8.), by its fpring, rufhes through the
hole i, in the brafs plate LL, along the pipe GCG,
(which communicates with both barrels by the hollow
trunk IHK (fig. 9.), and pufhing up the valve b,
enters into the vacant place b e of the barrel BK : for
wherever the refiftance or preflure is taken off, the air
will run to that place, if it can find a paffage.—Then
as the handle F is turned forward, the pifton de will
be depreffed in the barrel; and as the air which had
got into the barrel cannot be pulhed back through the
valve b, it will afcend through a hole in the pifton,
and efcape through the valve at d, and be hindered by
that valve from returning into the barrel when the pi-
ilon is again raifed. At the next raifing of the pifton,
a vacuum is again made in the fame manner as before,
between 5 and e; upon which more of the air which
was left in, the receiver M, gets out thence by its
fpring, and runs into the barrel BK, through the
valve B. The fame thing is to be underftood with
regard to the other barrel AI; and as the handle F
is turned backwards and forwards, it alternately raifes
and depreffes the piftons in their barrels; always rai¬
fing one whilft it depreffes the other. And as there
is a vacuum made in each barrel when its prfton is rai¬
fed, every particle of air in the receiver M puihes out
another, by its fpring or elafticity, through the hole
i> and pipe GG, into the barrels; until at laft the air
in the receiver comes to be fo much dilated, and its
fpring fo far weakened, that it can no longer get thro’
the valves; and then no more can be taken out.
Hence there is no fuch thing as making a perfeft va¬
cuum in the receiver; for the quantity of air taken
out at any one ftroke, will always be as the denfity
thereof in the receiver : and therefore it is impoffible
to take it all out ; becaufe, fuppofing the receiver
and barrels of equal capacity, there will be always as
much left as was taken out at the laft turn of the
handle.
There is a cock i below the pump-plate, which be- Experi-
ing turned, lets the air into the receiver again ; and m£llts*
then the receiver becomes loofe, and may be taken off ~
the plate. The barrels are fixed to the frame E ee by
two fcrew-nuts ff which prefs down the top-piece E
upon the barrels; and the hollow trunk H (in fig. 9)
is covered by a box, as GH in fig 8.
There is a glafs tube Immmn open at both ends,
and about 34 inches long ; the upper end communica¬
ting with the hole in the pump-plate, and the lower
end immerfed in quickfilver at n in the veffel N, To
this tube is fitted a wooden ruler mm, called the gagCy
which is divided into inches and parts of an inch, from
the bottom at », (where it is even with the furface of
the quickfilver), and continued up to the top, a little
below /, to 30 or 31 inches.
As the air is pumped out of the 'receiver M, it is
likewife pumped out of the glafs tube Imn, becaufe
that tube opens into the receiver through the pump-
plate ; and as the tube is gradually emptied of air,
the quickfilver in the veffel N is forced up into the
tube by the preffure of the atmofphere. And if the
receiver could be perfedtly exhaufted of air, the
quickfilver would ftand as high in the tube as it does
at that time in the barometer : for it is fupported by the
fame power or weight of the atmofphere in both (a).
The quantity of air exhaufted out of the receiver on
each turn of the handle, is always proportionable to
the afeent of the quickfilver on that turn ; and the
quantity of air remaining in the receiver, is propor¬
tionable to the defeft of the height of the quickfilver in
the gage from what it is at that time in the barometer.
1. There is a little machine, confiding of two mills, ;v,
a and b, which are of equal weights, independent ofExperi-
each other, and turn equally free on their axis in the ments to
frame. Each mill has four thin arms or fails fixed into^0,w
the axis: thofe of the mill a have their planes at right ’
angles to its axis ; and thofe of b have their planes pa- Fig. 10.
rallel to it. Therefore, as the mill a turns round in
common air, it is but little refitted thereby, becaufe
its fails cut the air with their thin edges ; but the mill
b is much refitted, becaufe the broad Tides of its fails
move againft the air when it turns round. In each
axle is a pin near the middle of the frame, which goes
quite through the axle, and Hands out a little on each
fide of it: upon thefe pins the Aider d may be made
to bear, and fo hinder the mills from going, when the
ftrong fpring c is fet on bend againft the oppofite ends
of the pins.
Having fet this machine upon the pump-plate LL,
(fig. 8.) draw up the Aider d to the pins on one fide,
and fet the fpring c at bend upon the oppofite ends of
the pins : then puftt down the Aider d, and the fpring
afting equally ftrong upon each mill, will fet them
both a-going with equal forces and velocities : but the
mill a will run much 'longer than the mill b, becaufe
the air makes much lefs refiftance againft the edges of
its fails than againft the fides of the fails of b.
Draw up the Aider again, and fet the fpring upon the
pins as before ; then cover the machine with the receiver
M(fig.8.) upon the pump-plate ; and having exbauft-
ed
(a) Such is the common conftrmftion. But there is another invented by Mr Smeaton; by which a purer vacuum
is obtained, and which alfo adts as a condenfing engine. There is, moreover, what they call a portable air-pump,
which is placed on a table, and may be eafily conveyed from one place to another. See the article (/f/>)-PuMP.
Sea.II. P N E U M
Experi- cd the receiver of air, pu(h down the wire PP (thro*
meilts- the collar of leathers in the neck q) upon the Aider;
which will difengage it from the pins, and allow the
mills to turn round by the impulfe of the fpring : and
as there is no air in the receiver to make any fenfible
refillance againft them, they will both move a confi-
derable time longer than they did in the open air;
and the moment that one Hops, the other will do fo
too.—This (hows, that air refills bodies in motion; and
that equal bodies meet with different degrees of refin¬
ance, according as they prefent greater or lefs furfa-
ces to the air, in the planes of their motions.
2. Take off the receiver M and the mills; and ha¬
ving put the guinea a and feather b upon the brafs flap
e, turn up the flap, and fhut it into the notch d.
Then putting a wet leather over the top of the tall
receiver AB (it being open both at top and bottom)
cover it with the plate C, from which the guinea-and-
feather tongs e d will then hang within the receiver.
This done, pump the air out of the receiver, and then
draw up the wire f a little, which by a fquare piece on
its lower end will open the tongs ed; and the flap
falling down as at r, the guinea and feather will de-
fcend with equal velocities in the receiver, and both
will fall upon the pump-plate at the fame inftant.
N. B. In this experiment, the obfervers ought not to
look at the top, but at the bottom, of the receiver, in
order to fee the guinea and feather fall upon the plate;
otherwife, on account of the quicknefs of their mo¬
tion, they will efcape the fight of the beholders.
1. Having fitted a brafs cap, with a valve tied over
weight of *t0 t*16 mouth °f a lh'n bottle or Florence flalk,
the air. whofe contents are exaflly known, fcrew the neck of
this cap into the hole i of the pump-plate ; then ha¬
ving exhaufted the air out of the flafk, and taken it
off from the pump, let it be fufpended at one end of
a balance, and nicely counterpoifed by weights in the
fcale at the other end ; this done, raife up the valve
with a pin, and the air will rufh into the flafk with an
audible noife : during which time, the flafk will de-
fcend, and pull down that end of the beam. When
the noife is over, put as many grains into the fcale at
the other end as will reftore the equilibrium ; and they
will fhew exaftly the weight of the quantity of air
which has got into the flafk and filled it. If the flafk
holds an exad quart, it will be found, that 17 grains
will reftore the equipoife of the balance, when the
quickfilver Hands at 294- inches in the barometer :
which (hows, that when the air is at a mean rate of
denfity, a quart of it weighs 17 grains: it weighs
more when the quickfilver ftands higher, and lefs when
it ftands lower.
2. Place the fmall receiver O (fig. 8.) over the hole
i in the pump-plate; and upon exhaufting the air, the
receiver will be fixed down to the plate by the preffure
of the air on its outfide, which is left to aft alone,
without any air in the receiver to aft againft it : and
this preffure will be equal to as many times 15 pounds
as there are fquare inches in that part of the plate
which the receiver covers ; which will hold down the
receiver fo faft, that it cannot be got off until the air
be let into it by turning the cock k ; and then it be¬
comes loofe.
3. Set the little glafs AB (which is open at both
A T I C S. 6251
ends) over the hole i upon the pump-plate LL, and Experi-
put your hand clofe upon the top of it at B : then, ments.
upon exhaufting the air out of the glafs, you will find
your hand preffed down with a great weight upon it;
fo that you can hardly releafe it until the air be re¬
admitted into the glafs by turning the cock k ; which
air, by afting as ftrongly upward againft the hand
as the external air afted in prefling it downward, will
releafe the hand from its confinement.
4. Having tied a piece of wet bladder b over thepjgt
open top of the glafs A, (which is alfo open at bot¬
tom), fet it to dry, and then the bladder will be tight
like a drum. Then place the open end A upon the
pump-plate over the hole and begin to exhauft the
air out of the glafs. As the air is exhaufting, its
fpring in the glafs will be weakened, and give way to
the preffure of the outward air on the bladder; which,
as it is prefled down, will put on a fpherical concav'e
figure, which will grow deeper and deeper, until the
ftrength of the bladder be overcome by the weight of
the air; and then it will break with a report as loud
as that of a gun.—If a flat piece of glafs be laid upon
the open top of this receiver, and joined to it by a flat
ring of wet leather between them, upon pumping the
air out of the receiver, the preffure of the outward air
upon the flat glafs will break it all to pieces.
5. Immerfe the neck cd of the hollow glafs-ball e ,4,
in water, contained in the phial a a ; then fet it upon a
the pump-plate, and cover it and the hole i with the
clofe receiver A ; and then begin to pump out the air.
As the air goes out of the receiver by its fpring, it
will alfo by the fame means go out of the hollow ball
eb, through the necki/c, and rife up in bubbles to the
furface of the water in the phial; from whence it will
make its way, with the reft of the air in the receiver,
through the air-pipe GG and valves a and b, into the
open air. When it has done bubbling in the phial,
the ball is fufficiently exhaufted ; and then, upon turn¬
ing the cock k, the air will get into the receiver, and
prefs fo upon the furface of the water in the phial, as
to force the water up into the ball in a jet, through
the neck cd, and will fill the ball almoft full of water.
The reafon why the ball is not quite filled, is becaufe
all the air could not be taken out of it; and the fmall
quantity that was left in, and had expanded itfelf fo
as to fill the whole ball, is now condenfed into the
fame ftate as the outward air, and remains in a fmall
bubble at the top of the ball, and fo keeps the water
from filling that part of the ball.
6. Pour fome quickfilver into the jar D, and fet it Fig. t$,
on the pump-plate near the hole i; then fet on the
tall open receiver AB, fo as to be over the jar and
hole ; and cover the receiver with the brafs-plate C.
Screw the open glafs tube fg (which has a brafs top
on it at b) into the fyringe H ; and putting the tube
through a hole in the middle of the plate, fo as to im¬
merfe the lower end of the tube e in the quickfilver at
D, fcrew the end h of the fyringe into the plate.
This done, draw up the pifton in the fyringe by the
ring I, which will make a vacuum in the fyringe be¬
low the pifton ; and as the upper end of the tube
opens into the fyringe, the air will be dilated in the
tube, becaufe part of it by its fpring gets up into the
fyringe ; and the fpring of the undilated air in the re¬
ceiver afting upon the furface of the quickfilver in the
35 E 2 jar>
Fig. it.
6251 P N E U M
Experi- jar, will force part of it up into the tube; for the
quickfilver will follow the piilon in the fyringe, in the
fame way, and for the fame reafon, that water follows
the pifton of a common pump when it is raifed in the
pump-barrel ; and this, according to fome, is done by
fu&ion. But to refute that erroneous notion, let the
air be pumped out of the receiver AB, and then all
the quickfilver in the tube will fall down by its own
weight into the jar, and cannot be again raifed one
hair’s-breadth in the tube by working the fyringe:
which (hows that fu&ion had no hand in raifing the
quickfilver : and to prove that it is done by preffure,
let the air into the receiver by the cock k (fig. 8.),
and its aftion upon the furface of the quickfilver in
the jar will raife it up into the tube, although the
pifton of the fyringe continues motionlefs.—If the
tube be about 32 or 33 inches high, the quickfilver
will rife in it very near as high as it ftands at that
time in the barometer. And if the fyringe has a fmall
hole, as in, near the top of it, and the pifton be drawn
up above that hole, the air will rufh through the hole
into the fyringe and tube, and the quickfilver will im¬
mediately fall down into the jar. If this part of the
apparatus be air-tight, the quickfilver may be pumped
up into the tube to the fame height that it ftands in
the barometer; but it will go no higher, becaufe then
the weight of the column in the tube is the fame as
the weight of a column of air of the fame thicknefs
with the quickfilver, and reaching from the earth to
the top of the atmofphere.
FlS-7. Having placed the jar A, with fome quickfilver
in it, on the pump-plate, as in the laft experiment,
cover it with the receiver B ; then pufh the open end
of the glafs tube d e through the collar of leathers in
the brafs neck C (which it fits fo as to be air-tight)
almoft down to the quickfilver in the jar. Then ex-
hauft the air out of the receiver, and it will alfo come
out of the tube, becaufe the tube is clofe at top. When
the gauge mm ftiews that the receiver is well exhauft-
ed, pufh down the tube fo as to immerfe its lower end
into the quickfilver in the jar. Now, although the
tube be exhaufted of air, none of the quickfilver will
rife into it, becaufe there is no air left in the receiver
to prefs upon its furface in the jar: but let the air
into the receiver by the cock k, and the quickfilver
will immediately rife in the tube, and ftand as high
in it as it was pumped up in the laft experiment.
Both thefe experiments fhow, that the quickfilver is
fupported in the barometer by the preffure of the air
on its furface in the box, in which the open end of the
tube is placed : And that the more denfe and heavy
the air is, the higner does the quickfilver rife ; and, on
the contrary, the thinner and lighter the air is, the
more will the quickfilver fall. For if the handle F be
turned ever fo little, it takes fome air out of the recei¬
ver, by raifing one or other of the piftons in its bar¬
rel ; and confequently, that which remains in the re¬
ceiver is fo much the rarer, and has fo much the lefs
fpring and weight; and thereupon the quickfilver falls
a little in the tube: but upon turning the cock, and
re-admitting the air into the receiver, it becomes as
weighty as before, and the quick-filver rifes again to
the fame height Thus we fee the reafon why the
quickfilver in the barometer falls before rain or fnow,
and rifes before fair weather; for, in the former cafe,
A T I C S. Sea. II.
the air is too thin and light to bear up the vapours, Experi-
and in the latter, too denfe and heavy to let them fall,
[JV. 5. In all mercurial experiments with the air-
pump, a ihort pipe muft be fcrewed into the hole /, fo
as to rife about an inch above the plate, to prevent the
quickfilver from getting into the air-pipe and barrels,
in cafe any of it fhould be accidentally fpilt over the
jar: for if it once gets into the pipes or barrels, it
fpoils them, by loofening the folder, and corroding the
brafs.]
8. Take the tube out of the receiver, and put one
end of a bit of dry hazel-branch, about an inch long,
tight into the hole, and the other end tight into a hole
quite through the bottom of a fmall wooden cup: then
pour fome quickfilver into the cup, and exhauft the re¬
ceiver of airj and the preffure of the outward air on
the furface of the quickfilver will force it through the
pores of the hazel, from whence it will defeend in a
beautiful ftiower into a cup placed under the receiver
to catch it.
9. Put a wire through the collar of leathers in the
top of the receiver, and fit a bit of dry wood on the
end of the wire within the receiver ; then exhauft the
air, and pu(h the wire down, fo as to immerfe the wood
into ajar of quickfilver on the pump-plate. This done,
let in the air; and upon taking the wood out of the jar,
and fplitting it, its pores will be found full of quick¬
filver, which the force of the air, upon being let into
the receiver, drove into the wood.
10. Join the two brafs hemifpherical cups A and B F'g- >?•
together, with a wet leather between them, having a
hole in the middle of it; then ferew the end D of the
pipe CD into the plate of the pump at and turn the
cock E, fo as the pipe may be open all the way into
the cavity of the hemifpheres: then exhauft the air out
of them, and turn the cock a quarter round, which will
fhut the pipe CD, and keep out the air. This done,
unferew the pipe at D from the pump; and ferew the
the piece F^ upon it at D; and let two ftrong men
try to pull the hemifpheres afunder by the rings £ and
h, which they will find hard to do: for if the diameter
of the hemifpheres be four inches, they will be prefied
together by the external air with a force equal to 188
pounds. And to fhew that it is the prtfiure of the air
that keeps them together, hang them by either of the
rings upon the hook P of the wire in the receiver M
(fig. 8.), and upon exhaufting the air out of the re¬
ceiver they will fall afunder of themfelves.
11. Place a fraall receiver O (fig. 8.) near the hole/
on the pump-plate, and cover both it and the hole
with the receiver M; and turn the wire fo by the top P,
that its hook may take hold of the little receiver by a
ring at its top, allowing that receiver to ftand with its
own weight on the plate. Then, upon working the
pump, the air will come out of both receivers; but the
large one M will be forcibly held down to the pump
by the preflure of the external air; whilft the fmall one
O, having no air to prefs upon it, will continue loofe,
and may be drawn up and let down at pleafure, by the
wire PP. But, upon letting it quite down to the plate,
and admitting the air into the receiver M, by the cock
k, the air will prefs fo ftrongly upon the fmall recei¬
ver O, as to fix it down to the plate; and at the fame
time, by counterbalancing the outward preffure on the
large receiver M, it will become loofe. This experi-
Sea IT.
PNEUMATICS.
fig. IS.
Experi- merit evidently fhows, that the receivers are held down
rneilts- by preflure, and not by fuftion : for the internal recei¬
ver continued loofe whilft the operator was pumping,
and the external one was held down ; but the former
became fait immediately by letting in the air upon it.
12. Screw the end A of the brafs pipe ABF into
the hole of the pump plate, and turn the cock e until
the pipe be open ; then put a wet leather upon the
plate cd, which is fixed on the pipe, and cover it with
the tall receiver GH, which is clofe at top: then ex-
hauft the air out of the receiver, and turn the cock e
to keep it out; which done, unfcrew the pipe from the
pump, and fet its end A into a bafon of water, and
turn the cock e to open the pipe ; on which, as there
is no air in the receiver, the preffure of the atmofphere
on the water in the bafon will drive the water forcibly
through the pipe, and make it play up in a jet to the
top of the receiver.
13. Set the fquare phial A (fig. 21.) upon the pump-
plate, and having covered it with the wire-cage B, put
a clofe receiver over it, and exhauft the air out of the
receiver; in doing of which, the air will alfo make its
way out of the phial through a fmall hole in its neck
under the valve b. When the air is exhaufted, turn
the cock below the plate, to re-admit the air into the
receiver; and as it cannot get into the phial again be-
caufe of the valve, the phial will be broken into fome
thoufands of pieces by the preflur,e of the air upon it.
Had the phial been of a round form, it would have
fuftained this preffure like an arch, without breaking;
but as its fides are flat, it cannot.,,
To (howthc I^> rp;e Up a very fma]] quantity of air in a bladder,
fbrineoftheand Put ^ under a receiver; then exhauft the air out of
• k the receiver; and the fmall quantity which is confined
in the bladder (having nothing to a£t againft it) will
expand itfelf fo by the force of its fpring, as to fill the
bladder as full as it could be blown of common air.
Bui upon letting the air into the receiver again, it will
overpower the air in the bladder, and prefs its fides al-
moft clofe together.
15. If the bladder fo tied up be put into a wooden
box, and have 20 or 30 pounds weight of lead put up¬
on it in the box, and the box be covered with a clofe
receiver; upon exhaufting the air out of the receiver,
that air which is confined in the bladder will expand
itfelf fo, as to raife up all the lead by the force of its
fpring.
16. Take the glafs ball mentioned in the fifth ex¬
periment, which was left full of water all but a fmall
bubble of air at top; and having fet it with its neck
downward into the empty phial aa, and covered it
with a clofe receiver, exhauft the air out of the recei¬
ver; and the fmall bubble of air in the top of the ball
will expand itfelf fo as to force all the water out of the
ball into the phial.
17. Screw the pipe AB into the pump-plate; place
the tall receiver GH upon the plate cd, as in the 12th
experiment; and exhauft the air out of the receiver:
then turn the cock e to keep out the air, unfcrew the
pipe from the pump, and fcrew it into the mouth of
the copper veffel CC (fig. 22.), the veffel having firft
been about half filled with water. Then open the cock
e, (fig. 18.); and the fpring of the air which is confined
in the copper veffel will force the water up through the
pipe AB in a jet into the exhaufted receiver, as ftrong-
6253.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 18.
ly as it did by its preffure on the furface of the water Experi-
in a bafon, in the 12th experiment. nienls'
18. If a fowl, a cat, rat, moufe, or bird, be put un¬
der a receiver, and the air be exhaufted, the animal
will be at firft oppreffed as with a great weight, then
grow convulfed, and at laft expire in all the agonies of
a molt bitter and cruel death. But as this experiment
is too Ihocking to every fpe&ator who has the lead de¬
gree of humanity, fome fubftitute a machine called the
lungs-glafs in place of the animal.
19. If a butterfly be fufpended in a receiver by a
fine thread tied to one of its horns, it will fly about in
the receiver as long as the receiver continues full of
air; but if the air be exhaufted, though the animal
will not die, and will continue to flutter its wings, it
cannot remove itfelf from the place where it hangs in
the middle of the receiver until the air be let in again ;
and then the animal will fly about as before.
20. Pour fome quickfilver into the fmall bottle A, pj„
and fcrew the brafs collar c of the tube BC into the
brafs neck b of the bottle, and the lower end of the
tube will be immerfed into the quickfilver, fo that the
air above the quickfilver in the bottle will be confined
there, becaufe it cannot get out about the joinings, nor
can it be drawn out through the quickfilver into the
tube. This tube is alfo open at top, and is to be co¬
vered with the receiver G and large tube EF; which
tube is fixed by brafs collars to the receiver, and is clofe
at the top. This preparation being made, exhauft the
air both out of the receiver-and its tube; and the air
will by the fame means be exhaufted out of the inner
tube BC, through its open top at C; and as the re¬
ceiver and tubes are exhaufting, the air that is confi¬
ned in the glafs bottle A will prefs fo by its fpring up¬
on the furface of the quickfilver, as to force it up in
the inner tube as high as it was railed in the ninth ex¬
periment by the preffure of the atmofphere: which de-
monftrates, that the fpring of the air is equivalent to its
weight.
21. Screw the end C of the pipe CD into the hole^,. ^
of the pump-plate, and turn all the three cocks d, G, S’
and H, fo as to open the communications between all
the three pipes E, F, DC, and the hollow trunk AB.
Then cover the plates £ and with wet leathers, which
have holes in their middle where the pipes open into
the plates; and place the clofe receiver I upon the
plate G: this done, flint the pipe F by turning the
cock H, and exhauft the air out of the receiver I.
Then turn the cock d to (hut out the air, unfcrew the
machine from the pump, and having fcrewed it to the
wooden foot L, put the receiver K upon the plate h ,*
this receiver will continue loofe on the plate as long as it
keeps full of air; which it will do until the cock H be
turned to open the communication between the pipes
F and E, through the trunk AB; and then the air in
the receiver K, having nothing to aft againft its fpring,
will run from K into I, until it be fo divided between
thefe receivers as to be of equal denfity in both ; and
then they will be held down with equal forces to their
plates by the preffure of the atmofphere, though each
receiver will then be kept down but with one half of
preffure upon it that the receiver I had when it was
exhaufted of air; becaufe it has now one half of the
common air in it which filled the receiver K when it
was fet upon the plate j and therefore, a force equal to
half
6254
Experi¬
ments.
Fig. *1.
Mifcellane-
ous experi¬
ments.
PNEUMATICS.
half the force of the fprlng of common air, will a&
within the receivers againft the whole preflure of the
common air upon their outfides. This is called tranf-
ferring the air out of one vejfel into another.
22. Put a cork into the fquare phial A, and fix it
in with wax or cement; put the phial upon the pump-
plate with the wire cage B over it, and cover the cage
with a clofe receiver. Then exhauft the air out of the
receiver; and the air that was corked up in the phial
will break the phial outwards by the force of its fpring,
becaufe there is no air left on the outfide of the phial
to aft againft the air within it.
23. Put a fhrivelled apple under a clofe receiver, and
exhauft the air; then the fpring of the air within the
apple will plump it out, fo as to caufe all the wrinkles
difappear; but upon letting the air into the receiver
again to prefs upon the apple, it will inftantly return
to its former decayed and (hrivelled ftate.
24. Take a frefh egg, and cut off a little of the fhell
and film from its fmalleft end; then put the egg under
a receiver, and pump out the air; upon which all the
contents in the egg will be forced out into the receiver
by the expanfion of a fmall bubble of air contained in
the great end between the fhell and film.
25. Put fome warm beer in a glafs; and having fet
it on the pump, cover it with a clofe receiver, and then
exhauft the air. Whilft this is doing, and thereby the
preffure more and more taken off from the beer in the
glafs, the air therein will expand itfelf, and rife up in
innumerable bubbles to the furface of the beer; and
from thence it will be taken away with the other air
in the receiver. When the receiver is nearly exhauft-
ed, the air in the beer, which could not difentangle it¬
felf quick enough to get off with the reft, will now ex¬
pand itfelf fo, as to caufe the beer to have all the ap¬
pearance of boiling; and the greateft part of it will
go over the glafs.
26. Put fome warm water in a glafs, and put a bit
of dry vvainfcot or other wood into the water. Then
cover the glafs with a clofe receiver, and exhauft the
air; upon which the air in the wood, having liberty
to expand itfelf, will come out plentifully, and make
all the water to bubble about thp wood, efpecially
about the ends, becaufe the pores lie lengthwife. A
cubic inch of dry wainfcot has fo much air in it, that
it will continue bubbling for near half an hour toge¬
ther.
27. Screw the fyringe H (fig. 15.) to a piece of lead
that weighs one pound at leaft ; and holding the lead
in one hand, pull up the pilton in the fyringe with the
other; then quitting hold of the lead, the air will pulh
it upward, and drive back the fyringe upon the pifton.
The reafon of this is, that the drawing up of the pi¬
fton makes a vacuum in the fyringe; and the air, which
preffes every way equally, having nothing to refill
its preffure upward, the lead is thereby preffed up¬
ward contrary to its natural tendency by gravity. If
the fyringe fo loaded be hung in a receiver, and the
air be exhaufted, the fyringe and lead will defcend up¬
on the pifton-rod by their natural gravity; and upon
admitting the air into the receiver, they will be drove
upward again until the pifton be at the very bottom of
the fyringe.
28. Let a large piece of cork be fufpended by a thread
at one end of a balance, and counterpoifed by a leaden
Sea. ir.
weight, fufpended in the fame manner, at the other Experi-
Let this balance be hung to the iafide of the top of a mentj.
large receiver ; which being fet on the pump, and the
air exhaufted, the cork will preponderate, and fhow
itfelf to be heavier than the lead ; but upon letting in
the air again, the equilibrium will be reftored. The
reafon of this is, that fince the air is a fluid, and all
bodies lofe as much of their abfolute weight in it as is
equal to the weight of their bulk of the fluid, the
cork being the larger body, lofes more of its real
weight than the lead does ; and therefore muft in faft
be heavier, to balance it under the difadvantage of lo-
fing fome of its weight: which difadvantage being
taken off by removing the air, the bodies then gravi¬
tate according to their real quantities of matter, and
the cork, which balanced the lead in air, fhows ilfelf
to be heavier when in vacuo.
29. Set a lighted candle upon the pump, and cover
it with a tall receiver. If the receiver holds a gallon,
the candle will burn a minute ; and then, after having
gradually decayed from the firft inftant, it will go out:
which ftiews, that a conftant fupply of frefti air is ne-
ceffary to feed flame; and fo it alfo is for animal-life.
For a bird kept under a clofe receiver will foon die,
although no air be pumped out; and it is found that,
in the diving-bell, a gallon of air is fufScient only for
one minute for a man to breathe in.
The moment when the candle goes out, the fmoke
will be feen to afcend to the top of the receiver, and
there it will form a fort of cloud: but upon exhauft-
ing the air, the fmoke will fall down to the bottom
of the receiver, and leave it as clear at the top as it
was before it was fet upon the pump. This (hows,
that fmoke does not afcend on account of its being
pofitivdy light, but becaufe it is lighter than air; and
its falling to the bottom when the air was taken away,
(hows that it is notdeftitute of weight. So moll forts
wood afcend or fwim in water; and yet there are none
who doubt of the wood’s having gravity or weight.
30. Set a receiver, which is open at top, upon the
air-pump, and cover it with a brafs plate and wet
leather; and having exhaufted it of air, let the air in
again at top through an iron pipe, making it pafs thro*
a charcoal flame at the end of the pipe; and when the
receiver is full of that air, lift up the cover and let
down a moufe or bird into the receiver, and the burnt
air will immediately kill it. If a candle be let down
into the air, it will go out direftly; but by letting it
down gently, it will purify the air fo far as it goes;
and fo, by letting it down more and more, all the air
in the receiver will be purified.
31. Set a bell upon a culhion on the pump-plate,
and cover it with a receiver; then (hake the pump to
make the clapper ftrike againft the bell, and the found
will be very well heard: but exhauft the receiver of
air, and then, if the clapper be made to ftrike ever fo
hard againft the bell, it will make no found at all ;
which (hows that air is abfolutely neceffary for the
propagation of found.
32. Let a candle be placed on one fide of a receiver,
and viewed through the receiver at fome diftance; then,
as foon as the air begins to be exhaufted, the receiver
will be filled with vapours which rife from the wet lea¬
ther, by the fpring of the air in it; and the light of
the candle being refra&ed through that medium of
vapours,
Jj Sea. II. PNEUMATICS. 6255
Experi- vapours, will have the appearance of circles of va-
:1 h16015- rious colours, of a faint refemblance to thofe in the
rain-bow.
The elaftic air which is contained in many bodies,
and is kept in them by the weight of the atmofphere,
may be got out of them either by boiling, or by the
air-pump, as fhewn in the 25th experiment: but the
fixed air, which is by much the greater quantity, can¬
not be got out but by diftillation, fermentation, or
putrefaflion.
If fixed air did not come out of bodies with diffi¬
culty, and fpend fome time in extricating itfelf from
them, it would tear them to pieces. Trees would be
rent by the change of air from a fixed to an elaftic
ftate, and animals would be burft in pieces by the ex-
plofion of air in their food.
Dr Hales found by experiment, that the air in apples
is fo much condenfed, that if it were let out into the
S common air, it would fill a fpace 48 times as great as
the bulk of the apples themfelves ; fo that its preffure
outwards was equal to 11,776 lb. and, in a cubic inch
of oak, to 19,860 lb. againft its fides. So that if the
air was let loofe at once in thefe fubftances, they would
P O C
Pneumo- PNEUMONICS, in pharmacy, medicines proper
mcs- in difeafes of the lungs, in which refpiration is affec¬
ted.
PO, a large and celebrated river of Italy, which
has its fource at mount Vifs in Piedmont, and on the
confines of Dauphiny. It runs through Piedmont,
Montferrat, the Milanefe, and duchy of Mantua ; from
thence it runs to the borders of the Parmezan, and a
part of the Modenefe ; and having entered the Fer-
rarefe, it begins to divide at Ficheruolo, and pro¬
ceeds to difcharge itfelf into the gulf of Venice by
four principal mouths. As it paffes along, it receives
feveral rivers, and often overflows its banks, doing a
great deal of mifchief; the reafon of which is, that
moft of thofe rivers defcend from the Alps, and are
increafed by the melting of the fnow.
POA, meadow-grass; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are 20 fpecies ; moft of them grafles, and very
agreeable food for cattle ; for one fpecies which grows
in marlhes, the cattle will frequently go fo deep as to
endanger their lives. This is called the aquatica, or
mater reed-grafs. It is the largeft of the Britifti
graffes, growing to the height of five or fix feet. The
leaves are fmooth, and half an inch wide, or more.
The panicle is eight or ten inches long, greatly
branched, and decked with numerous fpicula: thefe
are of a reddifh-brown colour intermixed with green,
of a compreffed lanceolate form, imbricated with about
fix .flowers for the moft part, but varying from five
to ten.
POCOCK (Dr Edward), one of the moft learned'
men in the oriental tongues in Europe, was the eldeft
fon of the Rev. Mr Edward Pocock; and was born at
Oxford in 1604, where he was alfo bred. In 1628,
he was admitted probationer fellow of his college, and
about the fame time had prepared an edition of the
Second Epiftle of St Peter, the Second and Third of
fit John, and that of St Jude, in Syriac and Creek,
tear every thing to pieces about them with a force fu- Experi-
periorto that of gunpowder. Hence, in eating apples, ments- .
it is well that they part with the air by degrees as
they are chewed and ferment in the ftomach, other-
wife an apple would be immediate death to him who
eats it.
The mixing of fome fubftances with others will re-
leafe the air from them, all of a fudden ; which may
be attended with very great danger. Of this we have
a remarkable inftance in an experiment made by Dr
Slare; who having put half a dram of oil of carraway-
feeds into one glafs, and a dram of compound fpirit of
nitre in another, covered them both on the air-pump
with a receiver fix inches wide and eight inches deep,
and then exhaufted the air, and continued pumping
until all that could poffibly be got both out of the re¬
ceiver, and out of the two fluids, was extricated : then,
by a particular contrivance from the top of the recei¬
ver, he mixed the fluids together; upon which they
produced fuch a prodigious quantity of air as in-
ftantly blew up the receiver, although it was prefled
down by the atmofphere with upwards of 400 pound
weight.
P O C
with a Latin Tranflation and Notes. In 1629, he Pocock.
was ordained prieft, and appointed chaplain to the 
Englifh merchants at Aleppo, where he continued
five or fix years; in which time he diftinguiftied him-
felf by his fortitude and zeal while the plague raged
there. At length returning to England, he was, in
1636, appointed reader of the Arabic lectures founded
by archbiftiop Laud. Three years after, he went to
Conftantinople, where he profecuted his ftudies of the
Eaftern tongues, and procured many valuable manu-
feripts. After near four years ftay in that city, he em¬
barked in 1640; and taking Paris in hisway, vifitedGa¬
briel Sionita the famous Maronite, and Hugo Grotius.
In 1643, he was prefented to the reftory of Childrey
in Berks; and, about three years after, married the
daughter of Thomas Burdett, Efq. About the middle
of 1647, he obtained the reftitution of the falary of
his Arabic lefture, which had been detained from him
about three years. In 1648, king Charles I. who
was then prifoner in the ifle of Wight, nominated Mr
Pocock to the profeflbrfhip of Hebrew, end the ca-
nonry of Chrift-church annexed to it; but, in 1650,
he was eje<fted from his canonry for refufing to take the
engagement, and foon after a vote pafied for depriving
him of his Hebrew and Arabic ledlures; but feveral
governors of houfes, &c. prefenting a petition in his
favour, he was fuffered to enjoy both thofe places.
He had fome years before publifhed his Specimen
Hijionoe Arabujn ; and now appeared his Porta Mqfts ;
and foon after, the Englifti Polyglot edition of the
Bible, to which he had largely contributed, and alfo
Eutychius’s Annals, with a Latin verfion. At the
Reftoration, he was reftored to the canonry of Chrift-
church, and alfo received the degree of do£or of
divinity. He then publiftied his Arabic Verfion of
Grotius’s Treatife of the Truth of the Chriftian Re¬
ligion ; and an Arabic Poem, intilhdLamiato’IAjam,
with a Latin Tranflation and Notes. Soon after, he
publiftied Gregory Abul Pharajius’s Hijiona Dynaf-
tiarum.
POE
Podolia tiarum. In 1674, publifhed an Arabic Verfion of
Podium t^e Part8 t^ie L!turSy l^e church of Eng-
°e um. |anj , an(^ a £ew years after his Commentary on the
Prophecies of Micah, Malachi, Hofea, and Joel. This
great man died in 1691, after having been for many
years confeffedly the firil perfon in Europe for eaftern
learning; and was no lefs worthy of admiration for his
uncommon modefty and humility, and all the virtues
that can adorn a Chriftian. His theological works
were republiflied at London in 1740, in two volumes
in folio.
PODOLIA, a province of Poland, bounded on
the call by Volhinia and the river Ukrain ; on the
north and north-eaft, by Budfiac Tartary; on the
fouth-eaft, by the river Nietler, which feparates it
from Beflarabia and Moldavia in European Turkey on
the fouth-weft; and by the province of Red Rufiia, on
the north-weft. It is ufually divided into the Upper
and Lower: in the Upper, which is the weftern part,
the chief town is Kamieck, the capital of Podolia, and
of a palatinate. In the Lower, or eaftern part of
Podolia, the chief town is Brackow, the capital of a
palatinate.
PODEX, in anatomy. The fame with Anus.
POEM, a poetical compofition. See Poetry.
POESTUM, or Posidonia, an ancient city of
Grecia Magna, now part of the kingdom of Naples.
It has long fince been in ruins, and thefe ruins only
became known in the following manner, according
to the account publiftred by the author of the Anti¬
quities, Hijl&ry, and view, of Poejlum. “ In the
year 1755, an apprentice to a painter at Naples, who
was on a vifit to his friends at Capaccio, by accident
took a walk to the mountains which furround the
territory of Pceftum, The only habitation he per¬
ceived was the cottage of a farmer, who cultivated the
belt part of the ground, and referved the reft for
palture. The ruins of the ancient city made a part of
this view, and particularly (truck the eyes of the
young painter; who, approaching nearer, faw with
aftonifttment walls, towers, gates, and temples. Up¬
on his return to Capaccio, he confulted the neigh¬
bouring people about the origin of thefe monuments
of antiquity. He could only learn, that this part of
the country had been uncultivated and abandoned
during their memory; that about ten years before, the
farmer, whofe habitation he had noticed, eftabliftied
himfelf there ; and that having dug in many places
and fearched among the ruins that lay round him, he
had found treafures fufficient to enable him to purchafe
the whole. At the painter’s return to Naples, he in¬
formed his mafter of thefe particulars, whofe curiofity
was fo greatly excited by the defeription, that he took
a journey to the place, and made drawings of the
principal views. Thefe were (hown to the king of
Naples, who ordered the ruins to be cleared, and
Toeftum arofe from the obfeurity in which it had re¬
mained for upwards of 700 years, as little known to
the neighbouring inhabitants as to travellers/’
Our author gives the following defeription of it in
its prefent (late. It is, fays he, of an oblong figure,
about two miles and a half in circumference. It has
POE
four gates which are oppofite to each other. On the Poeftom,
key-ftone of the arch of the north-gate, on the out- PQet‘
fide, is the figure of Neptune in baflb relievo, and
within a hippocampus. The walls which ftill remain
are compofed of very large cubical (tones, and are ex¬
tremely thick, in fome parts t8 feet. That the walls
have remained unto this time, is owing to the very
exa& manner in which the (tones are fitted to one
another, (a circumftance obferved univerfally in the
mafonry of the ancients), and perhaps, in fome mea-
fure, to a ftalaftical concretion which has grown over
them. On the walls here and there are placed towers
of different heights, thofe near the gates being much
higher and larger than the others, and evidently of
modern workmanThip. He obferves, that, from its
fituation among marches, bituminous and fulphureous
fprings, Poeftum muft have been unwholefome; a cir¬
cumftance mentioned by Strabo, Morhvfam earn facit
fluvius in paludes diffufus. Is fuch a fituation the
water muft have been bad. Hence the inhabitants
were obliged to convey that neceffary of life from
purer fprings by means of aquedudls, of which many
veftiges dill remain.
The principal monuments of antiquity are a theatre,
an amphitheatre, and three temples. The theatres
and amphitheatres are much ruined. The firft temple
is hexaftylos, and amphiproftylos. At one end, th«
pilaftersand two columns which divided the cella from
the pronaos are ftill remaining. Within the cella are
two rows of fmaller columns, with an architrave,
which fupport the fecond order. This temple be takes
to be of that kind called by Vitruvius kyphxthros, and
fupports his opinion by a quotation from that author.
The fecond temple is alfo amphiproftylos : it has nine
columns in front and 18 in flank, and feems to be of
that kind called by Vitruvius pfeudodipteros. The third
is likewife amphiproftylos. It has fix columns in front
and 13 in flank. Vitruvius calls this kind of temple
peripteros. “ The columns of thefe temples (fays our
author), are of that kind of Doric order which we find
employed in works of the greateft antiquity. They
are hardly five diameters in height. They are with¬
out bafes, which alfo has been urged as a proof of their
antiquity ; but we do not find that the ancients ever
ufed bafes to this order, at leaft till very late. Vitru¬
vius makes no mention of bafes for this order: and
the only inftance we have of it, is in the firft order of
thecolifseum at Rome, which was built by Vefpafian.
The pillars of thefe temples are fluted with very (hal¬
low (lutings in the manner deferibed by Vitruvius. The
columns diminifh from the bottom, which was the moft
ancient method almoft nniverfally in all the orders.
The columns have aftragals of a very Angular form ;
which (hows the error of thofe who imagine that this
member was ftrft invented with the Ionic order, to
which the Greeks gave an aftragal, and that the Ro¬
mans were the firft who applied it to the Doric. The
echinus of the capital is of the fame form with that of
the temple of Corinth deferibed by Le Roy.”
POET, the author of a poem. See the next ar¬
ticle.
[ 6256 1
POETRY.
Tlafc GCXDUj .
Tig 1. TRO cEI/LiAMA Telagtoa
tlntrod.
POE
i aMIDST thofe thick clouds which cvelope the
-ci. firll ages of the world, reafon and hiftory throw
fame lights on the origin and primitive employment of
this divine art. Reafon fuggefts, that before the inven¬
tion of letters, all the people of the earth had no other
method of tranfmitting to theie defcendents the prin¬
ciples of their worlhip, their religious ceremonies,
their laws, and the renowned a&ions of their fages
and heroes, than by poetry ; which included all thefe
obje&s in a kind of hymns that fathers fung to their
children, in order to engrave them with indelible
ftrokes in their hearts. Hiftory not only informs os,
that Mofes and Miriam, the firft authors that are
known to mankind, fung, on the borders of the Red
Sea, a fong of divine praife, to celebrate the delive¬
rance which the Almighty had vouchfafed to the
people of Ifrael, by opening a paflage to them through
the waters; but it has alfo tranfmitted to us the fong
itfelf, which is at once the moft ancient monument and
a mafter-piece of poetic compofnion.
2. The Greeks, a people the moft; ingenious, the
moft animated, and in every fenfe the moft accom-
plilhed, that the world ever produced—drove to ravifh
from the Hebrews the precious gift of poetry, which
was vouchfafed them by the Supreme Author of all
nature, that they might afcribe it to their falfe deities.
According to their ingenious fiftions, Apollo became
the god of poetry, and dwelt on the hills of Phocis,
Parnaflus, and Helicon, whofe feet were walhed by
the waters of Hyppocrene, of which each mortal that
ever drank was feized with a facred delirium. The im¬
mortal fwans floated on its waves. Apollo was ac¬
companied by the Mufes—thofe nine learned filters—
the daughters of Memory : and he was conftantly at¬
tended by the Graces. Pegafus, his winged courfer,
tranfported him with a rapid flight into all the regions
of the univerfe. Happy emblems! by which we at
this day embellilh our poetry, as no one has ever yet
been able to invent more brilliant images.
3. The literary annals of all nations afford veftiges
of poetry, from the remoteft ages. They are found
among the moft favage of the ancient barbarians, and
the moft defolate of all the Americans. Nature afferts
her rights in every country, and every age. Tacitus
mentions the verfes and the hymns af the Germans, at
the time when that rough people yet inhabited the
woods, and while their manners were ftill favage. The
firft inhabitants of Rurinia, and the other northern
countries, thofe of Gaul, Albion, Iberia, Aufonia,
and other nations of Europe, had their poetry, as well
as the ancient people of Afia, and of the known bor¬
ders of Africa. But the Ample produftions of nature
have conftantly fomtthing unformed, rough, and fa¬
vage. The Divine Wifdom appears to have placed the
ingenious and polilhed part of mankind on the earth,
in order to refine that which comes from her bofom
rude and imperfedl : and thus art has poJilhed poetry,
which iffued quite naked and favage from the brains of
the firft of mankind.
4. But what is Poetry ? It would be to abridge the
Vox.. VIII. 1
T R Y,
limits of the poetic empire, to contraft the fphere of
this divine art, fhould we fay, in imitation of all the
didlionaries and other treatifes on verfification, That
poetry is the art of snaking verfes, of lines or periods that
are in rhyme or metre. This is rather a grammatical
explanation of the word, than a real definition of the
thing, and it would be to degrade poetry thus to de¬
fine it. The jufteft definition feems to be that given
by Baron Bielfield f, That poetry is the art of exprefs- f Elan, of
ing our thoughts by fittion. In fa61, it is after this ^d.v. Ena-.
manner (if we reflefit with attention) that all the me¬
taphors and allegories, all the various kinds of fidion,
form the firft materials of a poetic edifice : it is thus
that all images, all comparifons, illufions, and figures,
efpecially thofe which perfonify moral fubje&s, as vir¬
tues and vices, concur to the decorating of fuch a
ftru&ure. A work, therefore, that is filled with in¬
vention, that inceffantly prefents images which render
the reader attentive and affeAed, where the author
gives interefting fentiments to every thing that he
makes fpeak, and where he makes fpeak by fen-
fible figures all thofe obje&s which would affedl the
mind but w'eakly when clothed in a fimple profaic
ftyle, fuch a work is a poem. While that, though it
be in verfe, which is of a didaAic, dogmatic, or mo¬
ral nature, and where the obje&s are prefented in a
manner quite fimple, without fiAion, without images'or
ornaments, cannot be called poetry, but merely a work
in verfe; for the art of reducing thoughts, maxims,
and periods, into ryme or metre, is very different from
the art of poetry.
6. A n ingenious fable, a lively and interefting romance,
a comedy, the fublime narrative of the a6tions of a
hero, fuch as the Telemachus of M. Fenelon, though
written in profe, but in meafured profe, is therefore a
work of poetry: becaufe the foundation and the
fuperftruAure are the produdions of genius, as the
whole proceeds from fiAion; and truth itfelf ap¬
pears to have employed an innocent and agree¬
able deception to inftruft with efficacy. This is fo
true, that the pencil alfo, in order to pleafe and affeA,
has recourfe to fiAion ; and this part of painting is
called the poetic compofition of a pifture. It is there¬
fore by the aid of fiction that poetry, fo to fpeak,
paints its expreffions, that it gives a body and a
mind to its thoughts, that it animates and exalts
that which would otherwife have remained arid and
infenfible. Every work, therefore, where the thoughts
are expreffed by fiAions or images, is poetic; and
every work where they are expreffed naturally, fimplj',
and without ornament, although it be in verfe, is pro¬
faic.
7. Verfe, however, is not to be regarded as foreign
or fuperfluous to poetry. To reduce tbofe images,
thole fiAions, into verfe, is one of the greateft diffi¬
culties in poetry, and one of the greateft merits in a
poem : and for thefe reafons, the cadence, the harmony
of founds, particularly that of rhyme, delight the ear to
a high degree, and the mind infenlibly repeats them
wtile the eye reads them. There refults therefore a
35 F P1™'
6258 POE
pleafure to the mind, and a ftrong attachment tothefe
ornaments : but this pleafnre would be frivolous, and
even childifh, if it were not attended by a real utility.
Verfes were invented in the firft ages of the world,
merely to aid and to ftrengthen the memory : for ca¬
dence, harmony, and efpecially rhyme, afford thegreateft
afTdlance to the memory that art can invent; and the
images, or poetic fiftions, that flrike our fenfes, affifl
in graving them with fuch deep traces in our minds, as
even time itfelf frequently cannot efface. How many ex-
T R Y. IntrodI
cellent apophthegms, fentences, maxims, and precepts,
would have been buried in the abyfs of obligion, if
poetry had not preferved them by its harmony ? To
give more efficacy to this lively impreflion, the firft
poets fung their verfes, and the words and phrafes
muft neceffarily have been reduced, at leaft to cadence,
or they could not have been fufceptible of mufical ex-
preffion. One of the great excellenties, therefore,
though not a neceffary conftituent, of poetry, confifts
in its being expreffed in verfe. See Part III.
PartI. GENERAL PRINCIPLES of the ART.
Sect. I. Of the Ejj'ence and End of Poetry.
8. TTNDER the article Polite Aits, it was obferved,
that the ejfence of thefe in general, and confe-
quently of poetry in particular, confifts in expreJfio?i:
and we think, that, to be poetic, the expreflion muft
* SeeAxTs neceffarily arife from fiction, qx invention *. This in-
vention, which is the fruit of happy genius alone,
n 7’ arifes, t. From the fubjeA itfelf of which we under¬
take to treat: 2. From the manner in which we treat
that fubjeft, or the fpecies of writing of which we
make ufe : 3. From the plan that we propofe to fol¬
low in conformity to this manner ; and, 4. From the
method of executing this plan in its full detail. Our
firft guides, the ancients, afford us no lights that can
elucidate all thefe objefts in general. The precepts
which Ariftotle lays down, relate to epic and drama¬
tic poetry only : and which, by the way, confirms
our idea, that antiquity itfelf made the effence of poe¬
try to confift in fiftion, and not in that fpecies of verfe
which is deftitute of it, or in that which is not capable
of it. But fince.this art has arrived to a great degree
of perfe&ion ; and as poetry, like eleftricity, commu¬
nicates its fire to every thing it touches, and animates
and embellifhes whatever it treats; there feems to be no
fubje6l in the univerfe to which poetry cannot be ap¬
plied, and that it cannot render equally brilliant and
pleafing. From this univerfality of poetry, from its
peculiar property of expreffion by fi&ion, which is ap¬
plicable to all fubjefts, have arifen its different fpecies,
of which a particular defeription will be given in the
ftcond part.
9. Horace, in a well-known verfe, has been fuppo-
fed to declare the end of poetry to be twofold, to
pleafe, or to inftru£l:
Aut proJeffe volunt, out dclcftare poet*.
t EJap on But Dr Beattie f maintains, that the ultimate end of
oetry and t^;g art jg t0 pleafe . inftruttion being only one of the
Part I. means (and not always a neceflary one) by which
chap. i. that ultimate end is to be accomplifhed. The paffage,
rightly underftood, he obferves, will not appear to
contain any thing inconfiftent with this do&rine. The
author is there dating a comparifon between the Greek
and Roman writers, with a view to the poetry of the
ftage; and, after commending the former for their
cone&nefs, and for the liberal fpirit wherewith they
conducted their literary labours, and blaming his
countrymen for their inaccuracy and avarice, he pro¬
ceeds thus: “ The ends propofed by our dramatic
poets (or by poets in general) are, to pleafe, to in-,
flruft, or to do both. When inftruftion is your aim,
let your moral fentences be exprefied with brevity,
that they may be readily underftood, and long re¬
membered : where you mean to pleafe, let your fic¬
tions be conformable to truth, or probability. The
elder part of your audience (or readers) have no relifh
for poems that give pleafure only without inftru&ion;
nor the younger for fuch writings as give inftruftion
without pleafure. He only can fecure the univerfal
fuffrage in his favour, who blends the ufeful with the
agreeable, and delights at the fame time that he in-
ftru&s the reader. Such are the works that bring
money to the bookfeller, that pafs into foreign coun¬
tries, and perpetuate the author’s name thro’ a long
fucceffion of ages f.”—Now, what is the meaning oi* H°r- i
all this ? What, but that to the perfection of dramatic 33 3-”i
poetry (or, if you pleafe, of poetry in general) both 347-
found morals and beautiful fiftion are requifite? But
Horace never meant to fay, that inftruftion, as well
as pleafure, is neceffary to give to any compofition the
poetical charafter : or he would not in another place
have celebrated, with fo much affeftion and rapture,
the melting ftrains of Sappho, and the playful genius
of Anacreon J,—two authors tranfcendently fweet, \ Por.Carm.,
but not remarkably inftruftive. We are fure, that pa- llb• 4°dc 9‘
thos, and harmony, and elevated language, were, in '
Horace’s opinion, effential to poetry ^; and of thefe
decorations nobody will affirm that inftru&ion W'verf!^®.'4*'
the end, who confiders that the moft inftru&ive books
in the world are written in plain profe,
In fhort, our author has endeavoured by many inge¬
nious arguments and illuftrations to eftablifh it as a
truth in criticifm, that the end of poetry is pleafe.
Verfes, if pleafing, may be poetical, though they con¬
vey little or no inftru&ion; but verfes, whofe foie me¬
rit it is that they convey inftrmSHon, are not poeti¬
cal. Inftru&ion, however, he admits, efpecialiy in
poems of length, is neceffafy to \he\x perfeftion,
becaufe they would not be perfectly agreeable with¬
out it.
Sect. II. Of the Standard of Poetical Inven¬
tion.
10. Homer’s beautiful defeription of the heavens
and earth, as they appear in a calm evening by the
light of the moon and ftars, concludes with this cir-
cumftance, “ And the heart of the ftiepherd is glad*.” *
Madame Dacier, from the turn ffie gives to the paf-v- ■S5S-
fage in her verfion, feems to think, and Pope, in or¬
der perhaps to make out his couplet, infinuates, that
the gladnefs of the ffiepherd is owing to his fenfe of
the utility of thofe luminaries. And this may in part
be.
Part I. POE
Of be the cafe: but this is not in Homer; nor is it a ne-
nverition. ce{fary confideration. It is true, that, in contem¬
plating the material univerfe, they who difcern the
caufes and effedts of things muft be more rapturoufly
\cfittie's entertained, than thofe who perceive nothing but ftiape
ffiys, and fize, colour and motion. Yet, in the mere out-
'art I. fide of nature’s works, there is a fplendor and a mag-
iap. u. nificence to which even untutored minds cannot attend,
without great delight.
Not that all peafants, or all philofophers, are equal¬
ly fufceptible of thefe charming impreffions. It is
ftrange to obferve the calioufnefs of fome men, before
whom all the glories of heaven and earth pafs in daily
fucceffion, without touching their hearts, elevating
their fancy, or leaving any durable remembrance. E-
ven of thofe who pretend to fenfibility, how many are
there to whom the luftre of the rifing or felting fun;
I the fparkling concave of the midnight-fky ; the moun¬
tain-foreft tofling and roaring to the ftorm, or warb¬
ling with all the melodies of a fummer evening ; the
fweet interchange of hill and dale, (hade and funihine,
grove, lawn, and water, which an extenfive landfcape
offers to the view ; the fcenery of the ocean, fo love¬
ly, fo majeftic, and-fo tremendous; and the many
pieafing varieties of the animal and vegetable kingdom,
could never afford fo much real fatisfa&ion, as the
ffeams and noife of a ball-room, the infipid fiddling
and fqueaking of an opera, or the vexations and wrang-
lings of a card-table!
But fome minds there are of a different make; who,
even in the early part of life, receive from the contem¬
plation of Nature a fpecies of delight which they
would hardly exchange for any other; and who, as
avarice and ambition are not the infirmities of that pe*
riod, would, with equal fincerity and rapture, ex¬
claim,
I care not, Fortune, what you me deny ;
You cannot rob me of free Nature’s grace ;
You cannot (hut the windows of the Iky,
Through which Aurora fliows her brightening face ;
You cannot bar my conftant feet to trace
The woods and lawns by living ftream at eve.
Cajlle of Indolence.
Such minds have always in them the feeds of true
tafte, and frequently of imitative genius. At lead, tho’
their .‘nthufiattic or vifionary turn of mind (as the man
of the world would call it) fhould not always incline
them to practife poetry or painting, we need not
fcruple to affirm, that without fome portion of this en-
thufiafm no perfon ever became a true poet or pain¬
ter. For he who would imitate the works of Nature,
muft firtt accurately obferve them ; and accurate ob-
fervation is to be expefied from thofe only who take
great pleafure in it.
To a mind thus difpofed no part of creation is in¬
different. In the crowded city, and howling wdlder-
nefs ; in the cultivated province, and folitary ifle; in
the flowery lawn, and craggy mountain; in the mur¬
mur of the rivulet, and in the uproar of the ocean; in
the radiance of furamer, and gloom of winter ; in the
thunder of heaven, and in the whifper of the breeze ;
he ftill finds fomething to roufe or to foothe his imagi¬
nation, to draw forth his affcftions, or to employ his
uoderlianding. And from every mental energy that is
T II Y. 625$
not attended with pain, and even from fome of thofe Of
that are, as moderate terror and pity, a found mind Invention»
derives fatisfaftion ; exercife being equally neceffary
to the body and the foul, and to both equally produc¬
tive of health and pleafure.
This happy fenfibility to the beauties of Nature
ffiould be cherilhed in young perfons. It engage*
them to contemplate the Creator in his wonderful
works ; it purifies and harmonizes the foul, and pre¬
pares it for moral and intelle&ual difcipline ; it fup-
plies an endlefs fource of amufement ; it contributes
even to bodily health: and, as a ftrift analogy fub-
fifts between material and moral beauty, it leads the
heart by an eafy tranfition from the one to the other;
and thus recommends virtue for its tranfcendent love-
linefs, and makes vice appear the objeft of contempt
and abomination. An intimate acquaintance with the
beft defcriptive poets, Spenfer, Milton, andThomfon,
but above all with the divine Georgic, joined to fome
pra&ice in the art of drawing, will promote this ami¬
able fenfibility in early years: for then the face of
Nature has novelty fuperadded to its other charms,
the paffions are not pre-engaged, the heart is free from
care, and the imagination warm and romantic.
But, not to infill longer on thofe ardent emotions
that are peculiar to the enthufiaftic difciple of Nature,
may it not be affirmed of all men, without exception,
or at leaft of all the enlightened part of mankind,
that they are gratified by the contemplation of things
natural, as oppofed to unnatural ? Monftrous fights
pleafe but for a moment, if they pleafe at all; for
they derive their charm from the beholder’s amaze¬
ment, which is quickly over. We read indeed of a
man of rank in Sicily f, who choofes to adorn his villa t Brydsne’s
with pidures and ftatues of moll unatural deformity : s‘~
but it is a Angular inftance; and one would not be^’ e ' *4'
much more furprifed to hear of a perfon living with¬
out food, or growing fat by the ufe of poifon. To
fay of any thing, that it is contrary to nature, denotes
cenfure and difguft on the part of the fpeaker ; as the
epithet natural intimates an agreeable quality, and
feems for the moft part to imply, that a thing is as it
ought to be, fuitable to our own tafte, and con¬
genial with our own conftitution. Think, with what
fentiments we ftiould perufe a poem, in which Nature
was totally mifreprefented, and principles of thought
and of operation fuppofed to take place, repugnant to
every thing we had feen or heard of:—in which,
for example, avarice and coldnefs were afcribed to
youth, and prodigality and paffionate attachment to
the old; in which men were made to ad at random,
fometimes according to charader, and fometimes con¬
trary to it; in which cruelty and envy were produdivc
of love, and beneficence and kind affedion of hatred;
in which beauty was invariably the objed of diflike,
and uglinefs of defire ; in which fociety was rendered
happy by atheifm and the promifcuous perpetration
of crimes, and juftice and fortitude were held in uni-
verfal contempt. Or think, how we fhould relifh a
painting, where no regard was had to the proportions,
colours, or any of the phyfical laws, of Nature :—-
where the ears and eyes of animals were placed iu
their fhoulders ; where the fky was green, and the
grafs crimfon ; where trees grew with their branches
In the earth, and their roots in the air; where meti
35 F 2 were
6260 POE
Of were feen fighting after their heads were cut off, fhips
Fnvention. fa;|;npr on the ]ions entangled in cobwebs, fheep
preying on dead carcaffes, fifhes {"porting in the woods,
and elephants, walking on the fea. Could fuch figures
and combinations give pleafure, or merit the appel¬
lation of fublime or beautiful ? Should we hefitate to
pronounce their author mad? And are the abfurdities
of madmen proper fubjecls either of amufement or of
imitation to reafonable beings ?
Let it be remarked too, that though we diftinguifli
eur internal powers by different names, becaufe other-
wife we could not fpeak of them fo as to be underftood,
they are all but fo many energies of the fame in¬
dividual mind ; and therefore it is not to be fuppofed,
that what contradidts any one leading faculty fhould
yield permanent delight to the reft. That cannot be
agreeable to reafon, which confcience difapproves;
nor can that gratify imagination, which is repugnant
to reafon..——Befides, belief and acquiefcence of mind
are pleafant, as diftruft and difbelief are painful: and
therefore, that only can give folid and general fatis-
faftion, which has fomething of plaufibility in it;
fomething which we conceive it poffible for a rational
being to believe. But no rational being can acquiefce
in what is obvioufly contrary to nature, or implies
palpable abfurdity.
Poetry, therefore, and indeed every art whofe end
is to pleafe, muft be natural; and if fo, muft exhibit
real matter of fadl, or fomething like it; that is, in
other words, muft be, either according to truth, or
according to verifimilitude.
And though every part of the material univerfe
abounds in objefts of pleafurable contemplation, yet
nothing in nature fo powerfully touches our hearts,
or gives fo great variety of exercife to our moral and
Intelle&ual faculties, as man. Human affairs and hu¬
man feelings are univerfally interefting. There are
many who have no great relifh for the poetry that de¬
lineates only irrational or inanimate beings; but to
that which exhibits the fortunes, the charadlers, and
the conduft of men, there is hardly any perfon who
does not lillen with fympathy and delight. And
hence, to imitate human aftion, is confidered by Ari-
ftotle as effential to this art; and muft be allowed to
be effential to the moft pleaifing and moft inftru&ive
part of it, Epie and Dramatic compofition. Mere de-
fcriptions, however beautiful, and moral refleftions,
however juft, become tirefome, where our paffions
are not occafionally awakened by fome event that con¬
cerns our fellow-men. Do not all readers of tafte
receive peculiar pleafure from thofe little tales or
epifodes with which Thomfon’s defcriptive poem on
the Seafons is here and there enlivened ? and are they
not fenfible, that the thunder-ftorm would not have
been half fo interefting without the tale of the two
lovers, (iSaww. v. 1171); nor the harveft-fcene,•with¬
out that of Palemon and Lavinia, {Aut. v. 177 );
nor the driving fnows, without that exquilite pifture
of a man perifhing among them, [Winter, v. 276.) ? It
is much to be regretted, that Young did not employ
the fame artifice to animate his Night-Thoughts.
Sentiments and defcriptions may be regarded as the
pilafters, carvings, gildings, and other decorations of
the poetical fabric; but human aftions are the columns
and the rafters, that give itftability and elevation. Or,.
T 11 Y. Part I.J
changing the metaphor, we may confider thefe as the Of 1
foul which informs the lovely frame 5 while thofe are InvendoiJ
little more than the ornaments of the body.
Whether the pleafure we take in things natural,
and our diflike to what is the reverfe, be the effe& of
habit or of conftitution, is not a material inquiry.
There is nothing abfurd in fuppofing, that between
the foul, in its firft formation, and the reft of nature,
a mutual harmony and fympathy may have been
eftablifiied, which experience may indeed confirm,
but no perverfe habits could entirely fubdue. As no
fort of education could make man believe the contrary 1
of a felf-evident axiom, or reconcile him to a life of
perfed folitude; fo we fhould imagine, that our love
of nature and regularity might ftill remain with us in
fome degree, though vve had been born and bred in
the Sicilian villa above-mentioned, and never heard
any thing applauded but what deferved cenfure, nor
cenfured but what merited applaufe. Yet habit muft
be allowed to have a powerful influence over the fenti-
ments and feelings of mankind. Objeds to which we-
have been long accuftomed, we are apt to contrad a
• fondnefs for; we conceive them readily, and con¬
template them with pleafure ; nor do we quit our old
trads of fpeculation or pradice, without reludance
and pain. Hence in part arifes our attachment to our
own profefiions, our old acquaintaince, our native
foil, our homes, and to the very hills, ftreams, and
rocks in our neighbourhood. It would therefore
be ftrange, if man, aecuftomed as he is from his
earlieft days to the regularity of nature, did not con-
trad a liking to her produdions, and principles of
operation.
Yet we neither exped nor defire, that every human
invention, where the end is only to pleafe, ftiould be
an exad tranfeript of real exiftence. It is enough,
that the mind acquiefce in it as probable, or plaufible,
or fuch as we think might happen without any dired
oppofition to the laws of Nature :—Or, to fpeak more
accurately, it is enough, that it be confiftent, either,
firft, with general experience ; or, fecondly, with po¬
pular opinion ; or, thirdly, that it be confiftent with
itfelf, and conneded with probable circumftances.
Firft : If a human invention be confiftent with ge¬
nera! experience, we acquiefce in it as fufficiently pro¬
bable. Particular experiences, however, there may
be; fo uncommon and fo little expeded, that we
fhould not admit their probability, if we did not know
them to be true. No man of fenfe believes, that he
has^any likelihood of being enriched by the difeovery
of hidden treafure; or thinks it probable, on pur-
chafing a lottery-ticket, that he fhall gain the firft
prize i and yet great wealth has adually been ac¬
quired by fuch good fortune. But we fhould look
upon thefe as poor expedients in a play or romance
for bringing about a happy cataftrophe. We exped
that fidion fhould be more confonant to the general
tenor of human affairs ; in a word, that not poffibility,
but probability, fhould be the ftandard of poetical in¬
vention.
Secondly: Fidion is admitted as conformable to
this ftandard, when it accords with received opinions.
Thefe may be erroneous, but are not often apparently
repugnant to nature. On this account, and becaufe
they are familiar to us from our infancy, the mind
readily
Part I. POE
Of readily acqulefces in them, or at lead, yields them that
Invention, degree Qf credit which is neceflary to render them
pleafing. Hence the fairies, ghofts, and witches of
Shakefpeare, are admitted as probable beings; and
angels obtain a place in religious pictures, though we
know that they do not now appear in the fcenery of
real life. Even when a popular opinion has long been
exploded, and has become repugnant to univerfal be¬
lief, the fiftions built upon it are ftili admitted as
natural, becaufe they were accounted fuch by the
people to whom they were tirft addreffed ; whofe fen-
timents and views of things we are willing to adopt,
when, by the power of pleafing defcription, we are
introduced into their fcenes, and made acquainted
with their manners. Hence we admit the theology of
the ancient poets, their Elyfium and Tartarus, Scylla
aod Charybdis, Cyclops and Circe, and the red of
thofe “ beautiful wonders” (as Horace calls them)
which were believed in the heroic ages; as well as the
demons and enchantments of Talfo, which may be
fuppofed to have obtained no fmall degree of credit
among the Italians of the 16th century, and are fuit-
able enough to the notions that prevailed univerfally
in Europe not long before (a). In faff, when poetry
is in other refpe£is true ; when it gives an accurate
difplay of thofe parts of nature about which we know
that men in all ages mult have entertained the fame
opinion, namely, thofe appearances in the vifible crea¬
tion, and thofe feelings and workings of the human
mind, which are obvious to all mankind;—when
poetry is thus far according to nature, we are very
willing to be indulgent to what is fictitious in it, and
to grant a temporary allowance to any fyftem of fable
which the author pleafes to adopt; provided that he
lay the fcene in a diltant country, or fix the date to
a remote period. This is no unreafonable piece of
complaifance : we owe it both to the poet and to our-
felves ; for without it we fhould neither form a right
ellimate of his genius, nor receive from his works
that pleafure which they were intended to impart.
Let him, however, take care, that his fyftem of fable
be fuch as his countrymen and cotemporaries (to
whom his work is immediately addreffed) might be
fuppofed capable of yielding their affent to ; for other-
wife we Ihould not believe him to be in earneft: and
let him conneCt it as much as he can with probable
circumftances, and make it appear in a feries of events
confident with itfelf.
For (thirdly) if this be the cafe, we fhall admit his
ftory as probable, or at lead as natural, and confe-
quently be interefted in it, even though it be not war¬
ranted by general experience, and derive but flender
authority from popular opinion. Calyban, in the
Tempeft, would have fhocked the mind as an impro¬
bability, if we had not been made acquainted with his
origin, and feen his charader difplayed in a feries of
confident behaviour. But when we are told that he
fprung from a witch and a demon, a connection not
contrary to the lav/s of nature, as they were under-
T R Y. 6261
ftood in Shakefpeare’s time, and find his manners con- Of
formable to his defcent, we are eafiiy reconciled to the hivention.
fiCtion. In the fame fenfe, the Lilliputians of Swift ‘
may pafs for probable, beings ; not fo much becaufe
we know that a belief in pygmies was once current in
the world, (for the true ancient pygmy was at lead
thrice as tall as thofe whom Gulliver vilited), but be¬
caufe we find that every circumdance relating to them
accords with itfelf, and with their fuppofed character.
It is not the fize of the people only that is diminutive;
their country, feas, fhips, and towns, are all in exaCt
proportion ; their theological and political principles,
their paffions, manners, cuftoras, and all the parts of
their conduft, betray a levity and littlenefs perfectly
fuitable: and fo limple is the whole narration, and
apparently fo artlefs and fincere, that we ftiould not
much wonder if it had impofed (as we have been told5M,ftf’f
it has) upon fome perfons of no contemptible under-
danding. The fame degree of. credit may perhaps,
for the fame reafons, be due to his giants. But when
he grounds his narrative upon a contradiction to na¬
ture ; when he prefents us with rational brutes, and
irrational men ; when he tells us of horfes building
houfes for habitation, milking cows for food, riding
in carriages, and holding converfations on the laws and
politics of Europe; not all his genius (and he there
exerts it to the utmod) is able to reconcile us to fo
monftrous a fiCtion : we may fmile at fome of his ab-
furd exaggerations; we may be pleafed with the ener¬
gy of dyle, and accuracy of defcription, in particular
places; and a malevolent heart may triumph in the
fatire ; but we can never relifh it as a fable, becaufe if
is at once unnatural and felf-contradiCIory. Swift’s
judgment feems to have forfaken him on this occadon:
be wallows in nadinefs and brutality ; and the general
run of his fatire is downright defamation. Lucian’s
True Hijiory is a heap of extravagancies put together
without order or unity, or any other apparent defign
than to ridicule the language and manner of grave au¬
thors. His ravings, which have no better right to the
name of Fable, than a hill of rubbilh has to that of
palace, are dellitute of every colour of plaufibility.
Animal trees, Ihips failing in the Iky, armies of mon-
ftrous things travelling between the fun and moon op
a pavement of cobwebs, rival nations of men inhabi¬
ting woods and mountains in a whale’s belly,—are li-
ker the dreams of a bedlamite than the inventions of a
rational being.
If we were to profecute this fubjeft any further, it
would be proper to remark, that in fome kinds of poe¬
tical invention a drifter probability is required than-
in others :—that, for inftance, Comedy, whether dra¬
matic or narrative (b), mud feldom deviate from the
ordinary courfe of human affairs, becaufe it exhibits
the manners of real, and even of familiar life :—that
the tragic poet, becaufe he imitates charafters more
exalted, and generally refers to events little known, or
long fince pad, may be allowed a wider range; but
mud never attempt the marvellous fiftions of the epic
in life,.
(a) In the 14th century, the common people of Italy believed, that the poet Dante went down to hell; that the
Inferno was a true account of what he faw there ; and that his fallow complexion, and ftunted beard, (which feemed
by its growth and colour to have been too near the fire), where the confequence ofhis palling fo much of his time in
that hot and fmoky region. See Vicende della literatura del Sig. C. Denina, cap. 4.
(b) Fielding’s Tom Jones, Anielia, and Jofeph Andrews, are examples of what may,be called the Epic or Nar¬
rative Comedy, or more properly, perhaps, '/A Comic Epopee.
6262 POE
Of mufe, becairfe he addreffes his work, not only to the
Nature in pa(flons an(] imagination of mankind, but alfo to their
i?oelry’ eyes and ears, which are not eahly impofed on, and
refufe to be gratified with any reprefentation that does
not come very near the truth :—that the epic poem
may claim dill ampler privileges, becaufe its fiftions
are not fubjeft to the fcrutiny of any outward fenfe,
and becaufe it conveys information in regard both to
the higheft human chara&ers, and the molt important
and wonderful events, and alfo to the affairs of unfeen
worlds and fuperior beings. Nor would it be impro¬
per to obferve, that the feveral fpecies of comic, of
tragic, of epic compofition, are not confined to the
fa®e degree of probability ; for that farce may be ab
lowed to be lefs probable than the regular comedy ;
the mafque than the regular tragedy ; and the mixed
epic, fuch as the Fairy Queen, and Orlando Furiofo,
than the pure epopee of Homer, Virgil, and Milton.
But this part of the fubjeft feems not to require fur¬
ther illuftration. Enough has been faid to fhow, that
nothing unnatural can pleafe ; and that therefore poe¬
try, whofe end is to pleafe, muft be according to na¬
ture.
And if fo, it muft be, either according to real na¬
ture, or according to nature fomewhat different from
the reality.
Sect. III. Of the Syjlem of Nature exhibited by
Poetry.
11. To exhibit real nature is the bufinefs of the hifto-
rian ; who, if he Were Itri&ly to confine himfelf to his
own fphere, would never record even theminuteft cir-
cumftance of any fpeech, event, or defeription, which
was not warranted by fufficient authority. It has been
the language of critics in every age, that the hiftorian
ought to relate nothing as true which is falfe or du¬
bious, and to conceal nothing material which he knows
to be true. But it is to be doubted whether any wri¬
ter of profane hiilory has ever been fo fcrupulous.
Thucydides himfelf, who began his hiftory when that
war began which he records, and who fet down every
event loon after it happened, according to the moil
authentic information, feems, however, to have indul¬
ged his fancy not a little in his harangues and deferip-
tions, particularly that of the plague of Athens : and
the fame thing has been praftifed, with greater lati¬
tude, by-Livy and Tacitus, and* more or lefs by all
the bell hiftorians both ancient and modern. Nor
are they to be blamed for it. By thef^ improved or
invented fpeeches, and by the heightenings thus given
« to their deferiptions, their work becomes more inte-
refting, and more ufeful; nobody is deceived, and hi-
florical truth is not materially.affefted. A medium is,
however, to be obferved in this, as in other things.
When the hiftorian lengthens a defeription into a de¬
tail of fi£iitious events, as Voltaire has done in his ac¬
count of the battle of Fontenoy, he lofes his credit
with us, by railing a fufpicion that he is more intent
upon a pretty ftory, than upon the truth. And we
are difgufted with his infincerity, when, in .defiance
even of verifimilitude, he puts long elaborate orations
. in the mouth of thofe, of whom we krjow, either from
the circumllances that they could not, or from more
authentic records that they did not, make any fuch
.orations j as Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus has done in
TRY. Parti.
the cafe ofVolumnia haranguing her fon Coriolanus, Of
and Flavius Jofephus in that of Judah addreffing his ^“tre m
brother as viceroy of Egypt. From what thefe hifto- oetry'
rians relate, one would conje&ure, that the Roman
matron had ftudied at Athens under fome long-winded
rhetorician, and that the Jewilh patriarch muft have
been one of the molt flowery orators of antiquity.
But the fi&itious part of hiftory, or of ftory-telling,
ought never to take up much room ; and muft be
highly blameable when it leads into any miftake either
of fads or ofeharaders.
Now, why do hiftorians take the liberty to embel-
lifh their works in this manner? One reafon, no
doubt, is, that they may difplay their talents in ora¬
tory and narration : but the chief reafon, as hinted
already, is, to render their compofition more agree¬
able. It would teem, then, that fomething more
pleafmg than real nature, or fomething which fliall
add to the pleafing qualities of real nature, may be
devifed by human fancy. And this may certainly be
done. And this it is the poet’s bufinefs to do. And
when this is in any degree done by the hiftorian, his
narrative becomes in that degree poetical.
The poffibility of thus improving upon nature muft
be obvious to every one. When we look at a land-
fcape, we can fancy a thoufand additional embellifh- Benthe'i
ments. Mountains loftier and more pidurefque; x\-EJ[aysy
vers more copious, more limpid, and more beautifully chaP‘
winding ; fmoother and wider lawns; valleys more
richly diverlified ; caverns and rocks more gloomy
and more ftupendous; ruins more majeftic; buildings
more magnificent; oceans more varied with iflands,
more fplendid with {hipping, or more agitated by
ftorm, than any we have ever feen, it is eafy for hu¬
man imagination to conceive. Many things in art and
nature exceed expeftation ; but nothing fenfible tranf-
cends, or equals, the capacity of thought:—a {bi¬
king evidence of the dignity of the human foul ! The
fineft woman in the world appears to every eye fuf-
fceptible of improvement, except perhaps to that of
her lover. No wonder, then, if in poetry events can
be exhibited more compadt, and of more pleafing va¬
riety, than thofe delineated by the hiltorian, and
fcencs of inanimate nature more dreadful or more
lovely, and human charadters more fublime and more
exquifite, both in good and evil. Yet ftill let nature
fupply the ground-work and materials, as well as the
ftandard, of poetical fidlion. The moll expert paint¬
ers ufe a layman, or other vifible figure, to diredl
their hand and regulate their fancy. Homer himfelf
founds his two poems on authentic tradition ; and tra¬
gic as well as epic poets have followed the example.
The writers of romance, too, are ambitious to inter¬
weave true adventures with their fables; and when it
can be conveniently done, to take the outlines of their
plan from real life. Thus the tale of Robinfon Cru-
foe is founded on an incident that adlually btfel one
Alexander Selkirk, a fea-fating man, who lived feve¬
ral years alone in the ifland of Juan Fernandes : Smoi-
let is thought to have given us feveral of his own ad¬
ventures in the hiftory of Roderic Random ; and the
chief charadlers in Tom Jones, Jofeph Andrews, and
Pamela, are.faid to have been copied from real origi¬
nals.—Dramatic comedy, indeed, is for the moli part
purely fi&itious: for if it were to exhibit real events
as
Part I. POE
Of as well as prefent manners, it would become too per-
Nature in fona] to be endured by a well-bred audience, and de-
Poetry' generate into downright abufe ; which appears to have
* Compare been the cafe with the old comedy of the Greeks *.
ll^e*-f But in general, hints taken from real exiftence will be
'a_j‘ w;tj^ found to give no little grace and inability to fidfion,
sir. Poet, even in the moft. fanciful poems. Thofe hints, how-
verf. i8i.--ever, may be improved by the poet’s imagination, and
»8j. fet off with every probable ornament that can be devi-
fed, confidently with the defign and genius of the
work ;—or, in otfher words, with the-fympathies that
the poet means to awaken in the mind of his reader.
For mere poetical ornament, when it fails to intereft
the affe&ions, is not only ufelefs but improper ; all
true poetry being addreffed to the heart, and intended
to give pleafure by railing or foothing the pafSons;—
the only effe&ual way of pleafing a rational and mo¬
ral creature. And therefore we would take Horace’s
maxim to be univerfal in poetry: “ Non fatis eji, pul-
chra ejfe poemata ; 6\i\c\*funto “It is not enough
that poems be beautiful; let them alfo be affetting:'’—
For that this is the meaning of the word dulcia in this
place, is admitted by the beft interpreters, and is in-
f Har. Ar. deed evident from the context f.
Toet. verf. That the fentiments and feelings of percipient be-
9j.--ioo. jngS> when exprefled in poetry, fliould call forth our
affeftions, is natural enough ; but can deferiptions of
inanimate things alfo be made affefting ? Certainly
they can : and the more they affeft, the more they
pleafe us, and the more poetical we allow them to be.
Virgil’s Georgic is a noble fpecimen (and indeed the
nobleft in the world) of this fort of poetry. His ad¬
miration of external nature gains upon a reader of
tafte, till it rife to perfeft enthufiafm. The following
obfervations will perhaps explain this matter.
Every thing in nature is complex in itfelf, and bears
innumerable relations to other things; and may there¬
fore be viewed in an endlefs variety of lights, andcon-
fequently deferibed in an endlefs variety of ways.
Some deferiptions are good, and others bad. An hi-
ftorical defeription, that enumerates all the qualities
of any objedf, is certainly good, becaufe it is true ;
but may be as unaffefting as a logical definition. In
poetry, no unaffe&ing defeription is good, however
conformable to truth ; for here we expeft not a com¬
plete enumeration of qualities, (the chief end of the
art being to pleafe), but only fuch an enumeration as
may give a lively and interefting idea. It is not me¬
mory, or the knowledge of rules, that can qualify a
poet for this fort of defeription ; but a peculiar live-
linefs of fancy and fenfibility of heart, the nature
whereof we may explain by its effeSs, but we cannot
lay down rules for the attainment of it.
When our mind is occupied by any emotion, we na¬
turally ufe words and meditate on things that are
fuitable to it and tend to encourage it. If a man
were to write a letter wherr he is very angry, there
would probably be fomething of vehemence or bitter-
»efs in the ftyle, even though the perfon to whom he
wrote were not the objedl of his anger. The fame
thing holds true of every other (Irong paffion or emo¬
tion :—while it predominates in the mind, it gives a
TRY. 6263
peculiarity to our thoughts, as well as to our voice, or
gellure, and countenance: And hence we expeft, that N^,urem
every perfonage introduced in poetry fhould fee things 
through the medium of his ruling paffion, and that his
thoughts and language fhould be tinftured according¬
ly. A melancholy man walking in a grove, attends
to thofe things that fuit and encourage his melancholy;
the fighing of the wind in the trees, the murmuring
of waters, the darknefs and folitude of the fhades: A
clieerful man in the fame place, finds many fubje&s of
cheerful meditation, in the finging of birds, the brifk
motions of the babling ftream, and the livelinefs and
variety of the verdure. Perfons of different charadftrs,
contemplating the fame thing, a Roman triumph, for
inftance, feel different emotions, and turn their view
to different objefts. One is filled with wonder at fuch
a difplay of wealth and power ; another exults in the
idea of conqueft, and pants for military renown ; a
third, ftunned with clamour, and harraffed with con-
fufion, wifhes for filence, fecurity, and folitude; one
melts with pity to the vanquifhed, and makes many a Beattie's
fad refleflion upon the infignificance of worldly gran-^^’
deur, and the uncertainty of human things; while the ut u^ra’
buffoon, and perhaps the philofopher, confiders the
whole as a vain piece of pageantry, which, by its fo-
lemn procedure, and by the admiration of fo many
people, is only rendered the more ridiculous :—and
each of thefe perfons would deferibe it in a way fuit¬
able to his own feelings, and tending to raife the fame
in others. We fee in Milton’s Allegro and Penforo-
fo, how a different caff of mind produces a variety in
the manner of conceiving and contemplating the fame
rural feenery. In the former of thefe excellent poems,
the author perfonates a cheerful man, and takes no¬
tice of thofe things in external nature that are fuitable
to cheerful thoughts, and tend to encourage them : in
the latter, every objeft deferibed is ferious and fo-
lemn, and produftive of calm refledtion and tender
melancholy : and we (hould not be eafily perfuaded,
that Milton wrote the firft under the influence of for-
row, or the fecond under that of gladnefs. We often
fee an author’s* chara&er in his works; and if every
author were in earned when he writes, we fhould oft-
ener fee it. Thomfon was ,a man of piety, and bene¬
volence, and a warm admirer of the beauties of na¬
ture ; and every defeription in his delightful poem on
the Seafons tends to raife the fame laudable affeftions
in his reader. The parts of nature that attradf his
notice are thofe which an impious or hard-hearted man
would neither attend to,, nor be affc&ed with, at lead
in the fame manner. In Swift we fee a turn of mind
very different from that of the amiable Thomfon ;
little relifh for the fublime or beautiful, and a perpe¬
tual fuccellion of violent emotions. All his pi&ures
of human life feem to (how, that deformity and mean-
nefs were the favourite objed^s of his attention, and
that his foul was a conftant prey to indignation (c),
difguft, and other gloomy paffions, arifing from fuch
a view of things. And it is the tendency of almoft all
his writings, (though it was not always the author’s
defign), to communicate the fame paffions to his read¬
er : infomuch, that notwithftanding his erudition and
know-
(c) For part of this remark we have his own authority, often in his letters, and very expfcitly in the Latin epi¬
taph which he compofed for himfelf:—“ ubi fteva indignatio ulteriUs cor lacerare nequit.” See his laji willand
left ament.
6264
Of
Nature in
Poetry.
Jlr. Poet.
.93.-111
POE
knowledge of the world, his abilities as a popular
orator and man of bufinefs, the energy of bis ftyle, the
elegance of fome of his verfes, and his extraordinary
talents in wit and humour, there is reafon to doubt,
whether by dudying his works any perfon was ever
much improved in piety or benevolence.
And thus we fee, how the compofitions of an inge¬
nious author may operate upon the heart, whatever be
the fubjed. The affe&ions that prevail in the author
himfelf dired his attention to objeds congenial, and
give a peculiar bias to his inventive powers, and a pe¬
culiar colour to his language. Hence his work, as well
as face, if nature is permitted to exert herfelf freely in
it, will exhibit a pidure of his mind, and awaken cor-
refpondent fympathies in the reader. When thefe are
favourable to virtue, which they always ought to be,
the work will have that fweet pathos which Horace al¬
ludes in the paffage above mentioned; and which we
fo highly admire, and fo warmly approve, even in thofe
parts of the Georgic that deferibe inanimate nature.
Horace’s account of the matter in queftion differs
not from what is here given. “ It is not enough (fays
he*) that poems be beautiful ; let them be affeding,
■and agitate the mind with whatever paffions the poet
wiflies to impart. The human countenance, as it fmiles
on thofe who fmile, accompanies alfo with fympathe-
tic tears thofe who mourn. If you would have me
weep, you mud firft weep yourfelf; then, and not be¬
fore, {hall I be touched with your misfortunes.—For
nature firft makes the emotions of our mind correfpond
with our circumftances, infufmg real joy, forrow, or
refentment, according to the occafion; and afterwards
gives the true pathetic utterance to the voice and lan¬
guage.” This dodrine, which concerns the orator and
the player no lefs than the poet, is ftridly philofophi-
cal, and equally applicable to dramatic, to deferiptive,
and indeed to every fpecies of interefting poetry. The
poet’s fenfibility muft firft of all engage him warmly
in his fubjed, and in every part of it; otherwife he will
labour in vain to intereft the reader. If he would paint
external nature, as Virgil and Thomfon have done, fo
as to make her amiable to others, he muft firft be en¬
amoured of her himfelf; if he would have his heroes
and heroines fpeak the language of love or forrow, de¬
votion or courage, ambition or anger, benevolence or
pity, his heart muft be fufceptible of thofe emotions;
and in fome degree feel them, as long at leaft as he
employs himfelf in framing words for them; being af-
fured, that
He beft fhall paint them who can feel them mod.
Pope’s Ekija, v. 3«(5.
The true poet, therefore, muft not only ftudy nature,
and know the reality of things; but muft alfo poflefs
fancy, to invent additional decorations; judgment, to
dired him in the choice of fuch as accord with verifi-
militude; and fenfibility, to enter with ardent emotions
into every part of his fubjeft, fo as to transfufe into
every part of his work a pathos and energy fufficient
to raife correfponding emotions in the reader.
“ The hiflorian and the poet (fays Ariftotle f) dif¬
fer in this, that the former exhibits things as they are,
the latter as they might be;”—i. e. in that ftate of
perfe&ion which is confiftent with probability, and in
which, for the fake of our vn gratification, we wifh
to find them. If the poet, after all the liberties he is
T R Y. Part I.
allowed to take with the truth, can produce nothing Of
more exquifite than is commonly to b& met with in hi- Nature in
ftory, his reader will be difappointed and diffatisfied. Poetry‘
Poetical reprefentations muft therefore be framed after t
a pattern of the higheft probable perfedfion that tbefeft'®'
genius of the work will admit:—external nature muft
in them be more pi&urefque than in reality ; aftion
more animated; fentiments more expreflive of the feel¬
ings and charadter, and more fuitable to the circum¬
ftances of the fpeaker; perfonages better accomplifhcd
in thofe qualities that raife admiration, pity, terror,
and other ardent emotions; and events, morecompadf,
more clearly connedted with caufes and confequences,
and unfolded in an order more flattering to the fancy,
and more interefting to the pafiions. But where, it may
£aid, is this pattern of perfedtion to be found? Not in
real nature ; otherwife hiftory, which delineates real
nature, would alfo delineate this pattern of perfedlion.
It is to be found only in the mind of the poet; and it
is imagination, regulated by knowledge, that enables
him to form it.
In the beginning of life, and while experience is con¬
fined to a fmall circle, we admire every thing, and are
pleafed with very moderate excellence. A peafant
thinks the hall of his landlord the fineft apartment in
the univerfe, liftens with rapture to the ftrolling ballad-
finger, and wonders at the rude wooden cuts that
adorn his ruder compofitions. A child looks upon his
native village as a town ; upon the brook that runs
by, as a river; and upon the meadows and hills in the
neighbourhood, as the moft fpacious and beautiful that
can be. But when, after long abfence, he returns in
his declining years, to vifit, once before he die, the dear
fpot that gave him birth, and thofe feenes whereof he
remembers rather the original charms than the exaft
proportions; how is he difappointed to find everything
fo debafed, and fo diminifhed! The hills feem to have
funk into the ground, the brook to be dried up, and
the village to be forfaken of its people; the parifh-
church, ftripped of all its fancied magnificence, is be¬
come low, gloomy, and narrow; and the fields are now
only the miniature of what they were. Had he never
left this fpot, his notions might have remained the fame
as at firft; and had he travelled but a little way from
it, they would not perhaps have received any material
enlargement. It feems then to be from obfervation of
many things of the fame or fimilar kinds, that we ac¬
quire the talent of forming ideas more perfeft than the
real objeds that lie immediately around us: and thefe
ideas we may improve gradually more and more, ac¬
cording to the vivacity of our mind, and extent of our
experience, till at laft we come to raife them to a de¬
gree of perfedion fuperior to any thing to be found in
real life. There cannot, fure, be any myftery in this
dodrine; for we think and fpeak to the fame purpofe
every day. Thus nothing is more common than to
fay, that fuch an artift excels all we have ever known
in his profefiion, and yet that we can ftill conceive a
fuperior peformance. A moralift, by bringing toge¬
ther into one view the feparate virtues of many per-
fons, is enabled to lay down a fyflem of duty more per-
fed than any he has ever feen exemplified in human
condud. Whatever be the emotion the poet intends
to raife in his reader, whether admiration or terror,
joy or fofiow; and whatever be the objed he would
exhibit,
Part I. POE
Of Nature exhibit, whether Venus or Tifipho.ne, Achilles or Ther-
in Poetry, fiteg, a palace or a pile of ruins, a dance or a battle ;
he generally copies an idea of his own imagination ;
conlideriog each quality as it is found to exift in feve-
ral individuals of a fpecies, and thence forming an af-
femblage more or lefs perfect in its kind, according to
the purpofe to which he means to apply it.
Hence it would appear, that the ideas of poetry are
rather general than lingular; rather collefted from the
examination of a fpecies or clafs of things, than copied
from an individual. And this, according to Ariftotle,
is in fa6t the cafe, at lead for the moll part; whence
* Po'tic cr't'° determines, that poetry is fomething more
’ exquiliteand more philofophical than hiftory*. Thehi-
ftorian may deferibe Bucephalus, but the poet delineates
a war-horfe; the former mull haveleen the animal he
fpeaks of, or received authentic information concern¬
ing it, if he mean to deferibe it hiftorically; for the
latter, it is enough that he has feen feveral animals
of that fort. The former tells us, what Achilles ac¬
tually did and- faid; the latter, what fuch a fpecies of
human chara&er as that which bears the name of A-
chilles would probably do or fay in certain given cir-
cumftances.
It is indeed true, that the poet may, and often does,
copy after individual obje&s. Homer, no doubt, took
his chara&ers from the life ; or at lead, in forming
them, was careful to follow tradition as far as the na¬
ture of his plan would allow. But he probably took
the freedom to add or heighten fome qualities, and
take away others; to make Achilles, for example,
ftronger, perhaps, and more impetuous, and more emi¬
nent for filial affe&ion, and Hedlor more patriotic and
more amiable, than he really was. If he had not done
this, or fomething like it, his work would have been
rather a hidory than a poem ; would have exhibited
men and things as they were, and not as they might
have been ; and Achilles and Heftor would have been
the names of individual and real heroes; whereas, ac¬
cording to Aridotle, they are rather to be confidered
as two didimSt modifications or fpecies of the heroic
charaftef. Shakefpeare’s account of the cliffs of Do¬
ver comes fo near the truth, that we cannot doubt of
its having been written by one who had feen them :
but he who takes it for an exadl hidorical defeription,
will be furprifed when he comes to the place, and finds
thofe cliffs not half fo lofty as the poet had made him
believe. An hidorian would be to blame for fuch am¬
plification; becaufe, being to deferibe an individual
precipice, he ought to tell us jud what it is; which if
he did, the defeription would fuit that place, and per¬
haps no other in the whole world. But the poet means
only to give an idea of what fuch a precipice may be;
and therefore his defeription may perhaps be equally
applicable to many fuch chalky precipices on the fea-
Ihore.
This method of copying after general ideas formed
by the artid from obfervation of many individuals, di-
ftinguifhes the Italian and all the fublime painters,
from the Dutch and their imitators. Thefe give us
bare nature, with the imperfeftions and peculiarities
of individual things or perfons; but thofe give nature
improved as far as probability and the defign of the
piece will admit. Teniers and Hogarth draw faces,
and figures, and dreffes, from real life, and prefent mau-
Vol. VIII. i
TRY. 6265
tiers; and therefore their pieces mud in fome degree pf Nature
lofe the effe£l, and become aukward, when the prefenl In
fadiions become obfolete. Raphael and Reynolds
take their models from general nature ; avoiding, as
far as poffible, (at lead in all their great performances),
thofe peculiarities that derive their beauty from mere
fafhion; and therefore their works mud give pleafure,
and appear elegant, as long as men are capable of form-
ing general ideas, and of judging from them. The
lad-mentioned incomparable artid is particularly ob-
fervant of children, whofe looks and attitudes, being
lefs under the control of art and local manners, are
more charadleridical of the fpecies than thofe of men
and women. This field of obfervation has fupplied
him with many fine figures, particularly that mod ex-
quifite one of Comedy, druggling for and winning (for
who could refid her!) the affections of Garrick:—a
figure which could never have occurred to the imagi¬
nation of a painter who had confined his views to
grown perfons looking and moving in all the forma¬
lity of polite life;—a figure which in all ages and coun¬
tries would be pronounced natural and engaging;—
whereas thofe human forms that we fee every day bow¬
ing, and courtefying, and drutting, and turning out
their toes fecundum artem, and dreffed in ruffles, and
wigs, and flounces, and hoop-petticoats, and full-trim¬
med fuits, would appear elegant no further than the
prefent fafliions are propagated, and no longer than
they remain unaltered.
There is, in the progrefs of human fociety, as well
as of human life, a period to which it is of great im¬
portance for the higher order of poets to attend, and
from which they will do well to take their characters,
and manners, and the sera of their events ; namely,
that wherein men are railed above favage life, and con-
fiderably improved by arts, government, and conver-
fation; but not advanced fo high in the afeent towards
politenefs, as to have acquired a habit of difguifing
their thoughts and palljons, and of reducing their be¬
haviour to the uniformity of the mode. Such was the
period which Homer had the good fortune (as a poet)
to live in, and to celebrate. This is the period at which
the manners of men are moll piClurefque, and their
adventures moft romantic. This is the period when
the appetites unperverted by luxury, the powers un¬
enervated by effeminacy, and the thoughts difengaged
from artificial reftraint, will, in perfons of fimilar dif-
pofitionsand circumftances, operate in nearly the fame
way ; and when, confequently, the charaClers of par¬
ticular men will approach to the nature of poetical or
general ideas, and, if well imitated, give pleafure to the
whole, or at lead to a great majority of mankind.
But a character tinCtured with the fafhions of polite life
would not be fo generally interefting. Like a human
figure adjufted by a modern dancing-mafter, and dref¬
fed by a modern tailor, it may have a good effeft in
fatire, comedy, or farce : but if introduced into the
higher poetry, it would be admired by thofe only who
had learned to admire nothing but prefent fafliions,
and by them no longer than the prefent fafliions kit¬
ed; and to all the reft of the world would appear auk¬
ward, unaffeCting, and perhaps ridiculous. But A-
chilles and Sarpedon, Diomede and HeCtor, Neftor
and Ulyffes, as drawn by Homer, mud in all ages, in¬
dependently on faihion, command the attention and ad-
35 G miration
6266 POE
Of Poetical miration of mankind. Thefe haw the qualities that
Charafters. are univerfally known to belong to human nature;
"whereas the modern fine gentleman is diftinguifhed by
qualities that belong only to a particular age, focietyj
and corner of the world. We fpeak not of moral or
intellectual virtues, which are objeCls of admiration to
every age ; but of thofe outward accomplifhments, and
that particular temperature of the paffions, which form
the moft perceptible part of a human character 
As, therefore, the politician, in difcuffing the rights of
mankind, muft often allude to an imaginary llate of
nature ; fo the poet who intends to raife admiration,
pity, terror, and other important emotions, in the ge¬
nerality of mankind, efpecially in thofe readers whofe
minds are moft improved, muft take his pictures of life
and manners, rather from the heroic period we now
fpeak of, than from the ages of refinement; and muft
therefore (to repeat the maxim of Ariftotle) “ exhibit
things, not as they are, but as they might be.”
Sect. IV Of Poetical Char afters-
12. Horace feems to think, that a competent
knowledge of moral philofophy will fit an author for
afiigning the fuitable qualities and duties to each poe¬
tical perfonage : {Ar. Poet. v. 309.—316 ) The
maxim may be true, as far as mere morality is the aim
of the poet; but cannot be underftood to refer to the
delineation of poetical characters in general : for a
thorough acquaintance with all the moral philofophy
in the world would not have enabled Blackmore to
paint fuch a perfonage as Homer’s Achilles, Shake-
fpeare’s Othello, or the Satan of Paradife Loft. To a
competency of moral fcience, there muft be added an
extenfive knowledge of mankind, a warm and elevated
imagination, and the greateft fenfibility of heart, be¬
fore a genius can be formed equal to fo difficult a
talk. Horace is indeed fo fenfible of the danger of in¬
troducing a new character in poetry, that he even dif-
courages the attempt, and ad .ifes the poet rather to
take his perfons from the ancient authors, or from
tradition: [Ibid. v. 119.—130.)
To conceive the idea of a good man, and to invent
and fupport a great poetical character, are two very
different things, however they may feem to have been
confounded by fome late critics. The firft is eafy to
any perfon fufficiently inftruCted in the duties of life :
the laft is perhaps of all the efforts of human genius
the moft difficult ; fo very difficult, that, though at¬
tempted by many, Homer, Shakefpeare, and Milton,
are almoft the only authors who have fucceeded in it.
But characters of perfed virtue are not the moft pro¬
per for poetry. It feems to be agreed, that the Dei¬
ty fhould not be introduced in the machinery of a poe¬
tical fable. To afcribe to him words and actions of
our own invention, feems very unbecoming; nor can
a poetical defcription, that is known to be, and muft
of neceffity be, infinitely inadequate, ever fatisfy the
human mind. Poetry, according to the beft critics,
is an imitation of human aftion ; and therefore poeti¬
cal characters, though elevated, fhould ftill partake of
the paffions and frailties of humanity. If it were not
for the vices of fome principal perfonages, the Iliad
would not be either fo interefting or fo moral:—the
moft moving and moft eventful parts of theiEneid are
thofe that defcribe the effe&s of unlawful paffion:—
T R Y. Part I.
the moft inftruCtive tragedy in the world, we mean Of Poetical
Macbeth, is founded in crimes of dreadful enormity: Charges.
—and if Milton had not taken into his plan the fall of
our firft parents, as well as their ftaie of innocence,
his divine poem rnuft have wanted much of its pathos,
and could not have been (what it now is) fuch a trea-
fure of important knowledge, as no other uninfpired
writer ever comprehended in fo fmall a compafs 
Virtue, like truth, is uniform and unchangeable. We
may anticipate the part a good man will aCt in any gi¬
ven circumftances : and therefore the events that de¬
pend on fuch a man muft be lefs furprifing'than thofe
which proceed from paffion ; the viciffitudes whereof
it is frequently impoffible to forefee. From the vio¬
lent temper of Achilles in the Iliad, fpring many great
incidents ; which could not have taken place, if he had
been calm and prudent like Ulyffes, or pious and pa¬
triotic like Eneas :—his rejection of Agamemnon’s of¬
fers, in the ninth book, arifes from the violence of his
refentment;—his yielding to the requeft of Patroclus,
in the 16th, from the violence of his friendfhip (if we
may fo fpeak) counteracting his refentment; and his
reftoring to Priam the dead body of HeCtor, in the
24th, from the violence of his affeCtion to his own aged
father, and his regard to the command of Jupiter, coun¬
teracting, in fome meafure, both his forrow for his
friend, and his third for vengeance. Befides, ex¬
cept where there is fome degree of vice, it pains us too
exquifitely to fee misfortune; and therefore poetry
would ceafe to have a pleafurable influence over our
tender paffions, if it were t6 exhibit virtuous charac¬
ters only. And as in life, evil is neceffary to our mo¬
ral probation, and the poffibility of error to our intel¬
lectual improvement ; fo bad or mixed characters are
nfeful in poetry, to give to the good fuch oppofition,
as puts them upon difplaying and exercifing their
virtue.
All thofe perfonages, however, in whole fortune
the poet means that we Ihould be interefted, muft have
agreeable and admirable qualities to recommend them
to our regard. And perhaps the greateft difficulty in
the art lies in fuitably blending thofe faults, which the
poet finds it expedient to give to any particular hero,
with fuch moral, intellectual, or corporeal accomplifh¬
ments, as may engage our efteem, pity,, or admira¬
tion, without weakening our hatred of vice, or love
of virtue. In moft of our novels, and in many of our
plays, it happens unluckily, that the hero of the piece
is fo captivating, as to incline us to be indulgent to
every part of his character, the bad as well as the
good. But a great mafter knows how to give the pro¬
per direction to human fenfibility ; and, without any
perverfion of our faculfies, or any confufion of right
and wrong, to make the fame perfon the objeCt of
very different emotions, of pity and hatred, of admi¬
ration and horror. Who does not efteem and admire
Macbeth for his courage and generofity? who does
not pity him when befet with all the terrors of a preg¬
nant imagination, fuperftitious temper, and awakened
confcience? who does not abhor him as a monfter of
cruelty, treachery, and ingratitude? His good quali¬
ties, by drawing us near to him, make us, as it were,
eye-witneffes of his crime, and give us a fellow-feel¬
ing of his rcmorfe ; and therefore, his example cannot
fail to have a powerful effeCt in cherilhing our love of
virtue,.
Part I.
POETRY.
6267
Of Poetical virtue, and fortifying our minds againft criminal im- greater nor lefs, neither worfe nor better.*—He is every Of Poctiial
Characters, preffions: whereas, had he wanted thofe good quali- where diftinguilhed by an abhorrence of oppreffion,c,1ara^ttr'•
’Beattie's
Efays.
ties, we fliould have kept aloof from his concerns, or
viewed them with a fuperficial attention; in which cafe
his example would have had little more weight, than
that of the robber, of whom we know nothing, but
that he was tried, condemned, and executed.—Satan,
in Paradife Laft, is a character drawn and fupported
with the mod confummate judgment. The old furies
and demons, Hecate, Tifiphone, Alefto, Megara, are
objefts of unmixed and unmitigated abhorrence ; Ti-
tyus, Enceladus, and their brethren, are remarkable
by a liberal and elevated mind, by a paffion for glory,
and by a love of truth, freedom, and fincerity. He is
for the mod part attentive to the duties of religion {
and, except to thofe who have injured him, courteous
and kind : he is affe&ionate to his tutor Phenix ; and
not only pities the misfortunes of his enemy Priam,
but in the mod foothing manner adminiders to him
the bed confolation that poor Homer’s theology could
furniih. Though no admirer of the caufe in which his
evil dediny compels him to engage, he is warmly at-
for nothing but impiety, deformity, and vadnefs of tached to his native land ; and, ardent as he is in ven-
fize ; Pluto is, at bed, an infipid perfonage ; Mars,
hairbrained ruffian ; Taflb’s infernal tyrant, an ugly
and overgrown monder:—but in the Miltonic Satan,
we are forced to admire the majedy of the ruined arch¬
angel, at the fame time that we deted the unconquer¬
able depravity of the fend. “ But, of all poetical cha¬
racters, (fays the elegrant critic from whom we are
extracting), the Achilles of Homer (f) feems to me
the mod exquifite of the invention, and the mod high¬
ly finiihed. The utility of this character in a moral
view is obvious; for it may be confidered as the fource
of all the morality of the Iliad. Had not the gene¬
rous and violent temper of Achilles determined him to
patronife the augur Calchas in defiance of Agamem¬
non, and afterwards, on being affronted by that vin¬
dictive commander, to abandon for a time the common
caufe of Greece ;—the fatal effeCts ofdiffenfion among
confederates, and of capricious and tyrannical beha¬
viour in a fovereign, would not have been the leading
moral of Homer’s poetry ; nor could HeCtor, Sarpe-
don, Eneas, Ulyffes, and the other amiable heroes,
have beeen brought forward to fignaltze their virtues,
and recommend themfelves to the edeem and imitation
of mankind.
“ They who form their judgment of Achilles from
the imperfeCt Iketch given of him by^Horace in the
Art of Poetry, (v. 121, 122.); and confider him only
as a hateful compofition of anger, revenge, fiercenefs,
obdinacy, and pride, can never enter into the views of
Homer, nor be fuitably affeCted with his narration.
All thefe vices are no doubt, in fome degree, combin¬
ed in Achilles ; but they are tempered with qualities
of a different fort, which render him a mod intered-
ing charatder, and of courfe make the Iliad a mod in-
teredingpoem. Every reader abhors the faults of this
hero: and yet, to an attentive reader of Homer, this
hero mud be the objed of edeem, admiration, and
pity ; for he has many good as well as bad affeftions,
and is equally violent in all:—Nor is he pofftffed of a
fingle vice or virtue, which the wonderful art of the
poet has not made fubfervient to the defign of the
poem, and to the progrefs and catadrophe of the ac¬
tion ; fo that the hero of the Iliad, confidered' as a
poetical perfonage, is jud what he fhould be, neither
geance, he is equally fo in love to his aged father Pe-
leus, and to his friend Patroclus. He is not luxuri¬
ous like Paris, nor clownifli like Ajax ; his accom-
pliffiments are princely, and his amufements worthy
of a hero. Add to this, as an apology for the vehe¬
mence of his anger, that the affront he had received
was (according to the manners of that age) of the mod:
atrocious nature; and not only unprovoked, but fuch
as, on the part of Agamemnon, betrayed a brutal in-
fenfibility to merit, as well as a proud, felfiffi, ungrate¬
ful, and tyrannical difpofition. And though he is of¬
ten inexcufeably furious ; yet it is but judice to re¬
mark, that he was not naturally cruel (g) j and that
his wilded outrages were fuch as in thofe rude times
might be expe&ed from a violent man of invincible
drength and valour, when exafperated by injury, and
frantic with forrow —Our hero’s claim to the ad¬
miration of mankind is indifputable. Every part of
his charader is fublime and adonifhing. In his per-
fon, he is the dronged, the fwifted, and mod beauti¬
ful of men :—this lad circumdance, however, occurs
not to ills own oBfervation, being too trivial to attraft
the notice of fo great a mind. The Fates had put it
in his power, either to return home before the end of
the war, or to remain at Troy :—if he chofe the for¬
mer, be would enjoy tranquillity and happinefs in his
own country to a good old age ; if the latter, he mud
periih in the bloom of his youth :—his affe&ion to his
father and native country, and his hatred to Agamem¬
non, Itrongly urged him to the fird; but a defire to
avenge the death of his friend determines him to ac¬
cept the lad, with all its confequences. This at once
dilplays the greatnefs of his fortitude, the warmth of
his friendfhip, and the violence of his fanguinary paf-
fions: and it is this that fo often and fo powerfully
recommends him to the pity, as well as admiration, of
the attentive reader.”
It is equally a proof of rich invention and exa&
judgment in Homer, that he mixes fome good quali¬
ties in all his bad characters, and fome degree of im¬
perfection in almod all his good ones. Agamem¬
non, notwithdandyig hispride, is an able general, and
a valiant man, and highly edeemed as fuch by the
greater part of the army. Paris, though effemi-
35 G 2
nate,
(r) “ I fay the Achilles 0/Homer. Latter authors have degraded the character of this hero, by fuppofing
every part of his body invulnerable except the heel. I know not how often I have heard this urged as one of Ho¬
mer’s ablurdities; and indeed the whole Iliad is one continued abfuruity, on this fuppolition. But Horner all along
makes his hero equally liable to wounds and death with other men. Nay, to prevent all miftakes in regard to this
matter, (if thofe who cavil at the poet would but read his work), he actually wounds him in the right arm by the
lance of Afteropseus, in the battle near the river Scamander. See Iliad, xxi. ver. 161.—168.
(g) See Iliad xxi. 100. and xxiv. 485.—673. In the firft of thefe pafiages, Achilles himfelf declares, that be¬
fore Patroclus was flain, he often fpared the lives of his enemies, and took pleafure in doing it. It is ftrange, as Dr
Beattie obferves, that this ihould be left out in Pope’s Trapflation,
6268 POE
Of Poetical nate, and vain of his drefs and perfon, is, however,
ciiarafters. good-natured, patient of reproof, not deftitute of
courage, and eminently (killed in mufic and other fine
arts. Ajax is a huge giant; fearlefs rather from
infenfibility to danger, and confidence in his mafly
arms, than from any nobler principle; boaftful and
rough ; vegardlcfs of the gods, though not downright
Beattie, impious: yet there is in his manner fomething of
m i'upra. franknefs and blunt fincerity, which entitle him to a
(hare in our efteem; and he is ever ready to afiilt his
countrymen, to whom he renders good fervice on
many a perilous emergency.. The charafter of He¬
len, in fpite of her faults, and of the many calamities
whereof (he is the guilty caufe, Homer has found
means to recommend to our pity, and almoft to our
love ; and this he does, without feeking to extenuate
the crime of Paris, of which the mod refpedlable per-
fonages in the poem are made to fpeak with becoming
abhorrence. She is fo full of remorfe, fo ready on
every occafion to condemn her paft condudf, fo affec¬
tionate to her friends, fo willing to do juflice to every
body’s merit, and withal fo finely accomplifhed, that
fhe extorts our admiration, as well as that of the Tro¬
jan fenators Menelaus, though fufficiently fenfible
of the injury he had received, is yet a man of modera¬
tion, clemency, and good-nature, a valiant foldier,
and a mod affeftionate brother: but there is a dafh
of vanity in his compofition, and he entertains rather
too high an opinion of his own abilities, yet never
overlooks nor undervalues the merit of others. 
Priam would claim unreferved edeem, as well as pity, if
it were not for his inexcufeable weaknefs, in gratifying
the humour, and by indulgence abetting the crimes, of
the mod worthlefs of all his children, to the utter rum
of his people, family, and kingdom. Madame Dacier
fuppofes, that he had lod his authority, and was obli¬
ged to fall in with the politics of the times: but of
this there appears no evidence ; on the contrary, he and
his unworthy favourite Paris, feem to have been the only
perfons of diftin&ion in Troy who were averfe to the
reftoring of Helen. Priam’s foible (if it can be called
by fo foft a name), however faulty, is not uncommon,
and has often produced calamity both in private and
public life. The fcripture gives a memorable indance,
in the hidory of the good old Eli. ^Sarpedon comes
nearer a perfeft charafter, than any other of Homer’s
heroes; but the part he has to aft is fhort. It is a
charafter, which one could hardly have expefted in
thofe rude times: a fovereign prince, who confiders
himfelf as a magidrate fet up by the people for the
public good, and therefore bound in honour and gra¬
titude to be himfelf their example, and dudy to excel
as much in virtue as in rank and authority. Hec¬
tor is the favourite of every reader, and with good rea-
fon. To the trued valour he joins the mod generous
patriotifm. He abominates the crime of Paris: but,
not being able to prevent the war, he thinks it his du¬
ty to defend his country, and his father and fovereign,
to the lad. He too, as well as Achilles, forefees his
own death; which heightens our compaffion, and rai-
fes our idea of his magnanimity. In all the relations
of private life, as a fon, a father, a hufband, a bro¬
ther, he is amiable in the highed degree; and he is
didinguilhed among all the heroes for tendernefs of
affsftion, gentknefs of manners, and a pious regard
TRY. Part I.
to the duties of religion. One eircumftance of his Of Poetical
charafter, drongly expreffive of a great and delicate charaflers‘ -’
mind, we learn from Helen’s lamentation over his
dead body, that he was almolt the only perfon in
Troy, who had always treated her with kindnefs, and
never uttered one reproachful word to give her pain,
nor heard others reproach her without blaming them
for it. Some tendency to odentation (which, how¬
ever, may be pardonable in a commander in chief), and
temporary fits of timidity, are the only blemidies dif-
coverable in this hero ; whofe portrait Homer appears
to have drawn with an affeftionate and peculiar atten¬
tion.
By afcribing fo many amiable qualities to Hsftor
and fome others of the Trojans, the poet intereds us in
the fate of that people, notwithdanding our being
continually kept in mind that they are the injurious
party. And by thus blending good and evil, virtue and
frailty, in the compofition of his charafters, he makes
them the more conformable to the real appearances of
human nature, and more ufeful as examples for our
improvement; and at the fame time, without hurting
verifimilitude, gives every necdTary embellifhment to
par-ticular parts of his poem, and variety, coherence,
and animation, to the whole fable. And it may alfo
be obferved, that tho’ feveral of his charafters are com¬
plex, not one of them is made up of incompatible
parts: all are natural and probable, and fuch as we
think we have met with, or might have met with, ia
our intercourfe with mankind.
From the fame extenfive views of good and evil, in
all their forms and combinations, Homer has been en¬
abled to make each of his charafters perfeftly didinft
in itfelf, and different from all the red; infomuch, that
before we come to the end of the Iliad, we are as well
acquainted with his heroes, as with the faces and tem¬
pers of our mod familiar friends. Virgil, by confining
himfelf to a few general ideas of fidelity and fortitude,
has made his^bordinate heroes a very good fort of
people ; but they are all the fame, and we have no
clear knowledge of any one of them. Achates is faith- -
ful, and Gyas is brave, and Cloanthus is brave; and
this is all we can fay of the matter. We fee thefe he¬
roes at a didance, and have fome notion of their lhape
and fize ; but are not near enough to didinguifii their
features; and every face feeras to exhibit the fame
faint and ambiguous appearance. But of Homer’s he¬
roes wTe know every particular that can be known. We
eat, and drink, and talk, and fight with them : we
fee them in aftion, and out of it ; in the field, and in
their tents and houfes :—the very face of the country
about Troy, we feem to be as well acquainted with, as
if we had been there. Similar charafters there are
among thefe heroes, as there are fimilar faces in every
fociety ; but we never midake one for another. Nedor
and Ulyffes are both wife, and both eloquent: but the
wifdom of the former feems to be the effeft of expe¬
rience; that of the latter, of genius: the eloquence
of the one is fweet and copious, but not always to the
putp.ofe, and apt to degenerate into dory-telling;,
that of the other is clofe, emphatical, and perfuafive,
and accompanied with a peculiar modefiy and fimpli-
city of manner. Homer’s heroes are all valiant ; yet
each difplays a modification of valour peculiar to him-
f.lf. One isv valiant from principle, another from coa-
ftitution;
Parti. POE
f Poetical ftitutiori ; one is rafh, another cautious; ene is im-
haracters. |.;t.j,)U3 anc] headftrong, another impetuous, but trac-
tabie ; one is cruel, another rtierciful ; one is infolent
and oftentatious, another gentle and unaffnming ; one
is vain of his perfon, another of his ftrength, -and a
| third of his family It would be tedious to give a
complete enumeration. Almoft every fpecies of the
heroic charafter is to be found in Homer.
The Paradife Loft, though truly Epic, cannot pro¬
perly be called an heroic poem; for the agents in it are
not, heroes, but beings of a higher order (i ). Of thefe
the poet’s plan did not admit the introdudlion of ma¬
ny ; but moft of thofe whom he has introduced, are
well charaflerifed. We have already fpoken of his
Satan, which is the higheft. imagniable fpecies of the
diabolical chara&er. The inferior fpecies are well di-
verfified, and in each variety diltindtly marked : one
is flothful, another avaricious, a third fophiftical, a
fourth furious ; and though all are impious, fome are
more outrageoufly and blafphemoufly fo than others.
 Adam and Eve, in the ftate of innocence, are
charafters well imagined, and well fupported; and the
different fentiments arifing from difference of fex, are
traced out with inimitable delicacy, and philofophical
propriety. After the fall, he makes them retain the
fame characters, without any other change than what
the tranlition from innocence to guilt may be fuppofed
to produce: Adam has ftill that pre-eminence in digni¬
ty, and Eve in lovelinefs, which we fhould naturally
look for in the father and mother of mankind. Of
the bleffed fpirits, Raphael and Michael are well di-
ftinguilhed ; the one for affability, and peculiar good¬
will to the human race ; the other for majefty, but
fuch as commands veneration rather than fear.—< 
We are forry to add, that Milton’s attempt to foar
ftill higher, only fhows, that he had already foared as
high, as, without being “ blafted .with excefs of light,”
it is poffible for the human imagination to rife.
From what has been faid, it feems abundantly evi¬
dent,—That the end of poetry is to pleafe; and there¬
fore that the moft perfeCt poetry muft be the moft
pleafing:—that what is unnatural cannot give pleafure;
and therefore that poetry muft be according to na¬
ture:—-that it muft be either according to real nature,
or according to nature fomewhat different from the
reality ;—that, if according to real nature, it would
give no greater pleafure than hiftory, which is a tran-
fcript of real nature;—that greater pleafure is, how¬
ever, to be expefted from it, becaufe we grant it fu-
perior indulgence, in regard to fi&ion, and the choice
of words;—and, confequently, that poetry muft be,
not according to real nature, but according to nature
improved to that degree which is confident with pro¬
bability and fuitable to the poet’s purpofe. And
■hence it is that we call poetry, An imitation of nature.
—For that which is properly termed imitation has al¬
ways in it fomething which is not in the original. If
the prototype and tranfeript be exa&ly alike; if there
he nothing in the one which is not in the other.; we
may call the latter a reprefentation, a copy, a draught.
TRY. 6269
or a picture, of the former; but we never call it an Of Poetical
imitation. Arrange-
merit, &c.
Sect. V. Of Arrangement) Unity) Digrejfwns.
—Further remarks on Nature in Poetry.
13. I. The origin’of nations, and the beginnings of
great events, are little known, and feldom interefting;
whence the firft part of every hiftory, compared with
the feqUel, is fomewhat dry and tedious. But a poet
mull, even in the beginning of his work, intereft; the
readers, and raife high expe&ation ; not by any
affeded pomp of ftyle, far lefs by ample promifes or
bold profeflions; but by fetting immediately before
them fome incident, linking enough to raife curiofity,
in regard both to its caufes and to its confequences.
He muft therefore take up his ftory, not at the be¬
ginning, but in the middle ; or rather, to prevent the
work from being too long, as near the end as poffible;
and afterwards take fome proper opportunity to in¬
form us of the preceding events, in the way of narra¬
tive, or by converfation of the perfons introduced, or
by fhort and natural digreffions.
The adion of both the Iliad and Odyjfey begins
about fix weeks before its conclufion ; although the
principal events of the war of Troy are to be found
in the former; and the adventures of a ten years voy¬
age, followed by the fuppreffion of a dangerous do-
meftic enemy, in the latter. One of the firft things
mentioned by Homer in the Iliad, is a plague, which
Apollo in anger fent into the Grecian army com¬
manded by Agamemnon and now encamped before
Troy. Who this Agamemnon was, and who the
Grecians were ; for whatreafon they had come hither;
how long the fiege had lafted; what memorable ac¬
tions had been already performed, and in what con¬
dition both parties now were :—ail this, and much
more, we foon learn from occafional hints and conver-
fations interfperfed through the poem.
In the Eneid, which, though it comprehends the
tranfadions of feven years, opens within a few months
of the concluding event, we are firft prefented with a
view of the Trojan fleet at fea, and no lefs a perfon
than Juno interefting herfelf to raife a ftorm for their
deftrudion- This excites a curiofity to know fome¬
thing.further : who thefc Trojans were ; whence they
had come, and whither they were bound ; why they
had left their own country, and what had befallen
them lince they left it. On all thefe points, the poet,
Without quitting the track of his narrative, foon gives
the fulleft information : The ftorm rifes ; the Trojans
are driven to Africa, and hofpitably received by the
queen of the country; at whofe dciire their comman¬
der relates his adventures.
The adion of Paradife Lof commences not many
days before Adam and Eve are expelled from the
garden of Eden, which is the concluding event. This
poem, as its plan is incomparably more fnblime apd
more important than that of either the Iliad or Eneid,
opens with a far more, interefting feene : a multitude
of angels and archangels fhut up in a region of tor¬
ment and darknefs, and rolling on a lake of unquench¬
able:
(1) Samfon, in the Agonijles, is a fpecies of the heroic charafter not to be found in Homer; diftindly marked,
and admirably fupported. And Delilah, in the fame tragedy, is perhaps a more perfed model of an alluring, iaiinua-.
ting, wofthlefs womaji. than an other to be met with in ancient or modern poetry.
6270 POE
Of Poetical able fire. Who thefe angels are, and what brought
Arrange- them into this miferable condition, we naturally wilh
pient, &c. tQ Jjuoyj,. an<j the pOCt Jn due time informs us; partly
from the converfation of the fiends themfelves; and
more particularly by the mouth of a happy fpirit,
fent from heaven to caution the father and mother of
mankind againft temptation, and confirm their good
refolutions by unfolding the dreadful effefts of impiety
and difobedience.
Beattie, This poetical arrangement of Events, fo different
ut fupra. frotn the hiftorical, has other advantages befides thofe
arifing from brevity, and compa&nefs of detail : it is
obvioufly more afFe&ing to the fancy, and more a-
larming to the paffions ; and, being more fuftable to
the order and the manner in which the aftions of other
men flrikes our fenfes, is a more exa& imitation of
human affairs. I hear a hidden noife in the, ftreet,
and run to fee what is the matter. An infurre&ioo
•has happened, a great multitude is brought together,
and fomething very important is going forward. The
fcene before me is the firfl thing that engages my
attention; and is in itfelf fo interefting, that for a
moment or two I look at it in filence and wonder. By
and by, when I get time for refle&ion, I begin to
inquire into the caufe of all this tumult, and what it
is the people would be at; and one who is better in¬
formed than I, explains the affair from the beginning;
or perhaps I make this out for myfelf, from the words
and aftions of the perfons principally concerned.—-
This is a fort of pi&ure of poetical arrangement, both
in epic and dramatic compofition ; and this plan has
been followed in narrative odes and ballads both an¬
cient and modern.—The hiftorian purfues a different
method. He begins perhaps with an account of the
manners of a certain age, and of the political conftitu-
tion of a certain country ; then introduces a particular
perfon, gives the ftory of his birth, connexions,
private charaXer, purfuits, difappointments, and of
the events that promoted his views, and brought him
•acquainted with other turbulent fpirits like himfelf;
and fo proceeds, unfolding, according to the order of
time, the caufes, principles, and progrefs of the con-
fpiracy ;—if that be the fubjeX which he undertakes
to illuftrate. It cannot be denied, that this latter
method is more favourable to calm information: but
the former, compared with it, will be found to have
all the advantages already fpecified, and to be more
effeXually produXive of that mental pleafure which
depends on the paflions and imagination.
13. II. If a work have no determinate end, it has no
meaning; and if it have many ends, it will diftraX by
its multiplicity. Unity of defign, therefore, belongs
In fome meafure to all compofitions, whether in verfe
or profe. But to fome it is more effential than to o-
thers; and to none fo much as to the higher poetry.
In cerlain'kinds of hift'ory, there is unity fuifieient, if
all the events recorded be referred to one perfon ; in
others, if to one period of time, or to one people, or
even to the inhabitants of one and the fame planet.
But it is not enough, that the fubjeX of a poetical
fable be the exploits of one perfon; for thefe may be
of various and even of oppofite forts and tendencies,
and take up longer time than the nature of poetry can
admit:—far lefs can a regular poem comprehend the
affairs of one period, or of one people;—it muff be li*
TRY. Part I.
mited to one great aXion or event, to the illuftration Of Poeticaj
of which all the fubordinate events muft contribute; Arrange-,
and thefe muft be fo conneXed with one another, as ment|
well as with the poet’s general purpofe, that one can¬
not be changed, tranfpofed, or taken away, without
affeXing the confiftence and (lability of the whole f. t Arift.
In jtfelf an incident may be interefting, a charaXer well ^oet' § 8'":
drawn, a defcription beautiful; and yet, if it disfigure
the general plan, or if it obftruX or incumber the main
aXion, inftead of helping it forward, a correX artift
would confider it but as a gaudy fuperfluity or fplen-
did deformity; like a piece of fcarlet cloth fewed up¬
on agarment of a different colour *. Not that all the *p^or' ^r'
parts of the fable either are, or can be, equally effential. ’ v’ lS*
Many dtfcriptions and thoughts, of little confequence
to the plan, may be admitted for the fake of variety;
and the poet may, as well as the hiftorian and philo-
fopher, drop his fubjeX for a time, in order to take up
an affeXing or inftruXive digreffion.
14. III. The doXrine of poetical digrefiions and epi-
fodes has been largely treated by the critics. We (hall
here only remark, that, in eftimating their propriety,
three things are to be attended to: —their connexion
with the fable or fubjeX;—their own peculiar excel¬
lence;—and their fubferviency to the poet’s defign.
(1.) Thofe digrdfions, that both arife from and ter¬
minate in the fubjeX ; like the epifode of the angel
Raphael in Paradife Loft, and the tranfition to the
death of Cefar and the civil wars in the firft book of
the Georgic; are the mod artful, and, if fuitably exe¬
cuted, claim the higheft praife:—thofe that arife from,
but do not terminate in, the fubjeX, are perhaps fecond
in the order of merit; like the ftory of Dido in the
Eneid, and the encomium on a country-life in the fe¬
cond book of the Georgic: —thofe come next, that
terminate in, but do not rife from, the fable; of which
there are feveral in the third book of the Eneid, and
in the Odyffey:—and thofe, that neither terminate in
the fable, nor rife from it, are the lead artful; and if
they be long, cannot efcape cenfure, unlefs their beauty
be very great.
But (2.) we are willing to excufe a beautiful epifode,
at whatever expence to the fubjeX it may be introdu¬
ced. They who can blame Virgil for obtruding upon
them the charming tale of Orpheus and Eurydice in
the fourth Georgic, or Milton for the apoftrophe to
light in the beginning of his third book, ought to for¬
feit all title to the perufal of good poetry; for of fuch
divine drains one would rather be the author, than of
all the books of criticifm in the world. Yet (till it is
better, that an epifode poffefs the beauty of connexion,
together with its own iutrinfic elegance, than this with¬
out the other.
Moreover, in judging of the propriety of epifodes,
and other fimilar contrivances, it may be expedient to
attend, (3.) to the defign of the poet, as diitinguiflied
from the fable or fubjeX of the poem., The great de¬
fign, for example, of Virgil, was to intereft his coun¬
trymen in a poem written with a view to reconcile them
to the perfon and government of Auguftus. What¬
ever, therefore, in the poem tends to promote this de¬
fign, even though it (hould, in fome degree, hurt the
contexture of the fable, is really a proof of the poet’-a
judgment; and may be not only allowed, but applaud¬
ed.——The progrefs of the aXion of the Eneid may
fcem
I Part I. POE
>f Poetical feem to be too long obflrufled in one place, by the
Arrange- ft0ry of Dido, which, though it rifes from the prece-
aiment, &c. ^ing' part of the poem, has no influence upon the fe-
qud; and, in another, by the epifode of Cacus, which,
w'ithout injury to the fable, might have been omitted'
altogether. Yet thefe epifodes, interefting as they are
to us and all mankind, becaufe of the tranf'cendent me*
rit of the poetry, muft have been ftill more interefting
to the Romans, becaufe of their connexion with the
Roman affairs r for the one accounts poetically for their
wars with Carthage ; and the other not only explains
fome of their religious ceremonies, but alfo gives a moft
charming rural picture of thofe hills and valleys in the
neighbourhood of the Tiber, on which, in after times,
their majeftic city was fated to ftand—And if we con-
fider, that the defign of Homer’s Iliad was, not only
to fhow the fatal effefls of diffenfion among confede¬
rates, but alfo to immortalife his country, and celebrate
the moft diftinguiftied families in it, we (hall be incli¬
ned to think more favourably than critics generally do,
of fome of his long fpeeches and digreffions; which,
though to us they may feem trivial, muft have been
very interefting to his countrymen, on account of the
genealogies and private hiftory recorded in them.-  
Shakefpeare’s hiftorical plays, confidered as dramatic
, .. r fables, and tried by the laws of tragedy and comedy,
the -writings aPPear very rude compofitions. But if we attend to
mdgenius the poet’s defign, (as the elegant critic f has with equal
of Shake- truth and beauty explained it), we (hall be forced to
f^rr,p.ij. admjre
tis judgment in the general conduA of thofe
pieces, as well as unequalled fuccefs in the execution
of particular parts.
There is yet another point of view in which thefe
digreffions may be confidered. If they tend to eluci¬
date any important chara&er, or to introduce any in¬
terefting event not otherwife within the compafs of the
poem, or to give an amiable difplay of any particular
virtue, they may be intitled, not to our pardon only,
but even to our admiration, however loofely they may
hang upon the fable. All thefe three ends are effe&ed
by that moft beautiful epifode of Heftor and Andro¬
mache in the fixth book of the Iliad ; and the two
laft, by the no lefs beautiful one of Euryalus and Ni-
fus, in the ninth of the Eneid.
15. IV. Andnow,fromthepofition formerlyeftablifh-
ed, that the end of this divine art is to give pleafure, it
has been endeavoured to prove, that, whether in difplay-
ing the appearances of the material univerfe, or in imi¬
tating the workings of the human mind, and the varie¬
ties of human chara&er, or in arranging and combi¬
ning into one whole the feveral incidents and parts
whereof his fable confifts,—the aim of the poet muft;
be, to copy nature, not as it is, but in that ftate of
perfedion in which, confiftently with the particular ge¬
nius of the work, and the laws of verifimilitude, it may
be fuppofed to be.
Such, in general, is the nature of that poetry which
is intended to raife admiration, pity, and other ferious
emotions. But in this art, as in all others, there are
different degrees of excellence ; and we have hitherto
dire&ed our view chiefly to the higheft. All ferious
poets are not equally felicitous to improve nature. Eu¬
ripides is faid to have reprefented men as they were ;
Sophocles, more poetically, as they (hould or might
T R Y. 6271
be *. Theocritus in his Idyls, and Spenfer in his Shep- Of Poetical
herd's Calendar, give us language and fentiments more
nearly approaching thpfe of the Rus verum et barba- ment* c*
than what we meet with in the Paftorals of Vir- *
gil and Pope. In the hiftorical drama, human cha- Poet.
radersand events muft be according tohillorical truth,t Martial.
or at leaft not fo remote from it as to lead into any
important mifapprehenfion of fad. And in the hiftori¬
cal epic poem, fuch as the Pharfalia of Lucan, and the
Campaign of Addifon, the hiftorical arrangement is
preferred to the poetical, as being nearer the truth.
Yet nature is a little improved even in thefe poems.
The perfons in Shakefpeare’s hiftorical plays, and the
heroes of the Pharfalia, talk in verfe, and fuitably to
their charaders, and with a readinefs, beauty, and har¬
mony of expreffion, not to be met with in real life, nor
even in hiftory: fpeeches are invented, and, to height¬
en the defeription, circumftances added, with great la¬
titude : real events are rendered more compad and
more ftridly dependent upon one another ; and fidi-
tious ones brought in, to elucidate human charaders,
and diverfify the narration.
The more poetry improves nature, by copying after
general ideas colleded from extenfive obfervation, the
more it partakes (according to Ariftotle) of the nature
of philofophy; the greater ftretch of fancy and of ob¬
fervation it requires in the artift, and the better chance
it has to be univerfally agreeable.
Yet poetry, when it falls ffiort of this perfedion,.
may have great merit as an inftrument of both inftruc-
tion and pleafure. To moft men, fimple unadorned
nature is, at certain times, and in certain compofitions,
more agreeable than the moft elaborate improvements
of art; as a plain fhort period, without modulation,
gives a pleafing variety to a difeourfe. Many fuch
portraits of fimple nature there are in the fubordinate
parts both of Homer’s and of Virgil’s poetry: and an
excellent effed they have in giving probability to the
fidion, as well as in gratifying the reader’s fancy with
imagesdiftindandlively,andeafilycomprehended. The
hiftorical plays of Shakefpeare raife not our pity and ter¬
ror to fuch a height, as Lear, Macbeth, or Othello; but
they intereft and inftrud us greatly,- notwithftanding.
The rudeft of the eclogues of Theocritus, or even of -
Spenfer, have by fome authors been extolled above thofe
of Virgil, becaufe more like real life. Nay, Corneille
is known to have preferred the Pharfalia to the Eneid,
perhaps from its being nearer the truth, or perhaps
from the fublime fentiments of Stoical morality fo for¬
cibly and fo oftentatioufly difplayed in it.
Poets may refine upon nature too much as well as
too little ; for affedation and rufticity are equally re¬
mote from true elegance. The ftyle and fentiments
of comedy fhould no doubt be more corred and more
pointed than thofe of the moft polite converfation:
but to make every footman a wit, and every gentle¬
man and lady an epigrammatift, as Congreve has
done, is an exceffive and faulty refinement. The pro¬
per medium has been hit by Menander and Terence,
by Shakefpeare in his happier feenes, and by Garrick,
Cumberland, and fome others of late renown. To
deferibe the paffion of love with as little delicacy as
fome men fpeak of it, would be unpardon3ble ; but
to transform it into mere Platonic adoration, is to run
into another extreme, lefs criminal indeed, but too re¬
mote
6a 72 POE
Of Poetical naote from univerfal truth to be univerfally interefting,
language. To the former extreme Ovid inclines ; and Petrarch,
and his imitators, Jo the latter. Virgil has happily-
avoided both : but Milton has painted this paffion, as
diftinft from all others, with fuch peculiar truth and
beauty, that we cannot think Voltaire’s encomium too
high, when he fays, that love in all other poetry feema
a weaknefs, but in Paradife Loft a virtue. There are
many good ftrokes of nature in Ramfay’s Gentle Shep¬
herd ; but the author’s paffion for the rus verum be¬
trays him into fome indelicacies : a cenfure that falls
with greater weight upon Theocritus, who is often
abfolutely indecent. Th,e Italian paftoral of Taffo
and Guarini, and the French of Fontenelle, run into
the oppofite extreme, (though in fome parts beauti¬
fully limple), and difplay a fyftem of rural manners
fo quaint and affedted as to outrage all probability.
In fine, though mediocrity of execution in poetry be
allowed to deferve the doom pronounced upon it by
Horace ; yet is it true, notwithftanding, that in this
art, as in many other good things, the point of ex¬
cellence lies in a middle between two extremes; and
has been reached by thofe only who fought to improve
nature as far as the genius of their work would per¬
mit, keeping at an equal diftancc from rufticity on the
one hand, and affefted elegance on the other.
Sect. VI. Of Poetical Language.
16. Words in poetry are chofen, firft, for their
fenfe\ and, fecondly, iov (hen found. That the firft
of thefe grounds of choice is the more excellent, no¬
body can deny. He who in literary matters prefers
found to fenfe, is a fool. Yet found is to be attended
to, even in profe ; and in verfe dcnsands particular at¬
tention. We (hall confider poetical language, firft, as
significant; and, fecondly, as susceptible of
HARMONY.
5 i. Of Poetical Language, confidsred as significant.
i 7. If, as it has been endeavoured to prove, poe¬
try be imitative of nature, poetical fidtions of real
events, poetical images of real appearances in the vi-
fible creation, and poetical perfonages of real human
charadlers ; it would feem to follow, that the language
of poetry muft be an imitation of the language of na¬
ture.
t EJJays, According to Dr Beattief, that language is natu-
Partii. ralj when it is fuited to the fpeaker’s condition, cha-
ap- 1. ra£ter} and circumftances. And as, for the moft
part, the images and fentiments of ferious poetry are
copied from the images and fentiments, not of real,
but of improved, nature ; fo the language of ferious
poetry muft (as hinted already) be a tranfcript, not
of the real language of nature, which is often diffo-
nant and rude, but of natural language improved as
far as may be confident with probability, and with
the fuppofed chara&er of the fpeaker. If this be not
the cafe, if the language of poetry be fuch only as we
hear in converfation, or read in hiftory, it will, inftead
of delight, bring difappointment : becaufe it will fall
fliort of what we expedt from an art which is recom¬
mended rather by its pleafurable qualities, than by its
intrinfic utility ; and to which, in order to render it
pleafing, we grant higher privileges, than tp any other
T R Y. Part I.
kind of literary compofition, or any other mode of Of Poetical
human language. Words. ]
The next inquiry muft therefore be, “ What are |
thofe improvements that peculiarly belong to the lan¬
guage of poetry ?” And thefe may be comprehended
under two heads; poetical’Words, and tropes and figures.
Art. I. Of Poetical Words.
18. One mode of improvement peculiar to poetical
didtion refults from the ufe of thofe words, and phra-
fes, which, fcecaufe they rarely occur in profe, and
frequently in verfe, are by the grammarian and lexi¬
cographer termed poetical. In thefe fome languages
abound more than others: but no language, perhaps,
is altogether without them ; and perhaps no language
can be fo, in which any number of good poems have
been written. For poetry is better remembered than
profe, efpecially by poetical authors ; who will always
be apt to imitate the phrafeology of thofe they have
been accuftomed to read and admire : and thus, in
the works of poets, down through fucceffive genera¬
tions, certain phrafes may have been conveyed, which,
though originally perhaps in common ufe, are now
confined tq poetical compofition. Profe-writers are
not fo apt to imitate one another, at lead in words
and phrafes, both becaufe they do not fo well remem¬
ber one another’s phrafeqlogy, and alfo becaufe their
language is lefs artificial, and muft not, if they would
make it eafy and flowing, (without which it cannot
be elegant), depart eflentially from the ftyle of correA
converfation. Poets too, on account of the greater
difficulty of their numbers, have, both in the choice
and in the arrangement of words, a better claim to in¬
dulgence, and ftand more in need of a difcretionary
power.
The language of Homer differs materially from what
was written and fpoken in Greece in the days of So¬
crates. It differs in the mode of infle&ion, it differs
in the fyntax, it differs even in the words: fo that
one might read Homer with eafe, who could not read
Xenophon ; or Xenophon, without being able to read
Homer. Yet we cannot believe that Homer, or the
firft Greek poet who wrote in his ftyle, would make
choice of a dialed! quite different from what was in¬
telligible in his own time : for poets have in all ages
written with a view to be read, and to be read with
pleafure ; which they could not be, if their didtion
were hard to be underftood. It is more reafonabltf to
fuppofe, that the language of Homer is according to
fome ancient' dialed!, which, though not perhaps in
familiar ufe.among the Greeks at the time he wrote,
was however intelligible. From the Homeric to the
Socratic age, a period had elapfed of no lefs than
400 years; during which the ftyle both of difcourfe
and of writing muft have undergone great alterations.
Yet the Iliad continued the ftandard of heroic poetry,
and was confidered as the very perfedtion of poetical
language ; notwithftanding that fome words in it were
become fo antiquated, or fo ambiguous, that Ariftotle
himfelf feems to have been fomewhat doubtful in re¬
gard to their meaning '. And if Chaucet’s merit as* Poe/.r. ;
a poet had been as great as Homer’s, and the Engliflicap. 15.
tongue under Edward III. as perfedt as the Greek
was in the fecond century after the Trojan war, the
ftyle oFChaucer would probably have been our model
for
Part I. POE
Of Poetical for poetical di&ion at tins day; even as Petrarch, his
Word', contemporary, is ftill imitated by the heft poets of
  Italy.
The rudenefs of the ftyle of Ennius has been impu¬
ted by the old critics to his having copied too clofely
the dialeft of common life. But this appears to be
a miftake. For if we compare the fragments of that
author with the comedies of Plautus, whoflourifhed in
the fame age, and whofe language was certainly co¬
pied from that of common life, we fhall be ftruck with
an air of antiquity in the former that is not in the lat¬
ter. Ennius, no doubt, like mod other fublime
poets, affe&ed fomethingof the antique in his expref-
fion : and many of his words and phrafes, not adopt¬
ed by any profe-writer now extant, are to be found
in Lucretius and Virgil, and were by them tranfmit-
ted to fucceeding poets. Thefe form part of the Ro¬
man poetical dialeft ; which appears from the wri¬
tings of Virgil, where we have it in perfedlion, to
have been very copious. The ftyle of this charming
poet is indeed fo different from profe, and is altoge¬
ther fo peculiar, that it is perhaps impoffible to ana-
lyfe it on the common principles of Latin grammar.
And yet no author can be more perfpicuous or more
expreffive ; notwithftanding the frequency of Grecifm
in his fyntax, and his love of old words, which he, in
the judgment of Quintilian, knew better than any
* lnjiit. other man how to improve into decoration *.
viii. 3. § 3. -phe poetical dialed of modern Italy is fo different
from the profaic, that perfons who can read the hifto-
rians, and even fpeak with tolerable fluency the lan¬
guage of that country, may yet find it difficult to con-
ftrue a page of Petrarch or Taffo. Yet it is not pro¬
bable, that Petrarch, whofe works are a ftandard of
'lellT’lftra t^ie ^ta^,n Poetlcal di&ion f, made any material in-
tura del jDr- n°vati°ns in his native tongue. It is rather probable
ulna, cap 4. that he wrote it nearly as it was fpoken in his time,
that is, in the 14th century; omitting only harflv
combinations, and taking that liberty which Homer
probably, and Virgil certainly, took before him, of
reviving fuch old, but not obfolete expreffions, as
feemed peculiarly fignificant and melodious ; and po-
lifhing his ftyle to that degree of elegance which hu¬
man fpeech, without becoming unnatural, may admit
of, and which the genius of poetry, as an art fubfer-
vient to pleafure, may be thought to require.
The French poetry in general is diftinguifhed from
profe rather by the rhitne and the meafure, than by
any old or uncommon phrafeology. Yet the French,
on certain fubjeds, imitate the ftyle of their old poets,
of Marot in particular; and may therefore be faid to
have fomething of a poetical dialed, though far lefs
extenfive than the Italian, or even than the Engliffi.
And it may be prefumed, that in future ages they
will have more of this dialed than they have at pre-
fcnt. This may be inferred from the very uncommon
merit of fome of their late poets, particularly Boileau
and La Fontaine, who, in their refpedive depart¬
ments, will continue to be imitated, when the prefent
modes of French profe are greatly changed : an event
that, for all the pains they take to preferve their lan¬
guage, muft inevitably happen, and whereof there are
not wanting fome prefages already.
The Englifti poetical dialed is not charaderifed by
any peculiarities of infledion, nor by any great lati-
vox., yin. 2
TRY.
tude in the ufe of foreign idioms. More copious it is, <
however, than one would at firft imagine ; as may ap¬
pear from the following fpecimen and obfervations.
(1.) A few Greek and Latin idioms are common
in Englifti poetry, which are feldom or never to be
met with in profe. Quenched of hope. Shake-
fpeare.—Shorn of his beams. Milton.—Created
thing nor valued he nor shun’d. Milton.—’77/
thuf we riot, while who sow it starve. Pope.—
This day be bread and peace my lot. Pope.—
Into what pit thou see’st From what height
fallen. Milton. He deceived The mother of man¬
kind, WfcAT TIME HIS PRIDE Had CAST HIM OUt of
heaven. Milton.——Some of thefe, with others to
be found in Milton, feem to have been adopted for the
fake of brevity, which in the poetical tongue is indif-
penfable. For the fame reafon, perhaps the articles a
and the are fometimes omitted by our poets, though
lefs frequently in ferious than burlefque compofition.
 In Engliffi, the adjedive generally goes before
the fubftantive, the nominative before the verb, and
the adive verb before (what we call) the accufa-
tive. Exceptions, however, to this rule, are not un¬
common even in profe. But in poetry they are more
frequent. Their homely joys, and destiny obscure.
How fades the glimmering landfcape on the fght; and
all the air a folemn ftillnefs bolds. In general, that
verfification may be lefs difficult, and the cadence more
uniformly pleafing; and fometimes, too, in order to
give energy to expreffion, or vivacity to an image ;—
the Englilh poet is permitted to take much greater li¬
berties than the profe-writer, in arranging his words,
and modulating his lines and periods. Examples may
be feen in every page of Paradife Loft.
(2.) Some of our poetical words take an additional
fyllable, that they may fait the verfe the better ; as,
difpart, dijlain, di/port, affright, enchain, for part,
ftain, fport, fright, chain. Others feem to be no¬
thing elfe than common words made ftiorter, for the
convenience of the verfifier. Such are, auxiliar, fub-
lunar, trump, vale, part, clime, fubmifs, frolic, plain,
drear, dread, helm, morn, mead, eve and even, gan,
illume and illumine, ope, hoar, bide, fwage, fcape ; for
auxiliary, fublunary, trumpet, valley, depart, cli¬
mate, fubmiffive, frolicfome, complain, dreary, dread¬
ful, helmet, morning, meadow, evening, began or
began to, illuminate, open, hoary, abide, affuage,
efcape. Of fome of thefe the Ihort form is the more
ancient. In Scotland, even, morn, bide, fwage, are
ftill in vulgar ufe ; but morn, except when contradi-
ftinguifhed to even, is fynonimous, not with morning
(as in the Englifh poetical dialed), but with morrow.
—The Latin poets, in a way fomewhat fimitar, and
perhaps for a fimilar reafon, fliortened fundamentum,
tutamentum, munimentum, &c. into fundamen, tu-
tamen, munimen.
(3.) Of the following words, which are now almoft
peculiar to poetry, the greater part are ancient, and
were once no doubt in common ufe in England, as
many of them ftiil are in Scotland. Afeld, amain,
annoy (a noun), anon, aye (ever), bcheft, blithe, brand
(fword), bridal, carol, dame (lady), featly, fell (an
adjedive), gaude, gore, hojl (army), lambkin, late
(of late), lay (poem), lea, glade, gleam, hurl, lore,
meed, orifons, plod (to travel laborioufly), ringlet, rue
35 H (a
6273
)f Poetica
Words.
6274 POE
Of Poetical (a verb)) ruth, ruthleft^ fojotlrn (a noun), finite, fpeed
Words. £an a£ive verb), favc (except), fpr&y (twig),
Jirain (fong), fir and, fnvain, thrall, thrill, trail (a
verb), troll, nvail, ’welter, warble, wayward, woo, the
while (in the mean ume),yorz, of yore.
(4.) Thefe that follow are alfo poetical; but, fo
far as appears, were never in common ufe. Appal,
arrowy, attune, battailous, breezy, car (chariot), cla¬
rion, cates, courfer, darkling, flicker, floweret, emblaze,
gairijh, circlet, impearl, nightly, noifelefs, pinion (wing),
fhadowy,/lumberous, fireamy, troublous, wilder (a verb),
Jhrill (a \evb),Jhook (fhaken), madding, viewlefs.—The
following too derived from the Greek and Latin, feem,
peculiar to poetry. Clang, clangor, choral, bland
boreal, dire, enfanguined, ire, ireful, lave (to wafh),
nymph (lady, girl), orient, panoply, philotr/el, infuriate,
jocund, radiant, rapt, redolent, refulgent, verdant, ver¬
nal, zephyr, zone (girdle), fylvan, fuffufe.
(5.) In moil languages, the rapidity of pronuncia¬
tion abbreviates fome of the commoneft words, or
even joins two, or perhaps more, of them, into one;
and fome of thofe abbreviated forms find admifiion in¬
to writing. The Englilh language was quite dif-
figured by them in the end of the laft century; but
Swift, by his fatire and example, brought them into
difrepute: and, though fome of them be retained in
converfation, as don’t, Jhan’t, can't, they are now
avoided in folemn ftyle ; and by elegant writers in
general, except where the colloquial dialeft is imi¬
tated, as in comedy. 'Tis and ’twas, fince the time
of Shaftelbury, feem to have been daily lofing credit,
at leaft in profe ; but ftill have a place in poetry,
perhaps becaufe they eontribute to concifenefs. ’Twas
on a lofty vafe’sfde. Gray. ’Tis true,’tis certain, man
though dead, retains Part of himjelf Pope. In verfe too,
over may be fhortened into o’er, (which is the Scotch,
and probably was the oldEnglifh, pronunciation); never
into ne’er ; and from the and to, when they go before a
word beginning with a vowel, the final letter is fome-
times cut off. O'er hills, o’er dales, o’er crags, o’er
rocks they go- Pope. Where’er Jhe turns, the Graces
homage pay. And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er
gave. Rich with the fpoils of time did ne’er unroll.
Gray. T' alarm th’ eternal midnight of the grave.-——
Thefe abbreviations are now peculiar to the poetical
tongue, but not neceffary to it. They fometimes pro¬
mote brevity, and render verfification lefs difficult.
(6.) Thofe words which are commonly called com¬
pound epithets, as rofy-finger’d, rofy bofom'd, many-
twinkling, many-founding, mofs-grown, bright-eyed,
fraw-built, fpirit fir ring, incenfe-breathing, heaven-
taught, love-whifpering, lute-refounding, are alfo to be
cpnlidered as part of our poetical dialed. It is true,
we have compounded adje&ives in familiar ufe, as
high-feafoned, well-natured, ill-bred, and innumerable
others. But we fpeak of thofe that are lefs common,
that feldom occur except in poetry, and of which in
profe the ufe would appear affeded. And that they
lometimes promote brevity and vivacity of expreffion,
cannot be denied. But, as they give, when too fre¬
quent, a ftiff and finical air to a performance ; as they
arc not always explicit in the fenfe, nor agreeble in
‘TRY. Parti.
the found ; as they are apt to produce a confufion, or Of Poetical
too great a multiplicity, of images ; as they tend to Woicls'
disfigure the language, and furnifh a pretext for end-
lefs innovation; they ought to be ufed fparingly ; and
thofe only ufed, which the pradice of popular authors
has rendered familiar to the ear, and which are in
themfelves peculiar emphatical and harmonious.
(7.) In the transformation of nouns into verbs and
participles, our poetical dialed admits of greater lati¬
tude than profe. Hymn, pillow, curtain, ftory, pil¬
lar, pidure, peal, furge, cavern, . honey, career,
cindure, bofom, fphere, are common nouns ; but ta
hymn, to pillow, curtained, pillared, pictured, pealing,
furging, cavern’d, honied, careering, cinClured, bofomed,
fphered, would appear affeded in profe, though in
verfe they are warranted by the very bed authority..
Some late poets, particularly the imitators of
Spenfer, have introduced a great variety of uncommon
words, as certes, eftfoons, ne, whilom, tranfmew,
moil, fone, lofel, albe, hight, dight, p'ght, thews,
couthful, affot, muchel, wend, arrear, &c. Thefe
were once poetical words, no doubt; but they are
now obfolete, and to many readers unintelligible.
No man of the prefent age, however converfant in this
dialed, would naturally exprefs himfelf in it on any.
intereffing emergence ; or, fuppofing this natural to
the antiquarian, it would never appear fo to the
common hearer or reader. A mixture of thefe words,
therefore, muff ruin the pathos of modern language ;
and as they are not familiar to our ear, and plainly ap¬
pear to be fought after and affeded, will generally
give a ftiffnefs to modern verfification. Yet in fub-
jeds approaching to the ludicrous they may have a
good effed; as in the Schoolmijlrefs of Shenftone,
Parnel’s Fairy-tale, Thomfon’s Cattle of Indolence,
and Pope’s lines in the Dunciad upon Wormius. But
this effed will be moft pleafing to thofe who have leall
occafion to recur to the gloffary.
Indeed, it is not always eafy to fix the boundary
between poetical and obfolete expreffions. To many
readers, lore, meed, behejl, blithe, gaude, fpray, thrall,
may already appear antiquated ; and to fome the ftyle
of Spenfer, or even of Chaucer, maybe as intelligible
as that of Dryden. This however we may venture to.
affirm, that a word, which the majority of readers
cannot underltand without a gloffary, may with reafon
be confidered as obfolete ; and ought not to be ufed
in modern compofition, unlefs revived, and recom-.
mended to the public ear, by fome very eminent
writer. There are but few. words in Milton, as nathlefs,
tine, frore, bojhy. Sec.; there are but one or two in
Dryden, as falfijy {x>) ; and in Pope, there are none
at all, which every reader of our poetry may net be —
fuppofed to underftand : whereas in Shakefpeare there .
are many, and in Spenfer many more, for which
one who knows Engliffi very well may be obliged to
confult the di&ionary. The pra&ice of Milton, Dry¬
den, or Pope, may therefore, in almoft all cafes, be
admitted as good authority for the ufe of a poetical
word. And in them, all the words above enume¬
rated,as poetical, and in prefent ufe, may aftually.be
found. And of fuch poets as may choofe to obferve
(d) Dryden in one place (Eneid ix. verf. 1095.1 ufes Falflfied to denote Pierced through and through. He ac¬
knowledges, that this ufe of the word is an innovation; and lias nothing to pjead for it but his own authority, and
that Falfare in Italian fometimes means the fame thing.
Part I. POE
Of Poetical this rule, it will not be faid, either that they rejeft
: Words, judgment of Quintilian, who recommends the
newert of the old words, and the oldeft of the new, or
that they are unattentive to Pope’s precept;
Be not the firft by whom the new are tried.
Nor yet the laft to lay the old afide.
Ef on Crit. v. 335.
We mull not fuppofe, that thefe poetical words
never occur at all except in poetry. Even from con-
verfation they are not excluded : and the ancient critics
allow, that they may he admitted into profe; where
they occafionally confer dignity upon a fublime fubjedt,
or heighten the ludicrous qualities of a roeamone. But
it is in poetry only, where the frequent ufe of them
does not favour of affe&ation.
Nor mull we fuppofe them eflential to this art.
Many paffages there are of exquilite poetry, wherein
not a Angle phrafe occurs that might not be ufed in
profe. In fad, , the influence of thefe words in adorn
ing Englilh verfe is not very extenfive. Some in¬
fluence however they have. They ferve to render the
poetical ftyle, firft, more melodious ; and, fecondly,
more folemn.
Firft, They render the poetical ftyle more melodious,
and more eafily reducible into meafure. Words of
unwieldy fize, or difficult pronunciation, are never
ufed by corred poets, where they can be avoided :
unlefs in their found they have fomething imitative of
the fenfe. Homer’s poetical infledions contribute
wonderfully to the fweetnefs of his numbers : and if
the reader is pleafed to look back to the fpecimen
above given of the Engliffi poetical dialed, he will
find that the words are in general well-founding, and
fuch as may coalefce with other words, without pro¬
ducing harfh combinations. Quintilian obferves, that
poets, for the fake of their verfe, are indulged in many
liberties, not granted to the orator, of lengthening,
OraHib 10 ^lorten‘n8» an<^ dividing their words*:—and if the
cap. 1. '§ 3’Greek and Roman poets claimed this indulgence from
neceflity, and obtained it, the Englilh, thofe of them
efpecially who write in rhyme, may claim it with bet¬
ter reafon ; as the words of their language are lefs
mufical, and far lefs fufceptible of variety in arrange¬
ment and fyntax.
Secondly, Such poetical words as are known to be
ancient have fomething venerable in their appearance,
and impart a folemnity to all around them. This re¬
mark is from Quintilian $ who adds, that they give
to a compofition that call and colour of antiquity,
which in painting is fo highly valued, but which art
t f-’h- 8- can never effeftually imitate f. Poetical words that
LaP- 3- s 3- are ejther not ancient, or not known to be fuch, have,
however, a pleafing effeft from aflbeiation. We are
accuftomed to meet with them in fublime and elegant
writing ; and hence they come to acquire fublimity
and elegance : Even as the words we hear on familiar
occafions come to be accounted familiar; and as thofe
that take their rife among pick-pockets, gamblers, and
gypfies, are thought too indelicate to.be ufed by any
perfon of tafte or good-manners. When one hears
the following lines, which abound in poetical words,;
The breezy call of incenfe-breathing morn,
The fwallow twittering from the ftraw-built fhed,
TRY. 6275
The cock’s {brill clarion, or the echoing horn, OfTropcs
No more fhall roufe them from their lowly bed : and Figures
—one is as fenfible of the dignity of the language; as
one would be of the vilenefs or vulgarity of that man’s
fpeech, who ffiould prove his acquaintance with Bride¬
well, by interlarding his difeourfe with fuch terms as
mill-doll, queer cull, or nubbing cheat f ; or who, in t^ee^the
imitation of fops and gamblers, ftiould, on the com-
mon occafions of life, talk of being beat hollow, or fa¬
iling bis difance —What gives dignity to perfons t Language
gives dignity to language. A man of this charafterof 1^ew‘
is one who has borne important employments^ been”1” e'
conne&ed with honourable affociates, and never de¬
graded himfelf by levity or immorality of condudl.
Dignified phrafes are thofe which have been ufed to
exprefs elevated fentiments, have always made their
appearance in elegant compofition, and have never Been
profaned by giving permanency or utterance to the
paffions of the vile, the giddy, or the worthlefs. And
as by an aftive old age, the dignity of fuch men is con¬
firmed and heightened ; fo the dignity of fuch words,
if they be not fuffered to fall into difufe, feldom fails
to improve by length of time.
Art 2. (^Tropes and Figures.
19. If it appear, that, by means of figures, lan¬
guage may be made more pleajing, and more natural,
than it would be without them ; it will follow, that to
poetic language, whofe end is to pleafe by imitating
nature, figures muft be not only ornamental, but ne
ceffary. It will here be proper, therefore, firlt to
point out the importance and utility of figurative lan¬
guage ; fecondly, to fhow, that figures are more ne-
ceffary to poetry in general, than to any other mode of
writing.
I. As to the importance and utility of figurative ex-
prejfion, in making language more pleafing and more
natural ; it may be remarked,
(1.) That tropes and figures are often neCeffary to
fupply the unavoidable defefibs of language. When
proper words are wanting, or not recolle&ed, or when
we do not choofe to be always repeating them, we
muft have recourfe to tropes and figures.—When phi-
lofophers began to explain the operations of the mind,
they found, that moft of the words in common ufe,
being framed to anfwer the more obvious exigencies of
life, were in their proper fignification applicable to
matter only and its qualities. What was to he done
in this cafe ? Would they think of making a new lan¬
guage to exprefs the qualities of mind ? No: that
would have been difficult, or impradicable ; and
granting it both pra&icabie and eafy, they muft have
forefeen, that nobody would read or liften to what was
thus fpoken or written, in a new, and confequently
in an unknown, tongue. They therefore took the
language as they found it ; and, wherever they thought
there was a fimilarity or analogy between the quali¬
ties of the mind and the qualities of matter, fcrupled
not to ufe the names of the material qualities tropi¬
cally, by applying them to the mental qualities.
Hence came the phrafes, folidity of judgment, warmth
of imagination, enlargement of underftanding, and
many others; which, though figurative, exprefs the
meaning juft as well as proper words would have done'.
35 H 2 In
6276 POE
Of Tropes In fad, numerous as tlie words in every language are,
and Figure. they Inu^. a]wayS fa]l fhort of the unbounded variety
of human thoughts and perceptions. Taftes and fmells
are almoft as numerous as thefpecies of bodies. Sounds
admit of perceptible varieties that furpafs all compu¬
tation, and the feven primary colours may be diverfified
without end. If each variety of external perception
were to have a name, language would be infurmount-
ably difficult; nay, if men were to appropriate a clafs
of names to each particular fenfe, they would multiply
words exceedingly, without adding any thing to the
clearnefs of fpeech. Thofe words, therefore, that in their
proper fignification denote the obje&s of one fenfe,
we often apply tropically to the obje&s of another,
and fay, Sweet tafte, fweet fmell, fweet found ; {harp
point, fharp tafte, {harp found ; harmony of founds,
harmony of colours, harmony of payts; foft filk, foft
colour, foft found, foft temper ; and fo in a thoufand
inftances : and yet thefe words, in their tropical fig-
nification, are not lefs intelligible than in their proper
one j for fharp tafte and fharp found, are as expreffive
as fharp fword ; and harmony of tones is not better
underftood by the mufician, than harmony of parts
by the architeft, and harmony of colours by the
painter.
Savages, illiterate perfons, and children, have com¬
paratively but few words in proportion to the things
they may have occafion to fpeak of; and muft there¬
fore recur to tropes and figures more frequently, than
perfpns of copious elocution. A feaman, or mecha¬
nic, even when he talks of that which does not belong
to his art, borrows his language from that which does;
and this makes his di&ion figurative to a degree that
is fometimes entertaining enough. “ Death (fays a
feaman in one of Smollet’s novels) has^not yet boarded
my comrade ; but they have been yard-arm and yard¬
arm thefe three glajfes. His Jlarboardeye is open, but
fall jammed in his head ; and the haulyards of his un¬
der jaw have given way.” Thefe phrafes are exag¬
gerated ; but we allow them to be natural, becaufe we
know that illiterate people are apt to make ufe of
tropes and figures taken from their own trade, even
when they fpeak of things that are very remote and
incongruous. In thofe poems, therefore, that imi¬
tate the converfation of illiterate perfons, as in come¬
dy, farce, and paftoral, fuch figures judicioufly applied
may render the imitation more pleafing, becaufe more
exaft and natural.
Words that are untuneable and harfh, the poet is
often obliged to avoid, when perhaps he has no other
way to exprefs their meaning than by tropes and fi¬
gures; and fometimes the meafnre of his verfe may
oblige him to rejeft a proper word that is not harfh,
merely on account of its being too long, or too ftiort,
or in any other way unfuitable to the rhythm, or to the
rhime. And hence another ufe of figurative language,
that it contributes to poetical harmony. Thus,
the plain is frequently ufed to fignify to be Jlain in
battle ; liquid plain is put for ocean, blue ferene for Jky,
and fylvan reign for country life.
(2.) Tropes and figures are favourable to delicacy.
When the proper name of a thing is in any refpeft un-
pleafant, a well-chofen trope will convey the idea in
fuch a way as to give no offence. This is agreeable,
and even neceffary, in polite converfation^ and eannot
TRY. Parti.
be difpenfed with in elegant writing of any kind. Of Tropes
Many words,- from their being often applied to vulgarand F|gures
ufe, acquire a meannefs that difqualifies them for a
place in ferious poetry ; while perhaps, under the in¬
fluence of a different fyftem of manners, the corre-
fponding words in another language may be elegant,
or at leaft not vulgar. When one reads Homer in
the Greek, one takes no offence at his calling Eu-
meus by a name which, literally rendered, fignifies
fwine herd; firft, becaufe the Greek word is well¬
founding in itfelf; fecondly, becaufe we have never
heard it pronounced in converfation, nor confequently
debafed by vulgar ufe ; and, thirdly, becaufe we
know, that the office denoted by it was, in the age of
Eumetis, both important and honourable. But Pope
would have been blamed, if a name fo indelicate as
fwine-herd, had in bis tranflation been applied to fo
eminent a perfonage ; and therefore he judicioufly
makes ufe of the trope fynecdoche, and calls him fwain f; f OJyJf.
a word both elegant and poetical, and not likely tob-I4-v-4l*
lead the reader into any millake about the perfon fpo-
ken of, as his employment had been deferibed in a
preceding paffage. The fame Eumeus is faid, in the
Ample but melodious language of the original, to have
been making his own flioes when Ulyffes came to his
door ; a work which in thofe days the greateft heroes
would often find neceffary. This too the tranflator
loftens by a tropical expreflion ?
Here fat Eumeus, and his cares applied.
To form ftrong bufkins of well-feafon’d hide.
A hundred other examples might be quoted from
this tranflation ; but thefe will explain our meaning.
There are other occafions, on which the delicacy of
figurative language is ftill more needful: as in Virgil’s
account of the effefts of animal-love, and of the plague
among the beafts, in the third Georgic; where Dry-
den’s ftyle, by being lefs figurative than the original,
is in one place exceedingly filthy, and in another
{hockingly obfeene.
Hobbes could conftrue a Greek author ; hut his
{kill in words muft have been all derived from the dic¬
tionary : for he feems not to have known, that any
one articulate found could be more agreeable, or any
one phrafe more dignified, than any other. In his 1-
liad and Odyffey, even when he hits the author’s fenfe
(which is not always the cafe), he proves, by his
choice of words, that of harmony, elegance, or ener¬
gy of ftyle, he had no manner of conception. And
hence that work, though called a Tranflation of Ho¬
mer, does not even deferve the name of poem ; becaufe
ii is in every refpeft nnpleafing, being nothing more
than a fi6litious narrative delivered in a mean profe,
with the additional meannefs of harfh rhyme, and un-
tuneable meafure. Trapp underftood Virgil well
enough as a grammarian, and had a tafte for his
beauties: yet his tranflation bears no refemblance to
Virgil; which is owing to the fame caufe, an impru¬
dent choice of words and figures, and a total want of
harmony.
The delicacy we here contend for, may indeed, both
in converfation and in writing, be carried too far. To
call killing an innocent man in a duel an affair of ho¬
nour, and a violation of the rights of 'wedlock an affair
of gallantry, is a proftitution of figurative language.
Nor
Part I. POE
Of Tropes Nor is it any credit to us, that we are faid to havetip-
*nd Figures warcjs of 40 figurative phrafes to denote excefiive
drinking. Language of this fort generally implies,
that the public abhorrence of fuch crimes is not fo
ftrong as it ought to be; and it is a queftion, whe¬
ther even our morals might not be improved, if we
were to call thefe and fuch like crimes by their proper
names, murder, adultery, drunkcnnefs,gluttony ; names,
that not only exprefs our meaning, but alfo betoken
our difapprobation. As to writing, it cannot be
denied, that even Pope himfelf, in the excellent ver-
fion juft now quoted, has fometimes, for the fake of
his numbers, or for fear of giving offence by too clofe
an imitation of Homer’s fimplicity, employed tropes
and figures too quaint or too folemn for the occafion.
And the finical ftyle is in part charadierifed by the
writer’s diflike to literal expreffions, and affectedly
fubflituting in their ftead unneceffary tropes and fi¬
gures. With thefe authors, a man’s only child muft
always be his only hope; a country-maid becomes a ru¬
ral beauty, or perhaps a nymph of the groves ; if flat¬
tery fing at all, it muft be a fyren Jong; the ftiep-
herd’s flute dwindles into an oaten reed, and his crook
is exalted into a fceptre; xhejilver lilies rife from
their golden beds, and langui/h to'the complaining gale.
A young woman, though a good Chnftian, cannot
make herfelf agreeable without facrificing to the Graces;
nor hope to do any execution among the gentle fwains,
till a whole legion of Cupids, armed with flames and
darts, and other weapons, begin to difcharge from
her eyes their formidable artillery. For the fake of
variety, or of the verfe, fome of thefe figures may
now and then find a place in a poem; but in profe, un-
lefs very fparingly ufed, they favour of aflkCfation.
(3.) Tropes and figures promote brevity ; and bre¬
vity, united with perfpicuity, is always agreeable. An
example or two will be given in the next paragraph.
Sentiments thus delivered, and imagery thus painted,
are readily apprehended by the mind, make a ftrong
impreflion upon the fancy, and remain long in the
memory ; whereas too many words, even when the
meaning is good, never fail to bring difguft and weari-
pefs. They argue a debility of mind which hinders the
author from feeing his thoughts in one'diflinft point of
view ; and they alfo encourage a fufpicion, that there
is fomething faulty or defefiive in the matter. In the
poetic ftyle, therefore, which is addreffed to the fan¬
cy and pafiions, and intended to make a vivid, a plea-
fing, and a permanent imprefiion, brevity, and confe-
fequently tropes and figures are indifpenfable. And a
language will always be the better fuited to poetical-
purpofes, the more it admits of this brevitya cha-
radter which is more confpicuous in the Greek and La¬
tin than in any modern tongue, and much lefs in the
French than in the Italian or Englifh.
(4.) Tropes and figures contribute to ftrength or4
energy of language, not only by their concifenefs, but
alfo by conveying to the fancy ideas that are eafily
comprehended, and make a ftrong impreftion. We
are powerfully affe&ed with what we fee, or feel, or
hear. When a fentiment comes enforced or illuftrated
by figures taken from objedb of fight, or touch, or
hearing, one thinks, as it were, that one fees, or
feels, or hears, the thing fpoken of; and thus, what
in itfeif would perhaps be obfeure, or is merely iptel*
TRY. 6277
leftual, may be made to feize our attention and inte- Of Tiopes
reft our paffions almoft as effe&ually as if it were an and F'g1'^'5
objeft of outward fenfe. When Virgil calls the Sci-
pios thunderbolts of ’war, he very llrongly expreffes
in one word, and by one image, the rapidity of their
vi&ories, the noife their atchievements made in the
world, and the ruin and confternation that attended
their irreiiftible career When Homer calls Ajax
the bulwark of the Greeks, he paints with equal bre¬
vity his vaft fize and ftrength, the difficulty of prevail-
ing againft him, and the confidence wherewith his
countrymen repofed on his valour. When Solomon
fays of the ftrange woman, or harlot, that “ her feet
go down to death,” he lets us know, not only that her
path ends in deftru&ion, but alfo, that they who ac¬
company her will find it eafy to go forwards to ruin,
and difficult to return to their duty.  Satan’s enor¬
mous magnitude, and refulgent appearance, his per¬
pendicular afeent thro’ a region of darkoefs, and the
inconceivable rapidity of his motion, are all paint¬
ed out to our fancy by Milton, in one very fliort fimi-
tude,
Sprung upward, like—a pyramid of fire.
Par. Lojl, b. 4. v. 1013.
To take in the full meaning of which figure, we muft'
imagine ourfelves in chaos, and a vaft luminous body
rifing upward, near the place where we are,fo fwiftly
as to appear a Continued track of light, and leffening
to the view according to the increafc of diftance, till
it end in a point, and then difappear; and all this
muft be fuppofed to ftrike our eye at one inftant.——
Equal to this in propriety, tho’not in magnificence, is
that allegory of Gray,
The paths of glory lead but to the grave:
Which prefents to the imagination a wide plain, where
feveral roads appear, crowded with glittering multi¬
tudes, and iffuing from different quarters, but draw¬
ing nearer and nearer as they advance, till they termi¬
nate in the dark and narrow houfe, where all their
glories enter in fucceffion, and difappear for ever 
When it is faid in Scripture, of a good man who died,
that he fell afleep, what a number of ideas are at once
conveyed to our imagination, by this beautiful and
expreffive figure ! As a labourer, at the clofe of day,
goes to jfleep, with the fatisfaftion of having perform¬
ed his work, and with the agreeable hope of awaking
in the morning of a new day, refrefhed and cheerful;
fo a good man, at the end of life, refigns himfelf calm
and contented to the will of his Maker, with the fweet
reftedlion of having endeavoured to do his duty, and
with the tranfporting hope of foon awaking in the re¬
gions of light, to life and happinefs eternal. The figure
alfo fuggefts, that to a good man the tranfition from
life to death is, even in the fenfation, no more painful,
than when our faculties melt away into the pleafing
infenfibility of deep. Satan, flying among the ftars,
is faid by Milton to 44yi»/7-between worlds and worlds;”
which has an elegance and force far fuperior to the
proper word fly. For by this allufion to a {hip, we are
made to form a lively idea of his great fize, and to
conceive of his motion, that it was equable and maje-
ftic. Virgil ufes a happy figure to exprefs the fize
of the great wooden horfe, by means of which the
Greeks were conveyed into Troy; Equum divina
6278 POE
Of Tropes Palladis arte xdificant?'. •Milton is ftill bolder when
-and Figures jie fays>
Who would not fing for Lycidas ? he knew
Hirafelf to fing, and build the lofty rhime.
The phrafe, however, though bold, is emphatical ;
and gives a noble idea of the durability of poetry, as
well as of the art and attention requifite to form a
good poem. There are hundreds of tropical ex-
preffions in common ufe, incomparably more energetic
than any proper words of equal brevity that could be
put in their place. A cheek burning with blulhes, is
a trope which at once defcribes the colour as it appears
to the beholder, and the glowing heat as it is felt by
the perfon blulhing. Chilled with defpondence, pe-
trefied with aftonifiiment, thunderjlruck with difagree-
able and unexpe&ed intelligence, melted with love or
pity, dijfolved in luxury, hardened in wickednefs, fof
tening into remorfe, inflamed with defire, tofl'ed with
uncertainty, &c.—every one is fenfible of the force of
thefe and the like phrafes, and that they muft contri¬
bute to the energy of compofition.
(5.) Tropes and .figures promote ftrength of ex-
preffion ; and are in poetry peculiarly requifite, becaufe
they are often more natural, and more imitative, than
proper words. In fadt, this is fo much the cafe, that
it would be impoflible to imitate the language of paf-
fion without them. It is true, that when the mind is
agitated, one does not run out into^allegories, x>r long-
winded firailitudes, or any of the figures that require
much attention and many words, or that tend to
withdraw the fancy from the objeft of the paffion.
Yet the language of many pafiions muft be figurative,
notwithftanding ; becaufe they roufe the fancy, and
diredl it to objedls congenial to their own nature,
which diverfify the language of the fpeaker with a
multitude of allufions. The fancy of a very angry
man, for example, prefents to his view a train of dif-
agreeable ideas connedled with the paflion of anger,
and tending to encourage it ; and if he fpeak without
reftraint during the paroxyfm of his rage, thofe ideas
will force themfelves upon him, and compel him to
give them utterance. “Infernal monfter! (he will
fay),—my blood boils at him ; he has ufed me like a
dog ; never was man fo injured as I have been by this
barbarian. He has no more fenfe of propriety than a
(lone. His countenance is diabolical, and his foul as
ugly as his countenance. His heart is cold and hard,
and his refolutions dark and bloody,” &c. This fpeech
is wholly figurative. It is naade up of metaphors
hyperboles, which, with the profopopeia and apojlrophc,
are the mod paffionate of all the figures. Lear, dri¬
ven out of doors by his unnatural daughters, in the
midft of darknefs, thunder, and temped, naturally
breaks forth (for his indignation is jud now railed to
the very highed pitch) into the following violent ex¬
clamation againd the crimes of mankind, in which al-
mod every word is figurative.
Tremble, thou wretch,
That had within thee undivulged crimes
Unwhipt of judice. Hide thee, thou bloody hand,
Thou perjur’d, and thou fimular of virtue.
That art inceduous. Caitiff, to pieces diake,
That under covert, and convenient feeming,
TRY. Parti.
Had praftis’d on man’s life. Clofe pent-up guilts, Of Tropes f
Rive your concealing continents, and cry and Figure^
Thefe dreadful fumraoners grace. King Lear.
 The vehemence of maternal love, and forrow from
the^apprehenfion of lofing her child, make the Lady
Condance utter a language that is drongly figurative,
though quite fuitable to the condition and chara&er of
the fpeaker. The paffage is too long for a quotation,
but concludes thus:
O Lord ! my boy, my Arthur, my fair fon,
My life, my joy, my food, my all the world.
My widow-comfort, and my forrow’s cure. King John.
 Similar to this, and equally exprefitve of conju¬
gal love, is that beautiful hyperbole in Homer; where
Andromache, to diffuade her hufband from going out
to the battle, tells him, that fh£ had now no mother,
father, or brethren, all her kindred being dead, and
her native country defolate ; and then tenderly adds,
But while my He&or yet furvives, I fee
My father, mother, brethren, all in thee. Iliad, b. 6.
As the paffions that agitate the foul, and roufe the
fancy, are apt to vent themfelves in tropes and figures,
fo thofe that deprefs the mind adopt for the moil part
a plain di&ion without any ornament. For to a de-
jefted mind, wherein the imagination is generally in-
aftive, it is not probable that any great variety of
ideas will prefent themfelves ; and when thefe are few
and familiar, the words that exprefs them muft be
Ample. As no author equals Shakefpeare in bold-
nefs or variety of figures, when he copies the ftyle of
thofe violent paffions that ftimulate the fancy ; fo,
when he would exhibit the human mind in a dejefled
ftate, no uninfpired writer excels him in fimplicity.
The fame Lear whofe refentment had impaired his un-
derftanding, while it broke out in the moft boirterous
language, when, after fome medical applications, he
recovers his reafon, his rage being now exhaufted, his
pride humbled, and hisfpirits totally depreffed, fpeaks
in a ftyle than which nothing can be imagined more
fimple, or more affe&ing :
Pray, do not mock me;
I am a very foolifh, fond old man,
Fourfcore and upward, and, to deal plainly with you,
I fear I am not in my perfect mind.
Methinks I (hould know you, and know this man ;
Yet I am doubtful: for I am mainly ignorant
What place this is ; and all the fkill I have
Remembers not thefe garments : nor I know not
Where 1 did lodge laft night.— Lear, afl sSf.fc. 7.
  Defdemona, ever gentle, artlefs, and fincere,
(hocked at the unkindnefs of her hufband, and over¬
come with melancholy, fpeaks in a ftyle fo beautiful¬
ly fimple, and fo perfeflly -natural, that one knows
not what to fay in commendation of it :
My mother had a maid call’d Barbara ;
She was in love, and he fhe lov’d prov’d mad,
And did forfake her. She had a fong of willow ;
An old thing it was, but it exprefs’d her fortune,
And (he died finging it. That fong to-night
Will not go from my mind ; I have much to do.
But to go hang my head all at one fide,
And
Parti. P O E
Of Tropes And finer it like poor Barbara. Othello, all a* fc.%>
and Figures 6 ... » ^ y J
Sometimes-the imagination, even when exerted to
the utrmoft, takes in but few ideas. This happens
when the attention is totally engrofied by fome very
great objeft ; admiration being one of thofe emotions
that rather fufpend the excrcife of the faculties, than
pufh them into a&ion. And here, too, the fimpleft
language is the mod natural ; as when Milton fays of
the Deity, that he fits “ high-thron’d above all height.”
And as this fimplicity is more fuitable to that one
great exertion which occupies the fpeaker’s mind, than
a more elaborate imagery or language would have
been ; fo has it alfo a more powerful effe& in fixing
and elevating the imagination of the hearer: for, to
introduce other thoughts for the fake of illuftrating
what cannot be illuftrated, could anfwer no other pur-
pofe than to draw off the attention from the princi¬
pal idea. In thefe and the like cafes, the fancy left
to itfelf will have more fatisfa&ion in purfuing at lei-
fure its own fpeculations, than in attending to thofe
of others; as they who fee for the firft time fome ad¬
mirable objedf, would choofe rather to feaft upon it in
filence, than to have their thoughts interrupted by a
long defcription from another perfon, informing them
of nothing but what they fee before them, are already
acquainted with, or may eafily conceive.
It was remarked above, that the hyperbole,profopo-
peia, and apoftrophe, are among the moft pafiionate
figures. This deferves illuflration.
\Jl, A very angry man is apt to think the injury
he has juft received, greater than it really is; and, if
he proceed immediately to retaliate by word or deed,
feldom fails to exceed the due bounds, and to become
injurious in his turn. The fond parent looks upon his
child as a prodigy of genius and beauty ; and the ro¬
mantic lover will not be perfuaded that his miftrefs
has nothing fupernatural either in her mind or perfon.
Fear, in like manner, not only magnifies its objeft
when real, but even forms an objedl out of nothing,
and miftakes the fi&ions of fancy for the intimations
of fenfe.—No wonder then, that they who fpeak ac¬
cording to the impulfe of pafilon, fhould fpeak hyper¬
bolic ally ; that the angry man fhould exaggerate the
injury he has received, and the vengeance he is going
to inflift ; that the forrowful fhould magnify what
they have loft, and the joyful what they have obtain¬
ed ; that the lover fhould fpeak, extravagantly of the
beauty of his miftrefs, the coward of the dangers he
has encountered, and the credulous flown of the mi¬
racles performed by the juggjer.. In faff, thefe people
would not do juftiCe to what they feel, if they did not
fay more than the truth. The valiant man, on the
other hand, as naturally adopts the dinainifhing hy¬
perbole when he fpeaks of danger ; and the man of
fenfe, when he is obliged to mention his own virtue
or ability ; becaufe it appears to him, or he is willing
to confider it, as lefs than the truth* or at beft as in-
confiderable. Contempt ufes the fame figure; and
therefore Petruchio, affecting that paffion, affedls alfo
the language of it :
Thou lieft, thou thread, thou thimble,
Thou yard, three-quarters, half-yard, quarter, nail,
Thou flea, thou nit, thou winter-cricket, thou !
Brav’d in mine own houfe with a fkein of thread !
T R Y. 6279
Away, thou rag, thou quantity, thou remnant! Of Tropes
Taming of the Shrew, all fc. I. and Figures
For fome paflions confider their objefls as important,
and others as unimportant. Of the former fort are
anger, love, fear, admiration, joy, forrow, pride ; of
the latter are contempt and courage. Thofe may be-
faid to fubdue the mind to the obje& ; and thefe, to
fubdue the objeft to the mind. And the former, when
violent, always magnify their obje&s; whence the
hyperbole called amplification, or auxefs : and the
latter as conftantly diminifh theirs, and give rife to
the hyperbole called meiofs, or diminution.—Even
when the mind cannot be faid to be under the influence
of any violent paflion, we naturally employ the fame
figure, when we would exprefs another very ftrongly
with any idea. He is a walking fhadow ; he is worn
to fkin and bone ; he has one foot in the grave, and
the other following ;—thefe, and the like phrafes, are
proved to be natural by their frequency. By intro-
ducing great ideas, the hyperbole is further ufeful in
poetry, as a fource of the fublime ; but when em¬
ployed injudicioufly, is very apt to become ridiculous.
Cowley makes Goliah as big as the hill down which
he was marching-J-; and tells us, that w’hen he camef Davideis,
into the valley, he feemed to fill it, and to overtop.*3- 3-
the neighbouring mountains, (which, by the by,
feems rather to leflen the mountains and valleys, than
to magnify the giant); nay, he adds, that the fun
ftarted back when he faw the fplendour of his arms.
This poet feems to have thought, that the figure in
queftion could never be fufficiently enormous 5 but
Quintilian would have taught him, “ Quamvis omnis
hyperbole ultra fidem, non tamen effe debet ultra mo-
dum.” The reafon is, that this figure, w-hen excef-
five, betokens rather abfolute infatuation, than in-
tenfe emotion ; and refembles the efforts of a ranting
tragedian, or the ravings of an enthufiaftic declaimer,
who, by putting on the geftures and looks of a luna¬
tic, fatisfy the difcerning part of their audience, that,
inftead of feeling ftrongly, they have no rational feel¬
ings at all. In the wildeft energies of nature, there is
a modefty, which the imitative artift will be careful-
never to overftep.
2d/y, That figure, by which things are fpoken of as
if they were perfons, is called profopopeia, or perfonif-
cation. It is a bold figure, and yet is often natural.
Long acquaintance recommends to fome-fhare in our
affedfion even things inanimate, as a houfe, a tree, a
rock, a mountain, a country ; and were we to 'leave
fuch a thing, without hope of return, we fhould be in¬
clined to addrefs it with a farewell, as if it were a per¬
cipient creature. Nay, we find that ignorant nations
have adfually worfhipped fuch things, or confidered
them as the haunt of certain powerful beings. Dryads
and Hamadryads were by the Greeks and Romans
fuppofed to prefide over trees and groves ; river-gods
and nymphs, over ftreams and fountains; little deities,
called and Pmjfcr, were believed to be the guar¬
dians of hearths and houfes. In Scotland there is
hardly a hill remarkable for the beauty of its fhape,
that was not in former times thought to be the habi¬
tation of fairies. Nay, modern as well as ancient fu-
perftition has appropriated the waters to a peculiar fort
of demon or goblin, and peopled the very regions of.
death, ,
6280 POE
Of Tropes death, the tombs and charnel-houfes, with multitudes
and Figures 0f gh0fts and phantoms.—Befides, when things inani-
' mate make a Itrong impreffion upon us, whether agree¬
able or otherwife, we are apt to addrefs them in terms
of affe&ion or diflike. The failor blefies the plank that
brought him afhore from the fliipwreck ; and the paf-
fionate man, and fometimes even the philofopher, will
fay bitter words to the ftumbling block that gave him
a fall.—Moreover, a man agitated with any interefting
paffion, efpecially of long continuance, is apt to fancy
that all nature fympathifes with him. If he has loft a
beloved friend, he thinks the fun lefs bright than at
other times; and in the fighing of the winds and groves,
in the lovvings of the herd, and in the murmurs of the
ftream, he feems to hear the voice of lamentation. But
when joy or hope predominate, the whole world af-
fumes a gay appearance. In the contemplation of
every part of nature, of every condition of mankind, of
every form of human fociety, the benevolent and the
pious man, the morofe and the cheerful, the mifer and
the mifanthrope, finds occaiion to indulge his favourite
paffion, and fees, or thinks he fees, his own temper re-
ftefted back in the aftions, fympathieS, and tendencies
of other things and perfons. Our affections are indeed
the medium through which we may be faid to furvey
ourfelves, and every thing elfe ; and whatever be our
inward frame, we are apt to perceive a wonderful con¬
geniality in the world without us. And hence, the
fancy, when roufed by real emotions, or by the pathos
of compofition, is eafily reconciled to thofe figures of
fpeech that aferibe fympathy, perception, and the other
attributes of animal life, to things inanimate, or even
to notiops merely intelleAuah—Motion, too, bears a
-clofe affinity to adlion, and afle&s our imagination
nearly in the fame manner; and we fee a great part of
nature in motion, and by their fenfible efTefts are led
to contemplate energies innumerable. Thefe conduit
the rational mind to the Great Firft Caufe; and thefe,
in times of ignorance, difpofed the vulgar to believe in
a variety of fubordinate agents employed in producing
thofe appearances that could not otherwife be account¬
ed for. Hence an endlefs train of fabulous deities,
and of witches, demons, fairies, genii; which, if they
prove our reafon weak and our fancy ftrong, prove alfo,
that perfonification is natural to the human mind ;
and that a right ufe of this figure may have a power¬
ful effeft, in fabulous writing efpecially, to engage
our fympathy in behalf of things as well as perfons:
for nothing can give lading delight to a moral be¬
ing, but that which awakens fympathy, and touches
the heart; and though it be true, that we fympa-
thife in fome degree even with inanimate things,
yet what has, or is fuppofed to have, life, calls forth a
more fincere and more permanent fellow-feeling.—Let
it be obferved further, that to awaken our fympathetic
feelings, a lively conception of their objeft is neceffary.
This indeed is true of almoft all our emotions; their
keennefs is in proportion to the vivacity of the percep¬
tions that excite them. Diftrefs that we fee, is more
*Hr,\ Ar. affe&ing than what we only hear of *; a perufal of the
v. 180. gaygfl- fcen?s in a comedy does not ronfe the mind fo
effectually, as the prefence of a cheerful companion ;
and the death of a friend is of greater energy in pro¬
ducing ferioufnefs, and the confideration of our latter
end, than all the pathos of Young. Of ckfcriptions ad*
T R Y. Part I.
dreffed to the fancy, thofe that are moft vivid and piftu- Of Tropes
refque will generally be found to have the moft power- and Figure*1
ful influence over our affections; and thofe that exhi¬
bit perfons engaged in action, and adorned with vi-
fible infignia, give a brifker impulfe to the faculties,
that fuch as convey intellectual ideas only, or images
taken from ftill life. No abftract notion of time, or of
love, can be fo ftriking to the fancy, as the image of
an old man accoutred with a feythe, or of a beautiful
boy with wings and a bow and arrows: and no phyfi-
ological account of frenzy could fuggeft fo vivid an
idea, as the poet has given us in that eXquifite por¬
trait,
And moody madnefs laughing wild, amid fevereft wor
And for this reafon partly it is, that the epic poet, in
order tes work the more effectually upon our paffiona
and imagination, refers the lecret fprings of human
conduct, and the viciffitudes of human aflairs, to the
agency of perfonified caufes; that is, to the machinery
of gods and goddeffes, angels, demons, magicians, and
other powerful beings. And hence, in all fublime
poetry, life and motion, with their feveral modes and
attributes,are liberally beftowed on thofe objects where¬
with the author intends that we fliould be Urongly im-
preffed: feenes perfectly inanimate, and ftill, tending
rather to diffufe a languor over the mind, than to com¬
municate to our internal powers thofe lively energies,
without which a being effentially active can never re¬
ceive complete gratification.—Laftly, fome violent paf-
fions are peculiarly inclined to change things into per¬
fons. The horrors of his mind haunted Oreftes in the
fhape of furies. Confcience, in the form of the mur¬
dered perfon, ftares the murderer in the face, and often
terrifies him to diftraction. The fuperftitious man,
travelling alone in the dark, miftakes a white ftone for
a ghoft, a buffi for a demon, a tree waving with the
wind for an enormous giant brandifliing a hundred
arms. The lunatic and enthufiaft converfe with perfons
who exift only in their own diftempered fancy: and
the glutton, and the mifer, if they were to give utter¬
ance to all their thoughts, would often, it is prefumable,
fpeak, the one of his gold, the other of his belly, not
only as a perfon, but as a god,—the objeA of his
warmeft love and moft devout regard.—More need not
be faid to prove, that perfonification is natural, and
may frequently contribute to the pathos, energy, and
beauty of poetic language.
^dly, Apojlrophe, or a fudden diverfion of fpeech from
one perfon to another perfon or thing, is a figure nearly
related to the former. Poets fometimes make ufe of
it, in order to help out their verfe, or merely to give
variety to their ftyle : but on thofe occafions it is to
be confidered as rather a trick of art, than an effort of
nature. It is moft natural, and moft pathetic, when
the perfon or thing to whom the apoftrophe is made,
and for whofe fake we give a new dire&ion to our
fpeech, is in our eyes eminently diftinguiffied for good
or evil, or raifes within us fome fudden and powerful
emotion, fuch as the hearer would acquiefce in, or at
lead acknowledge to be reafonrfble. But this, like the
other pathetic figures, muft be ufed with great pru¬
dence. For if, inftead of calling forth the hearer’s
fympathy, it ffiould only betray the levity of the fpeak-
er, or fuch wanderings of his mind as neither the fub*
jeft nor the occafion would lead one to expefl, it will
Part X. POE
Of Tropes then create difguft, inftead of approbation—The ora-
andFigmes. tor, therefore, muft not attempt the pafiionate apo-
— ftrophe, till the minda of the hearers be prepared to
join in it. And every audience is not equally obfe-
quious in this refpedt, In the forum of ancient Rome
that would have pafled for fublime and pathetic, which
in the Tnoft refpe&able Britiih auditories would appear
ridiculous. For our ftyle of public fpeaking is cool and
argumentative; and partakes lefs of enthufiafm than
the Roman did, and much lefs than the modern French
or Italian. Of Britifh eloquence, particularly that of
the pulpit, the chief recommendations are gravity and
fimplici-y. And it is vain to fay, that our oratory
ought to be more vehement: for that matter depends
on caufes, which it is not only inexpedient, but impof*
fible to alter ; namely, on the charadter and fpirit of
the people, and their rational notions in regard to re¬
ligion, policy, and literature. The exclamations of Ci-
cen> would weigh but little in our parliament; and
many of thofe which we meet with in French fermons
would not be more effeftual if attempted in our pulpit.
To fee one of our preachers, who the moment before
was a cool reafoner, a temperate fpeaker, an humble
Chriftian, and an orthodox divine, break out into a
fudden apoftrophe to the immortal powers, or to the
walls of the church, tends to force a fmile, rather than
a tear, from thofe among us who refledl, that there is
nothing in the fubjedl, and Ihould be nothing in the
orator, to warrant fuch wanderings of fancy, or vehe¬
mence of emotion. If he be careful to cultivate a pure
ftyle, and a grave and graceful utterance, a Britifh
clergyman, who fpeaks from convi&ion the plain un*
affefted words of truth and fobernefs, of benevolence
and piety, will, it is believed, convey more pathetic,
as well as more permanent, impreffions to the heart,
and be more ufeful as a Chriftian teacher, than if he
were to put in pra&ice all the attitudes of Rofcius, and
all the topes and figures of Cicero.
But where the language of paffion and enthufiafm
is permitted to difplay itfelf, whatever raifes any ftrong
emotion, whether it be animated or inanimate, abfent
or prefent, fenfible or intelleftual, may give rife to the
apoftrophe. A man in a diftant country, fpeaking of
the place of his birth, might naturally exclaim, “ O
my dear native land, fhall I never fee thee more!”
Or, when fome great misfortune befals him, “ Happy
are ye, O my parents, that ye are not alive to fee this.”
—We have a beautiful apoftrophe in the third book
of the Eneid, where Eneas, who is telling his ftory to
Dido, happening to mention the death of his father,
makes a fudden addrefs to him as follows;
— .... hie, pelagi tot tempeftatibus aflus,
Heu, genitorem, omnis curse cafufque levamen,
Amitto Anchifen:—hie me, pater optime, feflum
Deferis, heu, tantis nequicquam erepte periclis!
This apoftrophe has a pleafing effeft. It feems to in¬
timate, that the love which the hero bore his father
was fo great, that when he mentioned him, he forgot
every thing elfe; and, without minding his company,
one of whom was a queen, fuddenly addreffed him-
felf to that which, though prefent only in idea, was
ftill a principal objeft of his afie&ion. An emo¬
tion fo warm and fo reafonable cannot fail to com¬
mand the fympathy of the reader -When Mi¬
chael, in the eleventh book of Paradife Loft, announ-
Vol. VHI.
TRY, 6281
ces to Adam and Eve the neceffity of their immedi- OfTropes
ate departure from the garden of Eden, the poet’s andFiS’lrC!
art in preferving the decorum of the two charafters is
very remarkable. Pierced to the heart at the thought
of leaving that happy place, Eve, in all the violence
of ungovernable forrow, breaks forth into a pathetic
apoftrophe to Paradife, to the flowers fhe had reared,
and to the nuptial bower fhe had adorned. Adam
makes no addrefs to the walks, the trees, or the flowers
of the garden, the lofs whereof did not fo much affliit
him ; but, in his reply to the Archangel, exprefles,
without a figure, his regret for being banifhed from a
place where he had been fo oft honoured with a fen¬
fible manifeftation of the Divine prefence. The ufe of
the apoftrophe in the one cafe, and the omiffion of it
in the other, not only gives a beautiful variety to the
ftyle, but alfo marks that fuperior elevation and com-
pofure of mind, by which the poet had all along di-
ftinguilhed the charadter of Adam—One of the fined
applications of this figure that is any where to be feen,
is in the fourth book of the fame poem; where the au¬
thor, catching by fympathy the devotion of our firll:
parents, fuddenly drops his narrative, and joins his voice
to theirs in adoring the Father of the univerfe.
Thus at their fhady lodge arriv’d, dioth flood.
Both turn’d, and under open fky ador’d
The God that made both fky, air, earth, and heav’n.
Which they beheld, the moon’s refplendent globe,
And ftarry pole;—Thou alfo mad’lt the night,
Maker Omnipotent! and thou the day,
Which we in our appointed work employ’d
Have finifh’d. 
Milton took the hint of this fine contrivance from a
well-known paflage of Virgil:
Hie juvenum’chorus, ille fenum; qui carmine laudes
Herculeas et fafta ferant; 
 ut duros mille labores
Rege fub Euryftheo, fatis Junonis iniquas
Pertulerit:—Tu nubigenas, invidte, bimembres
Hylseum Pholoumque manu; tu Crefia madias
Prodigia. —
The beauty arifing from diverfified compofition is the
fame in both, and very great in each. But every
reader muft feel, that the figure is incomparably more
affedling to the mind in the imitation, than in the ori¬
ginal. So true it is, that the moft rational emotions
raife the moft intenfe fellow-feeling; and that the apo¬
ftrophe is then the moft emphatical, when it difplays
thofe workings of human aftedlion which are at once
ardent and well-founded.
To conclude this head : Tropes and figures, parti¬
cularly the metaphor, fimilitude, and allegory, are fur¬
ther ufeful in beautifying language, by fuggefting, to¬
gether with the thoughts eflential to the fubjedl, an
endlefs variety of agreeable images, for which there
would be no place, if writers were always to confine
themfelves to the proper names of things. And this
beauty and variety, judicioufly applied, is fo far from
diftradting, that it tends rather to fix, the attention,
and captivate the heart of the readers, by giving light,
and life, and pathos to the whole compofition.
II. That tropes and figures are more neceffary to
poetry, than to any other mode of writing, was the
fecond point propofed to be illuftrated in thisfedfion.
35 * Lan-
6282 P O E
Of Tropes Language, as already obfemd, is then natural,
andFigures. wjjen ^ i3 fuitable to the fuppofed condition of the'
fpeaker. Figurative language is peculiarly fuitable
to the fuppofed condition of the poet; becaufe figures
are fuggefted by the fancy; and the fancy of him who
compofes poetry is more employed, than that of any
other author. Of all hiftorical, philofophical, and
theological refearches, the objeA is real truth, which
is fixed and permanent. The aim of rhetorical decla¬
mation (according to Cicero) \z apparent truth; which,
being lefs determinate, leaves the fancy of the fpeaker
more free, gives greater fcope to the inventive powers,
and fupplies the materials of a more figurative phrafe-
ology. But the poet is fubjeft to no reftraints, but
thofe of verifimilitude ; which is (till lefs determinate
than rhetorical truth. He feeks not to convince the
judgment of his reader by arguments of either real or
apparent cogency ; he means only to pleafe and in-
tereft him, by an appeal to his fenfibility and imagi¬
nation. His own imagination is therefore continually
at work, ranging through the whole of real and pro¬
bable exiftence, “ glancing from heaven to earth,
from earth to heaven,” in queft of images and ideas
fnited to the emotions he himfelf feels, and to the
fympathies he would communicate to others. And,
confequently, figures of fpeech, the offspring of ex-
curfive fancy, mud (if he fpeak according to what he
is fuppofed to think and feel, that is, according to
his fuppofed condition) tin&ure the language of the
poet more than that of any other compofer. So that,
if.figurative di&ion be unnatural in geometry, becaufe
all wanderings of fancy are unfuitable, and even im-
poflible, to the geometrician, while intent upon his ar¬
gument ; it is, upon the fame principle, perfedly na¬
tural, and even unavoidable, in poetry; becaufe the
more a poet attends to his fubjed, and the better qua¬
lified he is to do it juftice, the more adive will his
imagination be, and the more diverfified the ideas that
prefent themfelves to his mind. Befides, the true
poet addreffes hrmfelf to the paffions and fympathies
of mankind ; which, till his own be raifed, he cannot
hope to do with fuccefs. And it is the nature of
many paflions, though not of all, to increafe the ac¬
tivity of imagination : and an adive imagination na¬
turally vents itfelf in figurative language ; nay, ui-
Jefs reftrained by a corred tafte, has a tendency to ex¬
ceed in it;—of which bifhop Taylor, and lord Veru-
lam, two geniufes different in kind, but of the higbeft
order, are memorable examples.
We faid, that “ the poet feeks not to convince the
judgment of his reader by arguments of either real or
apparent cogency.” We do not mean, that in
poetry argument has no place. The moft legitimate
reafoning, the founded philofophy, and narratives
purely hiftorical, may appear in a poem, and contri¬
bute greatly to the honour of the author, and to the
importance of his work. All this we have in Paradife
Loft. We mean, that what diftinguifhes /wr? poe¬
try from other writing, is its aptitude, not to fway
the judgment by reafoning, but to pleafe the fancy,
and move the paflions, by a lively imitation of nature.
Nor would we exclude poetical embellifhment from
hiftory, or even from philofophy. Plato’s Dialogues
and Addifon’s Moral Effays abound in poetic imagery;
and Livy and Tacitus often amufe their readers with
poetical defcription. In like manner, though geome-
T R Y. Part I.
try and phyfics be different fciences {—-though abftraft Of Poetical
ideas be the fubjeft, and pure demonftration or intui- Harmony,
tion the evidence, of the former ; and though the ma- " ‘
terial univerfe, and the informations of fenfe, be the
fubjeft and the evidence of the latter;—yet have thefe
fciences been united by the beft philofophers, and very
happy effe&s refulted from the union. In one and
the fame work, poetry, hiftory, philofophy, and ora¬
tory, may doubtlefs be blended ; nay, thefe arts have
all been actually blended in one and the fame work,,
not by Milton only, but alfo by Homer, Virgil, Lu¬
can, and Shakefpeare. Yet ftiil thefe arts are differ¬
ent ;—different in their ends and principles, and in
the faculties of the mind to which they are refpedtively
addreffed : and it is eafy to perceive, when a writer
employs one, and when another.
§ 2. Of the Bound of Poetical Language.
20. As the ear, like every other perceptive faculty,
is capable of gratification, regard is to be had to the
found of words, even in profe. But to the harmony of
language, it behoves the poet, more than any other writer,
to attend; as it is more efpecially his concern to render
his work pleafurable. In fa£t, we find, that no poet was
ever popular who did not poffefs the art of harmonious
compofition.
What belongs to the fubjeft of Poetical Harmony
may be referred to one or other of thefe heads: Sweet-
nefs, Meafure, and Imitation.
I. In order to give fweetnefs to language, either
in verfe or profe, all words of harlh found, difficult
pronounciation, or unwieldy magnitude, are to be a-
voided as much as poffible, unlefs when they have in
the found fomething peculiarly emphatical ; and words
are to be fo placed in refpeft of one another, as that
difcordant combinations may not r^fult from their
union. But in poetry this is more neceffary than in
profe; poetical language being underftood to be an
imitation of natural language improved to that per-
feftion which is confiftent with probability. To poe¬
try, therefore, a greater latitude muft be allowed than
to profe, in expreffing, by tropes and figures of plea-
fing found, thofeideas whereof the proper names are in
any refped offenlive, either to the ear or to the fancy.
II. How far verfification, or regular meafure, may
be effential to this art, has been difputed by critical
writers ; fome holding it to be indifpenfably neceffary,
and fome not neceffary at all.
The fad feems to be, as already hinted, that to
poetry verfe is not eflential. In a profe work, we
may have the fable, the arrangement, and a great deal
of the pathos and language, of poetry ; and fuch a
work is certainly a poem, though perhaps not a per-
fed one. For how abfurd would it be to fay, that by
changing the pofition only of a word or two in each
line, one might diveft. Homer’s Iliad of the poetical
charader! At this rate, the arts of poetry and verfifi¬
cation would be the fame; and the rules in Defpau-
ter’s Grammar, and the moral diftichs afcribed to
Cato, whold be as real poetry as any part of Virgil.
In fad, fome very ancient poems, when tranflated
into a modern tongue, are far lefs poetical in verfe
than in profe; the alterations neceffary to adapt them
to our numbers being detrimental to their fublime
fimplicity ; of which any perfon of tafte will be fen-
fible, who compares our coauuou profe-verfion of Job,
Part L POE
Of Poetical the Pfalms, and the Song of Solomon, with the beft
Harmony. metrical paraphrafe of thofe books that has yet ap¬
peared. Nay, in many cafes, Comedy will be more
poetical, becaufe more pleaiing and natural, in profe,
than in verfe. By verfifying Tom Jones and The
Merry Wives of Windfor, we fliould fpoil the two
fineft Comic poems, the one Epic, the other Drama¬
tical, now in the world.
But, fecondly, Though verfe be not efiential to
poetry, it is-necefiary to the perfection of all poetry
that admits of it. Verfe is to poetry, what colours
are to painting (k). A painter might difplay great
genius, and draw mafterly figures with chalk or ink ;
but if he intend a perfect picture, he muft employ in
his work as many colours as are feen in the objeCt he
imitates. Or, to adopt a beautiful comparifon of De-
mofthenes, quoted by Ariftotlef, “ Verfifieation is
C2p.4.t0 poetry what bloom is to the human countenance.”
A good face is agreeable when the bloom is gone,
and good poetry may pleafe without verfification; har¬
monious numbers may fet off an indifferent poem, and
a fine bloom indifferent features: but, without verfe,
poetry is complete; and beauty is not perfeCl, unlefs
to fweetnefs and regularity of feature there be fuper-
added
The bloom of young defire, arad purple light of love.
If numbers are neceflary to the perfection of the
higher poetry, they are no lefs fo to that of the lower
kinds, to Paftoral, Song, and Satire, which have little
befides the language and verfification to diltinguifh
them from profe ; and which fome ancient authors are
unwilling to admit to the rank of poems:—though it
feems too nice a fcruple, both becaufefuch writings are
commonly termed poetical; and alfo becaufe there is,
even in them, fomething that may not impropetly be
confidered as an imitation of nature.
That the rhythm and meafures of verfe are natu¬
rally agreeable, and therefore that by thefe poetry
may be made more pleafing than it would be without
them, is evident from this, that children and illiterate
people, whofe admiration we cannot fuppofe to be the
cffeCl of habit or prejudice, are exceedingly delighted
with them. In many proverbial fayings, where there
is neither rhime nor alliteration, rhythm is obvioufly
ftudied. Nay, the ufe of rhythm in poetry is univerfal;
whereas alliteration and rhime, though relifhed by
fome nations, are not much fought after by others.
And we need not be at a lofs to account for the a-
greeablenefs of proportion and order, if we refleCt,
that they fuggeft the agreeable ideas of contrivance
and fltill, at the fame time that they render the con-
neftion of things obvious to the underftanding, and
imprint it deeply on the memory. Verfe, by pro¬
moting diftinCt and. eafy remembrance, conveys ideas
to the mind with energy, and enlivens every emotion
the poet intends to raife in the reader or hearer. Be¬
fides, whet* we attend to verfes, after hearing one or
two, we become acquainted with the meafure, which
therefore we always look for in the fequel. This per¬
petual interchange of , hope and gratification is a
TRY. 6283
fource of delight; and to this in part is owing the Of Poetical
pleafure we take in the rhimes of modern poetiy. Harmony-
And hence we fee, that though an incorreCt rhime, “ *
or untuneable verfe, be in itfelf, and compared with
an important fentiment, a very trifling matter; yet it
is no trifle in regard to its effeCts on the hearer ; be¬
caufe it brings difappointment, and fo gives a tempo¬
rary fhock to the mind, and interrupts the current of
the affeCtions; and becaufe it fuggefts the difagreeable
ideas of negligence or want of fkill on the part of the
author. And therefore, as the public ear becomes
more delicate, the negligence will be more glaring,
and the difappointment more intenfely felt; and cor-
rednefs of rhime and of meafure will of courfe be the
more indifpenfable. In our tongue, rhime is more ne¬
ceflary to Lyric than to Heroic poetry. The reafon
feems to be, that in the latter the ear can of itfelf
perceive the boundary of the meafure, becaufe the lines
are all of equal length nearly, and every good reader
makes a fhort panic at the end of each; whereas, in
the former, the lines vary in length : and therefore
the rhime is requifite to make the meafure and
rhythm fufficiently perceptible. Cuftona too may have
fome influence. Englifli Odes without rhime are un¬
common ; and therefore have fomething awkward a-
bout them, or fomething at leaft to which the public
ear is not yet thoroughly reconciled.
Moreover, in poetry, as in mufic, rhythm is the
fource of much pleafing variety ; of variety tempered
with uniformity, and regulated by art : infomuch,
that, notwithflanding the likenefs of one hexameter
verfe to another, it is not common, either in Virgil or
in Homer, to meet with two contiguous hexameters
whofe rhythm is exatfly the fame. And though all
Englifh heroic verfes confift of five feet, among which
the iambic predominates; yet this meafure, in re-
fped of rhythm alone, is fufceptible of more than 30
varieties. And let it be remarked further, that dif¬
ferent kinds of verfe, by being adapted todifferent fubjeds
and modes of writing, give variety to the poetic lan¬
guage, and multiply the charms of this pleafing art.
What has formerly been (hown to be true in regard
to ftyle, will alfo in many cafes hold true of verfifica*
tion, “ that it is then natural, when it is adapted to
the fuppofed condition of the fpeaker.”—In the epopee,
the poet affumes the charader of calm infpiration; and
therefore his language muft be elevated, and his num¬
bers majefticand uniform. A peafant fpeaking in he¬
roic or hexameter verfe is no improbability here; be¬
caufe his words are fuppofed to be tranfmitted by one
who will of his own accord give them every ornament
neceflary to reduce them into dignified meafure; as
an eloquent man, in a folemn aflembly, recapitulating
the fpeech of a clown, would naturally exprefs it in
pure and perfpicuous language. The uniform heroic
meafure will fuit any fubjed of dignity, whether nar¬
rative or didadic, that admits or requires uniformity
of ftyle. In tragedy, where the imitation of real life
is more perfed than in epic poetry, the uniform mag¬
nificence of epic numbers might be improper ; becaufe
the heroes and heroines are iuppofed to fp£ak in their
35 I 2 own
( k) Horace feems to hint at the fame comparifon, when, after fpecifying the feveral forts of verfe fuitable to Epic,
Elegiac, Lyric, and Dramatic Poe'ry, he adds,
Defcriptas fervare vices, operumque colores.
f Cur ego, fi nequeo ignoroque, Poeta falutor ? dr. Poet verj. 86,
6284 POE
Of Poetical own perfons, and according to the immediate impulfe
Harmony. 0f paffion and fentiment. Yet, even in tragedy, the
verfification may be both harmonious and dignified; be-
caufe the characters are taken chiefly from high life,
and the events frnm a remote period ; and becaufe the
higher poetry is permitted to imitate nature, not as it
is, but in that ftate of perfection in which it might be.
The Greeks and Romans confidered their hexameter
as too artificial for dramatic poetry ; and therefore in
tragedy, and even in comedy, made ufe of the iambic,
and fome other meafures that came near the cadence
of converfation : we ufe the iambic both in the epic
and dramatic poem ; but for the moft part it is, or
ought to be, much more elaborate in the former than
in the latter. In dramatic comedy, where the manners
and concerns of familiar life are exhibited, verfe would
feem to be unnatural, except it be fo like the found of
common difcouvfe, as to be hardly diftinguifliable from
it. Coltom, however, may in fome countries deter¬
mine otherwife; and againft cuftom, in thefe matters,
it is vain to argue. The profefied enthufiafm of the
dithyrambic poet renders wildnefs, variety, and a fo-
norous harmony of numbers, peculiarly fuitable to his
odes. The love-fonnet, and Anacreontic fong, will
be lefs various, more regular, and of a fofter harmo¬
ny ; becaufe the ftate of mind expreffed in it has more
compofure. Philofophy can fcarce go further in this
inveftigation, without deviating into whim and hypo-
thefis. The particular forts of verfe to be adopted in
the lower fpecies of poetry, are determined by faihion
chiefly, and thepraftice of approved authors.
III. The origin and principles of imitative harmony.,
or of that artifice by which the found is made, as Pope
fays, “ an echo to the fenfe,” may be explained in
the following manner.
It is pkafing to obferve the uniformity of nature in
all her operations. Between moral and material beau¬
ty and-harmony, between moral and material defor¬
mity and diffonance, there obtains a very ftriking ana-
logy. The yifible and audible expreffions'of almoft
every virtuous emotion are agreeable to the eye and
the ear, and thofe of almoft every criminal paffion dif-
agreeable. The looks, the attitudes, and the vocal
founds, natural to benevolence, to gratitude, to com-
paflfion, to piety, are in themfelvee graceful and plea¬
ting ; while anger, difcontent, defpair, and cruelty,
bring difcord to the voice, deformity to the features,
and diftortion to the limbs. That flowing curve,
which painters know to be eflcntial to the beauty of
animal fnape, gives place to a multiplicity of right
lines and (harp angles in the countenance and gefture
of him who knits his -brows, ftretches his noftrils,
grinds his teeth, and clenches his fift ; whereas devo¬
tion, magnanimity, benevolence, contentment, and
good-humour, foften the attitude, and give a more
graceful fwell to the outline of every feature. Certain
vocal tones accompany certain mental emotions. The
voice of forrow is feeble and broken, that of defpair
boiftefous and incoherent; joy afiumes a fweet and
fprightly note, fear a weak and tremulous cadence ;
the tor.es df love and benevolence are mufical and uni¬
form, thofe of rage loud and diffonant; the voice of
the fedate reafoner is equable and grave, but not un-
pleafant ; and he who declaims with energy, employs
many varieties of modulation fuited to the various emo-
T R Y. Parti.
tions that predominate in his difcourfe. Of Poetical
But it is not in the language of paffion only, that Harmony.)
the human voice varies its tone, or the human face its
features. Every ftriktng fentiment, and every inte-
refting idea, has an effed upon it. One would efteem
that perfon no adept in narrative eloquence, who
fiiould defcribe with the very fame accent, fwift and
flow motion, extreme labour and eafy performance,
agreeable fenfation and excruciating pain ; who ffiould
talk of the tumult of a tempeftuous ocean, the roar of
thunder, the devaftations of an earthquake, or an
Egyptian pyramid tumbling into ruins, in the fame
tone of voice wherewith he defcribes the murmur of a
rill, the warbling of the harp of Eolus, the Twinging
of a cradle, or the defcent of an angel. Elevation of
mind gives dignity to the voice. From Achilles, Sar-
pedon, and Othello, we fhould as naturally exped a
manly and fonorous accent, as a nervous ftyle and ma-
jeftic attitude. Coxcombs and bullies, while they af-
fume airs of importance and valour, aflfed alfo a dig¬
nified articulation.
Since the tones of natural language are fo various,
poetry, which imitates the language of nature, muft
alfo vary its tones ; and, in relpedof found as well as
of meaning, be framed after that model of ideal per-
fedion, which the variety and energy of the human
articulate voice render probable. This is the more
eafily accompliftved, becaufe, in every language, there
is between the found and fenfe of certain words a per¬
ceptible analogy} which, though not fo accurate as
to lead a foreigner from the found to the fignification,
is yet accurate enough to fhow, that, in forming fuch
words, regard has been had to the imitative qualities
of vocal found. Such, in Englilh, are the words yell,
crafh, crack, hifs, roar, murmur, and many others.
All the particular laws that regulate this fort of
imitation, as far as they are founded in nature, and
liable to the cognizance of philofophy, depend on the
general law of ftyle above-mentioned. Together with
the other circumftances of the fuppofed fpeaker, the
poet takes into confideration the tone of voice fuitable
to the ideas that occupy his mind, and thereto adapts
the found of his language, if it can be done confift-
ently with eafe and elegance of expreffion. But when
this imitative harmony is too much fought after, or
words appear to bechofen for found rather than fenfe,
the verfe becomes finical and ridiculous. Such isRon-
fard’s affe£ied imitation of the fong of the Iky-lark :
Elle quindee du zephire
Sublime en Pair vire et revire,
Et y declique un joli cris,
Qui rit, guerit, et tire I’ire
Des efprit mieux que je n’ecris.
This is as ridiculous as that line of Ennius,
Turn tuba terribili fonitu taratantara dixit 5
Or as the following verfes of Swift;
The man with the kettle-drum enters the gate,
Dub dub a dub dub: the trumpeters follow,
Tantara tantara ; while all the boys hollow.
Words by their found may imitate found ; and quick
or flow articulation may imitate quicker flow motion.
Hence, by a proper choice and atrangement of words,
the
POE
■ the poet may imitate, Sounds that are fweet with dig¬
nity (f), — fweet and tender (g), —loud (h),— and
harfh (i) ;—and Motions that are, flow in confequence
of dignity (k),—flow in confequencc of difficulty (l),
fwift and noify (m),—fwift and fmooth (n),—uneven
and abrupt (o),—tquick and joyous (p). An unex-
pefted paufe in the verfe may alfo imitate a fudden
failure of ftrength (qj, or interruption of motion (a),
or give vivacity to an image or thought, by fixing our
TRY. 62
attention longer than ufual upon the word that pre-Of Poetical
cedes it (s).—Moreover, when we deferibe great bulk, Harmony.
it is natural for us to articulate flowly even in common
difeourfe ; and therefore a line of poetry that requires
a flow pronunciation, or feems longer than it fiiould
be, may be ufed with good effedl in deferibing vaftnefs
of fize (t).—Sweet and fmooth numbers are mod:
proper, when the poet paints agreeable objefls, or
gentle energy (u); andharlher founds when he fpeaks
(f) No fooner had th’Almighty ceas’d, than all
The multitude of angels, with a ftiout
Loud as from numbers without number, fweet
As from bleft voices uttering joy ; heav’n rung
With jubilee, and loud hofannas fill’d
The eternal regions.— Tar. Lojl, b. 3.
See alfo the night-ftorm of thunder, lightning, wind, and
rain, in Virg. Georg, lib. 1. verf. 328.—334.
(G)Etlongum, formofe, vale, vale, inquit, Tola.
Virg. Eel. 1.
Formofam refonare doces Amarilfida libras.
Virg. Ed. 1.
See alfo the fimile of the nightingale, Geor. lib. 4. verf.
511. And fee that wonderful couplet deferibing the wail¬
ings of the owl, Alfteid. IV-462.
(h) * vibratns ab sethere fulgor
Cum fonitu venit, et ruere omnia vifa repente,
Tyrrbenufque tubas mugire per tethera clangor;
Sufpiciunt: iterumatqueiterumfragorintonat ingens.
JF.neid. 8.
See alfo the ftorm in the firft book of the iEneid, and in
the fifth of the Odyfley.
(1) The hoarfe rough verfe fliall like the torrent roar.
Tope.
 On a fudden open fly,
With impetuous recoil and jarring found,
Th’ infernal doors, and on their hinges grate
Harih thunder.  Tar. Lojt, II. 879.
See alfo Homer’s Iliad, lib. a. ver- 363. and Clarke’s an¬
notation.
( k") See an exquifite example in Gray’s Progrefs of Poefy;
the conclufion of the third ftanza.
(t) And when up ten fteep flopes you’ve dragg’d your
thighs. Tope-
Juft brought out this, when fcarce his tongue could
ftir. Tope.
• The huge leviathan
Wallowing unwieldy, enormous in their gait,
Tempeft the ocean. Tar. Loft, VIl.4-11.
See the famous defeription of Sifyphus rolling the ftone,
OdyfiT. lib. 11. verf. 592. See Quintil. Inft. Orat. fib. 9.
cap. 4- § 4- compared with Paradife Loft, book a. verf.
xoaa.
( m ) Quadrupedanteputrem fonitu quatitungulacampum.
JEneid.
Avt«p xitovie xuXivJrro AotKf aiaitne, Odyjf. it.
See jlfo Virg. iEneid. lib. 1. verf. 83.-87.
(N)See wild as the winds o’er the defart he flies.
Pope-
llle volat, fimul arva fuga, fimul aequora verrens.
Virg.
Pnitm r’ (iretrx reka, gahorn Hejicd.
(.0) XIoAAk f' avavTa xaravra arafa»T« te So}(jux t’ dAS-jv.
Horn.
The lafs fhriek’d, flatted up, and fhriek’d again.
Anonym.
(p) Let the merry bells ring round,
And the jocund rebecks found,
To many a youth, and many a maid,
Dancing in the chequer’d ftiade. Milton's Allegro-.
See alfo Gray’s Pfogrefs of Poefy, ftanza 3.
(q_) Ac velut infomnis oculos ubilanguida preffit
Nofte quies, nequicquam avidos extendere curfus
Velle videmur:—et in mediis conatibus asgri
Succidimus.  JEneid-
See alfo Virg. Georg, lib. 3. verf. 515. 516.
(r) For this, be fure to-nigbtthou (halt have cramps,
Side-ftitches that (hall pen thy breath up. Urchins-
Shall exercife upon thee. 
Profpero to Galyban in the Tempeft.
See Pope’s Iliad, XIII. 199.
(s)    How often from the fteep
Of echoing hill or thicket have we heard
Celeftial voices, to the midnight air.
Sole,— or refponfive to each other’s note.
Singing their great Creator ?—— Par. Loft, b. 4.
And over them triumphant Death his dart
Shook,——but delay’d to ftrike. Id.
• See alfo Horn- Odyff. 1. 9. v. 290.
(t) Thus ft retch’d out, huge m length, the arch fiend lay.
Tar. Loft.
Monftrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumea
ademptum. lEneid. 3.
Etmagnos membrorumartus,magnaoffa,lacertofque
Exuit, atque ingens media conftftit arena.
JEneid. v. 42a.
(u) Hie gelidi fontes, hie mollia prata, Lycori,
Hie nemus, hie ipfo tecum confumerer aavo.
Virg. Ed. 10. ■
The dumb (hall fing ; the lame his crutch forego.
And leap, exulting, like the bounding roe.
Pope's Mejftah.
See Milton’s defeription of the evening. Par. Loft, book 4.
verf. 598.—609.
Ye gentle gales, beneath my body blow,
And foftly lay uie on the waves below.
Tope's Sappho--
6286 POE
Of the of what is ugly, violent, or difagreeable (x). This
Epopee and too jg accorc];ng to the nature of common language ;
Drama. ^ we generally employ harlher tones of voice to ex-
prefs what we diflike, and more melodious notes to
defcrfbe the obje&s of love, complacency, or admira¬
tion. Harlh numbers, however, Ihould not be fre¬
quent in poetry. For in this art, as in mufic, con¬
cord and melody ought always to predominate. And
we find in fadl, that good poets can occafionally ex-
prefs themfelves fomewhat harfiily, when the fubjeft
requires it, and yet preferve the fweetnefs and majefty
of poetical diction.—Further, the voice of complaint,
pity, love, and all the gentler aftedtions, is mild and
nautical, and (hould therefore be imitated in mufical
numbers; while defpair, defiance, revenge, and tur¬
bulent emotions in general, affume an abrupt and fo-
norous cadence. Dignity of defcription (y), folemn
vows (z), and all fentiments that proceed from a mind
elevated with great ideas (a), require a correfpondent
pomp of language and verfification.—Laftly, an irre¬
gular or uncommon movement in the verfe, may fome-
T R Y. Part III
times be of ufe, to make the reader conceive an image of the m
in a particular manner. Virgil, defcribing horfes run-Epopee an4
ning over rocky heights at full fpeed, begins the line I)n‘ma‘
with two dactyls, to imitate rapidity, and concludes
it with eight long fyllables :
Saxa per, et fcopulos, et depreflas convalles.
Gear. III. 276.
which is a very unufual meafure, but feems well adapt¬
ed to the thing exprefled, namely, to the defeent of
the animal from the hills to the low ground. At any
rate, this extraordinary change of the rhythm may
be allowed to bear fome refcrtiblance to the animal’s
change of motion, as it would be felt by a rider, and
as we may fuppofe it is felt by the animal itfelf.
Other forms of imitative harmony, and many other
examples, befides thofe referred to in'the margin, will
readily occur to all who are converfant in the writing#
of the bell verfifiers, particularly Homer, Virgil, Mil-
ton, Lucretius, Spenfer, Dryden, Shakefpeare, Pope,
and Gray.
Part II. Of the DIFFERENT SPECIES of POETRY, with their par¬
ticular Principles.
Sect. I. Of Epic and Dramatic Compofitions.
§ I. The Epopee and Drama compared.
F.'cttt. of 21. HPRagedy and the epic differ not in fubftantials:
Vritiafm. X fn both the fame ends are propofed, viz. in-
ftruftion and amufement; and in both the fame mean
is employed, viz. imitation of human aftions. They
differ only in the manner of imitating : epic poetry
employs narration; tragedy reprefents its fafts as paf-
fing in our fight : in the former, the poet introduces
himfelf as an hiftorian ; in the latter, he prefents his
aftors, and never himfelf.
This difference, regarding form only, may be thought
flight: but the effeds it occafions, are by no means fo;
for what we fee makes a deeper impreffion than what
we learn from others. A narrative poem is a ftory told
by another: fads and incidents palling upon the llage,
come under our own obfervation; and are befide much
enlivened by adion and gefture, exprefixve of many
fentiments beyond the reach of language.
A dramatic compofition has another property, in¬
dependent altogether of adion ; which is, that it makes
a deeper imprefiion than narration: in the former, per-
* fons exprefs their own fentiments; in the latter, fenti¬
ments are related at fecond-hand. For that reafon, Ari-
*Poet chap, llotle, the father of critics,lays it down as a rule*, That
sj. fe<3. 6. in an epic poem the author ought to take every op¬
portunity of introducing his adore, and of confining
(x) Stridenti ftipula miferum difperdere carmen.
• Firg. Eel. 3.
Immo ego Sardois videar tibi amarior herbis,
Horridior rufeo, projeda vilius alga. Virg. Eel. 7.
Neu patrias validas in vifeera vertite vires.
Virg. JEneid. 6.
See alfo Milton’s defcription of the Lazar-houfe in Para-
dife Loft, b- n. v. 477.—494.
the narrative part within the narrowed bounds. Ho¬
mer underftood perfedly the advantage of this method;
and his poems are both of them in a great meafure
dramatic. Lucan runs to the oppofite extreme : and
is guilty of a ftill greater fault, in fluffing his Pharfa-
lia with cold and languid refledions, the merit of which
he affumes to himfelf, and deigns not to (hare with his
adors. Nothing can be more injudicioufly timed, than
a chain of fuch refledions, which fufpend the battle of
Pharfalia after the leaders had made their fpeeches,
and the two armies are ready to engage f. \ Lib. j M
Arillotle, from the nature of the fable, divides tra-from line 1
gedy into Ample and complex: but it is of greater mo- 3$s to line ]
ment, with refped to dramatic as well as epic poetry,460*
to found a diftindion upon the different ends attained
by fuch compolitions. A poem, whether dramatic or
epic, that has nothing in view but to move the paffions
and to exhibit pidures of virtue and vice, may be di-
ftinguifhed by the name of pathetic: but where a ftory
is purpofely contrived to illuftrate fome moral truth,
by fhowing that diforderly paffions naturally lead to
external misfortunes, fuch compofition may be deno¬
minated moral. Befide making a deeper impreffion
than can bedone by cool reafoning, a moral poem doea
not fall fhort of reafoning in affording conviction: the
natural connedion of vice with mifery, and of virtue
with happinefs, may be illuftrated by ftating a fad as
well as by urging an argument. Let us affume, for
example, the following moral truths : That difeord
among
(Y)See Virg. Geor-1. 328. and Homer, Virgil, and Mil-
ton, pafim- See alfo Dryden’s Alexander’s Feaft, and
Gray’s Odes-
(z) See Virg. jEneid- IV. 24.
(a) Examples are frequent in the great authors. See
Othello’s exclamation:
   O now for ever
Farewell the tranquil mind i &c>' Aft i-fc- 3.
Part II. POE
[Of the among the chiefs renders inefFeftual all common mea-
hopeeand£ures. an(j tf,at tjje confeq,ience8 0f a flightly-founded
.. quarrel, foftered by pride and arrogance, are not lefs
fatal than thofeof the groffeft injury: thefe truths may
be inculcated, by the quarrel between Agamemnon and
Achilles at the fiege of Troy. If fadfs or circumftances
be wanting, fuch as tend to roufe the turbulent paf-
fions, they muft be invented; but no accidental nor
unaccountable event ought to be admitted;-for the ne-
ceflary or probable connexion between vice and mi-
fery is not learned from any events but what are natu¬
rally occafioned by the characters and paffions of the
perfons reprefented, aCting in fuch circumftances. A
real event of whidh we fee not the caufe, may afford a
leflbn, upon the prefumption that what hath happened
may again happen: but this chnnot be inferred from a
ftory that is known to be a fiCtion.
Many are the good effeCts of fuch compofitions. A
pathetic compofition, whether epic or dramatic, tends
to a habit of virtue, by exciting us to do what is right,
and reftraining us from what is wrong. Its frequent
pictures of human woes, produce, befide, two effeCfs
extremely falutary : they improve our fympathy, and
fortify us to bear our own misfortunes. Amoral com¬
pofition muft obvioufly produce the fame good effefts,
becaufe by being moral it ceafeth not to be pathetic:
it enjoys befide an excellence peculiar to itfelf; for it
not only improves the heart, as above-mentioned, but
inftru&s the head by the moral it contains. It feems
impoffible to imagine any entertainment more fuited
to a rational being, than a work thus happily illuftra-
ting fome moral truth; where a number of perfons of
different charafters are engaged in an important aflion,
fome retarding, others promoting, the great cata-
ftrophe; and where there is dignity of ftyle as well as
of matter. A work of this kind has our fympathy at
command, and can put in motion the whole train of
the focial affe&ions: our curiofity in fome fcenes is ex¬
cited, in others gratified ; and our delight is confum-
mated at the clofe, upon finding, from the characters
and fituations exhibited at the commencement, that
every incident down to the final cataftrophe is natural,
and that the whole in conjunction make a regular chain
of caufes and effeCts.
Confidering that an epic and a dramatic poem are the
fame in fubltance, and have the fame aim or end, one
will readily imagine, that fubjeCts proper for the one
muft be equally proper for the other. But confidering
their difference as to form, there will be found reafon
to correCt that conjedure, at leaft in fome degree.
Many fubjeCts may indeed be treated with equal ad¬
vantage in either form: but the fubjeAs are ftill more
numerous for which they are not equally qualified ;
and there are fubjeAs proper for the one, and not at all
for the other. To give fome flight notion of the dif¬
ference, as there is no room here for enlarging upon
every article, we obferve, that dialogue is better qua¬
lified for expreffing fentiments, and narrative for dif-
playing faAs. Heroifm, magnanimity, undaunted
courage, and other elevated virtues, figure bell in ac¬
tion: tender paffions, and the whole tribe of fympa-
thetic affeAions, figure beft: in fentiment. It clearly
follows, that tender paffions are more peculiarly the
province of tragedy, grand and heroic aAions of epic
poetry.
try. 6287
22. We have no occafion to fay more upon the epic, Of the
confidered as peculiarly adapted to certain fubjeAs. EP”Pee an<1
But as dramatic fubjeAs are more complex, it is ne- Drama‘
ceffary to take a narrower view of them; which we do
the more willingly, in order to clear a point thrown
into great obfcurity by critics.
The fubjeA belt fitted for tragedy is where a man
has himfelf been the caufe of his misfortune; not fo
as to be deeply guilty, nor althogether innocent: the
misfortune muft be occafioned by a fault incident to
human nature, and therefore in fome degree venial.
Such misfortunes call forth the focial affeAions, and
warmly intereft the fpeAator. An accidental misfor¬
tune, if not extremely fingular, doth not greatly move
our pity: the perfon who fuffers, being innocent, is freed
from the greateft of all torments, that anguifli of mind
which is occafioned by remorfe. An atrocious crimi¬
nal, on the other hand, who brings misfortunes upon
himfelf, excites little pity, for a different reafon : his
remorfe, it is true, aggravates his diftrefs, and fwells
the firft emotions of pity ; but then our hatred of him
as a criminal blending with pity,, blunts its edge con-
fiderably.. Misfortunes that are not innocent, nor
highly criminal, partake the advantages of each ex¬
treme: they are attended with remorfe to embitter the
diftrefs, which raifes our pity to a great height ; and
the flight indignation we have at a venial fault,, de-
traAs not fenfibly from our pity. The happieft of all
fubjeAs accordingly for railing pity, is where a man
of integrity falls into a great misfortune by doing
an aAion that is innocent, but which, by fome fin¬
gular means, is conceived by him to be criminal: his
remorfe aggravates his diftrefs; and our compaffion,
unreftrained by indignation, knows on bounds. Pity
comes thus to be the ruling paffion of a pathetic tra¬
gedy; and, by proper reprefentation, may be raifed
to a height fcarce exceeded by any thing felt in real
life. A moral tragedy takes in a larger field ; as it not
only exercifes our pity, but raifes another paffion,
which, though felfifli, deferves to be cherilhed equally
with the focial affeAion. The paffion we have in view
is fear or terror; for when a misfortune is the natural
confequence of fome wrong bias in the temper, every
fpeAator who is confcious of fuch a bias in himfelf,
takes the alarm, and dreads his falling into the fame
misfortune : and by the emotion of fear or terror,
frequently reiterated in a variety of moral tragedies,
the fpeAators are put upon their guard againft the dif-
orders of paffion.
The commentators upon Ariftotle, and other critics,
have been much graveled about the account given of
tragedy by that author: “ That by means of pity
and terror, it refines or purifies in us all forts of paffion.”
But no one who has a clear conception of the end and
effeAs of a good tragedy, can have any difficulty a-
bout Ariftotle’s meaning : Our pity is engaged for the
perfons reprefented ; and our terror is upon our own
account. Pity indeed is here made toftand for all the
fympathetic emotions, becaufe of thefe it is the capital.
There can be no doubt, that our fympathetic emotions
are refined or improved by daily exercife ; and in what
manner our other paffions are refined by terror, has
been juft now fat’d. One thing is certain, that no
other meaning can juftly be given to the foregoing doc¬
trine than that now mentioned; and that it was really
Ariftotle’s
6288 POE
of the Ariftotle’s meaning, appears from his 13th chapter.
Epopee and where he delivers feveral propofitions conformable to
Drama. thp d0ftr;ne as here explained. Thefe, at the fame
time, we take liberty to mention ; becaufe, fo far
as authority can go, they confirm the forgoing reafon-
ing about fubje&s proper for tragedy. The firft pro-
pofition is, That it being the province of tragedy to
excite pity and terror, an innocent perfon falling into
adverfity ought never to be the fubjeft. This propo-
fition is a necefiary confequence of his do&rine as ex¬
plained : a fubjeft of that nature may indeed excite
pity and terror ; but the former in an inferior degree,
and the latter in no degree for moral inftruftion.
The fecond propofition is, That the hiftory of a wic¬
ked perfon' in a change from mifery to happinefs,
ought not to be reprefented ; which excites neither
terror nor compaffion, nor is agreeable in any refpeft.
The third is, That the misfortunes of a wicked per¬
fon ought not to be reprefented : fuch reprefentation
may be agreeable in fome meafure upon a principle of
juftice ; but it will not move our pity ; nor any de¬
gree of terror, except in thofe of the fame vicious dif-
pofition with the perfon reprefented. The laft pro¬
pofition is, That the only chara&er fit for reprefenta¬
tion lies in the middle, neither eminently good nor
eminently bad ; where the misfortune is not the effeft
of deliberate vice, but of i'ome involuntary fault, as
our author expreffes it. The only objeftion we find
to Ariftotle’s account of tragedy, is, that he confines
it within too narrow bounds, by refufing admittance
to the pathetic kind: for if terror be cffential to tra¬
gedy, no reprefentation deferves that name but the
moral kind, where the misfortunes exhibited are caufed
by a wrong balance of mind, or fome diforder in the
internal conftitution : fubh misfortunes always fuggeft
moral inftruction ; and by fuch misfortunes only, can
terror be excited for our improvement.
Thus Ariftotle’s four propofitions above-mentioned,
relates folely to tragedies of the moral kind. Thofe
of the pathetic kind, are not confined within fo narrow
limits: fubje&s fitted for the theatre, are not in fuch
plenty as to make us reje& innocent misfortunes which
roufe our fympathy, though they inculcate no moral.
With refpedl indeed to the fubjefts of that kind, it
may be be doubted, whether the conclufion ought not
always to be fortunate. Where a perfon of integrity
is reprefented as fuffering to the end under misfortunes
purely accidental, we depart difeontented, and with
fome obfeure fenfe of injuftice : for feldom is man fo
fubmiflive to Providence, as not to revolt againft the
tyranny and vexations of blind chance ; he will be
tempted to fay, This ought not to be. We give for
an example the Romeo and Juliet of Shakefpeare, where
the fatal cataftrophe is occafioned by Friar Laurence’s
coming to the monument a minute too late: we are
vexed at the unlucky chance, and go away diifatisfied.
•Such impreflions, whitrh ought not to be cherifhed,
are a fufficient reafon for excluding ftorics of this kind
from the theatre. The misfortunes of a virtuous
perfon, arifing from neceffary caufes, or from a chain
of unavoidable circumftances, will be confidered in a
different light. Chance, giving an impreflion of anarchy
and mifrule, produces always a gloomy profpedt: on
the contrary, a regular chain of caufes and effedfs
directed by the general laws of nature, never fails to
TRY. Part II.
fuggeft the hand of Providence; to which we fubmit Of the
without refentment, being confcious that fubroiflion j3 Epopee an4
our duty. For that reafon, we are not difgufted with rami>* :
the diftreffes of Voltaire’s Mariamne, though re¬
doubled on her till her death, without the leaft fault
or failing on her part: her misfortunes are owing to a
caufe extremely natural, and not unfrequent, the jea-
loufy of a barbarous hufband. The fate of Defde-
mona in the Moor of Venice, affefts us in the fame
manner. We are not fo eafily reconciled to the fate
ofCordelia in King Lear : the califes of her misfortune
are by no means fo evident, as to exclude the.gloomy
notion of chance. In (hort, a perfedt charafter fuf¬
fering under mis fortunes, is qualified for being the
fubjedt of a pathetic tragedy, provided chance he
excluded. Nor is a perfedf charadter altogether in-
confillent with a moral tragedy : it may fuccefsfully be
introduced as an under-part, if the chief place be
filled with an imperfedt charadltr from which a moral
can be drawn. This is the cafe of Defdemona and
Mariamne juft mentioned; and it is the cafe of Moni-
mia and Belvidera, in Otway’s two tragedies, The Or¬
phan and Venice preferv’d.
According to our author *, fable operates on our j
pafiions, by reprefenting its events as palling in our .E/m. of
fight, and by deluding us into a convidtion of reality. Of/, ch. ii.
Hence, in epic and dramatic compolitions, every cir- Pait '• §
cumftance ought to be employed that may promote
the delufion ; fuch as the borrowing from hiftory fome
noted event, with the addition of circumftances that
may anfwer the author’s purpofe : the principal fadls
are known to be true; and we are difpofed to extend
our belief to every circumftance. But in choofing a fub-
jedl that makes a figure in hiftory, greater precaution
is neceffary than where the whole is a fidtion. In the
latter cafe there is fullfcope for invention : the author
is under no reftraint other than that the charadlers and
incidents be juft copies of nature. But where the ftory
is founded on truth, no circumftances muft be added,
but fuch as conned! naturally with what are known to
be true; hiftory may be fupplied, but muft not be
contradidled. Further, the fubjedt chofen muft be di-
ftant in time, or at leaft in place; for the familiarity
of recent perfons and events ought to be avoided. Fa¬
miliarity ought more efpecially to be avoided in an
epic poem, the peculiar charadter of which is dignity
and elevation : modern manners make but a poor fi¬
gure in fuch a poem. Their familiarity unqualifies
them for a lofty fubjedf. The dignity of them will be
better underftood in future ages, when they are no
longer familiar.
After Voltaire, no writer, it is probable, will think
of rearing an epic poem upon a recent event in the hi¬
ftory of his own country. But an event of that kind
is perhaps not altogether unqualified for tragedy : it
was admitted in Greece; and Shakefpeare has em¬
ployed it fuccefsfully in feveral of his pieces. One ad¬
vantage it poffeffts above fiftion, that of more readily
engaging our belief, which tends above any other par¬
ticular to raife our fympathy. The feene of comedy
is generally laid at home : familiarity is no objedtion;
and we are peculiarly fenfible of the ridicule of our
own manners.
After a proper fubjedt is chofen, the dividing it in¬
to parts requires fome art. The conclufion of a book
in
Part II. POE
Of the in an epic poem, or of an a& in a play, cannot be al*
EP^Pe^ni1 together arbitrary; nor be intended for fo flight a
, r purpofe as to make the parts of equal length. The
fuppofed paufe at the end of every book, and the real
paufe at the end of every aft, ought always to coincide
E!em. of with fame paufe in the aftion. In this refpeft, adra-
Criiicifm, .matic or epic poem ought to referable a fentence or
«h. n. period in language, divided into members that are di-
flinguifhed from each other by proper paufes; or it
ought to referable a piece of mufic, having a full clofe
at the end, preceded by imperfeft clofes that contri¬
bute to the melody. Every aft in a dramatic poem
ought therefore to clofe with fome incident that makes
a paufe in the aftion ; for otherwife there can be no
pretest for interrupting the reprefentation. It would
be ahfurd to break off in the very heat of aftion ; a-
gainft which every one would exclaim ; the abfurdity
ftill remains where the aftion relents, if it be not ac¬
tually fufpendcd for fome time. This rule is alfo ap¬
plicable to an epic poem: though in it a deviation
from the rule is lefs remarkable ; becaufe it is in the
reader’s power to hide the abfurdity, by proceeding
inftantly to another book. The firft book of Para-
dife Loft ends without any clofe, perfcft or imperfeft:
it breaks off abruptly, where Satan, feated on his
throne, is prepared to harangue the convocated hoft of
the fallen angels 5 and the fecond book begins with
the fpeech. Milton feems to have copied the iEneid,
of which the two firft books are divided much in the
fame manner. Neither is there any proper paufe at
the end of the feventh book of Paradife Loft, nor at
the end of the eleventh. In the Iliad little attention is
given to this rule.
This branch of the fubjeft fhall be clofed with a ge¬
neral rule, That aftion being the fundamental part of
every compofuion, whether epic or dramatic, the fen-
timents and tone of language ought to be fubfervient
to the aftion, fo as to appear natural, and proper for
the occafion. The application of this rule to our
modern plays, would reduce the bulk of them to a fke-
leton.
§ 2. Refpeftive peculiaritiet^of the Epopee and Drama,
23. In a theatrical entertainment, which employs
both the eye and the ear, it would be a grofs abfurdi¬
ty to introduce upon the ftage fuperior beings in a vi-
fible fhape. There is no place for fuch objeftion in
an epic poem; and Boileau, with many other critics,
declares ftrongly for that fort of machinery in an epic
poem. But waving authority, which is apt to impofe
upon the judgment, let us draw what light we can
from reafon. We may in the firft place obferve, that
this matter is but indiftinftly handled by critics: the
poetical privilege of animating infenfible objefts for
enlivening a defcription, is very different from what is
termed machinery^ where deities, angela, devils, or
other fupernatural powers, are introduced as real per-
fonages, mixing in the aftion, and contributing to the
cataftrophe ; and yet thefe two things are conflantly
jumbled together in reafoning. The former is found¬
ed on a natural principle: but nothing is more unna¬
tural than the latter. Its effefts, at the fame time,
are deplorable. Firft, it gives an air of fiftion to the
whole ; and prevents that impreffion of reality which
is requifite to intereft our affeftions, and to move our
Vol. VIII. 2
T R Y. 6289
paffions: which of itfeif is fufficient to explode machi- Of the
nery, whatever entertainment it may afford to readers Epopee,
of a fantaftic tafte or irregular imagination. And,
next, were it poflible, by difguiiing the fiftion, to de¬
lude us into a notion of reality, an infuperable objec¬
tion would ftill remain, which is, that the aim or end
of an epic poena can never be attained in any perfec¬
tion where machinery is introduced; for an evident
reafon, that virtuous emotions cannot be railed fuc-
cefsfully but by the aftions of thofe who are endued
with paffions and affeftions like our own, that is, by
human aftions : and as for moral inftruftion, it is
clear, that none can be drawn from beings who aft
not upon the fame principles with us. A fable in^E-
fop’s manner is no objeftion to this reafoning : his
lions, bulls, and goats, are truly men under difguife;
they aft and feel in every refpeft as human beings ;
and the moral we draw is founded on that fuppofition.
Homer, it is true, introduces the gods into his fable:
but the religion of his country authorifed that liberty;
it being an article in the Grecian creed, that the gods
often interpofe vifibly and bodily in human affairs. It
muft however be obferved, that Homer’s deities do no
honour to his poems: fiftions that tranfgrefs the
bounds of nature, feldom have a good effeft ; they
may inflame the imagination for a moment, but will
not be relifhed by any perfon of a corrtft tafte. They
may be of fome ufe to the lower rank of writers ; but
an author of genius has much finer materials of Na¬
ture’s produftion, for elevating his fubjeft, and ma¬
king it interelling.
One would be apt to think, that Boileau, de¬
claring for the Heathen deities, intended them only
for embellilhing the diftion : but unluckily he ba-
nilhes angels and devils, who undoubtedly make a fi¬
gure in poetic language, equal to the Heathen dei¬
ties. Boileau, therefore, by pleading for the latter in
oppofition to the former, certainly meant, if he had
any diftinft meaning, that the Heathen deities may be
introduced as aftors. And, in faft, he himfelf is
guilty of that glaring abfurdity, where it is not fo par¬
donable as in an epic poem: In his ode upon the ta¬
king of Namur, he demands with a moft ferious coun¬
tenance, whether the walls were built by Apollo or
Neptune: and in relating the paffage of the Rhine,
anno 1672, he deferibes the god of that river as fight¬
ing with all his might to oppofe the French monarch;
which is confounding fiftion with reality at a ftrangc
rate. The French writers in general run into this er¬
ror : wonderful the effeft of cuftom, entirely to hide
from them how ridiculous fuch fiftions are !'
That this is a capital error in Gierufalemme libera-
ta, Taffo’s greateft admirers muft acknowledge : a
fituation can never be intricate, nor the reader ever in
pain about the cataftrophe, fo long as there is an an»
gel, devil, or magician, to lend a helping hand. Vol¬
taire, in his effay upon epic poetry, talking of the
Pharfalia, obferves judicioufly, “ That the proximi¬
ty of time, the notoriety of events, the charafter of the
age, enlightened and political, joined with the folidi-
ty of Lucan’s fubjeft, deprived him of poetical fic¬
tion.” Is it not amazing, that a critic who reafons
fo juftly with refpeft to others, can be fo blind with
refpeft to himfelf? Voltaire, not fatisfied to enrich his
language with images drawn from invifible and fupe-
35 K rior
6290
Of the
Epopee.
POE
rior beings, introduces them into the a&ion : in the
fixth canto of the Henriade, St Louis appears in per-
fon, and terrifies the foldiers; in the feventh canto, St
Louis fends the god of Sleep to Henry ; and, in the
tenth, the demons of Difcord, Fanaticifm, War, &c.
afiift Aumale in a fingle combat with Turenne, and
are driven away by a good angel brandilhing the
fword of God. To blend fuch fi&itious perfonages in
the fame a&ion with mortals, makes a bad figure at
any rate; and is intolerable in a hiftory fo recent
as that of Henry IV. But perfeftion is not the lot
of man.
But perhaps the mod fuccefsful weapon that can be
employed upon this fubjeft is ridicule. Addifon has
applied this in an elegant manner: “ Whereas the
time of a general peace is, in all appearance, drawing
near ; being informed that there are feveral ingenious
perfons who intend to fhew their talents on fo happy
an occafion, and being willing, as much as in me lies,
to prevent that effufion of nonfenfe which we have
good caufe to apprehend ; I do hereby ftridlly require
every perfon who (hall write on this fubjeft, to remem¬
ber that he is a Chriftiap, and not to facrifice his ca-
techifm to his poetry. In order to it, I do expeft of
him, in the firft place, to make his own poem, with¬
out depending upon Phoebus for any part of it, or call¬
ing put for aid upon any of the Mufes by name. I do
likewife pofitively forbid the fending of Mercury with
any particular meflage or difpatch relating to the
peace ; and (hall by no means fuffer Minerva to take
upon her the (hape of any plenipotentiary concerned
in this great work. I do further declare, that I (hall
not allow the Deftinies to have had a hand in the deaths
of the feveral thoufands who have been (lain in the
late war 5 being of opinion that all fuch deaths may
be well accounted for by the Chriftian fyftem of pow¬
der and ball. I do therefore ftri&ly forbid the Fates
to cut the thread of man’s life upon any pretence what-
foever, unlefs it be for the fake of rhyme. And where¬
as I have good reafon to fear, that Neptune will have
A great deal of bufinefs on his bands in feveral poems
which we may now fuppofe are upon the anvil, I do
alfo prohibit his appearance, unlefs it be done in me¬
taphor, fimile, or any very (hort allufion; and that
even here he may not be permitted to enter, but with
great caution and circumfpe&ion. I defire that the
fame rule may be extended to his whole fraternity of
Heathen gods; it being my defign to condemn every
poem to the flames in which Jupiter thunders, or ex-
ercifes any other aft of authority which does not be¬
long to him. In (liort, I expeft that no Pagan agent
fhall be introduced, or any faft related which a man
cannot give credit to with a good confcience. Pro¬
vided always, that nothing herein contained (hall ex¬
tend, or be conftrued to extend, to feveral of the fe¬
male poets in this nation, who (hall dill be left in
full pofleffion of their gods and goddefles, in the
fame manner as if this paper had never been written.”
n° 523.
The marvellous is indeed fo much promoted by ma¬
chinery, that it is not wonderful to find it embraced
by the bulk of writers, and perhaps of readers. If
indulged at all, it is generally indulged to excefs.
Homer introduceth his deities with no greater ceremo¬
ny than his mortals; and Virgil has ftill Ufs modera*
TRY. Part 11.
tion : a pilot fpent with watching cannot fall afleep Of the
and drop into the fea by natural means: one bed can- EP°Pee-
not receive the two lovers ./Eneas and Dido, without
the immediate interpofition of fuperior powers. The
ridiculous in fuch fiftions, muft appear even thro’ the
thickeft veil of gravity and folemnity.
Angels and devils ferve equally with Heathen dei¬
ties as materials for figurative language ; perhaps bet¬
ter among Chriftians, becaufe we believe in them, and
not in Heathen deities. But every one is fenfible, as
well as Boileau, that the invifible powers in our creed
make a much worfe figure as aftors in a modern poem,
than the invifible powers in the Heathen creed did in
ancient poems ; the caufe of which is not far to feek.
The Heathen deities, in the opinion of their votaries,
were beings elevated one ftep only above mankind,
fubjeft to the fame paffions, and direfted by the fame
motives; therefore not altogether improper to mix
with men in an important aftitm. In our creed, fu-
perior beings are placed at fuch a mighty diftance
from us, and are of a nature fo different, that with no
propriety can we appear with them upon the fame
itage : man, a creature much inferior, lofes all digni¬
ty in the comparifon.
There can be no doubt, that an hiftorical poem ad¬
mits the embellifliment of allegory, as well as of meta¬
phor, fimile, or other figure. Moral truth, in parti¬
cular, is finely illuftrated in the allegorical manner : it
amufes the fancy to find abftraft terms, by a fort of
magic, metamorphofed into aftive beings; and it is
delightful to trace a general propofition in a piftured
event. But allegorical beings (hould be confined
within their own fphere, and never be admitted to mix
in the principal aftion, nor to co-operate in retarding
or advancing the cqtaftrophe ; which would have a ftill
worfe effeft than invifible powers. For the impreffion
of real exiftence, efiential to an epic poem, is incon-
fiftent with that figurative exiftence which is efiential
to an allegory ; and therefore no method can more ef-
feftually prevent the imprefijon of reality, than the in-
troduftion of allegorical beings co-operating with
thofe whom we conceive to be really exifting. The
love-epifode in the Benria'^ (canto 9.) infufferable by
the difeordant mixture of allegory with real life, is co¬
pied from that of Rinaldo and Armida, in the Gieru-
falemmc liberata, which hath no merit to entitle it to
be copied. An allegorical objeft, fuch as Fame in
the JEneid, and the temple of Love in the Henriade,
may find place in a defeription : but to introduce Dif¬
cord as a real perfonage, imploring the affiftance of
Love as another real perfonage, to enervate the cou¬
rage of the hero, is making thefe figurative beings aft
beyond their fphere, and creating a ((range jumble of
truth and fiftion. The allegory of Sin and Death in
the Paradife Loft, is pofiibly not generally relifhed,
though it is not entirely of the fame nature with what
we have been condemning: in a work comprehend¬
ing the atchievements of fuperior beings, there is
more room for fancy than where it is confined to hu¬
man aftions.
What is the true notion of an epifode ? or how is it
to be diftinguifhed from the principal aftion ? Every
incident that promotes or retards the cataftrophe, mud
be part of the principal aftion. This clears the nature
of an epifode j which may be defined, “ An incident
con-
Part II* POE
Of the conne&ed with the principal aftlon, but contributing
EP°Pee- neither to advance nor retard it.” The defcent of JE-
neas into hell doth not advance nor retard the cata-
ftrophe, and therefore is an epifode. The ftory of
Nifus and Euryalus, producing an alteration in the af¬
fairs of the contending parties, is a part of the princi¬
pal a&ion. The family-fcene in the fixthbook of the
Iliad is of the fame nature ; for by He&or’s retiring
from the field of battle to vifit his wife, the Grecians
had opportunity to breathe, and even to turn upon
the Trojans. The unavoidable effeft of an epifode ac¬
cording to this definition muft be, to break the unity
of aftion ; and therefore it ought never to be indulged
unlefs to unbend the mind after the fatigue of a long
narration. An epifode, when fuch is its purpofe, re¬
quires the following conditions: it ought to be well con-
nefted with the principal aftion; it ought to be lively
and intercfting ; it ought to be (hort; and a time ought
to be chofen when the principal a&ion relents (k).
In the following beautiful epifode, which clofes
the fecond book of Fingal, all thefe conditions are
united.
“ Comal was a fon of Albion ; the chief of an hun¬
dred hills. His deer drunk of a thoufand ftreams;
and a thoufand rocks replied to the voice of his dogs.
His face was the mildnefs of youth; but his hand the
death of heroes. One was his love, and fair was fhe !
the daughter of mighty Conloch. She appeared like a
fun-beam among women, and her hair was like the
wing of the raven. Her foul was fixed on Comal, and
fhe was his companion in the chace. Often met their
eyes of love, and happy were their words in fecret.
ButGormal loved the maid, the chief of gloomyArdven.
He watched her lone fteps on the heath, the foe of un¬
happy Comal.
“ One day tired of the chace, when the mill had
concealed their friends, Comal and the daughter of
Conloch met in the cave of Ronan. It was the wont¬
ed haunt of Comal. Its fides were hung with his arms;
a hundred (hields of thongs were there, a hundred
helms of founding fteel. Reft here, faid he, my love
Galvina, thou light of the cave of Ronan : a deer ap¬
pears on Maro’s brow ; I go, but foon will return. I
fear, faid (he, dark Gormal my foe : I will reft here ;
but foon return, my love.
“ He went to the deer of Mora. The daughter of
Conloch, to try his love, cloathed her white tide with
his armour, and ftrode from the cave of Ronan.
Thinking her his foe, his heart beat high, and his
colour changed. He drew the bow : the arrow flew :
Galvina fell in blood. He ran to the cave with hafty
fteps, and called the daughter of Conloch. Where
art thou, my love ? but no anfwer He marked,
at length, her heaving heart beating againft the mor¬
tal arrow. O Conloch’s daughter, is it thou ! he funk
upon her breaft.
“ The hunters found the haplefs pair. Many and
filent were his fteps round the dark dwellings of his
love. The fleet of the ocean came : he fought, and
the ftrangers fell : he fearched for death over the
TRY. 6291
field; but who could kill the mighty Comal? Throw- Of the
ing away his Ihield, an arrow found his manly breaft. Drama.
He fleeps with his Galvina: their green tombs are
feen by the marinet, when he bounds on the waves of
the north.”
24. Next, upon the peculiarities of a dramatic poem.
And the firft we fhall mention is a double plot: one
of which moft referable an epifode in an epic poem ;
for it would diftradt the fpe&ator, inftead of enter¬
taining him, if he were forced to attend, at the fame
time, to two capital plots equally interefting. And
even fuppofing it an under plot like an epifode, it fel-
dom hath a good effedl in tragedy, of which fimpli-
city is a chief property; for an interefting fubject that
engages our affe&ions, occupies our whole attention,
and leaves no room for any feparate concern. Varie¬
ty is more tolerable in comedy; which pretends only
to aroufe, without totally occupying the mind. But
even there, to make a double plot agreeable, is no
flight effort of art: the under-plot ought not to vary
greatly in its tone from the principal; for difcordant
emotions arc unpleafant when jumbldd together ;
which, by the way, is an infuperable objedtion to
tragi-comedy. Upon that account, the Provok'd
Hujband deferves cenfure: all the fcenes that bring
the family of the Wrongheads into a&ion, being lu¬
dicrous and farcical, are in a very different tone from
the principal fcenes, difplaying fevere and bitter expo-
ftulations between Lord Townley and his lady. The
fame objedfion touches not the double plot of the
Carelefs Hujband; the different fubjedts being fweetly
connedted, and having only fo much variety as to re¬
ferable (hades of colours harmonioufly mixed. But
this is not all. The under-plot ought to be connec¬
ted with that which is principal, fo much at lead as to
employ the fame perfons : the under-plot ought to oc¬
cupy the intervals or paufes of the principal adlion;
and both ought to be concluded together. This is the
cafe of the Merry Wives of Windfor.
Violent a&ion ought never to be reprefented on the
ftage. While the dialogue goes on, a thoufand par¬
ticulars concur to delude us into an impreflion of rea¬
lity ; genuine fentiments, paffionate language, and
perfuafive gefture: the fpeftator once engaged, is will¬
ing to be deceived, lofes fight of himfelf, and with¬
out fcruple enjoys the fpedtacle as a reality. From
this abfent ftate, he is roufed by violent adfion: he
wakes as from a pleafing dream, and, gathering
his fenfes about him, finds all to be a fidtion. Ho¬
race delivers the fame rule; and founds it upon the fame
reafon :
Ne pueros coram populo Medea trucidet;
Aut huraana palam coquat exta nefarius Atreus;
Aut in avem Progne vertatur, Cadmus in anguem.-
Quodcumque oftendis mihi fic, incredulus odi.
The French critics join with Horace in excluding
blood from the ftage ; but, overlooking the moft fub-
ftantial objedtion, they urge only, that it is barbarous
and (hocking to a polite audience. The Greeks had
35 K 2 no
Cjt) Homer’s ddcription of the (hield of Achilles is properly Introduced at a time when the adtion relents, and the
reader can bear an interruption. But the author of Telemachus defcribes the (hield of that young hero in the heat
of battle; a very improper time for an interruption.
6292 POE
of the no notion of fuch delicacy, or rather effeminacy^ wit-
^rama- nefs the murder of Clytemneftra by her -fon Oreftes,
pafling behind the fcene, as reprefented by Sophocles ;
her voice is heard calling out for mercy, bitter expo-
itulations on his part, loud (hrieks upon her being
ftabbed, and then a deep filence. An appeal may be
made to every perfon of feeling, whether this fcene be
not more horrible, than if the deed had been commit¬
ted in fight of the fpeftators upon a fudden guff of
paffion. If Corneille, in reprefenting the affair be¬
tween Horatius and his fitter, upon which the murder
enfues behind the fcene, had no other view but to re¬
move from the fpeftators a (hocking aftion, he was
guilty of a capital mittake : for murder in cold blood,
which in fome meafure was the cafe as reprefented, is
more (hocking to a polite audience, even where the
conclufive ftab is not feen, than the fame aft perform¬
ed in their prefence by violent and unpremeditated
paffion, as fuddenly repented of as committed. Ad-
N°44 difon’s obfervation isjult*, That no part of this inci¬
dent ought to have been reprefented, but referved for
a narrative, ^ith every alleviating circumftance in fa¬
vour of the hero.
25. A few words upon the dialogue, which ought
to be fo condufted as to be a true reprefentation of na¬
ture. We talk not here of the fentiments, nor of the
language, (which are treated elfewhere): but of what
properly belongs to dialogue-writing; where every
fingle fpeech, (hort or long, ought to arife from what
is laid by the former fpeaker, and furnifh matter for
what comes after, till the end of the fcene. In this
view, all the fpeeches, from firft to laft, reprefent fo
many links of one regular chain. No author, ancient
or modern, pofieffes the art of dialogue equal to Shake-
fpeare. Dryden, in that particular, may juftly be pla¬
ced as his oppofite. He frequently introduces three or
four perfons fpeaking upon the fame fubjeft, each
throwing out his own notions feparately, without re¬
garding what is faid by the reft: take for an example
the firft, fcene of Aurenzeie. Sometimes he makes a
number club in relating an event, not to a ftranger,
fuppofed ignorant of it, but to one another, for the
fake merely of fpeaking: of which notable fort of dia¬
logue, we have a fpecimen in the firft fcene of the firft
part of the Conquefi of Granada.. In the fecond part
of the fame tragedy, fcene fecond, the King, Abena-
mar, and Zulema, make their feparate obfervations,
like fo many foliloquiea, upon the fluftuating temper
of the mob: a dialogue (b uncouth, puts one in mind
of two (hepherds in a paftoral, excited by a prize to
pronounce verfes alternately, each in praife of his own
miftrefs.
This manner of dialogue-writing, befide an unna¬
tural air, has another bad effeft: it (lays the courfe of
the aftion, becaufe it is not produftive of any confe-
quence. In Congreve's comedies, the aftion is oft5n
fufpended to make way for a play of wit.
No fault is more common among writers, than to
prolong a fpeech after the impatience of the perfon to
whom it is addreffed ought to prompt him or her to
break in. Confider only how the impatient aftor is to
behave in the mean time. To exprefs his impatience
in violent aftion without interrupting, would be un¬
natural; and yet to diffemble his impatience by ap¬
pearing cool where he ought to be highly inflamed,
TRY. Panir.
would be no lefs fo. The three
Rhyme being unnatural and difguftful in dialogue, Unities,
is happily banifhed from our theatre: the only wonder^ '
is that it ever found admittance, efpectally among a
people accuftomed to the more manly freedom of Shake-
fpear’s dialogue. By banifhing rhyme, we have gain¬
ed fo much as never once to dream that there can be
any further improvement. And yet, however fuitable
blank verfe may be to elevated charafters and warm
paffions, it muft appear improper and affefted in the
mouths of the lower fort. Why then (houid it be a
rule. That every fcene in tragedy muft be in blank
verfe? Sakefpear, with great judgment, has followed a
different rule; which is, to intermix profe with verfe,.
and only to employ the latter where it is required by
the importance or dignity of the fubjeft. Familiar
thoughts and ordinary fafts ought to be expreffed in
plain language: to bear, for example, a footman deli¬
ver a Ample meffage in blank verfe, muft appear ridi¬
culous to every one who is not biaffed by cuftom. In
(hort, that variety of charafters and of fituations, which
is the life of a play, requires not only a fuitable variety
in the fentiments, but alfo in the diftion.
§ 3. The Three Unities.
26. When we confider the chain of caufes and ef-
fefts in the material world, independent of purpofc,
defign, or thought, we find a number of incidents in
fucceffion, without beginning, middle, or end: every
thing that happens is both a caufe and an effeft; be¬
ing the effeft of what goes before, and the caufe of
what follows: one incident may affeft us more, ano¬
ther lefs; hot all of them are links in the univerfal chain:
the mind, in viewing thefe incidents, cannot reft or
fettle ultimately upon any one; but is carried along in
the train without any clofe.
But when the intelleftual world is taken under view,
in conjunftion with the material, the fcene is varied.
Man afts with deliberation, will, and choice: he aims
at fome end; glory, for example, or riches, or con-
queft, the procuring happinefs to individuals, or to his
country in general : he propofes means, and lays plans
to attain the end propofed. Here are a number of
fafts or incidents leading to the end in view, the whole
compofing one chain by the relation of caufe and effeft.
In running over a feries of fuch fafts or incidents, we
cannot reft upon any one ; becaufe they are prefented
to us as means only, leading to fome end: but we
reft with fatisfaftion upon the end or ultimate event;
becaufe there the purpofe or aim of the chief perfon or
perfons is accompliffied. This indicates the beginning,
the middle, and the end, of what Ariftotle calls an en¬
tire adlion *. The (lory naturally begips with deferi- « c
bing thofe circumftances which move the perfon who
afts the principal part to form a plan, in order to com-
pafs fome defired event; the profecution of that plan
and the obftruftions, carry the reader into the heat of
aftion: the middle is properly where the aftion is the
mod irtvolved; and the end is where the event is brought
about, and the plan accompliffied.
We have given the foregoing example of a plan
crowned with fuccefs, becaufe it affords the cleared con¬
ception of a beginning, a middle, and an end, in which
confifts unity of aftion; and indeed drifter unity can¬
not be imagined than in that cafe. But an aftion may
have
Part IL POE
The three have unity, or a beginning, middle, and end, without
Unitie!l- fo intimate a relation of parts; as where the cataftrophe
is different from what it is intended or defired, which
frequently happens in our beft tragedies. In the Eneid,
the hero, after many obftruftions, makes his plan ef-
Elem. of feftual. The I/iad is formed upon a different model:
Crincifm. it begins with the quarrel between Achilles and Aga¬
memnon ; goes on to defcribe the feveral effe&s produ¬
ced by that caufe; and ends in a reconciliation. Here
is unity of aftion, no doubt, a beginning, a middle,
and an end; but inferior to that of the Eneid: which
will thus appear. The mind hath a propenfity to go
forward in the chain of hiftory; it keeps always in
view the expected event; and when the incidents or
under-parts are conne&ed by their relation to the event,
the mind runs fweetly and eafily along them. This
pleafure we have in the Eneid. It is not altogether fo
pleafant to conned, as in the Iliad, effe&s by their
common caufe; for fuch connedion forces the mind to
a continual retrofped: looking backward is like walk¬
ing backward.
If unity of adion be a capital beauty in fable imi¬
tative of human affairs, a plurality of unconneded fa¬
bles muff be a capital deformity. For the fake of va¬
riety, we indulge an under-plot that is conneded with
the principal: but two unconneded events are ex¬
tremely unpleafant, even where the fame adors are en¬
gaged in both. Ariofto is quite licentious in that par¬
ticular : he carries on at the fame time a plurality of
unconneded (lories. His only excufe is, that his plan
is perfedly well adjufted to his fubjed; for every thing
in the Orlando Furiofo is wild and extravagant.
Though to (late fads in the order of time is natu¬
ral, yet that order may be varied for the fake of con-
fpicuous beauties. If, for example, a noted dory, cold
and Ample in its firft movements, be made the fubjed
of an epic poem, the reader may be hurried into the
heat of adion ; referving the preliminaries for a con-
verfation-piece, if thought neceffary; and that method,
at the fame time, hath a peculiar beauty from being
dramatic. But a privilege that deviates from nature
ought to be fparingly indulged ; and yet romance-
writers make no difficulty of prefenting to the reader,
without the lead preparation, unknown perfons enga¬
ged in fome arduous adventure equally unknown. In
Caffandra, two perfonages, who afterward are difco-
vered to be the heroes of the fable, dart up completely
armed upon the banks of the Euphrates, and engage
in a Angle combat.
A play analyfed, is a chain of conneded fads, of
which each fcene makes a link. Each fcene, accord¬
ingly, ought to produce fome incident relative to the
catadrophe or ultimate event, by advancing or retard¬
ing it. A fcene that produceth no incident, and for
that reafon may be termed barren, ought not to be in¬
dulged, becaufe it breaks the unity or adion: a bar¬
ren fcene can never be entitled to a place, becaufe the
chain is complete without it. In the Old Bachelor, the
3d fcene of ad 2. and all that follow to the end of that
ad, are mere converfation-pieces, produdive of no
confequence. The 10th and itth fcenes, ad 3. Double
Dealer, and the loth, 1 ith, I2tb, 13th,and 14th fcenes,
ad 1. Love for Love, are of the fame kind. Neither
is The Way of the World entirely guiltlefs of fuch fcene?.
It will be no judification, that they help to difplay
TRY. 6293
charaders: it were better, like Dryden in his drama- The three
tis perfona, to defcribe charaders beforehand, which
would not break the chain of adion. But a writer of
genius has nooccaAon for fuch artiAce: he can difplay
the charaders of his perfonages much more to the life
in fentiment and adion How fuccefsfully is this done
by Shakefpear! in whofe works there is not to be found
a Angle barren fcene.
Upon the whole, it appears, that all the fads in an
hiftorical fable, ought to have a mutual connedion,
by their common relation to the grand event or cata-
flrophe. And this relation, in which the unity of ac¬
tion conAfts, is equally effential to epic and dramatic
compofitions.
In handling unity of adion, it ought not to efcape
obfervation, that the mind is fatisAed with (lighter unity
in a pidure than in a poem ; becaufe the perceptions
of the former are more lively than the ideas of the lat¬
ter. In Hogarth's Enraged Muftcian, we have a col*
ledion of every grating found in nature, without any
mutual connedion except that of place. But the hor¬
ror they give to the delicate ear of an Italian Adler,
who is reprefented almoft in convulAons, beftows unity
upon the piece, with which the mind is fatisAed.
How far the unities of time and of place are effen-
tial, is a queftion of greater intricacy. Thefe unities
were ftridly obferved in the Greek and Roman thea¬
tres; and they are inculcated by the French and Eng j
li(h critics, as effential to every dramatic compoAtion.
In theory, thefe unities are alfo acknowledged by our
beft poets, though their pradice feldom correfponds:
they are often forced to take liberties, which they pre¬
tend not to juftify, againft the pradice of the Greeks
and Romans, and againft the folemn decifton of their
own countrymen. But in the courfe of this inquiry it
will be made evident, that in this article we arc under
no neceffity to copy the ancients; and that our critics
are guilty of a miftake, in admitting no greater lati¬
tude of place and time than was admitted in Greece
and Rome.
Indeed the unities of place and time, are not, by the
mod rigid critics, required in a narrative poem. In
fuch compoAtion, if it pretend to copy nature, thefe
unities would be abfurd ; becaufe real events are fel¬
dom confined within narrow limits either of place or
of time: and yet we can follow hiftory, or an hiftori¬
cal fable, through all its changes, with the greateft fa¬
cility: we never once think of meafuring the real time-
by what is taken in reading; nor of forming any con¬
nedion between the place of adion and that which we
occupy.
We are aware, that the drama differs fo far from the
epic, as to admit different rules. It will be obferved,
“ That an hiftorical fable, intended for reading folely,
is under no limitation of time nor of place, more than
a genuine hiftovy; but that a dramatic compoAtion
cannot be accurately rpprefented, unlefs it be limited,
as its reprefentation is, to one place and to a few hours;
and therefore that no fable can be admitted bnt what
has thefe properties, becaufe it would be abfurd to
compofe a piece for reprefentation that cannot be juftly
reprefented.” This argument has at lead a plauAble
appearance; and yet one is apt to fufped fome fallacy,
conAdering that no critic, however ftrid, has ventured
to coafine the unities of place and of time within fo
narrow
6294 POE
^The three narrow bounds.
u“ltl£S' A view of the Grecian drama, compared with our
own, may pernpas relieve us from this dilemma: if they
be differently conftrufted, as fhall be made evident, it
is poffible that the foregoing reafoning may not be e-
qually applicable to both. This is an article, that,
with relation to the prefent fubje&, has not been exa¬
mined by any writer.
All authors agree, that tragedy in Greece was deri¬
ved from the hymns in praife of Bacchus, which were
fung in parts by a chorus. Thefpis, to relieve the
fingers, and for the fake of variety, introduced one ac¬
tor ; whofe province it was to explain hfftorically the
fubjedf of the fong, and who occafionally reprefented
one or other perfonage. Efchylus, introducing a fe*
cond aftor, formed the dialogue; by which the per¬
formance became dramatic; and the aftors were mul¬
tiplied when the fubjeft reprefented made it neceffary.
But ft ill, the chorus, which gave a beginning to tra¬
gedy, was confidered as an effential part. The firft
feene, generally, unfolds the preliminary circumftances
that lead to the grand event; and this feene is by A-
riftotle termed the prologue. In the fecond feene,
where the action properly begins, the chorus is intro¬
duced, which,* as originally, continues upon the ftage
during the whole performance: the chon:* frequently
makes one in the dialogue ; and when the dialogue
happens to be fufpended, the chorus, during the inter¬
val, is employed in Tinging. Sophocles adheres to this
plan religioufly. Euripides is not altogether fo cor-
redt. In fome of his pieces it becomes neceffary to re¬
move the chorus for a little time : but when that un-
ufual ftep is rifked, matters are fo ordered as not to in¬
terrupt the reprefentation : the chorus never leave the
ftage of their own accord, but at the command of fome
principal perfonage, whoconftantly waits their return.
Thus the Grecian drama is a continued reprefenta¬
tion without any interruption ; a circumftance that
merits attention. A continued reprefentation without
a paufe, affords not opportunity to vary the place of
aftion, nor to prolong the time of the aftion beyond
that of the reprefentation. To a reprefentation fo con¬
fined in place and time, the foregoing reafoning is
ftri&ly applicable : a real or feigned aftion that is
brought to a conclufion after confiderable intervals of
time and frequent changes of place, cannot accurately
be copied in a reprefentation that admits no latitude in
either. Hence it is, that the unities of place and of
time, were, or ought to have been, ftridUy obferved in
the Greek tragedies; which is made neceffary by the
very conftitution of their drama, for it is abfurd to
xompofe a tragedy that cannot be juftly reprefented.
Modern critics, who for our drama pretend to efta-
biiftt rules founded on the pra&ice of the Greeks, are
guilty of an egregious blunder. The unities of place
and of time were in Greece, as we fee, a matter of ne-
ceffity, not of choice ; and it is eafy to (how, that if
we fubmit to fuch fetters, it mull be from choice, not
neceffity. This will be evident upon taking a view of
the conftitution of our drama, which differs widely
-from that of Greece; whether more or lefs perfedf, is
a different point, to be handled afterward. By drop¬
ping the chorus, opportunity is afforded to divide the
reprefentation by intervals of time, during which the
4Iage is evacuated and the fpe&acle fufpended. This
TRY. Part II.
qualifies our drama for fubjefls fpread through a wide The three
fpace both of time and of place : the time fuppofed to *-niues-
pafs during the fufpenfion of the reprefentation, is not
meafured by the time of the fufpenfion ; and any place
may be fuppofed, as it is not.in fight: by which means,
many fetbjeds can juftly be reprefented in our theatres,
that were excluded from thofe of ancient Greece. This
do&rine may be illuftrated, by comparing a modem
play to a fet of hiftorical pictures; let us fuppofe them
five in number, and the refemblance will be complete:
each of the pidures refembles an ad in one of our
plays: there muft neceffarily be the ftrideft unity of
place and of time in each pidure; and the fame necef¬
fity requires thefe two unities during each ad of a play,
becaufe during an ad there is no interruption in the
fpedacle. Now, when we view in fuccefiion a number
of fuch hiftorical pidures, let it be, for example, the
hiftory of Alexander by Le Brun, we have no diffi¬
culty to conceive, that months or years have paffed
between the events exhibited in two different pidures,
though the interruption is imperceptible in palling our
eye from the one to the other ; and we have as little
difficulty to conceive a change of place, however great:
in which view, there is truly no difference between five
ads of a modern play, and five fuch pidures. Where
the reprefentation is fufpended, we can with the great-
eft facility fuppofe any length of time or any change
of place: the fpedator, it is true, may be confcious,
that the real time and place are not the fame with what
are employed in the reprefentation; but this is a work
of refledion ; and by the fame refledion he may alfo
be confcious, that Garrick is not king Lear, that the
playhoufe is not Dover cliffs, nor the noife he hears
thunder and lightning. In a word, after an interrup¬
tion of the reprefentation, it is not more difficult for a
fpedator to imagine a new place, or a different time,
than, at the commencement of the play, to imagine
himfelf at Rome, or in a period of time two thoufand
years back. And indeed, it is abundantly ridiculous,
that a critic, who is willing to hold candle-light for
fun-fhine, and fome painted canvaffes for a palace or a
prifon, Should affed fo much difficulty in imagining a
latitude of place or of time in the fable, beyond what
is neceffary in the reprefentation.
There are, it muft be acknowledged, fome effeds
of great latitude in time that ought never to be indul¬
ged in a compofition for the theatre : nothing can be
more abfurd, than at the clofe to exhibit a full-grown
perfon who appears a child at the beginning : the mind
rejeds, as contrary to all probability, fuch latitude of
time as is requifite for a change fo remarkable. The
greateft change from place to place hath not altoge¬
ther the fame bad effed : in the.bulk of human af¬
fairs place is not material; and the mind, when occu¬
pied with an interefting event, is little regardful of
minute (^rcumftances : thefe may be varied at will, be¬
caufe they fcarce make any impreffion.
At the fame time, it is not here meant to juftify
liberty without any referve. An unbounded licence
with relation to place and time, is faulty for a reafon
that feems to have, been overlooked, which is, that it
feldom fails to break the unity of adion : in the or¬
dinary courfe of humaR affairs, fingle events, fuch as
are fit to be reprefented on the ftage, are confined to
a narrow fpot, and generally employ no great extent
Part II. POE
The three of time : we accordingly feldom find ftridt unity of
Unities. a&ion in a dramatic compofition, where any remark-
able latitude is indulged in thefe particulars. It may
E 'em. of even be admitted, that a compofition which employs
Crituifm. but one p]ace) ancj requires not a greater length of
ch. 13* time than is neceffary for the reprefentation, is fo much
the more perfect; becaufe the confining an event
within fo narrow bounds, contributes to the unity of
aftion, and alfo prevents that labour, however flight,
which the mind mull undergo in imagining frequent
changes of place, and many intervals of time. But
Hill we mult infill, that fuch limitation of place and
time as was neceflary in the Grecian drama, is no
rule to us ; and therefore, that though fuch limitation
adds one beauty more to the compofition, it is at bell
but a refinement, which may juftly give place to a
thoufand beauties more fubftantial. And we may
add, that it is extremely difficult, if not impraiticable,
to contradl within the Grecian limits, any fable fo
fruitful of incidents in number and variety as to give
full Ccope to the fludiuation of paffion.
It may now appear, that critics who put the uni¬
ties of place and of time upon the fame footing with
the unity of a&ion, making them all equally effential,
have not attended to the nature and conftitution of the
modern drama. If they admit an interrupted repre¬
fentation, with which no writer finds fault, it is ab-
furd to rejedt its greateft advantage, that of repre-
fenting many interelting fubje&s excluded from the
Grecian ftage. If there needs mult be a reformation,
why not reltore the ancient chorus and the ancient
continuity of adlion ? There is certainly no medium ;
for to admit an interruption without relaxing from the
ftridl unities of place and of time, is in effect to load
us with all the inconveniencies of the ancient drama,
and at the fame time to with-hold from us its advan¬
tages.
And therefore the only proper queftion is. Whe¬
ther our model be or be not a real improvement ?
This indeed may fairly be called in queftion ; and in
order to a comparative trial, fome particulars mud be
premifed. When a play begins, we have no difficulty
to adjuft our imagination to the feene of adtion, how¬
ever diftant it be in time or in place ; becaufe we know
that the play is a reprefentation only. The cafe is
very different after we are engaged : it Is the perfec¬
tion of reprefentation to hide itfelf, to impofe on the
fpedlator, and to produce in him an impreffion of rea¬
lity, as if he were fpedlator of a real event; but any
interruption annihilates that impreffion, by roufing
him out of his waking dream, and unhappily reftoring
him to his fenfes. So difficult it is to fupport the im-
preffion of reality, that much flighter interruptions
than the interval between two adls are fufficient to dif-
folve the charm : in the 5th adt of the Mourning Bride,
the three firft feenes are in a room of ftate, the fourth
in a prifon ; and the change is operated by Ihiftiag
the feene, which is done in a trice : but however quick
the tranfition may be, it is impradlicable to impofe
upon the fpedlators fo as to make them conceive that
they are adlually carried from the palace to the prifon ;
they immediately refledt, that the palace and prifon
are imaginary, and that the whole is a fidticn.
From thefe premifes, one will naturally be led, at
firft view, to pronounce the frequent interruptions in
TRY. 6295
the modern drama to be an imperfedtion. It will oc- The three
cur, “ That every interruption mutt have the effedl to 'Ufllt'«-
banilh the dream of reality, and with it to banilh our
concern, which cannot fubfilt while we are confcious
that all is a fidtion; and therefore, that in the modern
drama, fufficient time is not afforded for fludt'uation
and fwelling of paffion, like what is afforded in that
of Greece, where there is no interruption.” This
reafoning, it mull be owned, has a fpecious appear¬
ance : but we mult not become faint-hearted upon the
fir It repulfe ; let us rally our troops for a fecond en¬
gagement.
Confidering attentively the ancient drama, we find,
that though the reprefentation is never interrupted,
the principal adtion is fufpended not lefs frequently
than in the modern drama : there are five adls in each ;
and the only difference is, that in the former, when the
adlion is fufpended as it is at the end of every adt., op¬
portunity is taken of the interval to employ the cho¬
rus in finging. Hence it appears, that the Grecian
continuity of reprefentation cannot have the effedl to
prolong the impreffion of reality : to banilh that im¬
preffion, a paufe in the adlion while the chorus is em¬
ployed in finging, is no lefs effedtual than a total fuf-
penfion of the reprefentation.
But to open a larger view, it may be ffiown, that a
reprefentation with proper paufes, is better qualified
for making a deep impreffion, than a continued repre¬
fentation without a paufe. This will be evident from
the following confiderations. Reprefentation cannot
very long fupport an impreffion of reality; for when
the fpirits are exhaufted by elofe attention and, by the
agitation of paffion, an unealinefs enfues, which ne¬
ver fails to banilh the waking dream. Now fuppo-
fing the time that a man can employ with ftridl at¬
tention without wandering, to be no greater than is
requifite for a fingle adl, a fuppofitiou that cannot be
far from truth ; it follows, that a continued repre¬
fentation of longer endurance than an adt, inftead of
giving fcope to fludiuation and fwellibg of paffion,
would overftrain the attention, and produce a total
abfenceof mind. In thisrefpedl, the four paufes have
a fine effedl; for by affording to the audience a fea-
fonable refpite when the impreffion of reality is gone,
and while nothing material is in agitation, they re¬
lieve the mind from its fatigue ; and confequently pre¬
vent a wandering of thought* at the very time poflibly
of the moll interefting feenes.
In one article, indeed, the Grecian model has great¬
ly the advantage : its chorus, during an interval, not
only preferves alive the impreffions made upon the au¬
dience, but alfo prepares their hearts finely for new
impreffions. In our theatres, on the contrary, the
audience, at the end of every adl, being left to trifle
time away, lofe every warm impreffion ; and they be¬
gin the next adl cool and unconcerned, as at the com¬
mencement of the reprefentation. This is a grofs ma¬
lady in our theatrical reprefentations ; but a malady
that luckily is not incurable : to revive the Grecian cho¬
rus, would be to revive the Grecian flavery of place
and time; but we can 6gure a detached chorus coin¬
ciding with a paufe in the reprefentation, as the an¬
cient chorus did with a paufe in the principal adlion.
What objedlion, for example, can there lie againft
raulic between the adts, vocal and inftrumental, adapt¬
ed.
6296 POE
The three ed to the fubje& ? Such detached chorus, without
Unities, putting us under any limitation of time or place, would
recruit the fpirits, and would preferve entire the tone,
Elem. of ifnot ^ °f paffion : the mufic, after an adl,
Critkifm. fhould commence in the tone of the preceding paffion,
ch. *$. and be gradually varied till it accord with the tone of
the paffion that is to fucceed in the next aft. The
mufic and the reprefentation would both of them be
gainers by their conjunftion ; which will thus appear.
Mufic that accords with the prefent tone of mind, is,
on that account, doubly agreeable ; and accordingly,
though mufic iingly hath not power to raife a paffion,
it tends greatly to fupport a paffion already raifed.
Further, mufic prepares us for the paffion that fol¬
lows, by making cheerful, tender, melancholy, or
animated impreffions, as the fubjeft requires. Take
for an example the firft fcene of the Mourning Bridet
where foft mufic, in a melancholy ftrain, prepares us
for Almeria’s deep diftrefs. In this manner, mufic
and reprefentation fupport each other delightfully : the
impreffion made upon the audience by the reprefenta¬
tion, is a fine preparation for the mufic that fucceeds ;
and the impreffion made by the mufic, is a fine pre¬
paration for the reprefentation that fucceeds. It ap¬
pears evident, that by fome fuch contrivance, the mo¬
dern drama may be improved, fo as to enjoy the ad¬
vantage of the ancient chorus without its llavifh limi¬
tation of place and time. But to return to the com-
parifon between the ancient and the modern drama.
The numberlefs improprieties forced upon the Greek
dramatic poets by the conftitution of their drama, may
be fufficient, one ffiould think, to make us prefer the
modern drama, even abftrafting from the improve¬
ment propofed. To prepare the reader for this ar¬
ticle, it muft be premifed, that as in the ancient dra¬
ma the place of afh'on never varies, a place neceffarily
•muft be chofen, to which every perfon may have ac-
cefs without any improbability. This confines the
fcene to fome open place, generally the court or area
before a palace ; which excludes from the Grecian
theatre tranfaftions within doors, though thefe com¬
monly are the moft important. Such cruel rellraint
is of itfelf fufficient to cramp the moft pregnant inven¬
tion ; and accordingly the Greek writers, in order to
preferve unity of place, are reduced to woful improprie¬
ties. In the Hippolytus of Euripides, (aft 1. fc. 6.)
Phedra, diftreffed in mind and body, is carried with¬
out any pretext from her palace to the place of aftion;
is there laid upon a couch, unable to fupport herfelf
upon her limbs; and made to utter many things im¬
proper to be heard by a number of women who form
the chorus: and what is ftill more improper, her fe¬
male attendant ufes the ftrongeft intreaties to make
her reveal the fecret caufe of her anguilh ; which at
laft Phedra, contrary to decency and probability, is
prevailed upon to do in prefence of that very chorus,
(aft 2. fc. 2.) Alceftes, in Euripides, at the point
of death, is brought from the palace to the place of
aftion, groaning, and lamenting her untimely fate
(aft 2. fc. 1.) In the "Trachiniens of Sophocles,
(aft 2.), a fecret is imparted to Dejanira, the wife
cf Hercules, in prefence of the chorus. In the tra¬
gedy of Ipbigenia, the meffenger employed to inform
Clitemneftra that Iphigenia was facrificed, flops ftiort
at the place of aftion, and with a loud voice calls the
TRY. Part II.
queen from her palace to hear the news. Again, in The three
the Iphigenia in Tauris (aft 4.), the neceffary pre- Uuities.
fence of the chorus forces Euripides into a grofs ab- "
furdity, which is to form a fecret in their hearing ;
and, to difguife the abfurdity, much court is paid to
the chorus, not one woman but a number, to engage
them to fecrecy. In the Medea of Euripides, that
princefs makes no difficulty, in prefence of the cho¬
rus, to plot the death of her hulband, of his miftrefs,
and of her father the king of Corinth, all by poifon :
it was neceflary to bring Medea upon the ftage ; and
there is but one place of aftion, which is always oc¬
cupied by the chorus. This fcene clofes the fecond
aft; and in the end of the third, (he frankly makes
the chorus her confidents in plotting the murder of
her own children. Terence, by identity of place, is
often forced to make a converfation within doors be
heard on the open ftreet : the cries of a woman in la¬
bour are there heard diftinftly.
The Greek poets are not lefs hampered by unity of
time than by that of place. In the Hippolytus of
Euripides, that prince is banilhed at the end of the
4th aft ; and in the firft fcene of the following aft,
a mdfenger relates to Thefeus the whole particulars of
the death of Hippolytus by the fea-monfter : that re¬
markable event mull have occupied many hours 5 and
yet in the reprefentation it is confined to the time em¬
ploy’d by the chorus upon the fong at the end of the
4th aft. The inconfiftency is ftill greater in the Iph*~
genia in Tauris (aft 5. fc.»4.): the fong could not
exhauft half an hour ; and yet the incidents fuppofed
to have happened during that time, could not natu¬
rally have been tranfafted in lefs than Haifa day.
The Greek artiftsare forced, not lefs frequently, to
tranfgrefs another rule, derived alfo from a continued
reprefentation. The rule is, that as a vacuity, how¬
ever momentary, interrupts the reprefentation, it is
neceflary that the place of aftion be conftantly occu¬
pied. Sophocles, with regard to that rule as well as
to others, is generally correft : but Euripides cannot
bear fuch reftraint; he often evacuates the ftage, and
leaves it empty for others. Iphigenia in Tauris, after
pronouncing a foliloquy in the firft fcene, leaves the
place of aftion, and is fucceeded by Oreftes and Pyla-
des: they, after fome converfation, walk off; and
Iphigenia re-enters, accompanied with the chorus. In
the Alceftes, which is of the fame author, the place
of aftion is void at the end of the 3d aft. It is true,
that to cover the irregularity, and to preferve the re¬
prefentation in motion, Euripides is careful to fill the
ftage without lofs of time: but this ftill is an inter¬
ruption, and a link of the chain broken ; for during
the change of the aftors, there muft be a fpace of time,
during which the ftage is occupied by neither fet. It
makes indeed a more remarkable interruption, to
change the place of aftion as well as the aftors; but
that was not prafticable upon the Grecian ftage.
It is hard to day upon what model Terence has
formed his plays. Having no chorus, there is a paufe
in the reprefentation at the end of every aft : but ad¬
vantage is not taken of the ceffation, even to vary the
place of aftion ; for the ftreet is alway chofen, where
every thing palling may be feen by every perfon ; and
by that choice, the moft fprightly and interefting parts
of the aftion, which commonly pafs within doors,
are
Part II. POE
Of three are excluded ; witnefs the lad aft of Cnz Eunuch. He
UnitlC?• hath fubmitted to the like flavery with refpeft to time.
In a word, a play with a regular chorus, is not more
ILlem. of confined in place and time than his plays are. Thus
iCrsiicifm, a zealous feftary follows implicitly ancient forms and
ch. *3. ceremonies, without once confidering whether their
introduftive caufe be ftill fubfifting. Plautus, of a
bolder genius than Terence, makes good ufe of the
liberty afforded by an interrupted reprefentation: he
varies the place of aftion upon all occafions, when the
variation fuits his purpofe.
The intelligent reader will by this time underftand,
that we plead for no change of place in our plays-but
after an interval, nor for any latitude in point of time
but what falls in with an interval. The unities of
place and time ought to be ftriftly obferved during
each aft 5 for during the reprefentation, there is no
opportunity for the fmalleft deviation from either.
Hence it is an effential requifite, that during an aft
the ftage be always occupied; for even a momentary
vacuity makes an interval or interruption. Another
rule is no lefs effehtial: it would be a grofs breach of
the unity of aftion, to exhibit upon the ftage two fe-
parate aftions at the fame time; and therefore, to
preferve that unity, it is neceffary that each perfonage
introduced during an aft, be linked to thofe in pof-
feffion of the ftage, fo as to join all in one aftion.
Thefe things follow from the very conception of an
aft, which admits not the flighteft interruption : the
moment the reprefentation is intermitted, there is an
end of that aft ; and we have no other notion of a
new aft, but where, after a paufe or interval, the re¬
prefentation is again put in motion. French writers,
generally fpeaking, are correft in this particular. The
Englifh, on the contrary, are fo irregular as fcarce
to deferve a criticifm: aftors not only fucceed each
other in the fame place without conneftion, but, what
is ftill lefs excufable, they frequently fucceed each
other in different places. This change of place in the
fame aft, ought never to be indulged ; for, befide
breaking the unity of the aft, it has a difagreeable
tffeft : after an interval, the imagination adapts it-
felf to any place that is neceffary, as readily as at
the commencement of the play ; but during the re¬
prefentation, we rejeft change of pla^e. From the
foregoing cenfure muft be excepted the Mourning
Bride of Congreve, where regularity concurs with the
beauty of fentiment and of language, to make it one
of the moft complete pieces England has to boaft of.
It is to be acknowledged, however, that, in point of
regularity, this elegant performance is not altogether
unexceptionable. In the four firft afts, the unities
of place and time are ftriftly obferved: but in the
laft aft, there is a capital error with refpeft to unity
of place ; for in the three firft fcenes of that aft, the
place of aftion is a room of (late, which is changed to
a prifon in the fourth fcene : the chain alfo of the ac¬
tors is’broken; astheperfons introduced in the prifon,
are different from thofe who made their appearance in
the room of ftate. This remarkable interruption of
the reprefentation, makes in effeft two afts inltead of
one : and therefore, if it be a rule that a play ought
not to confift of more afts than five, this performance
is fo far defeftive in point of regularity. It may be
added, that, even admitting fix afts, the irregularity
Vol. VIII. 2
try. 6297
would not be altogether removed, without a longer Of the
paufe in the reprefentation than is allowed in the ac-
ting ; for more than a momentary interruption is re¬
quifite for enabling the imagination readily to fail in
with a new place, or with a wide fpace of time. In
The IVay of the World, of the fame author, unity
of place is preferved during every aft, and a ftrifter
unity of time during the whole play than is ne¬
ceffary.
§ Of the Opera.
51. An opera is a drama reprefented by mufic.
This entertainment was invented at Venice. An exhi¬
bition of this fort requires a moft brilliant magnificence,
and an expence truely royal. The drama muft necef-
farily be compofed in verfe ; for as operas are fung
and accompanied with fymphonies, they muft be in
verfe to be properly applicable to mufic. To render
this entertainment ftill more brilliant, it is ornamented
with dances and ballettes, with fuperb decorations,
and furprifing machinery. The dreffes of the aftors,
of thofe who aflift in the chorus, and of the dancers,
being all in the moft fplendid and elegant tafte, contri¬
bute to render the exhibition highly fumptuous. But
notwithftanding this union of arts and pleafures at
an immenfe expence, and notwithftanding a moft
dazzling pageantry, an opera appears, in the eyes
of many people of tafte, but as a magnificent abfur-
dity, feeing that nature is never there from the begin¬
ning to the end. It is not our bufinefs here, how¬
ever, to determine between the different taftes of man¬
kind.
The method of exprefling our thoughts by finging
and mufic is fo little natural, and has fomething in it
fo forced and affefted, that it is not eafy to conceive
how it could come into the minds of men of genius to
reprefent any human aftion; and, what is more, a
ferious or tragic aftion, any otherwife than by fpeech.
We have, it is true, operas in Englifh by Addi-
fonj &c. in Italian by Metaftafio, in French by M.
Quinault, Fontenelle, &c. the fubjefts of which are
fo grave and tragic, that one might call them mufical
tragedies, and yeal chefs-d’oeuvres in their kind. But
though we are highly fatisfied and greatly affefted on
reading them, and are much pleafed with feeing them
reprefented, yet the fpeftator is, perhaps, more charm¬
ed with the magnificence of the light and the beauty
of the mufic, then moved with the aftion and the
tragical part of the performance. We are not, however,
of that order of critics who ftrive to prove, that man¬
kind aft wrong in finding pleafure in an objeft with
which they are really pleafed ; who blame a lover for
thinking his miftrefs charming, when her features are
by no means regular; and who are perpetually apply-
ing the rules of logic to the works of genuis: \nzElem- of
make thefe obfervations merely in order to examine i£Erudition.
it be not poffible to augment the pleafdres of a polite
people, by making the opera fomething more natural,
more probable, and more confonant to reafon.
We think, therefore, that the poet fhould never,
or at leaft very rarely, choofe a fubjeft from hiftory,
but from fable or mythology, or from the regions of
enchantment. Every rational mind is conftantly fhock-
ed to hear a mutilated hero trill out, from the flender
pipe of a chaffinch, To arms ! To arms! and in the
35 L famd
6298 POE
Of the fame tone animate his foldiers, and lead them to the
Opera, gflault; or harangue an affembly of grave fenators,
" and fometimes a whole body of people. Nothing can
be more burlefque than fuch exhibitions ; and a man
muft be poflefied of a very uncommon fenfibility to be
affe&ed by them. But as we know not what was the
language of the gods, and their manner of expreffing
themfelves, we are at liberty in that cafe to form what
illufions we pleafe, and to fuppofe that they fung to
diftinguifh themfelves from mortals. Befides, all the
magic of decorations and machinery become natural,
and even neceffary, in thefe kinds of fubjedts ; and
therefore readily afford opportunity for all the pomp
of thefe performances. The chorus, the dances, the
ballettes, the fymphonies and drefles, may likewife be
all made to correfpond with fuch fubjefts: nothing is
here affedted, abfurd, or unnatural. Whoever is pof-
feifed of genius, and is well acquainted with mytho-
logy, will there find an inexhauftible fource of fub-
jefts highly diverfified, and quite proper for the drama
of an opera.
We fhall not fpeak here of that fort of mufic which
appears to us the mod; proper for fuch a drama, and
of the feveral alterations of which we think it fufeep-
tible, in order to make it more complete, and to
adapt it to a more pathetic, more noble, and more
natural expreffion, as well in the recitatives, as in the
airs and chorus. We have only hete to confider the
bufinefs of the poet. He fhould never lofe fight of
nature, even in the midft of the greateft fidtion. A
god, a demi-god, a renowned hero, fuch for example
as Renaud in Arviida, a fairy, a genie, a nymph, or
fury, &c. Ihould conftantly be reprefented according
to the charadters we give them, and never be made to
talk the language of a fop or a petite maitrejfe. The
recitative, which is the ground-work of the dialogue,
requires verfes that are free and not regular, fuch as
with a fimpie cadence approach the neared to common
language. The airs fhould not be forced into the piece,
nor improperly placed for the fake of terminating a
feene, or to difplay the voice of a performer: they
fhould exprefs fome fentiment, or fome precept, fhort
and flriking, or tender and affedting ; or fome fimile
lively and natural; and they flioud arife of themfelves
from a monologue, or from a feene between two per-
fons: prolixity fhould here be particularly avoided,
efpecially when fuch an air makes part of a dialogue;
for nothing is more infipid or difguftful than the coun¬
tenances of the other adtors who appear at the fame
time, whofe filence is quite unmeaning, and who
know not what to do with their hands and feet while
the finger is draining his throat. The verfe of all the
airs ihould be of the lyric kind, and fhould contain
fome poetic image, or paint fome noble pafiion,
which may furnifh the compofer with an opportunity
of difplaying his talents, and of giving a lively and
affedting expreffion to the mufic. A phrafe that is
inanimated can never have a good effedt in the perfor¬
mance, but mud become infipid and horribly tedious
In the air. The trite fimilies of the Italians of a
dream that flows, or a bird that flies, &c. are no
longer fufferable. The fame thing may be faid with
regard tq the chorus, which fhoukl be equally natural
and well adapted : it is here fometimes a whole peo¬
ple, fometimes the inhabitants of a peculiar country,
TRY.. Part II.
and fometimes warriors, nymphs, or prieds, &C. who Of Lyric
raife their voice to demand judice, to implore favour, Poeliy-
or render a general homage. The adtion itfelf will
furnifh the poet of genius with ideas, words, and the
manner of difpofing them.
Ladly, the opera being a performance calculated
lefs to fatisfy the underdanding, than to charm the
ear and affedt the heart, and efpecially to drike the
fight, the poet fhould have a particular attention to
that objedt, fhould be {killed in the arts of a theatre,
fhould know how to introduce combats, ballettes,
feafls, games, pompous entries, folcmn proceffions,
and fuch marvellous incidents as occur in the heavens,
upon earth, in the fea, and even in the infernal re¬
gions : but all thefe matters demand a drong charac¬
ter, and the utmod precifion in the execution ; for
otherwife, the comic being a near neighbour to the
fublime, they will eafily become ridiculous. The
unity of adtion mud certainly be obferved in fuch a
poem, and all the incidental epifodes mud concur to
the principal defign ; otherwife it would be a mon-
ftrous chaos. It is impoffible, however, fcrupuloufly
to obferve the unity of time "and place : though the
liberty, which reafon allows the poet in this refpedt,
is not without bounds ; and the lefs ufe he makes of
it, the more perfedt his poem will be. It is not per¬
haps impofiible fo to arrange the objedts, that, in
changing the decorations, the painter may condantly
make appear fome part of the principal decoration
which charadierifes the fituation of the feene, as the
corner of a palace at the end of a garden, or fome
avenue that leads to it, &c. But all this is liable to
difficulties, and even to exceptions j and the art of the
painter muft concur in fuch cafe with that of the poet.
For the reft, all the operas of Europe are at leafl one
third too long; efpecially the Italian. The unity of
adtion reqmres brevity; and fatiety is infeparabie from
a diverfion that lafts full four hours, and fometimes
longer. They have indeed endeavoured to obviate this
inconvenience by dividing an opera into three, and
even into five adts; but experience proves, that this
divifion, though judicious, is ftill not fufficient to re¬
lieve the wearied attention.
Sect. II. Of Lyric Poetry.
52. The ode is very ancient, and was probably the
firft fpecies of poetry. It had its fource, we may fup¬
pofe, from the heart, and was employed to exprefs,
with becoming fervour and dignity, the grateful fenfe
man entertained of the bkffings which daily flowed
from God the fountain of all goodnefs: Hence their
harveft hymns, and other devotional compofitions of
that kind.
But in procefs of time it was employed, not only to
praife the Almighty for bounties received, but to fo-
licit his aid in time of trouble ; as is plain from the
odes written by king David and others, and colkfled
by the Jeauifh Sanhedrim into the book of Pfalms, to
be fung at their fafts, feftivals, and on other folemn
occafions. Nor was this praflice confined to the
Ifraelites only : Other nations had their fongs of praife
and petitions of this fort, which they preferred to their
deities in time of public profperity and public diftrefs,
as well as to thofe heroes who diilinguilhed themftlves
in arm?. Even the American lridians} whofe notions*
Part II. POE
Of Lyric of religion ar£ extremely confined, have their war-fongs,
Poetry, which they fing to this day.
It is reafonable to fuppofe that the awful purpofe
to which the ode was applied, gave rife among the an¬
cients to the cuftom of invoking the mufes ; and that
the poets, in order to raife their fentiments and lan¬
guage, fo as to be acceptable to their deities, thought
it expedient to folicit fome divine alMance. Hence
poets are faid to have been infpired, and hence an un¬
bounded liberty has been given to the ode; for the
lyric poet, fired, as it were, with his fubje&, and borne
away on the wings of gratitude, difdains grammatical
niceties and common modes of fpeech, and often foars
above rule, though not above reafon. This freedom,
however, confifts chiefly in fudden tranfitions, bold di-
greffions, and lofty excurfions. For the ancient poets,
and even Pindar, the mod daring and lofty of them
all, has in his fublimeft flights, and amidft all his rap¬
ture, preferred harmony, and often uniformity in his
verfilrcation : but fo great is the variety of his naeafures,
that the traces of famenefs are in a manner loft ;
and this is one of the"excellencies for which that poet
is admired, and which, though feemingly devoid of
art, requires fo much that he has feidom been imitated
with fuccefs.
The ancients in their odes indulged fuch a liberty of
fancy, that fome of their belt poets not only make
bold excurfions and digreffions, but, having in their
flights ftarted fome new and noble thought, they fre¬
quently puifue it,and never more return to their fubjeft.
But this loofe kind of ode, which feems to rejeft all
method, and in which the poet, having juft touched
upon his fubjeft, immediately diverts to another, we
Ihould think blameable, were it lawful to call in que-
flion the authority of thofe great men who were our
preceptors in this art. We may venture to affirm,
however, that thefe compofitions ftand in no degree of
comparifon with othe.r odes of theirs j in which, after
wandering from the fubjeft in purfuit of new ideas
arifing from fome of its adjundls, and ranging wan¬
tonly, as it were, through a variety of matter, the
poet is, from fome other circumftance, led naturally
to his fubjeft again ; and, like a bee, having collec¬
ted the effence of many different flowers, returns
home and unites them all in one uniform pleafing
fweet.
The ode among the ancients fignified no more than
a fong : but with the moderns, the ode and the fong are
confidered as different compofitions; the ode being
ufually employed in grave and lofty fubje&s, and feidom
fung but on folemn occafions.
The fubjefts moft proper for the ode and fong, Horace
has pointed out iqa few elegant lines.
Gods, heroes, conquerors, Olympic crowns,
Tove’s pleafing cares, and the free joys of wine,
Are proper fubje&s for the lyric fong.
To which we may add, that happinefs, the pleafures
of a rural life, and fuch parts of morality as afford
leffons for the promotion of our felicity, and refiedbons
on the condudt of life, are equally fuitable to the ode.
This both Pindar and Horace were fo fenfible of, that
many of their odes are feafoned with thefe moral fen-
tences and rcfledlions.
TRY.
But who can number ev’ry fandy grain
Wafil’d by Sicilia's hoarfe-refounding main?
Or who can Theron's gen’rous works exprefs.
And tell how many hearts his bounteous virtue s blefs?
Ode to '] HERON.
And in another Olympic ode, inferibed by the fame
poet to Diagoras of Rhodes (and in fuch efteem, that
it was depofited in the temple of Minerva, written in
letters of gold), Pindar, after exalting them to the
flues, concludes with this leffon in life :
Yet as the gales of fortune various blow,
To day tempeftuous, and to-morrow fair,
Due bounds, ye Rhodians, let your tranfports know;
Perhaps to-morrow comes a ftorm of care.
Weft's Pindar.
The man refolv’d and Ready to his truft.
Inflexible to ill, and obftinately juft,
May the rude rabble’s infolence defpife,
Their fenfelefs clamours and tumultuous cries;
The tyrant’s fiercenefs he beguiles,
And the ftern brow and the harfh voice defies,
And with fuperior greatnefs fmiles.
Not the rough whirlwind, that deforms
Adria’s black gulf, and vexes it with ftorms.
The ftubborn virtue of his foul can move ;
Nor the red arm of angry Jove,
That flings the thunder from the fky,
And gives it rage to roar and ftrength fly.
Should the whole frame of nature round him break,
In ruin and confufion hurl’d.
He unconcern’d would hear the mighty crack.
And Hand fecure amidft a falling world.
Horace.
M. Defpreaux has given us a very beautiful and juft
defeription of the ode in thefe lines.
L’Ode avec plus d’eclat, & non moins d’eriergie
Elevant jufqu’au ciel fon vol ambitieux,
Entretient dans vers commerce avec les Dieux.
Aux Athletes dans Pife elle ouvre la barriere,
Chante un vainqueur poudreux au bout de la carriere;
Mene Achille fanglant au bords du Simo'is
Ou fait flechir 1’Efcaut fous le jou^ de Louis.
Tantot comme une abeille ardente a fon ouvrage
Elle s’en va de fleurs depouiller !e rivage :
Elle peint les feftins, les danfes 8c les ris,
Vante un baifer cueilli fur les levres dTris,
Qui mollement refifte 8c par un doux caprice
Qjjelquefois le refufe, afin qu’ on le raviffe.
Son ftyle impetueux fouvent marche au hafard.
Chez elle un beau defordre eft un effet de Part,
Loin ces rimeurs craintifs, dont 1’efprit plegmatique
Garde dans fes fureurs nn ordre didaflique :
Quj chamant d’uti heros les progres eclatans,
Maigres hiftoriens, fuivront 1’ordre des temps.
Apollon de fon feu leur fut tonjours avare, 8cc.
The lofty ode demands the ftrongeft fire,
For there the mufe all Phoebus muft infpire:
Mounting to heav’n in her ambitious flight,
Amongft the Gods and heroes takes delight;
Of Pifa’s wreftlers tells the finewy force,
And fings the dufty conqueror’s glorious courfe ;
35 L 2 To
6299
Of Lyric
Poetry.
6300
Of Lyric
Poetry.
TRY. Part II.
Longinus has preferved a fragment of Sappho, an Of Lytic
ancient Greek poetefs, which is in great reputation a- PQetr>’>
mongft the critics, and has been fo happily tranflated
by'Mr Philips, as to give the Engliih reader a juft
idea of the fpirit, eafe, and elegance of that admired
author ; and (how how exadtly ftie copied nature. To
enter into the beauties of this ode, we muft fuppofe
a lover fitting by his miftrefs, and thus exprelfing his
palfion :
POE
To Sitnois’ banks now fierce Achilles fends,
Beneath the Gallic yoke now Efcaut bends:
Sometimes file flies, like an induftrious bee,
And robs the flow’rs by nature’s chemiftry;
Defcribes the fhepherds dances, feafts, and blifs,
And boafts from Phillis to furprife a kifs,
When gently Ihe refifts with feign’d remorfe,
That what (he grants may feem to be by force.
Her generous ftyle will oft at random (tart
And by a brave diforder (how her art;
Unlike thofe fearful poets whofe cold rhyme
In all their raptures keeps exafteft time,
Who fing the illuflrious hero’s mighty praife,
Dry journalifts, by terms of weeks and days;
To thefe, Apollo, thrifty of his fire,
Denies a place in the Pierian choir, &c.
Soames.
The variety of fubje&s, which are allowed the ly¬
ric poet, makes it neceflary to confider this fpecies of
poetry under the following heads, viz. the fublime
ode, the leffer ode, and the fong. We (hall begin
with the lowed, and proceed to that which is more
eminent.
54. I. Songs are little poetical compofitions, ufually
fet to a tune, and frequently fung in company by way
of entertainment and diverfion. Of thefe we have in
our language a great number; but, confidering that
number, not many which are excellent; for, as the duke
of Buckingham obferves,
Tho’ nothing feems more eafy, yet no part
Of poetry requires a nicer art.
The fong admits of almoft any fubjeft; but the
greateft part of them turn either upon love, content¬
ment, or the pleafures of a country life, and drinking.
Be the fubjed, however, what it will, the verfes (hould
be tafy, natural, and flowing, and contain a certain
harmony, fo that poetry and mufic may be agreeably
united. In thefe compofitions, as in all others, ob-
feene and profane exprefiions (hould be carefully avoid¬
ed, and indeed every thing that tends to take off that
refped which is due to religion and virtue, and to en¬
courage vice and immorality. As the bed fongs in
our language are already in every hand, it would feem
fuperfluous to infert examples. For further precepts,
however, as well as feled examples, in this fpecies of
compofition,wemay refer the reader to the elegantit^y'
on Song 'writing, by Mr Aikin.
55. II. The lejfer ode. The diftinguifliing chara&er of
this is fweetnefs; and as the pleafure we receive from
this fort of poem, arifes principally from its foothing and
affeding the pafiions, great regard (hould be paid to
the language, as well as to the thoughts and numbers.
The exprtfiion (hould be eafy, fancy high ;
Yet that not feem to creep, nor this to fly :
No words tranfpos’d, but in fuch order all,
As, tho’ hard wrought, may feem by chance to fall.
D. Buckingham's Bffay.
The ftyle, indeed, (hould be eafy : but it may be
alfo florid and figurative. It folicits delicacy, but dif-
dains affedation. The thoughts fhould be natural,
chalte, and elegant; and the numbers various, fmooth,
and harmonious. A few examples will fufficiently ex¬
plain what we mean.
Bleft as th’ immortal gods is he,
The youth who fondly fits by thee,
And fees and hears thee all the while
Softly fpeak, and fweetly fmile.
’Twas this depriv’d my foul of reft.
And rais’d fuch tumults in my breaft ;
For while I gaz’d, in tranfport toft,
My breath was gone, my voice was loft.
My bofom glow’d, the fubtle flame
Ran qyick through all my vital frame:
O’er my dim eyes a darknefs hung ;
My ears with hollow murmurs rung.
In dewy damps my limbs were chill’d ;
My blood with gentle horrors thrill’d;
My feeble pulfe forgot to play ;
I fainted, funk, and dy’daway.
After this inftance of the Sapphic ode, it may not
be improper to fpeak of that fort of ode which is call¬
ed Anacreontic ; being written in the manner and tafte
of Anacreon, a Greek poet, famous for the delicacy of
his wit, and the exquifite, yet eafy and natural turn
of his poefy. We have feveral of his odes ftill extant,
and many modern ones in imitation of him, which are
moftly compofed in verfes of feven fyllables, or three
feet and a half.
We (hall give the young ftudent one or two ex¬
amples of his manner from Mr Fawkes’s excellent tranf-
lation.
The following ode on the power of gold, which had
been often attempted with but little fuccefs, this gentle¬
man has tranflated very happily.
Love’s a pain that works our wo;
Not to love, is painful too:
But, alas! the greateft pain
Waits the love that meets difdain.
What avails ingenuous worth.
Sprightly wit, or noble birth ?
All thefe virtues ufelefs prove ;
Gold alone engages love.
May he be completely curft,
Who the fleeping mifehief firft
Wak’d to life, and, vile before,
Stamp’d with worth the fordid ore.
Gold creates in brethren ftrife;
Gold deftroys the parent’s life;
Gold produces civil jars,
Murders, maffacres, and wars;
But, the word effedl of gold,
Love, alas! is bought and fold.
His ode on the vanity of riches, is of a piece with
the above, and conveys»a good leffon to thofe who are
over anxious for wealth.
If the treafur’d gold could give
Man a longer ttna to live,
I’d
POE
Fd employ my utmoft care
Still to keep, and (till tofpare;
And, when death approach’d, would fay,
* Take thy fee, and walk away.’
But fince riches cannot fave
Mortals from the gloomy grave,
Why ftiould I myfelf deceive.
Vainly figh, and vainly grieve ?
Death will furely be my lot,
Whether I am rich or not.
Give me freely while I live
Generous wines, in plenty give
Soothing joys my life to cheer,
Beauty kind, and friends fincere ;
Happy! could I ever find
Friends fincere, and beauty kind.
But two of the moft admired, and perhaps the moft
imitated, of Anacreon’s odes, are that of Mars wound¬
ed by one of the darts of Love, and Cupid flung by
a Bee ; both which are wrought up with fancy and
delicacy, and are tranflated with elegance and fpirit.—
Take that of Cupid flung by a bee.
Once as Cupid, tir’d with play,
On a bed of rofes lay,
A rude bee, that flept unfeen.
The fweet breathing buds between,
Stung his finger, cruel chance !
With its little pointed lance.
Strait he fills the air with cries,
Weeps, and fobs, and runs, and flies j
’Till the god to Venus came,
Lovely, laughter-loving dame :
Then he thus began to plain ;
“ Oh ! undone, 1 die with pain 
“ Dear mamma, a ferpent fmall,
“ Which a Bee the ploughmen call,
“ Imp’d with wings, and arm’d with dart,
“ Oh ! has flung me to the heart.”
Venus thus reply’d, and fmil’d :
‘ Dry thofe tears for fliame ! my child ;
* If a bee can wound fo deep,
‘ Caufing Cupid thus to weep,
‘ Think, O think ! what cruel pains
* He that’s flung by thee fuftains.’
Mr Prior, whofe poetical works will be ever admi¬
red for the natural eafe and elegance of his ftyle, as
well as for the delicacy of his wit, has in feveral of his
odes the very fpirit and air of Anacreon. The fol¬
lowing ode, in which he defcribes the effe&s of love,
and infinuates that the eyes are the beft interpreters
6f the heart, is written exa&ly in his manner.
The merchant, to fecure his treafure,
Conveys it in a borrow’d name:
Euphelia ferves to grace my meafure j
But Chloe is my real flame.
My fofteft verfe, my darling lyre,
Upon Euphelia’s toilet lay ;
When Cbloe noted her, defire,
That I Ihould fing, that I (hould play.
My lyre I tune, my voice I raife;
But with my numbers mix my fighs j
And whilft I fing Euphelia’s praife,
I fix my foul on Chloe’s eyes.
t R Y.
Fair Chloe blufh’d: Euphelia frown’d :
I fung and gaz’d ; I play’d and trembled :
And Venus, to the Loves around,
Remark’d how ill we all difiembled.
This ingenious author has given us feveral odes in
the fpirit and manner of Horace, as well as of Ana¬
creon ; and the following /Inf'wcr to Chloe jealous,
which was written when he was fick, has much of the
elegant tendernefs of Sappho.
Yes, faireft proof of beauty’s pow’r,
Dear idol of my panting heart,
Nature points this my fatal hour :
And I have liv’d j and we muft part.
While now I take my laft adieu,
Heave thou no figh, nor died a tear j
Left yet my half-clos’d eye may view
On earth an objett worth its care.
From jealoufy’s tormenting ftrife
For ever be thy bofom freed ;
That nothing may difturb thy life.
Content I haften to the dead:
Yet when fome better-fated youth
Shall with his am’rous parly move thee,
Refleft one moment on his truth
Who, dying, thus perfifts to love thee.
And in the piece which immediately follows, inti-
tled, .1' better Anfwer to Chloe jealous, he has, toge¬
ther with the gaiety and wit of Anacreon and Ho¬
race, blended fome ftrokes of humour.
Dear Chloe, how blubber’d is that pretty face ?
Thy cheek all on fire, and thy hair all uncurl’d :
Prithee quit this caprice ; and (as old FalftafF lays)
Let us e’en talk a little like folks of this world.
How canft thou prefume thou haft leave to deftroy
The beauties which Venus but lent to thy keeping?
Thofe looks were defign’d to infpire love and joy :
More ordinary- eyes may ferve people for weeping.
To be vext at a trifle or two that I writ,
Your judgment at once and my paffion you wrong:
You take that for faft, which will fcarce be found wiu
Od’s life ! muft one fwear to the truth of a fong ?
What I fpeak, my fair Chloe, and what I write, (hows
The difPrence there is betwixt nature and art:
I court others in verfe ; but I love thee in profe ;
And they have my whimfies, but thou hail my heart..
The god of us verfe-men (you know, child) the Sun,
How after his journeys he fets up his reft ;
If at morning o’er earth ’tis his fancy to run,
At night he reclines on his Thetis’s bread.
So when I am weary’d with wand’ring all day,
To thee, my delight, in the evening I come ;
No matter what beauties I faw in my way.
They were but my vifits, but thou art my home.
Then finilh, dear Chloe, this paftoral war,
And let us like Horace and Lydia agree;
For thou art a girl as much brighter than her,
As he was a poet fublimer than me.
There is much, of the foftnefs of Sappho, and the
fweetnefs of Anacreon and Prior, in the following ode j
which is afcribed to the late unfortunate Dr Dodd,
and was written in compliment to a lady, who, be¬
ing fick, had fent the author a mofs rofe-bud, inftead.
Part II.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
63OI
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Poetry.
6302
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POETRY.
of making his family a vifit. This piece is particularly
to be efteemed for the juft and ftriking moral with
which it is pointed.
The flighted of favours bellow'd by the fair,
With rapture we take, and with triumph we wear:
But a mofs-woven rofe bud, Eliza, from thee,
A well-pleafing gift to a monarch would be.
  Ah! that illnefs, too cruel, forbidding fhou’d ftand,
And refufe me the gift from thy own lovely hand 1
With joy I receive it, with pleafure will view,
Reminded of thee, by its odour and hue :
“ Sweet rofe, let me tell thee, tho’charming thy bloom,
Tho’ thy fragrance excels Seba’s richeft perfume ;
Thy breath to Eliza’s no fragrance hath in’t,
And but dull is thy bloom to her cheek’s blufhing tint.
Yet, alas! my fair flow’r, that bloom will decay,
And all thy lov’d beauties foon wither away ;
Tho’pluck’d byher hand,to whofe touch, we muft own,
Harfh and rough is the cygnet’s mod delicate down
Thou too, fnowyhand ;—nay, I mean not to preachj
But the rofe, lovely moralift, fuffer to teach.
“ Extol not, fair maiden, thy beauties o’er mine;
They too are (hort-liv’d, and they too muft decline;
And fmall, in conclufion, the diff’rence appears,
In the bloom of few days, or the bloom of few years!
But remember a virtue the rofe hath toboaft,
—Its fragrance remains when its beauties are loft !”
56. We come now to thofe odes of the more florid
and figurative kind, of which we have many in our
language that deferve particular commendation. Mr
Warton’s Ode to Fancy has been jullly admired by the
beft judges ; for though it has a diftant refemblance
of Milton’s L’Allegro and II Penferofo, yet the work
is original; the thoughts are moftly new and various,
and the language and numbers elegant, expreffive, and
harmonious.
O parent of each lovely m*ife.
Thy fpirit o’er my foul diffufe !
O’er all my artlefs fongs prefide,
My footfteps to thy temple guide !
To offer at thy turf-built flnine
In golden cups no coftly wine,
No murder’d falling of the flock,
But flow’rs’ and honey from the rock.
O nymph, with looicly flowing hair,
With bufkin’d leg, and bofom bare ;
Thy waift with myrtle-girdle bound,
Thy brows with Indian feathers crown’d ;
Waving in thy fnowy hand
An all-commanding magic wand.
Of pow’r to bid frefh gardens blow
’Mid cheerlefs Lapland’s barren fnow ;
Whofe rapid wings thy flight convey,
Thro’ air, and over earth and fea ;
While the vaft various landfcape lies
Confpicuous to thy piercing eyes.
O lover of the defart, hail!
Say, in what deep and pathlefs vale,
Or on what hoary mountain’s fide,
’Midft falls of water, you refide ;
’Midft broken rocks, a rugged fcene,
With green and graffy daks between ;
’Midft forefts dark of aged oak,
Ne’er echoing with the woodman’s ftroke ;
Where never human art appear’d,
Nor ev’n one ttraw-roof’d cott was rear’d ;
Where Nature feems to fit alone,
Majeftic on a craggy throne.
Tell me the path, fweet wand’rer! tell,
To thy unknown fequefter’d cell,
Where woodbines clufter round the door,
Where ftiells and mofs o’erlay the floor;
And on whofe top an hawthorn blows,
Amid whofe thickly-woven boughs
Some nightingale ftill builds her neft,
Each ev’ning warbling thee to reft.
Then lay me by the haunted ftream.
Wrapt in fome wild, poetic dream ;
In converfe while methinks I rove
With Spenfer thro’ a fairy grove ;
Till fuddenly awak’d, I hear
Strange whifper’d mufic in my ear ;
And my glad foul in blifs is drown’d,
By the fweetly-foothing found !
Me, goddefs, by the right-hand lead.
Sometimes thro’ the yellow mead ;
Where Joy and white rob’d Peace refort,
And Venus keeps her feftive court;
Where Mirth and Youth each ev’ning meet,
And lightly trip with nimble feet,
Nodding their lily-crowned heads,
Where Laughter rofe-ltp’d Hebe leads;
Wht - e Echo walks tteep hills among,
Lift’ning to the fhepherd’s fong.
Yet not thefe flow’ry fields of joy,
Can long my penfive mind employ ;
Halle, Fancy, from the fcenes of Folly,
To meet the matron Melancholy !
Goddefs of the tearful eye,
That loves to fold her arms and figh.
Let us with filent footfteps go
To charnels, and the houfe of wo ;
To Gothifc churches, vaults, and tombs.
Where each fad night fome virgin comes,
With throbbing breaft and faded cheek.
Her promis’d bridegroom’s urn to feek:
Or to fome abbey’s mould’ring tow’rs,
Where, to avoid cold wint’ry (how’rs,
The naked beggar fliivering lies,
While whiftling tempells round her rife,
And trembles left the tott’ring wall
Should on her fleeping infants fall.
Now let us louder ftrike the lyre,
For my heart glows with martial fire ;
I feel, I feel, with fudden heat,
My big tumultuous bofom beat;
The trumpet’s clangors pierce my ear,
A thoufand widows fhrieks I hear:
Give me another horfe, I cry;
Lo, the bafe Gallic fquadrons fly !
Whence is this rage ?—what fpirit, fay,
To battle'hurries me away ?
’Tis Fancy, in her fiery car,
Tranfports me to the thickeft war ;
There whirls me o’er the hills of flain,
Where tumult and deftrudion reign ;
Where,
Part II.
Of Lyric
Part II.
POETRY.
Of Lyric Where, mad with pain, the wounded fteed,
Poetry. Tramples the dying and the dead;
~ Where giant Terror ftalks around,
With fullen joy furveys the ground,
And, pointing to th’ enfanguin’d field,
Shakes his dreadful gorgon fhield !
O guide me from this horrid fcene
To high*arch’d walks, and alleys green,
Which lovely Laura feeksij to (hun
The fervors of the mid-day fun.
The pangs of abfence, O remove,
For thou can’ll place me near my love ;
Can’ll fold in vifionary blifs,
And let me think I (teal a kifs;
While her ruby lips difpenfe
Lufcious nectar’s quinteffence !
When young ey’d Spring profufely throws
From her green lap the pink and rofe ;
When the foft turtle of the dale
To Summer tells her tender tale ;
When Autumn cooling caverns feeks,
And ftains with wine his jolly cheeks;
When Winter, like poor pilgrim old,
Shakes his filver beard with cold;
At ev’ry feafon, let my ear
Thy folemn whifpers, Fancy, hear.
O warm enthufiaflic maid!
Without thy pow’rful, vital aid,
That breathes an energy divine.
That gives a foul to ev’ry line,
Ne’er may I drive with lips profane,
To utter an unhallow’d drain ;
Nor dare to touch the facred dring,
Save when with fmiles thou bid’d me fing.
O hear our pray’r, O hither come
From thy lamented Shakefpeare’s tomb,
On which thou lov’d to fit at eve,
Mufing o’er thy darling’s grave.
O queen of numbers, once again,
Animate fome chofen fwain,
Who, fill’d with unexhauded fire,
May boldly fmite the founding lyre,
Who with fome new, unequall’d fong,
May rife above the rhyming throng ;
O’er all our lid’ning paffions reign,
O’erwhelm our fouls with joy and pain ;
With terror (hake, with pity move,
Rouze with revenge, or melt with love.
O deign t’attend his evening walk,
With him in groves and grottoes talk ;
Teach him to fcorn, with frigid art,
Feebly to touch th’enraptur’d heart;
Like light’ning, let his mighty verfe
The bofom’s inmod foldings pierce ;
With native beauties win applaufe.
Beyond cold critics dudied laws:
O let each mufe’s fame increafe,
O bid Britannia rival Greece !
The following ode, written by Mr. Smart on the
5th of December, (being the birth-day of a beautiful
young lady), is much to be admired for the variety
and harmony of the numbers, as well as for the beau¬
ty of the thoughts, and the elegance and delicacy of
the comjlment. It has great fire, and yet great
6303
fweetnefs, and is the happy iffue of genius and judge- °f Lyric
ment united. Poetry-
Hail, elded of the monthly train,
Sire of the winter drear,
December ! in whofe iron reign
Expires the chequer’d year.
Hufh all the blud’ring blads that blow.
And proudly plum’d in filver fnow,
Smile gladly on this bled of days ;
The livery’d clouds lhall on thee wait,
And Phoebus (bine in all his date
With more than fummer rays.
Tho’jocund June may jullly boad
Long days and happy hours ;
Tho’ Augud be Pomona’s hod,
And May be crown’d with flow’rs :
Tell June, his fire and crimfon dies.
By Harriot’s blulh, and Harriot’s eyes,
Eclips’d and vanquilh’d, fade away j
Tell Augud, thou cand let him fee
A richer, riper fruit than he,
A fweeter flow’r than May.
The enfuing ode, written by Mr Collins on the
death of Mr Thompfon, is of the padoral and elegiac
kind, and both pifturefque and pathetic. To perceive
all the beauties of this little piece, which are indeed
many, we mud fuppofe them to have been deliver’d
on the river Thames near Richmond.
In yonder grave a Druid lies,
Where fiowly winds the dealing wave ;
The year’s bell fweets lhall duteous rife
To deck its poet’s fylvan grave !
In yon deep bed of whifp’ring reeds
His airy harp * fhall now be laid, * The harp
That he, whofe heart in forrow bleeds, of ^olus.
May love thro’ life the foothing (hade.
Then maids and youths (hall linger here,
And, while its founds at didance fwell.
Shall fadly feem in pity’s ear
To hear the woodland pilgrim’s knell.
Remembrance oft lhall haunt the /bore,
When Thames in fummer wreaths is dred,
And oft fufpend the dafhing oar,
To bid his gentle fpirit red !
And oft as eafe and health retire
To breezy lawn, or fored deep,
The friend fhall view yon whitening fpire f, t R>ch-
And ’mid the varied iandfcape weep. mond-
But thou, who own’d that earthy bed.
Ah ! what will ev’ry dirge avail ?
Or tears, which love and pity died.
That mourn beneath the gliding fail ?
Yet lives there one, whofe heedlefs eye,
Shall fcorn thy pale fhrine glimm’ring near ?
With him, fweet bard, may fancy die.
And joy defert the blooming year.
But thou, lorn dream, whofe fullen tide
No fedge-crown’d fiders now attend,
Now waft me from the green hill’s fide,
Whofe cold turf hides the buried friend.
And fee, the fairy valleys fade,
Dim night has veil’d the folemn view !
Yet once again, dear parted (hade,
Meek nature’s child, again adieu J
The
6304
Of l.yric
Poetry.
TRY. Part II.
Amid the verdant landfleip flow. °f Lyric
Tho’ in the paths of death I treadf Poctry‘
With gloomy horrors overfpread,
My iteadfaft heart fliall fear no ill:
For thou, O Lord, art with me ftill;
Thy friendly crook fhall give me aid,
And guide me through the dreadful (hade.
Tho’ in a bare and rugged way,
Through devious lonely wilds I ftray,
Thy bounty (hall my pains beguile:
The barren wildernefs ftiall fmile,
With fudden greens and herbage crown’d;
And dreams (hall murmur all around.
POE
The genial meads, affign’d to blefs
Thy life, (hall mourn thy early doom;
Their hinds, and (hepherd girls, (hall drefs.
With Ample hands thy rural tomb.
Long, long, thy done and pointed clay
Shall melt the muflng Briton’s eyes;
O vales and wild woods, (hall he fay,
In yonder grave your Druid lies !
57. Under this fpecies of the ode, notice ought to
he taken of thofe written on divine fubje6fs, and which
are ufually called hymns. Of thefe we have many in
our language, but none perhaps that are fo much ad¬
mired as Mr Addifon’s. The beauties of the follow-
«ng hymn are too well known, and too obvious, to need
any commendation ; we (hall only obferve, therefore,
that in this hymn (intended to difplay the power of
the Almighty) he feems to have had a pfalm of David
in his view, which fays, that “ the heavens declare the
glory of God, and the Armament (heweth his handy-
work.”
The fpacious Armament on high,
With all the blue etherial (ley,
And fpangled heav’ns, a (hining frame,
Their great original proclaim :
Th’unwearied fun, from day to day,
Does his Creator’s pow’r difplay,
And publiflies to ev’ry land
The work of an Almighty hand.
Soon as the ev’ning (hades prevail,
The moon takes up the wond’rous tale,
And nightly to the lift’ning earth
Repeats the (lory of her birth :
While all the ftars that round her burn,
And all the planets in their turn,
Conflrm the tidings as they roll,
And fpread the truth from pole to pole.
What tho’ in folemn filence all
Move round the dark terreftrial ball ?
What tho’ nor real voice or found
Amid their radiant orb be found ?
In reafon’s ear they all rejoice,
And utter forth a glorious voice,
For ever Anging, as they (hine,
“ The hand that made us is divine.’’
The following paftoral hymn is a verflon of the 23d
Pfalm by Mr Addifon; the peculiar beauties of which
have occafloned many tranflations; but we have feen
none that is fo poetical and perfedt as this. And in
juftice to Dr Boyce, we muft obferve, that the muflc
he has adapted to it is fo fweet and exprefiive, that we
know not which is to be mod admired, the poet or the
mufician.
The Lord my paflure (hall prepare,
And feed me with a (hepherd’s care;
His prefence (hall my wants fupply,
And guard me with a watchful eye;
My noon-day walks he dial] attend,
And all my midnight hours defend.
When in the fultry glebe I faint.
Or on the thirfty mountain pant,
To fertile vales and dewy meads,
My weary wand’ring fteps he leads;
Where peaceful rivers foft and flow,
58. III. We are now to fpeak of thofe odes which
are of the fublime and noble kind, and diftinguiftted
from others by their elevation of thought and diclion,
as well as by the variety or irregularity of fheir num¬
bers, as the frequent tranfltions and bold excurflons
with which they are enriched.
To give the young ftudent an idea of the fudden
and frequent tranfltions, digreffions, and excurflons,
which are admitted into the odes of the ancients, we
cannot do better than refer him to the celebrated fong,
or ode, of Mofes; which is theoldeft that we know of,
and was penned by that divine author immediately af¬
ter the children of Ifrael crofled the Red-Sea.
At the end of this fong, we are told, that “ Miriam
the prophetefs, the filler of Aaron, took a timbrel in
her hand, and all the women went out after her with
timbrels and with dances. And Miriam artfwered them.
Sing ye to the Lord, for he hath triumphed glori-
oufly; the horfe and his rider hath he thrown into the
fea.”
From this lad paflage it is plain, that the ancients,
very early, called in muflc to the aid of poetry; and
that their odes were ufually fung, and accompanied
with their lutes, harps, lyres, timbrels, and other in-
flruments: nay, fo effential, and in fuch reputation, was
mufic held by the ancients, that we often find in their
lyric poets, addrefles or invocations to the harp, the
lute, or the lyre; and it was probably owing to the
frequent ufe made of the lad-mentioned inilrument
with the ode, that this fpecies of writing obtained the
name of Lyric poetry.
This ode, or hymn, which fome believe was compo-
fed by Mofes in Hebrew verfe, is incomparably better
than any thing the heathen poets have produced of the
kind, and is by all good judges confidered as a ma-
fter-piece of ancient eloquence. The thoughts are
noble and fublime: the (lyle is magnificent and expref-
five: the figures are bold and animated: the tranfitions
and excurfions are fudden and frequent; but they are
(hort, and the poet, having digrefled for a moment,
returns immediately to the great objeft that excited
his wonder, and elevated his foul with joy and grati¬
tude. The images fill the mind with their greatnefs,
and (trike the imagination in a manner not to be ex-
preffed. It has not indeed the meafure, cadence, and
harmony, which we meet with in fome of the Greek
and Latin poets; but thefe, perhaps, may, in fome
meafure, have been loft in the tranflation.
59. We come now to the Pindaric ode, which is (if
we except the hymns in the Old Teftament, and the
Pfalms of king David) the ir.oft exalted part of Lyric
poetry;
Part IL POE
Of Lyric poetry; and was fo called from Pindar, an ancient
oetry- Greek poet, who is celebrated for the boldnefs of his
flights, the impetuofity of his flyle, and the feeming
wildnefs and irregularity that runs through his com-
pofitions, and which are faid to be the effedt of the
greateft art. (See Pindar.)
The odes of Pindar were held in fuch high eftima-
tion by the ancients, that it was fabled, in honour of
their fweetnefs, that the bees, while he was in the
cradle, brought honey to his lipsi nor did the vidtors
at the Olympic and other games think the crown a
fufficient reward for their merit, unlefs their atchieve-
ments were celebrated in Pindar's fongs; mod wifely
prefaging, that the firft would decay, but the other
endure for ever.
This poet did not always write his odes in the fame
meafure, or with the fame intention with regard to
their being fung. For the ode inferibed to Diagoras,
(the concluding ftanza of which we inferted at the be¬
ginning of this fedlion) is in heroic meafure, and all
the ftanzas are equal: there are others alfo, as Mr JVeJl
ebferves, made up of Jirophes and anti/irophes, without
any epode ; and feme compofed of Jirophes only, of dif¬
ferent lengths and meafures: but the greateft part of
his odes are divided into Jirophe, antijirophe, and
epode; in order, as Mr Congreve conje&ures, to their
being fung, and adrefled by the performers to different
parts of the audience. “ They were fung, fays he,
by a chorus, and adapted to the lyre, and fometimes
to the lyre and pipe. They confifted ofteneft of three
ftanzas. The firft was called the Jirophe, from the ver-
fion or circular motion of the fingers in that ftanza
from the right hand to the left. The fecond ftanza
was called the antijirophe, from the contraverfion of
the chorus; the fingers in performing that, turning
from the left hand to the right, contrary always to their
motion in the Jirophe. The third ftanza was called the
epode, (it may be as being the after-fong), which they
# prey fung in the middle, neither turning to one hand nor
to Weft's the other." But Dr JVeJi’i * friend is of opinion, that
Pindar. the performers alfo danced one way while they were
finging the Jirophe, and danced back as they fung the
antijirophe, till they came to the fame place again, and
then (landing dill they fung the epode. He has tranf-
lated a paffage from the Scholia on Hephajlion, in
proof of his opinion ; and obferves. that the dancing the
Jirophe and antijirophe in the fame fpace of ground, and
we may fuppofe the fame fpace of time alfo, (hows why
thofe two parts confifted of the fame length and meafure.
As the various meafures of Pindar's odes have been
the means of fo far mifleading fome of our modern
poets, as to induce them to call compofitions Pindaric
odes, that were not written in the method of Pindar, it
is neceffary to be a little more particular on this head,
and to give an example from that poet, the more
effe&ually to explain his manner; which we (hall take
from the tranflation of Dr Weji.
The eleventh Nr mean Ode.
This ode is inferibed to Arijiagoras, upon occa-
fion of his entering on his office of prefident or gover¬
nor of the ifland of Tenedos; fo that, although it is
placed among the Pi erne an odes, it has no fort of re¬
lation to thofe games, and is indeed properly an in¬
auguration ode, compofed to be fung by a chorus at
Vol. VIII. 2
TRY. 6305
the facrifices and the feafts made by Arijlagoras and his Of Lyric
colleagues, in the town-hall, at the time of their being Poetry-
invefted with the magiftracy, as is evident from many
exprefirons in the firft Jirophe and antijirophe.
Argument.
Pindar opens this ode with an invocation to Vejia
(the goddefs who prefided over the courts of juftice,
and whofe ftatue and altar were for that reafon placed
in the town-halls, or Prytanaums, as the Greeks called
them), befeeching her to receive favourably Artjiagoras
and his colleagues, who were then coming to offer fa¬
crifices to her, upon their entering on their office of
Prytans or magiftrates of Tenedos } which office con¬
tinuing for a-year, he begs the goddefs to take Ari-
Jiagoras under her protedion during that time, and to
condud him to the end of it without trouble or dif-
grace. From Arijiagoras, Pindar turns himfclf in the
next place to his father Arcefilas, whom he pronounces
happy, as well upon account of his fon's merit and
honaur, as upon his own great endowments and
good fortune; fuch as beauty, ftrength, courage,
riches, and glory refulting from his many vidories in
the games. But left he (hould be too much puffed up
with thefe praifes, he reminds him at the fame time of
his mortality, and tells him that his cloathing of flefh
is perKhable, that he mutt e’er long be cloathed with
earth, the end of all things : and yet, continues he, it
is butjuftice to praife and celebrate the worthy and
deferving, who from good citizens ought to receive
all kinds of honour and commendation; as Arijiagorast
for inftance, who hath rendered both himfelf and his
country illuftrious by the many vidories he hath ob¬
tained, to the number of fixteen, over the neighbour¬
ing youth, in the games exhibited in and about his ow*
country. From whence, fays the poet, I conclude he
would have come off vidorious even in the Pythian
and Olymic games, had he not been reftrained from en¬
gaging in thole famous lifts by the too timid and cau¬
tious love of his parents. Upon which he falls into a
moral refiedion upon the vanity of man’s hopes and
fears; by the former of which they are oftentimes ex¬
cited to attempts beyond their ftrength, which accor¬
dingly iffue in their difgrace ; as, on the other hand,
they are frequently reftrained, by unreafonable and ill-
grounded fears, from enterprizes, in which they would
in all probability have come off with honour. This
refledion he applies to Arijiagoras, by faying it was
very eafy to forefee what fuccefs he was like to meet
with, who both by father and mother was defeended
from a long train of great and valiant men. But here
again, with a very artful turn of flattery to his father
Arceftlas, whom lie had before reprefented as ftrong
and valiant, and famous for his vidories in the games,
he obferves that every generation, even of a great and
glorious family, is not equally illuftrious, any more
than the fields and trees are every year equally fruit¬
ful ; that the gods had not given mortals any certain
tokens, by which they might foreknow when the rich
years of virtueJhould fdcceed } whence it comes to pafs,
that men out of (elf-conceit and prefumption, are
perpetually laying fchemes, and .forming enterprizes,
without previoully confulting prudence or wifdnm,
whofe jlreams, fays he, lie remote and out of the
common road, from all which he infers, that it is
35 M better
6306 POE
Of Lyric better to moderate our defires, and fet bounds to our
Poetry, avarice and ambition ; with which moral precept he
' concludes the ode.
Strophe I.
Daughter of Rhea ! thou, whofe holy fire
Before .the awful feat of jutlice flames!
Sifter of heav’n’s almighty fire !
Sifter of Juno, who co equal claims
With Jove to fhare the empire of the Gods!
O virgin Vefta! to thy dread abodes,
Lo ! Ariftagoras direfts his pace !
Receive and near thy facred fceptre place
Him, and his colleagues, who, with honeft zeal.
O’er Tenedos prefide, and guard the public weal.
Antistrophe I.
Andlo! with frequent off’rings, they adore
Thee *, firft invok’d in ev’ry folemn pray’r!
To thee unmix’d libations pour,
And fill with od’rous fumes the fragrant air.
Around in feftive fongs the hymning choir
Mix the melodious voice and founding lyre,
While ftitl, prolong’d with hefpitable love,
Are folemniz’d the rites of genial Jove :
Then .guard him, Vefta, through his long career,
And let him clofe in joy his minifterial year.
E p o D e I.
But hail, Arcefilas! all hail
To thee, blefs’d father of a fon fo great!
Thou whom on fortune’s higheft fcale
The favourable hand of heav’n hath fet,
Thy manly form with beauty bath refin’d,
And match’d that beauty with a valiant mind.
Yet let not man. too much prefume,
Tho* grac’d with beauty’s faireft bloom ;
Tho’ for fuperior ftrength renown’d ;
Tho’ with triumphal chaplets crown’d:
Let him remember, that, in flelh array’d,
Soon lhall he fee that mortal veftment fade-;
Till loft, imprifon’d in the mould’ring urn,
To earth, the end of all things, he return.
Strophe II.
Yet fhould the worthy from the public tongue
Receive their recompence of virtuous praife ;
By ev’ry zealous patriot fung,
And deck’d with ev’ry flow’r of heav’nly lays.
Such retribution in return for fame,
Such, Ariftagoras, thy virtues claim,
Claim from thy country ; on whofe glorious brows
The wreftler’s chaplet ftiil unfaded blows;
Mix’d with the great Pancratiaftic crown,
* A river, Wnich from the neighboring youth thyearly valour won
upon whofe . T,
banks the A N T I S T R o P H E II.
games3 were (but his timid parents’ cautious love,
exhibited. Difturbing ever his too forward hand,
f A fmall Forbad their tender fon to prove
hill planted The toils of Pythia’ or Olympia’s fands),
diat over^’ N°w by the Gods I fwear, his valorous might
looked the Had ’fcap’d victorious in each bloody fight;
Stadium at And from * Caftalia, or where dark with fhade
Olympia. Tjje | 0f Saturn rears its olive head,
TRY. Part II.
Great and illuftrious home had he return'd ; of kyrie
While, by his fame eclips’d, his vanquifh’d foes had Poetry,_
Lmourn’d,
E p o d e II,
Then, his triumpha! treffes bound
With the dark verdure of th’ Olympic grove,
With joyous banquets had he crown’d
The great quinquennial feftival of Jove j
And cheer’d the folemn pomp with choral lays,
Sweet tribute, which the mufe to virtue pays.
But, fuch is man’s prepoft’rous fate !
Now, with o’er-weening pride elate,
Too far he aims his fhaft to throw,
And draining burfts his feeble bow:
Now pufiilanimous deprefs’d with fear,
He checks his virtue in the mid-career;
And of his ftrength diftruftful, coward flies
- The conteft, tho’ empow’r’d to gain the prize.
Strophe III.
But who could err in pvophefying good
Of him, whofe undegenerating bread
Swells with a tide of Spartan blood,
From fire to fire in long fucceflion trac’d
Up to Pifander; who in days of yore
From old Amyclm to the Lefbian ftiore
And Tenedos, colleagu’d in high command
With great Oreftes, led th’ iEolian band ?
Nor was his mother’s race lefs ftrong and brave,
Sprung from a ftock that grew on fair j- Ifmenus’
Antistrophe III.
Tho’ for long intervals obfeur’d, again
Oft-times the feeds of lineal worth appear.
For neither can the furrow’d plain
Full harvefts yield with each returning year ;
Nor in each period will the pregnant bloom
Inveft the fmiling tree with rich perfume.
So, barren often and inglorious pafs
The generations of a noble race ;
While nature’s vigour, working at the root,
In after-ages fwells, and bloffomsinto fruit.
E p 0 d e III.
Nor hath Jove giv’n us to foreknow
When the rich years of virtue fhall fucceed :
Yet bold and daring on we go,
Contriving fchemes of many a mighty deed ;
While hope, fond inmate of the human mind,
And felf-opinion, aftive, rafli, and blind,
Hold up a falfe illufive ray,
That leads our dazzled feet aftray
Far from the fprings, where, calm and flow,
The fecret ftreams of wifdom flow.
Hence fhould we learn our ardour to reftrain :
And limit to due bounds the thirft of gain.
To rage and madnefs oft that paffion turns,
Which with forbidden flames defpairing burns.
60. From the above fpecimen, and from what we
have already faid on this fubjeCf, the reader will per¬
ceive, that odes of this fort are diftinguifhed by the
happy tranfitions and digreflions which they admit,
and the furprifmg yet natural returns to the fubjeft.
This requires great judgment and genius; and the
poet _
* It was
ufual in all
folemn fa-
crifices and
begin with
Ve^."8
f Ifmenus
of Boeotia,
of which
wave. MenaUp-35
pus, the
anceftor of
Ariftagoras
by the
mothet’s
fide.
Part II, POE
Of Lyric poet who would excel in thi? kind of writing, Ihould
1>oetry- draw the plan of his poem, in manner of the argument
we have above inferted, and mark out the places where
thofe elegant and beautiful fallies and wanderings may
be made, and where the returns will be eafy aad pro*
per.
Pindar, it is univerfally allowed, had a pqftical and
fertile imagination, a warm and enthufiaftic genius, a
bold and figurative expreffion, and a concife and fen-
tentious ftyle : but it is generally fuppofed that many
of thofe pieces which procured him fuch extravagant
praifes and extraordinary teftimonies of efteem from
the ancients, are loft<5 and if they were not, it would
be perhapsimpoffible to convey them into ourlanguage;
for beauties of tjiis kind, like plants of an odoriferous
and delicate nature, are not to be tranfplanted into
another clime without lofing much of their fragrance,
or efiential quality.
61. With regard to thofe compofitions which are
ufually called Pindaric odes, (but which ought rather
to be diftinguilhed by the name of irregular odes), we
have many in our language that deferve particular
commendation : and the criticifm Mr Congreve has
given us on that fubjedf, has too much afperity, and
too great latitude ; for if other writers have, by mif-
taking Pindar’s mealures, given their odes an impro¬
per title, it is a crime, one would think, not fo dan¬
gerous to the commonwealth of letters, as to deferve
fuch fevere reproof. Befide which, we may fuppofe
that fome of thefe writers did not deviate from Pindar’s
method through ignorance, but by choice; and that
as their odes were not to be performed with both
finging and dancing, in the manner of Pindar’s, it
feemed unneceffary to confine the firft and fecond Itan-
zas to the fame exaft numbers as was done in hisftrophes
and antiftrophes. The poet therefore had a right to
indulge himfelf with more liberty ; and we cannot help
thinking, that the ode which Mr Dryden has given
us, intitled, Alexander’s Feajl, or the PowVr of Mufic,
is altogether as valuable in his loofe and wild num¬
bers, as it could have been if the ftanzas were more
regular, and written in the manner of Pindar. In
this ode there is a wonderful fublimity of thought,
a loftinefs and fweetnefs of expreffion, and a moil plea-
ling variety of numbers.
*Twas at the royal feaft, for Perfia won
By Philip’s warlike fon,
„ Aloft, in awful ftate,
The god like hero fate
On his imperial throne ; ‘
His valiant peers were plac’d around ;
Their brows with rofes and with myrtles bound,
(So (hould defert in arms be crown’d :)
Tlw lovely Thais by his fide
Sat like a blooming eadern bride,
In flow’r of youth and beauty’s pride.
Happy, happy, happy pair!
None but the brave,
None but the brave,
None but the brave,
None but the brave deferve the fair.
Chor. Happy, happy, &c.
Timotheus, plac’d on high
Amid the tuneful quire,
t r y. 6307
With flying fingers touch’d the lyre: Of Lyric
The trembling notes afeend the fky, Poetry,
And heav’nlyjoys infpire,
The fong began from Jove,
Who left his blisful feats above,
(Such is the pow’r of mighty love !)
A dragon’s fiery form bely'd the God ;
Sublime on radiant fpheres he rode,
When he to fair Olympia prefs’d ;
And while he fought her fnowy breaft :
Then round her flender waift he curl’d,
And damp’d an image of himfelf, a fov’reign of
the world.
The lift’ning crowd admire the lofty found.
A prefent deity, they fhout around ;
A prefent deity, the vaulted roofs rebound:
With raviih’d ears
The monarch hears,
Afiumes the God,
Affedts to nod,
And feems to fliake the fpheres.
Chor. With ravijh’dears, 8cc.
The praife of Bacchus then the fweet muficianfung;
Of Bacchus ever fair and ever young :
The jolly God in triumph comes ;
Sound the trumpets, beat the drums:
Fiulh’d with a purple grace.
He Aiows his honeft face :
Now give the hautboys breath; he comes, he comes!
Bacchus, ever fair and young,
Drinking joys did firft ordain :
Bacchus’ bleffings are a treafure.
Drinking is the foldier’s pleafure :
Rich the treafure,
Sweet the pleafure:
Sweet is pleafurc after pain.
Chor. Bacchus’ llejjings, &c.
Sooth’d with the found, the king grew vain.
Fought all his battles o’er again ;
And thrice he routed all his foes, and thrice he
flew the (lain.
The mafter faw the madnefs rife ;
His glowing cheeks, his ardent eyes ;
And while he heav’n ancf earth defy’d.
Chang’d his hand, and check’d his pride.
He chofe a mournful mufe
Soft pity to infufe :
He fung Darius great and good.
By too fevere a fate,
Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen,
Fallen from his high eftate,
And welt’ringin his blood ;
Deferted at his utmoft need,
By thofe his former bounty fed,
On the bare earth expos’d he lies,
With not a friend to clofe his eyes.
With down-call looks the joylefsvictor fat,.
Revolving in his alter’d foul
The various turns of chance below;
And now and then a figh he dole,
And tears began to flow.
Chor. Revolving, &c,
The mighty msfter fmil’d, to fee
That love was in the next degree :
*Twas but a kindred found to move ;
35 M z
For
6308
Of Lyric
Poetry.
TRY. PartlF.
As Mr Pope has employ'd his mafterly pen upon Of X.yric
the fame fubjeft, it would be doing him a fort of in- Poetry-
juftice not to let him appear with MrDryden. Each
of thefe odes, we may venture to fay, is written with
a fpirit of poetry peculiar to the great genius of their
refpedlive authors ; but which of them has fucceeded
Left, let the critics determine.
POE
For pity melts the mind to love.
Softly fweet, in Lydian meafures:
Soon he footh’d his foul to pleafures.
War, he fung, is toil and trouble ;
Honour but an empty bubble,
Never ending, ftill beginning.
Fighting ftill, and ftill deftroying.
If the world be worth thy winning,
Think, O think, it worth enjoying.
Lovely Thais fits befide thee,
Take the good the gods provide thee.
The many rend the Ikies with loud applaufe ;
So love was crown’d, but mufic won the caufe.
The prince, unable to conceal his pain,
Gaz’d on the fair,
Who caus’d his care,
And figh’d and look’d, figh’d and look'd,
Sigh’d and look’d, and figh’d again :
At length with love and wine at once opprefs’d,
The vanquifil’d vi&or funk upon her breaft.
Chor. The prince^ See.
Now ftrike the golden lyre again ;
A louder yet, and yet a louder ftrain.
Break his bands of fleep afunder.
And roufe him, like a rattling peal of thunder.
Hark! hark! the horrid found
Has rais’d up his head,
As awak’d from the dead,
And amaz’d he ftares round.
Revenge, revenge, Timotheus cries,
See the furies arife :
See the fnakes that they rear*
How they hifs in their hair,
And the fparkles that flafii from their eyes ;
Behold a ghaftly band,
Each a torch in his hand 1
Thofe are Grecian, that in battle were Ilain,
And unbury’d remain,
Inglorious on the plain.
Give the vengeance due
To the valiant crew.
Behold how they tofs their torches on high,
How they point to the Perfian abodes.
And glitt’ring temples of their hoftile gods.
The princes applaud, with a furious joy;
And thekingfeiz’da flambeau, with zeal todeftroy;
Thais led the way
To light him to his prey,
And, like another Helen, fir’d another Troy.
Chor. Andthe king feiz'd, &c.
Thus long ago,
While organs yet were mute ;
Timotheus, to his breathing flute.
And founding lyre,
Could fwell the foul to rage, or kindle foft defire.
At laft divine Cecilia came,
Ihventrefs of the vocal frame ;
The 'eet enthufiaft, from her facred ftore.
Enlarg'd the former narrow bounds,
And added length to folemn founds,
With nature’s mother-wit,andartsunknownbefore.
Let old Timotheus yield the prize,
Or both divide the crown ;
He rais’d a mortal to the Ikies ;
She drew an angel down.
Grand chor. At lajlt &c.
Defcend, ye Nine ! defeend and fihg
The breathing inftruments infpire,
Wake into voice each filent firing.
And fweep the founding lyre !
In a fadly-pleafing ftrain
Let the warbling lute complain:
Let the loud trumpet found.
Till the roofs all around
The Ihrill echoes rebound :
While, in more lengthen’d notes and flow,
The deep, majeftic, folemn organs blow.
Hark! the numbers foft and clear
Gently fteal upon the ear ;
Now louder, and yet louder rife,
And fill with fpreading founds the Ikies :
Exulting in triumph now fwell the bold notes,
In broken air, trembling, the wild mufic floats 5,
Till, by degrees, remote and final],
The lira ins decay,
And melt away
In a dying, dying fall.
By mufic minds an equal temper know.
Nor fwell too high, nor fink too low.
If in the breaft tumultuous joys arife,
Mufic her foft afiuafive voice applies;
Or when the foul isprefs’d with cares,
Exalts her in enliv’ning airs.
Warriors Ihe fires with animated founds,
Pours balm into the bleeding lover’s woundst
Melanaholy lifts her head,
Morpheus roufes from his bed,
Sloth unfolds her arms and wakes,
Lift’ning Envy drops her fnakes ;
Inteftine war no more our palfions wage,
And giddy fadtions hear away their rage.
But when our country’s caufe provokes to arms,
How martial mufic ev’fy bofom warms !
So when the firft bold veflel dar’d the feas.
High on theftern the Thracian rais’d his ftrainjs
While Argo faw her kindred trees
Defcend from Pelion to the main.
Tranfported Demi-gods flood round,
And men grew heroes at the found,
Enflam’d with glory’s charms :
Each chief his fevenfold Ihield difplay’d,
And half unflieath’d the Ihining blade ;
And feas, and rocks, and Ikies rebound.
To arms, to arms, t&arms!
But when through all th’ infernal bounds
Which flaming Phlegeton furrounds,
Love, ftrong as death the poet led
To the pale nations of the dead.
What founds were heard,
What feenes appear’d
O’er all the dreary coafts !-
Dreadful gleams,
Difmal fcceams,
Fires that glow.
J
Shrieks
1 Part II.
(H. Of Lyric
If Poetry.
POE
, Slifieks of wo,
Sullen moans,
Hollow groans,
And cries of tortur’d gliofts!
But hark! he ftrikes the golden lyre,
And fee, the tortur’d ghoits refpire !
See fhady forms advance!
Thy ftone, O' Sifyphus, (lands dill,
Ixion reds upon his wheel,
And the pale fpe&res dance !
The Furies fink upon their iron beds,
And fnakes uncurl’d hang liftning round their heads.
By the dreams that ever dow,
By the fragrant winds that Wow-
O’er the Eiyfian flow’rs ;
By thofe happy fouls who dwell
In yellow, meads of afphodel,
Or amaranthine bow’rs;
By the heroes armed (hades,
Glitt’ring thro’ the gloomy glades ;
By the youths who died for love,
Wand’ring in the myrtle grove ;
Redore, rdtore, Euridyce to life :
Oh take the hufband, or return the wife !
He fung, and hell confented
To hear the poet’s pray’f ;
Stern Proferpine relented,
And gave him back the fair.
Thus fong.could prevail
O’er death and o’er hell,
A conqued how hard and how glorious!
Tho’ fate had fad bound her
With Styx nine times round her,
Yet mulic and love were vittorious.
But foon, too foon, the lover turns his eyes:
Again (he falls, again (he dies, (he dies !
How wilt thou now the fatal liders move ?
No crime was fhine, if’tiano crime to love.
Now under hanging mountains,
Befide the fall of fountains,
Or where Hebrus wanders,
Rolling in mseanders,
All alone
Unheard, unknown,
He makes his moan ;
And calls her ghod,
For ever, ever, ever lod !
Now with furies furrounded,
Defpairing, confounded,
He trembles, he glows
Amidd Rhodope’s fnows:
See, wild as the winds, o’er the defart he flies!
Hark! Haemus refounds with theBacchanalscries
 Ah fee, he dies!
Yet even in death Eurydice he fung,
Eurydiee dill trembled on his tongue ;
Eurydice the woods,
Eurydice the doods,
Eurydice the rocks and hollow mountains rung.
Mufic the fierced grief can charm,
And fate’s fevered rage difarm :
Mufic can foften pain to eafe,
And make defpair and madnefs pleafe;
Our joys below it can improve,
And antedate the blifs above.
TRY.
This the divine Cecilia found,
And to her Maker’s praife confin’d the found.
When the full organ joins the tuneful quire,
Th’ immortal pojv’rs incline their ear ;
Borne on the fwelling notes our fouls afpire,
While folemn airs improve the facred fire.
And angels lean from heav’n to hear.
Of Orpheus now no more let poets tell.
To bright Cecilia greater pow’r is giv’n :
His numbers rais’d a (hade from hell,
Her’s lift the foul to heav’n.
The following imitation of the 9th ode of the firft
book of Horace, by Mr Congreve, is of the irregular
kind ; and has been much admir’d, as well for the
beautiful defeription of the winter, as for his moral re-
fledlions.
Blefs me, ’tis cold ! how chill the air !
How naked does the world appear!
But fee (big with the offspring of the north)
The teaming clouds bring forth :
A (how’r of foft and fleecy rain
Falls to new-clothe the earth again.
Behold the mountain-tops, around.
As if with fur of ermins crown’d:
And lo ! how by degrees
The univerfal mantle hides the trees
In hoary flakes, which downward fly.
As if it were the autumn of the fky ;
Trembling the groves fuftain the weight, and bow
Like aged Limbs, -which feebly go
Beneath a venerable head of fnow.
Diffufive cold does the whole earth invade;
Like a difeafe, thro’ all its veins ’tis fpread.
And each late living dream is numb’d and dead.
Let’s melt the frozen hours, make warm the air;
Let cheerful fires Sol’s feeble beams repair :
Fill the large bowl with fparkling wine; ,
Let’s drink, ’till our own faces (hine,
’Till we like funs appear.
To light and warm the hemifphere.
Wine can difpenfe to all both light and heat,'
They are with, wine incorporate :
That pow’rful juice, with which no cold dares mix.
Which (till is duid, and no frod can fix;
Let that but in abundance flow.
And let it dorm and thunder, hail and fnow,
’Tis heav’n’s concern ; and let it be
The care of heaven dill, for me.
Thofe winds, which rend the oaks and plough the fea,
Great Jove can, if he pleafe,
With one commanding nod appeafe.
Seek not to know to-morrow’s doom ;
That is not ours, which is to come.
The prefent moment’s all our ftore ;
The next (hould heav’n allow,
Then this will be no more:
So all our Life is but one indant now.
* Look on each day you’ve paft
To be a mighty treafure won :
And lay each moment out in hade ;
We’re fure to live too fad,
And cannot live too foon.
Youth does a thoufand pleafures bring
Which from decrepid age will fly ;
The
6309
Of Lyric
Poetry.
6^io POE
Of Lyric The flower® that flourifti In the fpring,
Poetry. jn winter’s cold embraces die.
” ' Now Love, that everlafting Boy, Invites
To revel, while you may, in foft delights.
Now the kind nymph yields all her charms,
Nor yields in vain to youthful arms:
Slowly fhe promifes at night to meet ;
But eagerly prevents the hour with fwifter feet;
To gloomy groves and lhades obfcure fhe flies,
There veils the bright confeffion of her eyes.
Unwilling fhe flays,
Would more unwillingly depart,
And in foft fighs conveys
The whifpers of her heart.
Still (he invites, and ftill denies,
And vows file’ll leave you if y’are rude }
Then from her ravifher fhe flies,
But flies to be purfu’d :
If from his fight fh? does herfelf convey,
With a feign’d laugh flie will herfelf betray,
And cunningly inftrudt him in the way.
Mr Mafon’s ode on Cotiftancy, which is alfo of the
irregular kind, {hows that thefe fort of odes are well
adapted to fubje&s of an elevated and fublime nature,
where much imagery is introduced.
Whence does thisfudden luftre rife,
That gilds the grove ? Not like the noon-tide beam
Which fparkling dances on the trembling ftrcam.
Nor the blue lightning’s flafh fwift-fhooting thro’ the
But fuch a folemn fteady light, [Ikies;
As o’er the cloudlefs azure fteals,
When Cynthia, riding on the brow of night.
Stops in their mid career her filver wheels.
Whence can it rife, but from the fober pow’r
Of Constancy ? (he, heaven-born queen,
Defcends, and in this (a) woobine-vefted bower
Fixes her ftedfaft reign :
Stedfaft as when her high command
Gives to the ftarry band
Their radiant ftations in heav’n’s ample plain :
Stedfaft, as when around this nether fphere
She winds the purple year:
Tells what time the fnow-drop cold
Its maiden whitenefs may unfold.
When the golden harveft bend ;
Then bids pale Winter wake to pour
The pearly hail’s tranllucent fhow’r.
When the ruddy fruits defcend,
To call his filv’ry mantle o’er the woods,
And bind in cryftal chains the flumb’ring floods.
The foul, which fhe infpires, has pow’r to climb
To all the heights fublime
Of virtue’s tow’ring hill.
That hill, at whofe low foot weak warbling ftrays
The fcanty ftream of human praife,
A fhallow trickling rill.
While on the fummits hov’ring angels filed
From their bleft pinions the nedfarious dews
Of rich immortal fame : from thefe the mufe
T 11 Y, Part II.
Oft fteals fome precious drops, and blends with art Of Lyric,
With thofe the lower ftreams impart; ’ Poetry.
Then fhow’rs it all on fome high-favour’d head. ' "
But thou, Elfrida, claim’ft the genuine dew;
Thy worth demands it all,
Pure and unmixt on thee the facred drops fhall fall.
We fhall conclude this fe&ion, and thefe examples,
with Dr Akenfide’s ode on the fubjeA we have been
treating of. In this piece, which is an original of the
kind, the meafures are varied in imitation of thofe an¬
cients who have excelled in lyric poetry.
Once more I join the Thefpian quire.
And tafte th’ infpiring fount again,
O parent of the Grecian lyre,
Admit me to thy Cacred ftrain—
And lo! with eafe my ftep invades
The pathlefs vaie and opening {hades,
’Till now I fpy her verdant feat ;
And now at large I drink the found,
While theft her offspring, lift’ning round,
By turns her melody repeat.
I fee Anacreon fmile and fing,
His filver trefles breathe perfume ;
His cheek difplays a fecond fpring
Of rofts, taught by wine to bloom.
Away, deceitful cares, away !
And let me liften to his lay.
While flow’ry dreams my foul employ ;
While turtle-wing’d the laughing Hours,
Lead hand in hand the feftal pow’rs,
Lead Youth and Love, and harmlefs Joy.
Broke from the fetters of his native land,
Devoting fhame and vengeance to her lords,
With louder impulft, and a threat’ning hand.
The Lcfbian (b) patriot fmites the founding
Ye wretches, ye perfidious train, (chords :
Ye curft of gods and free 1 orn men,
Ye murd’rers of the laws,
Though now you glory in your luft,
Though now you tread the feeble neck in duft,
Yet time and righteous Jove will judge your dreadful
caufe.
But lo, to Sappho’s mournful airs
Defcends the radiant queen of love ;
She fmiles, and afks what fonder cares
Her fuppliant’s plaintive meafures move :
Why is my faithful maid diftreft?
Who, Sappho, wounds thy tender bread ?
Say, flies he?—foon he fhall purfue:
Shuns he thy gifts?—he too (hall give:
Slights he thy forrows?—he fhall grieve.
And bend him to thy haughty vow.
But, O Melpomene, for whom
Awakes thy golden fhtll again ?
What mortal breath fhall e’er prefurne
To echo that unbounded ftrain ?
Majeftic in the frown of years,
Behold the manf of Thebes appears: f PinJari
For fomc there are, whofe mighty frame
(a) In which Ethelwold and Elfrida had been juft exchanging profeffions of their mutual fidelity.
\b) Alcaeus of _Mitylene, the capital of Lefbos, who fled from his native city to efcape the operation of thofe
who had inflaved it, and wrote againft them in his exile thofe noble invectives which are much applauded by the an¬
cient critics.
Part II. POE
The Ode. The hand of Jove at birth endow’d
“ With hopes that mock the gazing crowd j
As eagles drink the noontide flame,
While the dim raven beats his weary wings,
And clamours far below.—Propitious mufe,
While I fo late unlock thy hallow’d fprings,
And breathe whate’er thy ancient airs infufe,
To polifh Albion’s warlike ear
This long-loft melody to hear,
Thy fweeteft arts employ ;
As when the winds from (bore to fhore,
Thro’ Greece thy lyre’s perfuafive language bore,
Till towns, and ifles, and feas return’d the vocal joy.
But oft amid the Grecian throngy
The loofe-rob’d forms of wild defire
With lawlefs notes inton’d thy fong,
To lhameful fteps diflbiv’d thy quire.
O fair, O chafte, be ftill with me,
From fuch profaner difcord free:
While I frequent thy tuneful (hade,
No frantic (houts of Thracian dames,
No fatyrs fierce with favage flames,
Thy pleafing accents (hall invade.
Queen of the lyre, in thy retreat,
The faireft flow’rs of Pindus glowy
The vine afpires to crown thy feat,
And myrtles round thy laurel grow.
Thy firings attune their varied lira in,.
To every pleafure, every pain,
Which mortal tribes were born to prove ;.
And ftrait our pafiions rife or fall,
As, at the winds imperious call,
The ocean fwells, the billows move.
When midnight liftens o’er the flumb’ring earth,
Let me, O mufe, thyfolemn whifpers hear:
When morning fends her fragrant breezes forth,
With airy murmurs touch my opening ear.
And ever watchful at thy fide,
Let wifdom’s awful fuffrage guide
The tenor of thy lay:
To her of old by Jove was giv’n
To judge the various deeds of earth and heav’n;
’Twas thine by gentle arts to win us to her fway.
Oft as from ftri&er hours refign’d,
I quit the maze where fcience toils,
Do thou refrelh my yielding mind
With all thy gay, delufive fpoils.
But, O indulgent, come not nigh
The hufy fteps, the jealous eye,
Of gainful Care and wealthy Age,
Whofe barren fouls thy joys difdain,
And hold as foes to reafon’s reign
Whome’er thy lovely haunts engage.
With me, when Mirth’s confenting band,
Around fair Friendfhip’s genial board,
Invite the heart-awakening hand,
With me falute the Teian chord.
Or if invok’d at fofter hours,
O feek with me the happy bow’rs
That hear Dione’s gentle tongue;
To beauty link’d with virtue’s train,
To love devoid of jealous pain,
There let the fapphic lute be ftrung.
But when from envy, and from death, to claim
A hero bleeding for his native land;
T it Y.
Or, when to nourilh freedom’s veftal flame,
I hear my genius utter his command;
Nor Theban voice, nor Lefbian lyre
From thee, O mufe, do I require,
While my prophetic mind,
Confcious of pow’rs fhe never knew,
Aftonifh’d, grafps at things beyond her view,
Nor by another’s fate hath felt herfelf confin’d.
Sect. III. Of the Elegy.
62. The Elegy is a ■mournful and plaintive, but yet
fweet and engaging kind of poem. It was firft invent¬
ed to bewail the death of a friend; and afterwards ufed
to exprefs the complaints of lovers, or any other me¬
lancholy fubjeft. In procefs of time, not only matters
of grief, but joy, wilhes, prayers, expoftulations, re¬
proaches, admonitions, and almoft every other fubjeft,
were admitted into elegy; however, funeral lamenta¬
tions and affairs of love feem molt agreeable to its cha-
rafter.
The plaintive elegy, in mournful ftate,
Difhevell’d weeps the flern decrees of fate:
Now paints the lover’s torments and delights ;
Now the nymph flatters, threatens, or invites.
But he, who would thefe paffions well exprefs,
Muft more of love than poetry poffefs.
I hate thofe lifelefs writers whofe forc’d fire
In a cold ftyle defcribes a hot defire;
Who figh by rule, and, raging in cold blood,
Their fluggifh mufe fpur to an am’rous mood. .
Their ecllafies infipidly they feign;
And always pine, and fondly hug their chain;
Adore their prifon, and their fufferings blefs;
Make fenfe and reafon quarrel as they pleafe.
’Twas not of old in this affefted tone,
That fmooth Tibullus made his am’rous moan;
Or tender Ovid, in melodious (trains.
Of love’s dear art the pleafing rules explains.
You, who in elegy would jultly write,
Confult your heart; let that alone endite.
[From the French of Defpreux-~\ ; Soames, -
The plan of an elegy, as indeed of all other poems,
ought to be made before a line is written; or elfe the
author will ramble in the dark, and his verfes have np
dependance on each other. No epigrammatic points or
conceits, none of thofe fine things which molt people
are fo fond of in every fort of poem, can be allowed
in this, but muft give place to nobler beauties, thofe
of nature and the pafions. Elegy rejects whatever is
facetious, fatirical, or majeftic, and is content to be
plain, decent, and unaffedted; yet in this humble ftate
is (he fweet and engaging, elegant and attractive.
This poem is adorned with frequent commiferations,
complaints, exclamations, addrejfes to things or perfons,
ftiort and proper digrejjions, allufions, comparifons, pro-
fcpopxias or feigned perfons, and fometimes with (hort
defcriptions. The didtion ought to be free from any
harfhnefs; neat, eafy, perfpicuous, expreffive of the. man¬
ners, tender, and pathetic; and the nambers (hould be
fmoothflowing, and captivate the ear with their uni¬
form fweetnefs and delicacy.
Of elegies on the fubjedt of death, that by Mr Gray,
written in a country church-yard, is one of the heft
that has appeared in our language, and may be juftly
efteemed
63II
Elegy.
6312 POE
Elegy- elleemed a mafterpiece. But being fo generally known,
' 1 ~~ it would be fuperfluous to infert it here.
On the fubjeft of love, we (hall give an example
from the elegies lately publiftied by Mr Hammond.
Let others boaft their heaps of (hiniog gold,
And view their fields with waving plenty crown’d,
Whom neighb’ring foes in conftant terror hold,
And trumpets break their (lumbers, never found:
While, calmly poor, I trifle life away,
Enjoy fweet leifure by my cheerful fire,
No wanton hope my quiet (hall betray,
But cheaply blefs’d I’ll fcorn each vain defire.
With timely care Til fow my l ittle field,
And plant my orchard with its mafter’s hand;
Nor blufh to fpread the hay, the hook to wield,
Or range the (heaves along the funny land.
If late at du(k, while carelefsly I roam,
I meet a (trolling kid or bleating lamb,
Under my arm I’ll bring the wand’rer home,
And not a little chide its tho'ughtlcfs dam.
What joy to hear the tempeft howl in vain,
And clafp a fearful miftrefs to my bread?
Or lull’d to dumber by the beating rain,
Secure and happy fink at lad to red.
Or if the fun in flaming Leo ride.
By fliady rivers indolently dray,
And, with my Delia walking fide by fide.
Hear how they murmur, as they glide away.
What joy to wind along the cool retreat,
To (lop and gFiZe on Delia as I go!
To mingle fweet difcourfe with kifles fweet.
And teach my lovely fcholar all I know!
Thus pleas’d at heart, and not with fancy’s dream,
In filent happinefs I red unknown;
Content with what I am, not what I feem,
I live for Delia and myfelf alone.
Ah foolifti man! who, thus of her poflefs’d,
Could float and wander with ambition’s wind,
And, if his outward trappings fpoke him bled,
Not heed the ficknefs of his confcious mind.
With her I fcorn the idle breath of praife.
Nor trud to happinefs that’s not our own ;
The fmile of fortune might fufpicion raife,
But here I know that I am lov’d alone.
Stanhope, in wifdom as in wit divine,
May rife and plead Britannia’s glorious caufe,
With deady reign his eager wit confine,
While manly fenfe the deep attention draws.
Let Stanhope fpeak his lid’ning country’s wrong,
My humble voice (hall pleafe one partial maid;
For her alone I pen my tender fong,
Securely fitting in his friendly (hade.
Stanhope (hall come, and grace his rural friend;
Delia (hall wonder at her noble gued,
With blufliing awe the riper fruit commend.
And for her hufband’s patron cull the bed.
Her’s be the care of all my little train,
While I with tender indolence am bled,
The favourite fubjeft of her gentle reign,
By love alone didinguilh’d from the red.
For her I’ll yoke my oxen to the plough,
In gloomy foreds tend my lonely dock,
For her a goat-herd climb the mountain’s brow,
And deep extended on the naked rock.
Ah! what avails to prefs the dately bed,
T R Y. Part II.
And far from her ’midfl tadelefs grandeur weep, Paftoral.
By warbling fountains lay the penfive head.
And, while they murmur, drive in vain to deep!
Delia alone can pleafe and never tire,
Exceed the paint of thought in true delight;
With her, enjoyment wakens new defire,
And equal rapture glows thro’ every night.
Beauty and worth, alone in her, contend,
To charm the fancy, and to fix the mind;
In her, my wife, my midrefs, and my friend,^
I tade the joys of fenfe and reafon join’d.
On her I’ll gaze when others loves are o’er.
And dying prefs her with my clay-cold band— —
Thou weep’d already, as I were no more,
Nor can that gentle bread the thought withdand.
Oh! when I die, my lated moments fpare,
Nor let thy grief with (harper torments kill;
Wound not thy cheeks, nor hurt that flowing hair;
Tlio’ I am dead, my foul (hall love thee dill.
Oh quit the room, oh quit the deathful bed,
Or thou wilt die, fo tender is thy heart!
Oh leave me, Delia! ere thou fee me dead,
Thefe weeping friends will do thy mournful part.
Let them, extended on the decent bier,
Convey the corfe in melancholy date,
•Thro’ all the village fpread the tender tear.
While pitying maids our wond’rous loves relate.
Sect. IV. Of the Paflorah
63. This poem takes its name from the Latin word
pajlor, a “ (hepherd;” the fubjeft of it being fome-
thing in the padoral or rural life; and the perfons, or
interlocutors, introduced in it, either (hepherds or o-
ther rudics.
Thefe poems are frequently called eclogues* which
fignifies “ feleft or choice pieces;” though fome ac¬
count for this name in a different manner. They are
alfo called bucolicks* from a “ herdfman.”
This kind of poem, when happily executed, gives
great delight ; nor is it a wonder, fince innocence and
fimplicity generally pleafe: to which let us add, that
the fcenes of padorals are generally laid in the coun¬
try, where both poet and painter have abundant mat¬
ter for the exercife of genius, fuch as enchanting pro-
fpeits, purling dreams, fhady groves, enamelled meads,
flowery lawns, rural amufements, the bleating of flocks,
and the mufic of birds; which is of all melody the
mod fweet and pleafing, and calls to our mind the wif¬
dom and tade of Alexander, who, on being importu¬
ned to hear a man that imitated the notes of the night¬
ingale, and was thought a great curiofity, repli'd, that
he had had the happinefs of hearing the nightingale her-
The chara&er of the padoral confids in fimplicity,
brevity, and delicacy; the two fird render an eclogue
natural, and'the lad delightful. With refpeft to na¬
ture, indeed, we are to conlider, that as a padoral is an
image of the ancient times of innocence and undefign-
ing plainnefs, we are not to defcribe (hepherds as they
really are at this day, but as they may be conceived
then to have been, when the bed of men, and even
princes, followed the employment. For this reafon, an
air of piety (hould run through the whole poem; which
is vifible in the writings of antiquity.
To make it natural with refped to the prefent age,
fome
Part II. POE
-Paftoral. f0me knowledge in »ural affairs fliould be difcovered,
and that in fuch a manner as if it was done by chance
rather than by defign; left by too much pains to feem
natural, that fimplicity be deftroyed fronv whence arifes
the delight; for what is fo engaging in'this kind of
poefy proceeds not fo much from the idea of a coun¬
try life itfelf, as in expofing only the bed part of a
fhepherd’s life, and concealing the misfortunes and mi-
feries which fometimes attend it. Befides, the fubjedt
muft contain fome particular beauty in itfelf, and each
eclogue prefent a feene or profpedt to our view enrich¬
ed with variety: which variety is in a great meafure
obtained by frequent comparifons drawn from the moft
agreeable obje&s of the country; by interrogations to
things inanimate ; by ftlort and beautiful digreffions;
and by elegant turns on the words, which render the
numbers more fweet and pleafing. To this let us add,
that the connexions muft be negligent, the narra¬
tions and deferiptions (hort, and the periods con-
cife.
Riddles, parables, proverbs, antique phrafes, and fu-
perftitious fables, are fit materials to be intermixed with
this kind of poem. They are here, when properly ap¬
plied, very ornamental; and the more fo, as they give
our modern compofitions the air of the ancient manner
of writing.
The ftyle of the paftoral ought to be humble, yet
pure; neat, but not florid; eafy, and yet lively: and
the numbers fhould be fmooth and flowing.
This poem in general fliould be rtiort, and ought
never much to exceed 100 lines ; for we are to confi-
der that the ancients made thefe fort of compofitions
their amufement, and not their bufinefs: but however
fhort they are, every eclogue muft contain a plot or
■fable, which muft be Ample and one; but yet fib ma¬
naged as to admit of ftiort digreffiona. Virgil has al¬
ways obferved this We ftiall give the plot or ar¬
gument of his firft paftoral as an example. Melibeeus,
an unfortunate Jhepherd,'is introduced nvith Tityrus, one
in snore fortunate circusvjlances } the former addrejfes the
complaint of his fujferings and hanifhment to the latter,
nvho enjoys his flocks and folds in the midji of the public
calamity, and therefore exprejfes his gratitude to the he-
faftor from ’whom this favour flo’wed: but Meliboeus ac-
cufes fortune, civil ’wars, and bids adieu to his native
country. This is therefore a dialogue.
But we are to obferve, that the poet is not always
obliged to make his eclogue allegorical, and to have
real perfons reprefented by the fittitious charaXers in¬
troduced ; but is in this refpeX entirely at his own li¬
berty.
Nor does the nature of the poem require it to be al¬
ways carried on by way of dialogue ; for a fhepherd
may with propriety fing the praifes of his love, com¬
plain of her inconftancy, lament her abfence, her death,
&c. and addrtfs himfelf to groves, hills, rivers, atid
fuch like rural objeXs, even when alone.
We ftiall now give an example from each of thofe
authors who have eminently diftinguifhed themfelves
by this manner of writing, and introduce them in the
order of time in which they were written.
64. Theocritus, who was the father or inventor of
this kind of poetry, has been defervedly efteemed by
the beft critics; and by fome, whole judgment we can-
Vol. VIII. 2
TRY.
not difpute, preferred to all other paftoral writer*. We
fhall infert his third idyIlium, not becaufeit i&the beft,'
but becaufe it is within our compafs.
To Amaryllis, lovely nymph, I fpeed.
Mean while my goats upon the mountains feed:
O Tityrus, tend them with affiduems care,
Lead them to cryftal fprings and paftures fair,^
And of the ridgling’s butting horns beware.
Sweet Amaryllis, have you then forgot.
Our fecret pleafures in the confcious grott.
Where in my folding arms you lay reclin’d?
Bleft was the fhepherd, for the nymph was kind.
I whom you call’d/szw* Dear, your Love, fo late,
Say, am I now the objeX of your hate?
Say, is my form difpleafing to your fight?
This cruel love will furely kill me quite.
Lo! teu large, apples, tempting to the view,
Pluck’d from your favourite tree, where late they grew.
Accept this boon, ’tis all my prefent ftoref
To-morrow will produce as many more.
Mean while thefe heart-eonfuming pains remove.
And give me gentle pity for my love.
Oh w*s I made by fome transforming power
A bee to buzz in your fequefter’d bow’r!
To pierce your ivy fhade with murmuring found,
And the light leaves that compafs you around.
I know thee, Love, and to my forrow find,
A god thou art, but of the favage kind;
A lionefs fure fuckled the fell child,
And with his brothers nurft him in the wild;
On me his fcorching flames inceffant prey,
Glow in my bones, and melt my foul away.
Ah, nymph, whofe eyes deftruXive glances dart.
Fair is your face, but flinty is your heart:
With kiffes kind this rage of love appeafe;
For me, fond fwain! ev’n empty kiffes pleafe.
Your fcorn diftraXs me, and will make me tear
The flow’ry crown I wove for you to wear.
Where rofes mingle with the ivy-wreath,
And fragrant herbs ambrofial odours breathe.
Ah me1 what pangs I feel; and yet the fair
Nor fees my forrows, nor will hear my pray’r.
I’ll doff my garments, fince I needs muft die, ^
And from yon rock, that points its fummit high, C
Where patient Alpis fnares the finny fry, y
I’ll leap, and, though perchance I rife again,
You’ll laugh to fee me plunging in the main.
By a prophetic poppy-leaf I found
Your chang’d affeXion, for it gave no found
Though in my hand ftruck hollow as it lay.
But quickly wither’d like your love away.
An old witch brought fad tidings to my ears,
She who tells fortunes with the iieve and fheers;
For leafing barley in my fields of late,
She told me, I fhquld love, and you fhould hatef
For you my care a milk-white goat fupply’d,
Two wanton4tids run frifking at her fide;
Which oft the nut brown maid, Erithacis,
Has begg’d, and paid before-hand with a kifs;
And fince you thus my ardent paffion flight,
Her’s they fhall be before to-morrow night.
My right eye itches; may it lucky prove.
Perhaps .1 foon fhall fee the nymph I love;
35 N Beneath
63 ri
Paftoral.
6314
Paftoral.
POE
Beneath yon pine I’ll fmg diftin£l and clear,
Perhaps the fair my tender notes (hall hear;
Perhaps may'pity my melodious moan;
She is not metamorphos’d into ftone.
Hippomenes; provok’d by noble ftrife,
To win a miftrefs, or to lofe his life,
Threw golden fruit in Atalanta’s way:
The bright temptation caus’d the nymph to flay;
She look’d, fhe languifh’d, all her foul took fire.
She plung’d into the gulph of deep defire,
To Pyle from Othrys (age Melampus came,
He drove the lowing herd, yet won the dame;
Pair Pero bleft bis brother Bias’ arms,
And in a virtuous race diffus’d* unfading charms.
Adonis fed his cattle on the plain,
And fea-born Venus lov’d the rural fwain ;
She mourn’d him wbunded in the fatal chace,
Nor dead difmifs’d him from her warm embrace.
Though young Endymion was by Cynthia bldt,
I envy nothing but bis lading red.
Jafion flitmb’ring on the Cretan plain y
Ceres once faw, and bled the happy fwain >
With pleafures too divine for ears profane. j
My head grows giddy, love affe&s me fore;.
Yet you regard not; fo I’ll ling no more  
Here will I put a period to my care—
Adieu, falfe nymph, adieu, ungrateful fair:
Stretch’d near the grotto, when I’ve Breath’d my lad,}
My corfe will give the wolves a rich repad, C
As fwect to them as honey to your tafte. j
Fawkes.
65. Virgil fucceeds Theocritus, from whom he has
in fome places copied,-and always imitated with fuccefs.
As a fpecimen of his manner, we ffiall introduce his fird
padoral, which is generally allowed to be the mod per-
feft.
Meliboeus and Tityrus.
Mel. Beneaththe (hade which beechenboughsdiffufe,
You, Tityrus, entertain your fylvan mufe.
Round the wide world in banifhment we roam,
Forc’d from our pleafing fields and native home;
While dretch’d at eafe you fing your happy loves.
And Amaryllis fills the fhady groves.
Tit. Thefe bleffings, frieod, a deity bellow’d-;
For never can I deem him lefs than god.
The tender firdlings of my woolly breed
Shall on his holy altar often bleed.
He gave me kine to graze the fiow’ry plain,
And fo my pipe renew’d the rural drain.
Mel. I envy not your fortune ; but admire,
That while the raging fwcrd and wadeful fire
Dedroy the wretched neighbourhood around.
No hodile arms approach your happy ground.
Far diff’rent is my fate; my feeble goats
With pains I drive from their forfaken cotes:
And this you fee I fcarcely drag along,
Who yeaning on the rocks has left her young,
The hope and promife of my falling fold.
My lofs by dire portents the gods foretold;
For, had I not been blind, I might have feen
Yon riven oak, the faired on the green,
And the hoarfe raven on the blafted bough
By croaking from the left prefag’d the coming blow.
T 11 Y, Part II.
But tell me, Tityrug, what heav’nly pow’r Paftoral
Preferv’d your fortunes in that fatal hour?
Tit. Fool that I was, I thought imperial Rome
Like Mantua,,’ where on market-days vve come,
And thither drive our tender lambs frem home.
So kids and whelps their fires and dams exprefs;
And fo the great I meafur’d by the lefs:
But country-towns, compar’d with her, appear
Like fhrubs when lofty cypreffts are near.
Mel. What great occafion call’d you hence to Rome?
Tit. Ft eedom,which came at length,tho’flow to corat :
Nor did my fearch of liberty begin
Till my black hairs were chang’d upon my chin.
Nor Amaryllis would vouchfafe a look,
Till Galatea’s meaner bonds I broke.
Till then a helplefs, hopelefs, homely fwain,
I fought not freedom, nor afpir’d^to gain :
Tho’ many a vi£fim from my folds was bought,
And many a cheefe to country markets brought,
Yet all the little that I got I fpent,
And dill return’d as empty as I went.
Mel. We dood amaz’d to fee your midrefs mourn,
Unknowing that fhe pin’d for your return ;
We wonder’d why (he kept her fruit fo long,
For whom fo late th’ ungather’d apples hung :
But now the wonder ceafes, fmce I fee
She kept them only, Tityrus, for thee :
For thee the bubbling fprings appear’d to mourn,
And whifp'ring pines made vows for thy return.
Tit. What fiiould I do ? while here I was enchain’d,
No glimpfe of godlike liberty remain’d ;
Nor could I hope in any plaqe but there
To find a god fo prefent to my pray’r.
There fird the youth of heav’nly birth I view’d,
For whom our monthly vi&ims are renew’d.
He heard my vows, and gracioufly decreed
My grounds to be rdtor’d, my former flocks to feed.
Mel. O fortunate old man ! whofe farm remains
For you fufficient, and requites your pains,
Though rufhes overfpread the neighb’ring plains,
Tho’ here the marfliy grounds approach your fields
And there the foil a dony harved yields.
Your teeming ewes (hall no drange meadows try,
Nor fear a rot from tainted company.
Behold yon bord’ring fence of fallow trees [bees:
Is fraught with flow’rs, the flow’rs are fraught with
The bufy bees, with a foft murm'ring drain,
Invite to gentle fleep the lab’ring fwain :
While from the neighb’ring rock with rural fonga
The pruner’s voice the pleafing dream prolongs;
Stock-doves and turtles tell their am’rous pain.
And, from the lofty elms, of love complain.
Tit. Th’ inhabitants of feas and (kies (hall change.
And fifn on (bore and dags in air (hall range.
The banidi’d Parthian dwell on Arar’s brink.
And the blue.German (hall the Tigris drink;
Ere I, forfaking gratitude and truth,
Forget the figure of that godlike youth.
Mel. But wemudbegourbread in climes unknown.
Beneath the fcorchingor the freezing zone ;
And fome to fair Oaxis (hall be fold,
Or try the Libyan heat, or Scythian cold ;
The reft among the Britons be confin’d,
A race of men from all the world disjoin’d.
O!
Part II. P O E
Pafloral. O ! muft the wretched exiles ever mourn ?4
Nor after length of rolling years return ?
Are we condemn’d by fate’s unjuft decree,
No more our houfes and our homes to fee ?
Or (hall we mount again the rural throne,
And rule the country, kingdoms once our own ?
Did we for thefe barbarians plant and fow, }
On thefe, on thefe, our happy fields beftow ? C
Good heav’n, what dire effeds from civil difcord flow! j
Now let me graft my pears, and prune the vine ;
The fruit is theirs, the labour only mine.
Farewel my paftures, my paternal (lock,
My fruitful fields, and my more fruitful flock !
No more, my goats, (hall I behold you climb
The fteepy cliffs, or crop the flow’ry thyme ;
No more extended in the grot below,
Shall fee you browzing on the mountain’s brow
The prickly fhrubs, and after on the bare
Lean down the deep abyfs and hang in air!
No more my fheep (hall fip the morning dew ; J
No more my fong (hall pleafe the rural crew : V
Adieu, my tuneful pipe! and all the world, adieu! j
Ti. This night, at lead, with me forget your care;
Chefnuts and curds and cream (hall be your fare :
The carpet-ground (hall be with leaves o’er-fpread,
And boughs (hall weave a cov’ring for your head :
For fee yon funny hill the (hade extends,
And curling fmoke from cottages afcends.
Dryden.
66. Spenfer was the firft of our countrymen, who
acquired any confiderable reputation by this method
of writing. We (hall infert his fixth eclogue, or that
for June, which is allegorical, as will be feen by the
Argument. “ Hobbinol, from a defcriptidn of the
pleafures of the place, excites Colin to the enjoyment of
them. Colin declares himfelf incapable of delight, by
reafon of his ill fuccefs in'love, and his lofs of Rofa-
lind, who had treacheroufly forfaken him for Menal-
cas, another (hepherd. By Tityrus (mentioned before
inBpenfer’s fecond eclogue, and again in the twelfth)
is plainly meant Chaucer, whom the author fometimes
profeffed to imitate. In the perfon of Colin, is repre-
fented the author himfelf; and Hgbbinol’s inviting
him to leave the hill country, feems to allude to his
leaving the North, where, as is mentioned in his life,
he had for fame time refided.”
Hob. Lo! Colin, here the place, whofe pleafant fight
From other (hades hath yean’d my wand’ring mind ;
Tell me, what wants me here, to work delight ?
The fimple air, the gentle warbling wind.
So calm, fo cool, as nowhere elfe I find :
The graffy ground with dainty daifies dight,
The bramble-bufli, where birds of every kind
To th’ water’s fall their tunes attemper right.
Col. O ! happy Hobbinol, I blefs thy (late,
That paradife haft found which Adgm loft.
Here wander may thy flock early^or late,
Withouten dread of wolves to been ytoft ;
Thy lovely lays here, mayft thou freely boalU
But I, unhappy man ! whom cruel fate,
And angry Gods, purfue from ooaft to cpaft,
Can nowhere find to (hroud my lucklefs pate.
Hob. Then if by me thou lift adtdfed be*
TRY.
Forfake the foil that fo doth thee bewitch : •
Leave me thofe hills, where harbroughnis to fee,
Nor holly-bulb, nor brere, nor winding ditch ;
And to the dales refort, where (hepherds rich,
And fruitful flocks been every where to fee.:
Here no night-ravens lodge., more black than pitch.
Nor elvifti ghoits, nor ghaftly owls do flee.
But friendly fairies met with many graces,
And light-foot nymphs can chace the ling’ring night,
With beydeguies, and trimly trodden traces ;
Whilft fitters nine, which dwell on Parnafs’ height,
Do make them mufic, for their more delight ;
And Pan himfelf to kifs their cryftal faces,
Will pipe and dance, when Phcebe (hineth bright:
Such peerlefs pleafures have we in thefe places.
Col. And I, whilft youth, and courfe of carelefs years.
Did let me walk withouten links of love,
In ftich delights did joy amongft my peers:
But riper age fuch pleafures doth reprove,
My fancy eke from former follies move
To ft rayed fteps: for time in paffing wears
(As garments doen, which waxen old above)
And draweth new delights with hoary hairs.
Though couth I fing of love, and tune my pipe
Unto my plantive pleas in verfes made :
Though would I feek for queen-apples unripe
To give my Rofalind, and in foinrr.er (hade
Dight gawdy girlonds was my common trade.
To crown her golden locks : but years more ripe,
And lofs of her, whofe love as life I vvayde,
Thofe weary wanton toys away did wipe.
Hob. Colin, to hear thy rhymes and roundelays,
Which thou wert wont on wafteful hills to fing,
I more delight, than lark in fommer days:
Whofe echo made the neighbour groves to ring.
And taught the birds, which in the lower fpring
Did (hroud in (hady leaves from funny rays,
Frame to thy fong their cheerful cheriping,
Or hold their peace, for fliame of Thy fweet lays.
I faw Calliope with mufes moe,
Soon as thy oaten pipe began to found,
Their ivory lutes and tamburins forego,
And from the. fountain, where they fate around,
Ren after haftily thy filver found.
But- when they came, where thou thy fkill didft (how,
They drew aback, as half with (hame confound,
Shepherd to fee, them in their art dut-go.
Col. Of mufes, Hcibbinol, I con no (kill,
For they been daughters of the higheft Jove,
And holden fcorn of homely (hepherds quill:
For fnh I heard that Pan with Phoebus drove
Which him to much rebuke and danger drove,
I never lift prefume to Parnafs’ hill,
But piping low, in (hade of lowly grove,
I play to pleafe rnyfelf, albeit ill.
Nought weigh I, who my fong doth praife or blame^
Ne drive to win renown, or pafs the reft
With (hepherds fits not follow flying fame,
But feed his flocks in fields, where falls him heft.
I wot my rimes been-rqugh, and rudely drett ;
The fitter they, my careful cafe to frame :
Enough is me to paint out my unreft,
And pour my piteous plaints out in the fame.
The God of (hepherds, Tityrus, is dead.
Who taught me homely, as I can, to make :
35 N 3 He,
6315
Patloral.
6316
Paftoral.
POE
He, wbilft he lived, was the fovereign head
Of fhepherds all, that been with love ytake.
Well couth he wail his woes, and lightly Hake
The flames which love within his heart had bred,
And tell us merry tales, to keep us wake,
The while our (heep about us fafely fed.
Now dead he is, and lieth wrapt in lead,
(O why fliould death on him fuch outrage (how !)
And all his palling Ikill with him is fled.
The fame whereof doth daily greater grow.
But if on me fome little drops would flow
Of that the fpring was in his learned bed,
I foon would learn thefe woods to wail' my woe,
And teach the trees their trickling-tears to flied.
Then fhould my plaints, caus’d of difcourtefee,
As mefiengers of this my painful flight,
Fly to my love, wherever that (he be,
And pierce her heart with point' of worthy wight;
As (he deferves, that wrought fo deadly fpight.
And thou, Menalcas, that by treachery
Didft underfong my lafs to wax fo light,
Should’ft well be known for fuch thy villany.
But fince I am not, as I wifti I were,
Ye gentle (hepherds, which your flocks do feed,
Whether on hills or dales, or other where,
Bear witnefsall of this fo wicked deed :
And tell the lafs, whofe flower is woxe a weed,
And faultlefs faith is turn’d to farthlefs feere,
That (he the trued (hepherd’s heart msde bleed.
That lives on earth, and loved her mod dean
Hob. O ! careful Golin, I lament thy cafe,
Thy tears would make the harded flint to flow !
Ah ! faithlefs Rofalind, and void of grace,
That art the root of all this rueful woe !
But now is time, I guefs, homeward to go ;■
Then rife, ye bleffed flocks, and home apace.
Led night with dealing deps do you foreflo,
And wet your tender lambs that by you trace.
67. By the following eclogue the reader will per¬
ceive that Mr Philips has, in imitation of Spencer,
preferved in his padorals many antiquated words,
which, though they are difearded from polite conver-
fation, may naturally be fuppofed dill to have place
among the (hepherds and other rudicks in the coun¬
try. We have made choice of his fecond eclogue, be-
caufe it is brought home to his own bufmefs, and con¬
tains a complaint againd thofe who had fpoken ill of
him and his writings.
Thenot, Cotunsr.
Th. Is it not Colinet I lonefome fee
Leaning with folded arms againft the tree ?
Or is it age of late bedims my fight ?
’Tis Colinet, indeed, in woful plight.
Thy cloudy look, why melting into tears,
Unfeemly, now the fliy fo bright appears ?
Why in this mournful manner art thou found.
Unthankful lad, when all things fmile around?
Or bear’d not lark and linnet jointly fing,
Their notes blithe-warbling to falute the fpring ?
Co. Tho1 blithe their notes, not fo my wayfard fate;
Nor lark would fing, nor linnet, in my date.
Each creature, Thenot, to his talk is born ;
As they to mirth and mufic, I to mourns
TRY. Part II.
Waking, at midnight, I my woes renew* PaftoraL
My tears off mingling with the falling dew.
7'h. Small caufe, I ween, has ludy youth to plain-;
Or who may then the weight of eld fndain,
When every (lackem’ng nerve begins to fail,.
And the load prefleth as our days prevail?
Yet, though with years my body downward tend,
As trees beneath their fruit in autumn bend,
Spite of my fnowy head and icy veins,
My miud a cheerful temper dill retains:
And why (hould man, miflrap what will, repine.
Sour every fweet, and mix with tears his wine ?
But tell me then ; it may relieve thy wo,
To let a friend thine inward ailment koowi
Co. Idly ’twill wade thee, Thenot, the whole day,
Should’ll thou give ear to all my grief can fay.
Thine ewes will wander; and the heedlefslambs,
In loud complaints,, require their abfent dams.
Th. See Lightfoot; he (hall tend them clofe: and I,
’Tween whiles, a-crois the plain will glance mine eye.
Co. Whereto begin I know not, where to end.
Does there one fmiliug hour my youth attend ?
Though few my days, as well my follies (how,
Yet are thofe days all clouded o’er with wo :
No happy gleam of funfliine doth appear,
My low’ring (ky and wint’ry months to cheer.
My piteous plight in yonder naked tree,
Which bears the thunder-fear, too plain I fee :
Quite deditute it dands of (belter kind.
The mark of dorms, and fport of every wind :
The riven trunk feels not th’approach of fpring ;
Nor birds among the leaflefs branches fing :
No more, beneath thy (hade, (half (hepherds throng
With jocund tale, or pipe, or pleafing fong.
Ill-fated tree! and more ill-fated I!
From thee, from me, alike the (hepherds fly.
Th. Sure thou in haplefs hour of time wad born.
When blightning mildews fpoil the riling corn,
Or blading winds o’er bloflbm’d hedge-rows pafs,
To kill the promis’d fruits, and fcorch the grafs;
Or when the moon, by wizard charm’d, forefhows,
Blood-dain’d in foul eclipfe, impending woes;
Untimely born, ill luck betides thee dill.
Co. And can there, Tbenot, be a greater ill ?
Th. Nor fox>, nor wolf, nor rot among our (heep:
From thefe good (hepherd’s care his flock may keep :
Againd ill-luck, alas ! all forcad fails;
Nor toil by day, nor watch by night, avails.
Co. Ah me, the while! ah me, the lucklefs day !
Ah lueklefs lad ! befits me more to fay.
Unhappy hour! when frelh in youthful bud,
I left, Sabrina fair, thy filv’ry flood.
Ah, filly I! more filly than my (heep,
Which on thy flow’ry banks I wont to keep.
Sweet are thy banks; oh, when (hall I once more,
With ravilh’d eyes review thine amell’d (bore ?
When, in the crydal of thy waters, lean
Each feature faded, and my colour wan ?
When (hall I fee my hut, the fmall abode
Myfelf did raife and cover o’er with fod ?
Small though it be, a mean and humble cell.
Yet is there room for peace, and me, to dwell.
Th. And what enticement charm’d thee, far away.
From thy lov’d home, and led thy heart aftray ?
Part 1L POE
Paftcrd. Co. A lewd defire (trange lands, and fwains, to know.
Ah me! that ever I fhould covet woe.
With wand’iing feet unbleft, and fond of fame,
I fought I know not what befides a name.
Th. Or, footh to fay, did’ft thou not hither rome
In fearch of gains more plenty than at home ?
A rolling ftone is, ever, bare of mofs ;
And, to their coft, green years old proverbs crofs.
Co'. Small need there was, in random fearch of gain,
To drive my pining flock athwart the plain,
To diftant Gam. Fine gain at length, I trow.
To hoard up to myfelf fuch deal of woe i
My fheep quite fpent through travel and ill fare.
And like their keeper ragged grown and bare,
The damp cold green fward for my nightly bed,
And feme flaunt willow’s trunk to reft my head.
Hard is to bear of pinching cold the pain ;
And hard is want to the unpraftis’d Twain ’r
But neither want, nor pinching cold, is hard.
To blafting ftorms of calumny compar’d :
Unkind as hail it falls ; the pelting fliow’r
Deftroys the tender herb and budding flow’r.
Th. Slander we- ftiepherds count the vileft wrong t
And what wounds forer than an evil tongue?
Co. Untoward lads, the wanton imps of fpite.
Make mock of all the ditties I endite.
In vain, O Colinet, thy pipe, fo ftirill,
Charms every vale, and gladdens every hill:
In vain thou feek’ft the coverings of the grove,
In the cool (hade to fing the pains of love :
Sing, what thou wilt, ill-nature will prevail ;
And every elf hath (kill enough to rail.
But yet, though poor and artlefs be my vein,
Menalcas feems to like my limple drain :
And, while that he delighteth in my fdng,
Which to the good Menalcas doth belong.
Nor night, nor day, (hall my rude muiic ceafe;
I alk no more, fo I Menalcas pleafe.
Th. Menalcas, lord of thefe fair fertile plains,
Preferves the (beep, and o’er the (hepherds reigns: >
For him our yearly wakes and feafts we hold,
And choofe the faireft firftlings from the fold ;
He, good to all, who good deferves, (hall give
Thy flock to feed, and thee at eafe to live,
Shall curb the malice of unbridled tongues.
And bounteoufly reward thy rural fongs.
Co. Firft, then, (hall lightfome birds forget to fly*
The briny ocean turn to pallures dry.
And every rapid river ceafe to flow,
Ere I unmindful of Merialcas grow.
Th. This night thy care with me forget, and fold
Thy flock with mine, to ward th’ injurious cold.
New milk, and clouted cream, mild cbeefe and curd,
With fome remaining: fruit of laft year’s hoard^
Shall be our ev’ning fare; and, for the.night,
Sweet herbs and mofs, which gentle fleep invite :
And now behold the fun’s departing ray,
O’er yonder hill, the fign of ebbing day :
With fongs the jovial hinds return from plow ;
And unyok’d heifers, loitering homeward, low,
68. Mr Pope’s Paftorals next appeared, but in a
different drefs from thofe of Spenfer and Phillips *
for he has difearded all antiquated words, drawn his
fwains more modern and polite, and made his numbers
TRY.
exquifitely harmonious: bis eclogues therefore may
be called better poems, but not better paftorals. We
{hall infert the eclogue he has inferibed to Mr Wycherly
the beginning of which is in imitation of Virgil’s firft
paftoral.
Beneath the (hade a fpreading beech difplays,
Hylas and ./Egon fung their rural lays *,
This mourn’d a faithlefs, that an abfent love.
And Delia’s name and Doris fill’d the grove.
Ye Mantuan nymphs, your facred fuccour bring;-
Hylas and Aigon’s rural lays I fing.
Thou, whom the nine with Plautus’ wit infpire,
The art of Terence, and Menander’s fire :
Whofe fenfe inftru&s us, and whofe humour charms,
Whofe judgment fways us, and whofe fpirit warms !
Oh, (kill'd in nature ! fee the hearts of fwains,
Their artlefs pafiions, and their tender pains.
Now fetting Phoebus (hone ferenely bright.
And fleecy clouds were (freak’d with purple light;
When tuneful Hylas, with melodious moan,
Taught rocks to weep, and made the mountains groan.-
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs away !
To Delia’s ear the tender notes convey.
As fome fad turtle^his loft love deplores.
And with deep murmurs fills the founding (hores; .
Thus, far from Delia, to the winds I mourn,
Alike unheard, unpity’d, and forlorn.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs along!
For her, the feather’d quires negleft their fong ;
For her, the limes their pleafing (hades deny;
For her, the lilies hang their head and die.
Ye flow’rs, that droop, forfaken by the fpring,
Ye birds, that left by fummer ceafe to fing.
Ye trees, that fade when autumu-heats remove.
Say, is not abfence death to thofe who love ?
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs away !
Curs’d be the fields that caufe ray Delia’s ftay;
Fade ev’ry blofl’om, wither ev’ry tree,
Die ev’ry flow’r, and perifti all but (he.
What I have faid ? where’er my Delia flies,.
Let fpring attend, and fudden flow’rs arife j
Eet opening rofes knotted oaks adorn,
And liquid amber drop from ev’ry thorn.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs along !
The birds (hall ceafe to tune their evening fong.
The winds to breathe, the waving woods to move.
And ftreams to murmur, ere I ceafe to love.
Not bubbling fountains to the thirfty fwain,
Not balmy fleep to lab’rers faint with pain,
Not fhow’rs to larks, or funflnne to bee,
Are half fo charming as thy fight to me.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs awayl
Come, Delia, come ; ah, why this long delay?
Thro’ rocks and caves the name of Delia founds;
Delia, each cave and echoing rock rebounds.
Ye pow’rs, what pleafing frenzy fooths my mind !
Do lovers dream, or is my Delia kind?
She comes, my Delia comes!—now ceafe, my lay;
And ceafe, ye gales, to bear my fighs away!
Next iEgon fung, while Windfor groves admir’d ;
Rehearfe, ye mufes, what yourfelves infpir’d.
Refound ye hills, refound my mournful llraio !
Of perjur’s Doris, dying I complain ;
Here
63*7
Paftoral,
6318 P o
Pa floral. Here where the mountains, lefs’ning as they rifej
: Lofe the low vales, and fteal into the Ikies;
While lab’ring oxen, fpent with toil and heat,
In their loofe traces from the field retreat;
While curling fmokes from village-tops are feen,
And the fleet fhades glide o’er the dulky green.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
Beneath yon poplar oft we pafs’d the day :
Oft on the rind I carv’d her am’rous vows.
While flie with garlands hung the bending boughs j
The .garlands fade, the boughs are worn away ;
So dies her love, and fo my hopes decay.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful drain !
Now bright Ardfurus glads the teeming grain ;
Now golden fruits in loaded branches fhinei
And grateful clufters fwell with floods of wine;
Now blufhing berries paint the yellow grove :
Juit Gods ! (hall all things yield returns but love ?
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
The (hepherds cry, “ Thy flocks are left a prey.” 
Ah ! what avails it me the flocks to keep,
Who loft, my heart, while I preferv’d my (keep ?
Pan came, and aflt’d, what magic caus’d my fmart,
Or what ill eyes malignant glances dart ?
What eyes but hers, alas ! have pow’r to move?
And is there magic but what dwells in love ?
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful drains t
I’ll fly from (hepherds, flocks, and flow’ry plains. **•
From (hepherds, flocks, and plains, I may remove,
Forfake mankind, and all the world—but love!
I know thee, love! wild as the raging main,
More fell than tygers on the Libyan plain :
Thou vvert from Etna’s burning entrails torn.
Got by fierce whirlwinds, and in thunder born.
Refound, ye bills, refound my mournful fay!
Farewel, ye woods, adieu the light of day !
One leap from yonder cliff (hall end my pains.
No more, ye hills, no more refound my drains !
Thus fung the (hepherds till th’ approach of night.
The (kies yet blufhing with departing light,
When falling dews with fpangles deck’d the glade,
And the low fun had lengtberr’d ev’ry (hade.
To thefe paftorak, which are written agreeably to
the tafte of antiquity, and the rules above preferibed,
we (hall beg leave to fubjoin another that may be
called burlefque pajiorai, wherein the ingenious author,
Mr Gay, has ventured to deviate from tl*e beaten
road, and deferibed the (hepherds and ploughmen
of our own time and country, inftead of thofe of
the Golden Age, to which the modern critics confine
the paftoral. His fix paftorals, which he calls the
Shepherd’s Week, are a beautiful and lively reprefenta-
tion of the manners, cuftoms, and notions of our
nifties. We (hall infert the firft: of them, entitled,
The Squabble, wherein two clowns try to out-do each
other in finging the praifes of their fweet-hearts, leaving
it to a third to determine the controverfy. The per¬
rons named are Lobbin Clout, Cuddy, and Cloddipole.
Lob. Thy younglings, Cuddy, are but juft awake ;
•* Shining No throftle (brill the bramble-bufti forfake ;
or bright No chirping lark the welkin (been * invokes;
^y- No damfel yet the fwelling udder ftrokes;
§ Scarce. Q,er y0nc]er hil] does fcant § the dawn appear ;
f Early. Then why does Cuddy leave his cott fo rearf ?
E T R Y. Part II.
Cud. Ah Lobbin Clout! I ween| my plight is gueft; P^ftoral.
For he that loves, a Jlranger is to rejl. { Conceive.;
If fwains belye not, thou haft, prov’d the fmart,
And Blouzalinda’s miftrefs of thy heart.
This rifing rear betokeneth well thy mind ;
Thofe arms are folded for thy BIbuzalind.
And well, I trow', our piteous plights agree;
Thee Blouzalinda fmites, Buxoma me.
Lob. Ah Blouzalind ! I love thee more by half.
Than deer their fawns, or cows the new-fall’n calf.
Woe worth the tongue, may blifters fore it gall,
That names Buxoma Blouzalind withal !
Cud. Hold, witlefs Lobbin Clout, I thee advife,
Left blifters fore on thy own tongue arife.
Lo yonder Cloddipole, the blithfome fwain,
The wifeft lout of all the neighb’ring plain !
From Cloddipole we learnt to read the (kies,
To know when hail will fall, or winds arife.
He taught us er(t * the heifer’s tail to view, ♦ Formerly]
When ftuck aloft, that (how’rs would ftraight enfue:
He firft: that ufeful fecret did explain,
That pricking corns foretold the gath’ring rain.
When fwallows fleet foar high and fport in air,
He told us that the welkin would be clear.
Let Cloddipole then hear us twain rehearfe.
And praife his fweet-heart in alternate verfe.
I’ll wager this fame oaken ftaff with thee,
That Cloddipole (hall give the prize to me.
Lob. See this tobacco-pouch, that’s lin’d with hair,
Made of the .(kin of fleekeft fallow-deer:
This pouch, that’s tied with tape of reddeft hue,
I’ll wager, that the prize (hall be my due.
Cud. Begin thy carrols then, thou vaunting flouch ;
Be thine the oaken ftaff, or mine the pouch.
Lob. My Blouzalinda is the blitheft lafs,
Than primrofe fweeter, or the clover-grafs.
Fair is the king-cup that in meadow blows,
Fair is the daify that befide her grows ;
Fair is the gilly-flow’r of gardens fweet.
Fair is the marygold, for pottage meet:
But Blouzalind’s than gilly-flow’r more fair,
Than daify, marygold, or king-cup rare.
Cud. My brown Buxoma is the feateft maid
That e’er at wake delightfome gambol play’d ;
Clean as young lambkins, or the goofe’s down,
And like the goldfinch in her Sunday gown.
The witlefs lamb, may fport upon the plain.
The frifking kid delight the gaping fwain ;
The wanton calf may (kip with many a bound,
And my cur Tray play defied f feats around : f Nimbleft.
But neither lamb, nor kid, nor calf, nor Tray.
Dance like Buxoma on the firft of May.
Lob. Sweet is my toil when Blouzalind is near;
Of her bereft, ’tis winter all the year..
With her no fultry fummer’s beat 1 know ;
In winter, when (he’s nigh, with love I glow.
Come, Blouzalinda, cafe'thy fwain’s defire,
My fummer’s (badow, and my winter’s fire!
Cud. As with Buxoma once I work’d at hay.
E’en noon-tide labour feem'd an holiday ;
And holidays, if haply (lie were gone,
Like vvorky-days I wifti’d would foon be done.
Eftfoons J, O fweet-heart kind, my love repay, f Very foon.
And all the year (hall then be holiday.
► Lob.
Part If. P O
Paftoral. Loh. As Blouzalindai in a gamefome mood,
“Behind a hay-cock loudly laughing flood,
I (lily ran and (hatch'd a hafly kifs;
She wip’d her lips, nor took it much amifsf
Believe me, Cuddy, while l’m bold to fay,
Her breath was fweeter than the ripen’d hay.
Cud. As my Buxoma, in a morning fair,
With gentle finger ftroak’d her milky care,
►Waggtlhly j qUa{nt]y * [toie a kifs j at firft, ’tis true,
She frown’d, yet after granted one or two.
Bobbin, I fwear, believe who will my vows,
Her breath by far excell’d the,breathing cow’s.
Lob. Leek to the Welch, to Dutchmen butter’s dear,
Of irifh fwains potatoes are the cheer.;
Oats for their La ft 9 the Scottifti fhepherds grind,
Sweet turnips are the food of Blouzalind :
While fhe loves turnips, butter I'll defpife,
Nor leeks, nor oatmeal, nor potatoes prize.
Cud. In good roaft beef my landlord flicks his knife,
The capon fat delights his dainty wife ;
Pudding our parfon eats, the fquire loves hare ;
But white-pot thick is my Buxoma’s fare.
While file loves white-pot, capon ne’er fhall be,
Nor hare, nor beef, nor pudding, food/or me.
Lob. As once I play’d at blind-man’s buff, it hapt
About my eyes the towel thick was wrapt:
I mifs’d the fwains, andfeiz’don Blouzalind ;
True (peaks that ancient proverb, Love is blind.
Cud. As at-hot-cockles once I laid me down,
And felt the weighty hand of many a clown ;
Bnxomargavea gentle tap, and I
(f)n!ck rofe, and read foft mifchief in her eye.
Lob. On two near elms, the flacken’d cord I hung;
Now high, now low, my BlousSalinda fwung:
With the rude wind her rumpled garment rofe.
And fhow’’d her taper leg and fcarlet hofe.
Cud. Acrofs the fallen oak the plank I laid.
And myfelf poisd againft the tott’ring maid:
High leapt the plank, and down Buxoma fell;
I fpy d—but faithful fweethearts never tell.
Lob. Tnis riddle, Cuddy, if thou canft, explain,
This wily riddle puzzles ev’ry (wain :
What flow'r is that which bears the virgin's name.,
^ Mary geld. Yhe richejl metal joined with the fame * ?
Cud. Anfwer, thou carle, and judge this riddle right,
I’ll frankly own thee for a cunning wight:
IVir'at flow'r is that which royal honour craves,
ifRofemary. Adjoin the virgin, and 'tis frown on gravis f ?
Clod. Forbear.contendingloutSjgiveo’eryour drains;
An oaken ftaff each merits for his pains.
But fee the fun-beams bright to labour warn,
And gild the thatch of goodman Hodge’s barn.
Your herds for want of water (land a-dry ;
They’re weary of your fongs—and fo am I.
We have given the rules ufually laid down for pafto¬
ral writing, and exhibited fome examples which were
written on this plan ; but we have to obferve, that
this poem may fometimes partake of more dignity,
and afpire even to the fublime, without deviating from
nature and right reafon. The fublime which arifes
from tumults, wars, and what are too often falftly
called great attions, the paftoral abhors ; but that
which is blended with the tender and pathetic may be
introduced with propriety and elegance. And indeed
E T R Y.
if we confider that the fit ft fhepherds were many of
them priqces, (for that Abraham, Mofes, and David, *
were fuch, we have the teftimony of the Scriptures),
it will fetm fomewhat extraordinary that fuch pains
fhould have been taken to exclude the fublime from
paftoral writing ; and we fhall be inclined to admit
Virgil’s Pollio, the Song of Solomon, and Pope’s Mef-
Jtah, as paftorals, till better reafons are offered to the
contrary than have yet appeared: for the true cha-
rafteriftic of paftoral, and what diftinguifhes it from
other writings, is its foie confinement to rural affairs;
and if this be obferved, it can lofe nothing of its na¬
ture by any elevation of fentiment or didion.
Sect. V. Of DidaSlic cr Preceptive Poetry.
69. The method of writing precepts in verfe, and
embellifhing them with the graces of poetry, had its
rife, we may fuppofe, from a due confideration of the
frailties and perverfenefs of human nature ; and was
intended to engage the alfedions, in order to improve
the mind and amend the heart.
Didadic or preceptive poetry, has been ufually em¬
ployed either to iliuftrate and explain our moral duties,
our philofophical inquiries, oui'bufinefsand pleafures;
or in teaching the art of criticifm or poetry itfelf. It
may be adapted, however, to any other fubjed ; and
may it^all cafes, where inftrudion is defigned, be em¬
ployed to good purpofe. Some fubjeds, indeed, are
more proper than others, as they admit of more poe¬
tical ornaments, and give a greater latitude to genius:
but whatever the fubjed is, thofe precepts are to be
laid down that are the moft ufefj ; and they fhould
follow each other in a natural eafy method, and be de¬
livered in th,e moft agreeable engaging manner. What
the profe writer tells you ought to be done, the poet
often conveys under the form of a narration, or fhows
the necefiity of in a defeription ; and by.Teprefenting
the adion as done, or doing, conceals the precept that
fhould enforce it. The poet likewife, inftead of tell¬
ing the whole truth, or laying down all the rules that
are requifite, feleds fuch parts only as are the mofl
pleafing, and communicates the reft indiredly, with¬
out giving us an open view of them ; yet takes care
that nothing fhall efcape the reader’s notice with which
he ought to be acquainted. He difclofes juft enough
to lead the imagination into the parts that are conceal¬
ed ; and the mind, ever gratified with its own difeo*
veries, is complimented with exploring and finding
them out; which, though done with eafe, feems fo
confiderable, as not to be obtained but in confequence
of its own adroitnefs and fagacity.
But this is not fufficient to render didadic poetry
always pleafing : for where precepts aje laid down one
after another, and the poem is of confiderable length,
the mind will require fome recreation and refrefhment
by the way ; which is to be procured by feafonable
moral refiedions, pertinent remarks, familiar fimilies,
and deferiptions naturally introduced, by allufions to
ancient hiltories or fables, and by fhort and pleafant
digrtffions and excurfions into more noble fubjeds, fo
aptly brought in, that they may feem to have a re¬
mote relation, and be of a piece with the poem. By
■thus varying the form of inftrudion, the poet gives
life to his precepts, and awakens and fecures our at¬
tention, without permitting us to fee by what means we
are
6310
Dida&ic.
6320 POE
Didaftic. are thus captivated : and his art is the more to be ad-
~~ mired, becaufe it is fo concealed as to efcape the
reader’s obfervation.
The ftyle, too, muft maintain a dignity fuitable to
the fnbjeft, and every part be drawn in fuch lively
colours, that the things defcribed may feem as if pre-
fented to the reader’s view.
But all this will appear more evident from example ;
and though entire poems of this kind are not within
the compafs of our defign, we fliall endeavour to feleft
fuch paffages as will be fufficient to illuftrate the rules
we have here laid down.
We have already obferved, that, according to the
ufual divifions, there are four kinds of dida&ic poems,
viz. thofe that refpeft our moral duties, our philofo-
phical fpeculations, our bufinefs and pleafures, or that
give precepts for poetry and criticifm.
70. On the firft fubjedt, indeed, we have fcarce any
thing that deferves the name of poetry, except Mr
Pope’s EJfay on Man, and his Ethic Epiflles; to which
therefore we refer as examples.
71. II. Thofe preceptive poems that concern phi-
lofophical fpeculations, though the fubjed is fo preg¬
nant with matter, affords fuch a field for fancy, and is
fo capable of every decoration, are but few. Lucre¬
tius is the moft confiderable among the ancients who
-has written in this manner; and among the moderns
we know of none but fmall detached pieces, except the
poem cz\\z& j4nti-Lucretius, which has not yet recei¬
ved an Englifh drefs, and Dr Akenfide’s Pleafures of
the^ Imagination; both which are worthy of our admi¬
ration. Some of the fmall pieces are alfo well execu¬
ted; and there is one entitled the Univerfe, written by
Mr Baker, from which we fhall borrow an example.
The author’s fcheme is in fome meafure coincident
with Mr Pope’s, fo far efpecially as it tends to reftrain
the pride of man, with which defign it was profefiedly
written.
The paffage we have fele&ed is that refpedling the
planetary fyftem.
Unwife! and thoughtlefs! impotent! and blind!
Can wealth, or grandeur, fatisfy the mind?
Of all thofe pleafures mortals moft admire.
Is there one joy fincere, that will not tire?
Can love itfelf endure? or beauty’s charms
Afford that blifs we fancy in its arms?'—
Then, let thy foul more glorious aims purfue:
Have thy Creator and his works in view.
Be thefe thy ftudy: hence thy pleafures bring:.
And drink large draughts of wifdem from its fpring;
That fpring, whence perfe& joy, and calm repofe,
And bleft content, and peace eternal, flows.
Obferve how regular the Planets run,
In Rated times, their courfes round the Sun.
Diff’rent their bulk, their diftance, their career,
And diff’rent much the compafs of their year:
Yet all the fame eternal laws obey,
While God’s unerring finger points the way.
Firft Mercury, amidft full tides of light,
Rolls next the fun, through his fmall circle bright.
All that dwell here muft be refin’d and pure:
Bodies like ours fuch ardour can’t endure:
Our Earth would blaze beneath fo fierce a ray,
And all its marble mountains melt away.
TRY. PartH.
Fair Venus, next, fulfils her larger round, Didaftic.
With fofter beams, and milder glory crown’d.
Friend to mankind, fhe glitters from afar,
Now the bright ev’ning, now the morning ftar.
More diftant ftill, our Earth comes rolling on,
And forms a wider circle round the fun:
With her the Moon, companion ever dear!
Her courfe attending through the fhining year.
See, Mars, alone, runs his appointed race.
And meafures out, exadl, the deftin’d fpace:
Nor nearer does he wind, nor farther ftray.
But finds the point whence firft he roll’d away.
More yet remote from day’s all-dicering fource,
Vaft Jupiter performs his conftant courfe :
Four friendly moons, with borrow’d luftre, rife.
Beftow their beams benign, and light his fkies.
Farthcft and laft, fcarce warm’d by Phoebus’ ray,
Through his vaft orbit Saturn wheels away.
How great the change could we be wafted there!
Plow flow the feafons! and how long the year!
One moon, on us, refledfs its cheerful light:
There, five attendants brighten up the night.
Here, the blue firmament bedeck’d with ftars,
There, over-head, a lucid arch appears,
From hence how large,how ftrong, the fun’s bright ball!
But feen from thence, how languid and how fmall!—
When the keen north with all its fury blows.
Congeals the floods, and forms the fleecy fnows,
’Tis heat intenfe to what can there be known:
Warmer our poles than is its burning zone.
Who there inhabit muft have other pow’re,
Juices, and veins, and fenfe, and life, than ours.
One moment’s cold, like theirs, would pierce the bone.
Freeze the heart-blood, and turn us all to ftone.
Strange and amazing muft the diff’rence be,
’Twixt this dull Planet and bright Mercury:
Yet reafon fays, nor can we doubt at all,
Millions, of beings dwell on either ball,
With conftitutions fitted for that fpot,
Where Providence, all-wife, has fix’d their lot.
Wond’rous art thou, O'God, in all thy ways! }
Their eyes to thee let all thy creatures raife; C
Adore thy grandeur, and thy goodnefs praife. J
Ye fons of men! with fatisfadion know, j
jGod’s own right hand difpenfes all below:
Nor good nor evil does by chance befall;
He reigns fupreme, and he dire&s it all.
At his command, affrighting human-kind.
Comets drag on their blazing lengths behind:
Nor, as we think, do they at random rove,
But, in determin’d times, through long ellipfes move.
And tho’ fometimes they near approach the fun,
Sometimes beyond our fyftem’sorbit run;
Throughout their face they ad their Maker’s will.
His pow’r declare, his purpofes fulfil.
7^. Til. Of thofe preceptive poems that treat of
the bufinefs and pleafuresof mankind, Virgil’s Giwg/Vx
claims our firft and.principal attention. In thefe he
has laid down the rules of hufbandry in all its branches
with the utmoft exadnefs and perfpicuity, and at the
fame time embellifhed them with all the beauties and
graces of poetry. Though his fubjed was hufbandry,
he has delivered his precepts, as Mr Addifon obferves,
not with the fimplicity of a ploughman, but with the
addrefs
Part II. P O E
Didadtic. addrefs of a poet: tlie meaneft of Lis rules are laid
down with a kind of grandeur; and he breaks the clods>
and tojfes about the dung, ’with an air of gracefulnefs.
Of the different ways of conveying the fame truth to
the mind, he takes that which is pleafanteft; and this
chiefly diftinguifhes poetry from profe, and renders
Virgil’s rules of hufbandry more delightful and valu¬
able than any other.
Thefe poems, which are efteemed the moft perfeft
of the author’s works, are, perhaps, the belt that can
be propofed for the young ftudent’s imitation in this
manner of writing ; for the whole of his Georgies is
wrought up with wonderful art, and decorated with
all the flowers of poetry.
74. IV. Of tbofe poems which give precepts for the
recreations and pleafures of a country life, we have fe-
veral in our own language that are juftly admired. As
" the moft confiderable of thofe diverfions, however, are
finely treated by Mr Gay in his Rural Sports, we par¬
ticularly refer to that poem.
We fhould here treat of thofe preceptive poems that
teach the art of poetry itfelf, of which there are many
that deferve particular attention ; but we have antici¬
pated our delign, and rendered any farther notice of
them in a manner ufelefs, by the obfervations we have
made in the courfe of this treatife. We ought how¬
ever to remark, that Horace was the only poet among
the ancients who wrote precepts for poetry in verfe:
at leaft his epiftle to the Pifos is the only piece of the
kind that has been handed down to us ; and that is fo
perfeft, it feems almoft to have precluded the neceffity
of any other. Among the moderns we have feveral
that are juftly admired; as Boileau, Pope, &c.
74. Poets who write in the preceptive manner fhould
take care tochoofe fuch fubjefls as are worthy of their
mufe, and of confequence to all mankind ; for to be¬
llow both parts and pains to teach people trifles that
are unworthy of their attention, is to the laft degree
ridiculous.
Among poems of the ufeful and interefting kind,
Dr Armftrong’s Art of Preferving Health deferves par¬
ticular recommendation, as well in confideration of
the fubjeft, as of the elegant and mafterly manner in
which he has treated it; for he has made thofe things,
which are in their own nature dry and unentertaining,
perfe&ly agreeable and pleafing, by adhering to the
rules obferved by Virgil and others, in the conduft of
thefe poems.
75. With regard to the ftyle or drefs of thefe poems,
it fhould be fo rich as to hide the nakednefs of the
fubjeft, and the barrennefs of the precepts fhould be
Warlon on >n t*16 ^uftre ^ language. “ It ought to a-
DidaBic bound in the moft bold and forcible metaphors, the
Poetry. moft glowing and pidfurefque'epithets; it ought to be
elevated and enlivened by pomp of numbers and ma-
jefty of words, and by every figure that can lift a lan¬
guage above the vulgar and current exprefiions.” One
may add, that in no kind of poetry (not even in the
fublime ode) is beauty of expreflion fo much to be re¬
garded as in this. For the epic writer fhould be very
cautious of indulging himfelf in too florid a manner of
expreffion, efpecially in the dramatic parts of his fable,
where he introduces dialogue: and the writer of tra¬
gedy cannot fall into fo naufeous and unnatural an af-
Vot. VIII.
TRY. 6321
fetation, as to put laboured ddcriptiors, pompous Epiftle.
epithets, ftudied phrafes, and high-flown metaphors,
into the mouths of his chara&crs. But as the didaftic
poet fpeaks in his own perfon, it is neceffary and pro¬
per for him to ufe a brighter colouring of ftyle, and
to be more ftudious of ornament. And this is agree¬
able to an admirable precept of Ariftotle, which no wri¬
ter fhould ever forget,—“ That di&ion ought moft to
be laboured in the una&ive, that is, the deferiptive,
parts of a poem, in which the opinions, manners, and
pallions of men are not reprefented ; for too glaring
an expreffion obfeures the manners and the fenti-
ments”
We have already obferved that any thing in nature
may be the fubjeft of this poem. Some things how¬
ever will appear to more advantage than others, as
fhey give a greater latitude to genius, and admit of
more poetical ornaments. Natural hiftory and phiio-
fophy are copious fubjefts. Precepts in thefe might
be decorated with all the flowers in poetry ; and, as
Dr Trapp obferves, how can poetry be better employ¬
ed, or more agreeably to its nature and dignity, than
in celebrating the works of the great Creator, and de-
feribing the nature and generation of animals, vege¬
tables, and minerals; the revolutions of the heavenly
bodies; the motions of the earth ; the flux and reflux
of the fea; the caufe of thunder, lightning, and other
meteors; the attraftion of the magnet; the gravitation,
cohefion, and repulfion of matter; the impulfive mo¬
tion of light; 'the flow progreflion of founds; and o-
ther amazing phenomena of nature. Moft of the arts
and fciences are alfo proper fubje&s for this poem ; and
none are more fo than its two After arts, painting and
mufic. In the former, particularly, there is room for
the moft entertaining precepts concerning the difpofal
of colours; the arrangement of lights and (hades; the
fecret attraftives of beauty; the various ideas which
make up the one; the diftinguifhing between the atti¬
tudes proper to either fex, and every paffion ; the re-
prefenting profpefts of buildings, battles, or the coun¬
try; and laftly, concerning the nature of imitation,
and the power of painting. What a boundlefs field of
invention is here? What room for defeription, compa-
rifon, and poetical fable? How eafy the tranfition, at
any time, from the draught to the original, from the
fhadow to the fubftance ? and from hence, what noble
excurfions may be made into hiftory, into panegyric
upon the greateft beauties or heroes of the paft or pre-
fent age?
Sect. VII. Of the Epiftle.
76. This fpecies of writing, if we are permitted (a
lay down rules from the examples of our Left poets,
admits of great latitude, andfolicits ornament and de¬
coration : yet the poet is ftill to confider that the true
chara&er of the epiftle is eafe and elegance ; nothing
therefore fhould be forced or unnatural, laboured, or
affe&ed, but every part of the compofition breathe an
eafy, polite, and unconftrained freedom.
It is fuitable to every fubjedt ; for as the epiftle
takes place of difeourfe, and is intended as a fort of
diftant converfation, all the affairs of life and refearches
into nature may be introduced. Thofe, however,
which are fraught with compliment or condolence, that
35 Q contain
6322
Epiftle-
POETRY. Part II.
contain a defcription of places, or are full of perti- Yet fung fo often in poetic lays, Epiftle.
nent remarks, and in a familiar and humorous way With fcorn the Danube and the Nile furveys ;  
defcribe the manners, vices, and follies of mankind, So high the deathlefs mufe exalts her theme !
are the beft ; becaufe they are moft fuitable to the
true chara&er of epiftolary writing, and (bufmefs fet
apart) are the ufual fubjefts upon which our letters are
employed.
All farther rules and dire&ions are unneceffary; for
this kind of writing is better learned by example and
pra&ice, than by precept. We fhall therefore, in con¬
formity to our plan, feleft a few epiftles for the reader’s
imitation ; which, as this method of writing has of
late much prevailed, may be beft taken, perhaps, from
our modern poets.
77. The following letter from Mr Addifon to lord
Halifax, contains an elegant defcription of the curio-
fnies and places about Rome, together with fuch re-
fleflions on the ineftimable bleffings of liberty as
muft give pleafure to every Briton, efpecially when
he fees them thus placed in direft oppofition to the
baneful influence of flavery and oppreffion which are
ever to be feen among the miferable inhabitants of
thofe countries.
While you, my lord, the rural fhades admire,
And from Britannia’s public pofts retire,
Nor longer, her ungrateful Tons to pleafe.
For their advantage facrifice your cafe ;
Me into foreign realms my fate conveys,
Through nations fruitful of immortal lays,
Where the foft feafon and inviting clime
Confpire to trouble your repofe with rhime.
For wherefoe’cr I turn my ravifh’d eyes.
Gay gilded fcenes and fhining profpefts rife.
Poetic fields encompafs me around,
And ftill I feem to tread on claffic ground ;
For here the mufe fo oft her harp has ftrung,
That not a mountain rears its head unfung,
Renown’d in verfe each firady thicket grows,
And ev’ry ftream in heav’nly numbers flows.
How am I pleas’d to fearch the hills and woods
For rifing fprings and celebrated floods;
To view the Nar, tumultuous in his eourfe,
And trace the fmooth Clitumnus to his fource;
To fee the Mincio draw his wat’ry ftore
Through the long windings of a fruitful fhore,
And hoary Albula’s infefted tide
O’er the warm bed of fmoking fulphur glide f
Fir’d with a thoufand raptures, I furvey
Eridanus through flow’ry meadows ftray,
The king of floods! that, rolling o’er the plains,
The tow ring Alps of half their moifture drains.
And, proudly fwoln with a whole winter’s fnows,
Diftributes wealth and plenty where he flows.
Sometimes, mifguided by the tuneful throng,
I look for ftreams immortalis’d in fong,
That loft in filence and oblivion lie,
(Dumb are their fountains and their channels dry)
Yet run for ever by the mufe’s fkill,
And in the fmooth defcription murmur ftill'.
Sometimes to gentle Tiber I retire,
And the fam’d river’s empty fhores admire.
That, deftitute of ftrength, derives its courfe
From thirfty urijs, and an unfruitful fource j
Such was the Boyn, a poor inglorious ftream,
That in Hibernian vales obfcurely ftray’d.
And unobferv’d in wild meanders play’d;
Till, by your lines and NafTau’s fword renown’d,
Its rifing billows through the world refound.
Where’er the hero’s godlike afts can pierce,
Or where the fame of an immortal verfe.
Oh cou’d the mufe my ravifh’d bread infpire
With warmth like yours, and raife an equal fire,
Unnumber’d beauties in my verfe fhould fhine,
And Virgil’s Italy fhould yield to mine !
See how the golden groves around me fmile,
That fhun the coafts of Britain’s ftormy ifle,
Or when tr^nfplanted and preferv’d with care,
Curfe the cold clime, and ftarve in northern air.
Here kindly warmth their mounting juice ferments
To nobler taftes, and more exalted feents:
Ev’n the rough rocks with tender myrtles bloom,
And trodden weeds fend out a rich perfume.
Bear me, fome god, to Baia’s gentle feats,
Or cover me in Umbria’s green retreats ;
Where weftern gales eternally refide,
And all the feafons lavifh all their pride:
Bloffoms, and fruits, and flow’rs together rife,
And the whole year in gay confufion lies.
Immortal glories in my mind revive,
And in my foul a thoufand paflions ftrive,
When Rome’s exalted beauties I defery
Magnificent in piles of ruin lie.
An amphitheatre’s amazing height
Here fills my eye with terror and delight,
That on its public {hows unpeopled Rome,
And held uncrowded nations in its womb :
Here pillars rough with fculpture pierce the Ikies ;
And here the proud triumphal arches rife,
Where the old Romans deathlefs afts, difplay’d,
Their bafe degenerate progeny upbraid :
Whole rivers here forfake the fields below,
Andwond’ring at their height thro’airy channels flow.
Still to new fcenes my wand’ring mufe retires;
And the dumb (how of breathing rocks admires y
Where the fmooth chifel all its force has fhown,
And foften’d into flefh the rugged (tone.
In folemn filence, a majeftic band,
Heroes, and gods, and Roman confuls ftand.
Stern tyrants, whom their cruelties renown,
And emperors in Parian marble frown ;
While the bright dames, to whom they humbly fu’d.
Still fhow the charms that their proud hearts fubdu’d.
Fain would I Raphael’s godlike art rehearfe.
And fhow th’ immortal labours in my verfe,
Where from the mingled ftrength of fhade and light
A new creation rifes to my fight,
Such heav’nly figures from his pencil flow,
So warm with life his blended colours glow.
From theme to theme with fecret pleafure toft,
Araidft the foft variety I’m loft.
Here pleafing airs my ravifh’d foul confound
With circling notes and labyrinths of found ;
Here domes and temples rife in diftant views,
And opening palaces invite my mufe.
Part
Epiftlo.
If. P O E
How has kind heav’n adorn’d the happy land,
"And fcatter’d bleffings with a wafteful hand!
But what avail her unexhaufted ftores,
Her blooming mountains, and her funny fhores.
With all the gifts that heav’n and earth impart,
The fmiles of nature, and the charms of art,
While proud oppreflion in her valleys reigns,
And tyranny ufurps her happy plains f
The poor inhabitant beholds in vain
The red’ning orange and the fwelling ^rain ;
Joylefs he fees the growing oils and wines,
And in the myrtle’s fragrant fhade repines:
Starves, in the midft of nature’s bounty curft,
And in the loaden vineyard dies for thirft.
O liberty, thou goddefs heav’nly bright,
Profufe of blifs, -and pregnant with delight!
Eternal pleafures in thy prefence reign,
And fmiling plenty leads thy wanton train ;
Eas’d of her load, fubjedtion grows more light,
And poverty looks cheerful in thy fight;
Thou mak’ft the gloomy face of nature gay,
Giv’ft beauty to the fun, and pleafure to the day.
Thee, goddefs, thee, Britannia’s ifle adores
How has (he oft exhaufted all her ftores,
Blow oft in fields of death thy prefence fought,
Nor thinks the mighty prize too dearly bought!
On foreign mountains may the fun refine
The grape’s foft juice, and mellow it to wine,
With citron groves adorn a diftant foil,
And the fat olive fwell with floods of oil:
We envy not the warmer clime, that lies
In ten degrees of more indulgent flcieS,
Nor at the coarfenefs of our heav’n repine,
Though o’er our heads the frozen pleiads fliine :
’Tis liberty that crowns Britannia’s ifle, ffmile.
And makes her barren rocks and her bleak mountains
Others with tow’ring piles may pleafe the fight,
And in their proud afpiring domes delight;
A nicer touch to the ftretch’d canvas give,
Or teach their animated rocks to live :
’Tis Britain’s care to watch o’er Europe’s fate,
And hold in balance each contending ftate,
To threaten bold prefumptuous kings with war,
And anfwer her affli&ed neighbour’s pray’r.
The Dane and Swede, rous’d up by fierce alarms,
Blefs the wife conduft of her pious arms :
Soon as her fleets appear, their terrors ceafe.
And all the northern world lies hufh’d in peace.
Th’ ambitious Gaul beholds with fecret dread
Her thunder aim’d at his afpiring head,
And fain her godlike fons would difunite
By foreign gold, or by domeftic fpite ;
But drives in vain to conquer or divide,
Whom Naflau’s arms defend and counfels guide.
Fir’d with the name, which I fo oft have found
The diftant climes and different tongues refound,
I bridle in my ftruggling mufe with pain.
That longs to lanch into a bolder drain.
But I’ve already troubled you too long,
Nor dare attempt a more advent’rous fong t
My humble verfe demands a fofter theme,
A painted meadow, or a purling ftream ;
Unfit for heroes ; whom immortal lays,
And lines like Virgil’s, or like yours, fliould praife.
TRY.
78. There is a fine fpirit of freedom, and love ofli-
berty,difplayed in the following letter from lord Ly ttel-'
ton to Mr Pope; and the meflage from the (hade of
Virgil, which is truly poetical, and juftly preceptive,
may prove an ufeful leflbn to future bards.
From Rome, J 730.
Immortal bard ! for whom each mufe has wove
The faireft garlands of the Aonian grove ;
Preferv’d, our drooping genius to reftore,
When Addifon and Congreve are no more;
After fo many ftars extinft in night.
The darken’d age’s lad remaining light!
To thee from Latian realms this verfe is writ,
Infpir’d by memory of ancient wit:
For now no more thefe climes their influence boaft,
Fail’n is their glory, and their virtue loft ;
From tyrants, and from priefts, the mufes fly,
Daughters of reafon and of libvrty.
Nor Baise now nor Umbria’s plain they love,
Nor on the banks of Nar or Mincia rove ;
To Thames’s flow’ry borders they retire,
And kindle in thy bread the Roman fire.
So in the (hades, where cheer’d with fummer rays
Melodious linnets warbled fprightly lays,
Soon as the faded, falling leaves complain
Of gloomy winter’s unaufpicious reign.
No tuneful voice is heard of joy or love,
But mournful filence faddens all the grove.
Unhappy Italy ! whofe alter’d ftate
Has felt the word feverity of fate :
Not that barbarian hands her fafees broke,
And bow’d her haughty neck beneath their yoke {
Nor that her palaces to earth are thrown,
Her cities defert, and her fields unfown ;
But that her ancient fpirit is decay’d,
That facred wifdom from her bounds is fled.
That there the fource of fcience flows no more,
Whence its rich ftreams fupply’d the wTorld before.
Illuftrious names! that once in Latium (liin’d.
Born to inftruft and to command mankind;
Chiefs, by whofe virtue mighty Rome was rais’d,
And poets, who thofe chiefs fublimely prais’d !
Oft I the traces you have left explore,
Your allies vifit, and your urns adore ;
Oft kifs, with lips devout, fome mould’ring ftone,
With ivy’s venerable (hade o’ergrown ;
Thofe hallow’d ruins better pleas’d to fee,
Than all the pomp of modern luxury.
As late on Virgil’s tomb frefh flow’rs I ftrow’d.
While with th’ infpiring mufe my bofom’d glow’d,
Crown’d with eternal bays, my ravifti’d eyes
Beheld the poet’s awful form arife:
Stranger, he faid, whofe pious hand has paid
Thefe grateful rites to my attentive (hade,
When thou (halt breathe thy happy native fcir,
To Pope this meflage from his mafter bear.
Great bard, whofe numbers I myfelf infpire,
To whom I gave my own harmonious lyre,
If high exalted on the throne of wit,
Near me and Homer thou afpire to fitj
No more let meaner fatire dim the rays
That flow majeftic from thy noble bays.
In all the flow’ry paths of Pindus ftray t
35 O 2 But
6323
Epiftkr.
6324
Epiftle.
TRY.
This the blue varnirti, that the green endears,
The facred nift of twice ten hundred years !
To gain Prefcennius one employs his fchemes,
One grafps a Cecrops in ecftatic dreams.
Poor Vadius, long, with learned fpleen devour’d,
Can tafte no pleafure fince his fhield was fcour’d :
And Curio, reftlefs by the fair one’s fide.
Sighs for an Otho, and negle&s his bride.
Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine:
Touch’d by thy hand, again Rome’s glories (hine ;
Her gods and god-like heroes rife to view,
And all her faded garlands bloom anew.
Nor blulh thefe ftudies thy regard engage ;
Thefe pleas’d the fathers of poetic rage ;
The verfe and fculpture bore an equal part,
And art refle&ed images to art.
Oh when (hall Britain, confcious of her claim,
Stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame?
In living medals fee her wars enroll’d.
And vanquilh’d realms fupply recording gold ?
Here, rifmg bold, the patriot’s honeft face ;
There, warriors frowning in hiftoric brafs ?
Then future ages with delight fliall fee
How Plato’s, Bacon’s, Newton’s looks agree;
Or in fair feries laurell’d bards be fhown,
A Virgil there, and here an Addifon.
Then fhall thy Craggs (and let me call him mine)
On the call ore, another Pollio fhine ;
With afpedt open fhall ereft his head,
And round the orb in lading notes be read,
“ Statefman, yet friend to truth ! of foul fincere,
“ In adtion faithful, and in honour clear;
“ Who broke no promife, ferv’d no private end*
“ Who gain’d no title, and who loft no friend ;
“ Ennobled by himfelf, by all approv’d,
“ Prais’d, wept, and honour’d, by the mufe he lov’d.
Part II.
Epiftle.
POE
But fhun that thorny, that unpleafing way ;
Nor, when each foft engaging mufe is thine,
Addrefs the leaft attradlive of the nine.
Of thee more worthy were the talk to raife
A lading column to thy country’s praife,
To fing the land, which yet alone can boaft
That liberty corrupted Rome has loft ;
Where fcience in the arms of peace is laid,
And plants her palm beneath the olive’s lhade.
Such was the theme for which my lyre I ftrung,
Such was the people whofe exploits I fung ;
Brave, yet refin’d, for arms and arts renown’d,
With diff’rent bays by Mars and Phoebus crown’d,
Dauntlefs oppofers oppofers of tyrannic fway,
But pleas’d a mild Augustus to obey.
If thefe commands fubmiffive thou receive,
Immortal and unblam’d thy name Ihalllive;
Envy to black Cocytus lhall retire,
And howl with furies in tormenting fire;
Approving time fhall confecrate thy lays,
And join the patriot’s to the poet’s praife.
79. The great ufe of medals is properly defcribed
in the enfuing elegant epiftle from Mr Pope to Mr
Addifon; and the extravagant paffion which fome
people entertain only for the colour of them, is very
agreeably and very juftly ridiculed.
See the wild wafte of all devouring years !
How Rome her own fad fepulchre appears !
With nodding arches, broken temples fpread !
The very tombs now vanifti like their dead !
Imperial wonders rais’d on nations fpoil’d,
Where mix’d with flaves the groaning martyr toil’d !
Huge theatres, that now unpeopled woods,
Now drain’d a diftant country of her floods !
Fanes, which admiring gods with pride furvey,
Statues of men, fcarce lefs alive than they !
Some felt the filent ftroke of mould’ring age,
Some hoftile fury, fome religious rage ;
Barbarian blindnefs, Chriftian zeal confpire,
And Papal piety, and Gothic fire.
Perhaps, by its own ruin fav’d from flame,
Some bury’d marble half preferves a name;
That name the learn’d with fierce difputes purfu'e,
And give to Titus old Vefpafian’s due.
Ambition figh’d : She found it vain to truft
The faithlefs column and the crumbling buft ;
Huge moles, whofe fhadow ftretch’d from fhore to (bore,
Their ruins periih’d, and their place no more!
Convincd, (he now contrails her vaft defign,
And all her triumphs (brinks into a coin.
A narrow orb each crowded conqueft keeps,
Beneath her palm here fad Judaea weeps ;
Now fcantier limits the proud arch confine,
And fcarce are feen the proftrate Nile or Rhine ;
A ftnall Euphrates through the piece is roll’d,
And little eagles waves their wings in gold.
The medal, faithful to its charge of fame.
Through clinus and ages bears each form and name :
In one (hort view fubjeifed to our eye,
Gods, emp’rors, heroes, fages, beauties, lie.
With (harpen’d fight pale antiquaries pore.
The infcriptron value, but the ruft adore.
80. The following letter from Mr Philips to the
earl of Dorfet is entirely defcriptive ; but is one of
thofe defcriptions which will be ever read with de¬
light.
Copenhagen, March 9. 1709.
From frozen climes, and endlefs trads of fnow,
From ftreams which northern winds forbid to flow.
What prefent (hall the mufe to Dorfet bring,
Or how, fo near the pole, attempt to fing ?
The hoary winter here conceals from fight
All pleafing obje&s which to verfe invite.
The hills and dales, and the delightful woods.
The flow’ry plains, and filver dreaming floods.
By fnow difguis’d, in bright confufion lie,
And with one dazzling wide fatigue the eye.
No gentle breathing breeze prepares the fpring.
No birds within the defert region ling :
The (hips, unmov’d, the boift’rous winds defy,
While rattling chariots o’er the ocean fly.
The vaft Leviathan wants room to play,
And fpout his waters in the face of day ;
The ftarving wolves along the main fea fprowl.
And to the moon in icy valleys howl.
O’er many a (hining league the level main
Here fpreads itfelf into a glaffy plain :
There
Part II. POE
)" Epiflle. There folid billows of enormous fize,
•  Alps* of green ice, in wild diforder rife.
And yet but lately have I feen, ev’n here,
The winter in a lovely drefs appear.
’E’re yet the clouds let fall the treafur’d fnow,
Or winds begin through hazy Ikies to blow,
At ev’ning a keen eaftem breeze arofe,
And the defeending rain unfully’d froze ;
Soon as the filent (hades of night withdrew,
The ruddy morn difclos’d at once to view
The face of nature in a rich difguife,
And brighten’d ev’ry objeft to my eyes:
For ev’ry (hrub, and ev’ry blade of grafs,
And ev’ry pointed thorn, feem’d wrought in glafs;
In pearls and rubies rich the hawthorns (how,
While through the ice the crimfon berries glow.
The thick-fprung reeds, which watery marfhes yield,
Seem’d polifh’d lances in a hoftile field.
The flag in limpid currents with furprife,
Sees cryftal branches on his forehead rife :
The fpreading oak, the beech, and tow’ring pine,
Glaz’d over, in the freezing aether (bine.
The frighted birds the rattling branches (hun,
Which wave and glitter in the diftar.t fun.
When if a fudden guft of wind arife,
The brittle foreft into atoms flies,
The crackling woods beneath the temped bends,
And in a fpangled (bower the profpeA ends :
Or, if a fouthern gale the region warm,
And by degrees unbend the wint’ry charm.
The traveller a miry country fees,
And journey fad beneath the dropping trees:
Like fome deluded peafant Merlin leads
Through fragrant bow’rs and through delicious meads,
While here enchanted gardens to him rife,
And airy fabrics there attraft his eyes,
His wandering feet the magic paths purfue,
And while he thinks the fair illufion true.
The tracklefs feenes difperfe in fluid air,
And woods, and wilds, and thorny ways appear,
A tedious road the weary wretch returns,
And, as he goes, the tranfient vifion mourns.
81. We have already obferved that the eflential,
and indeed the true chara&eriftic of epiftolary writing
is eafe ; and on this account, as well as others, the
following letter from Mr Pope to Mifs Blount is to be
admired.
To Mifs Blount, an her leaving theTown after the
Coronation.
As fome fond virgin, whom her mother’s care
Drags from the town to wholefome country air ;
Juft when (he learns to roll a melting eye,
And hear a fpark,yet think no danger nigh ;
From the dear man unwilling (lie muft fever.
Yet takes one kifs before (he parts for ever :
Thus from the world fair Zephalinda flew,
Saw others happy, and with fighs withdrew :
Not that their pleafures caus’d her difeontent;
She figh’d not that they flay’d, but that (he went.
She went, to plain-work, and to purling brooks,
Old-fafhion’d halls, dull aunts,-and croaking rooks :
She went from op’ra, park, affembly, play,
To morning-walks, and pray’rs three hours a-day;
(
TRY. 6325
To part her time ’twixt reading and bohea, Defcriptive.
To mufe, and fpill her folitary tea,
Or o’er cold coffee trifle with the fpoon,
Count the flow clock, and dine exadt at noon;
Divert her eyes with pictures in the fire,
Hum half a tune, tell (lories to the ’fquire ;
Up to her godly garret after feven.
There ftarve and pray, for that’s the way to heav’n.
Some ’fquire, perhaps, you take delight to rack ;
Whofe game is whilk, whofe treat’s a toaft in fack ;
Who vifits with a gun, prefents you birds,
Then gives a fmacking bufs, and cries,—no words 1
Or with his hound comes hollowing from the (table.
Makes love with nods, and knees beneath a table ;
Whofe laughs are hearty, tho’ his jefts are coarfe,
And loves you bed of all things—but his horfe.
In fome fair ev’ning, on your elbow laid,
You dream of triumphs in the rural (hade;
In penfive thought recall the fancy’d feene,
See coronations rife on every green ;
Before you pafs th’ imaginary fights
Of lords and earls, and dukes, and garter’d knights,
While the fpread fan o’er-(hadesyour clofingeyes;
Then give one flirt, and all the vifion flies.
Thus vanifli feeptres, coronets and balls,
And leave you in lone woods, or empty walls !
So when your (lave, at fome dear idle time,
(Not plagu’d with head-achs, or the want of rhyme)
Stands in the ftreets, abftra&ed from the crew,
And while he feems to ftudy, thinks of you ;
Juft when his fancy points your fprightly eyes,
Or fees the blufh of foft Parthenia rife.
Gay pats my (houlder, and you vanifh quite,
Streets, chairs, and coxcombs, rufti upon my fight;
Vex’d to be (till in town, I knit my brow,
Look four, and hum a tune, as you may now.
Sect. VII. Of Defcriptive Poetry.
82. Descriptive poetry is of unverfal ufe, fince
there is nothing in nature but what may be deferibed.
As poems of this kind, however, are intended more
to delight than to inftruft, great care (hould be taken
to make them agreeable. Defcriptive poems are made
beautiful by fimilies properly induced, images of
feigned perfons, and allufions to ancient fables or
hiftorical fads ; as will appear by a perufal of the bell
of thefe poems, efpecially Milton’s L* Allegro and II
Penferofo, Denham’s Cooper Hill, and Pope’s Windfov
Forejl. Every body being in poffeffion of Milton’s
works, we forbear inferting the two former ; and the
others are two long for our purpofe. That inimitable
poem, The Seafons, by MrThomfon, notwithftanding
fome parts of it are didadic, may be alfo with pro¬
priety referred to this head.
Sect. VIII. Of Allegorical Poetry.
83. Could truth engage the affedions of mankind
in her native and Ample drefs, (he would require no
ornament, or aid,, from the imagination ; but her
delicate light, though lovely in itfelf, and dear to the
moft difeerning, does not (trike the fenfesof the multi¬
tude fo as to fecure their efteem and attention : the
poet therefore dreffed her up in the manner in which
6326
Allegorical
POE
• they thought {he would appear the moft amiable, and
called in allegories and airy difguifes as her auxiliaries
in the caufe of virtue.
An allegory is a fable, or (lory, in which, under
the difguife of imaginary perfons or things, fome real
aftion or inftruftive moral is conveyed to the mind.
Every allegory therefore has two fenfes, the one literal
and the other myftical; the firft has been aptly enough
compared to a dream, or vifion, of which the laft is
the true meaning or interpretation.
From this definition of allegorical poetry the reader
will perceive that it gives great latitude to genius, and
affords fuch a boundlefs fcope for invention, that the
poet is allowed to foar beyond all creation ; to give
life and aftion to virtues, vices, paffions, difeafes,
and natural and moral qualities; to raife floating iflands,
enchanted palaces, caftles, &c. and to people them
with the creatures of his own imagination.
The poet’s eye, in a fine frenzy rolling,
Doth glance from heav’n to earth, from earth to heav’n;
And, as imagination bodies forth
The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen
Turns them to fhape, and gives to airy nothing
A local habitation and. a name. Shakespeare.
But whatever is thus raifed by the magic of his mind
muff be vifionary and typical, and the myflical fenfe
appear obvious to the reader, and inculcate fome moral
or ufeful leffon in life ; otherwife the whole will be
deemed rather the effeds of a diftempered brain, than
the produdions of real wit and genius. The poet, like
Jafon, may fail to parts unexplored, but will meet with
no applaufe if he returns without a golden fleece ; for
thefe romantic reveries would be unpardonable but for
the myftical meaning and moral that is thus artfully and
agreeably conveyed with them, and on which account
only the allegory is indulged with a greater liberty than
any other fort of writing.
The ancients juftly confidered this fort of allegory
as the moft effential part of poetry ; for the power of
railing images of things not in being, giving them a
fort of life and adion, and prefenting them, as it were,
before the eyes, was thought to have fomething in it
like creation : but then, in fuch compofitions, they al¬
ways expeded to find a meaning couched under them
of confequence ; and we may reafonably conclude,
that the allegories of their poets would never have been
handed down to us, had they been deficient in this
refped.
84. As the fable is the part immediately offered to
the reader’s confideration, and intended as an agree¬
able vehicle to convey the moral, it ought to be bold,
lively, and furprifing, that it may excite curiofity
and fupport attention ; for if the fable be fpiritlefs and
barren of invention, the attention will be difengaged,
and the moral, however ufeful and important’in itfelf,
will be little regarded.
There muft likewife be a juftnefs and propriety in
the fable, that is, it muft be clofely connefted with
the fubjeft on which it is employed ; for notwithftand-
ing the boundlefs compafs allowed the imagination in
thefe writings, nothing abfurd, orufelefs, is to be in¬
troduced. In epic poetry fome things may perhaps
be admitted for no other reafon but to furprize, and
to raife what is called the 'wonderful) which is as ne-
TRY. Part II.
ceffary to the epic as the probable ; but in allegories, Allegorical/
however wild and extravagant the fable and the per- '
fons introduced, each muft correfpond with the fub-
je& they arts applied to, and, like the members of a
well-written fimile, bear a due proportion and relation
to each other : for we are to confider, that the allegory
is a fort of extended or rather multiplied fimile, and
therefore, like that, fliould never lofe the fubjeft it is
intended to illuftrate. Whence it will appear, that
genius and fancy are here infufficient without the aid
of tafte and judgment: thefe firft, indeed, may pro¬
duce a multitude of ornaments, a wildernefs of fweets;
but the laft muft be employed to accommodate them
to reafon, and to arrange them fo as to produce plea-
fure and profit.
But it is not fufficient that the fable be correfpon-
dent with the fubjedt, and have the properties above-
defcribed ; for it muft alfo be confiftent with itfelf.
The poet may invent what ftory he pleafes, and form
any imaginary beings that his fancy fhall fuggeft ; but
here, as in dramatic writings, when perfons are once
introduced, they muft be fupported to the end, and
all fpeak and adl in charafter : for notwithftanding
the general licence here allowed, fome order muft be
obferved ; and however wild and extravagant the cha-
rafters, they fliould not be abfurd. To this let me
add, that the whole muft be clear and intelligible ; for
the “ fable (as Mr Hughes obferves) being defigned
only to clothe and adorn the moral, but not to hide it,
fliould refemble the draperies we admire in fome of the
ancient ftatues, in which the folds are not too many
nor too thick, but fo jddicioufly ordered, that the
ftiape and beauty of the limbs may be feen through
them.”—But this will more obvioufly appear from a
perufal of the beft compofitions of this clafs ; fuch as
Spenfer’s Fairy Queen, Thomfon’s Caftle of Indo¬
lence, Addifon and Johnfon’s beautiful allegories in
the Speflator and Rambler, &c. &c.
85. The word allegory been ufed in a more exten-
five fenfe than that in which we have here applied it:
for all writings, where the moral is conveyed under
the cover of borrowed charaflers and aft ions, by which
other charaflers and affions (that are real) are repre-
fented, have obtained the name of allegories } though
the fable or ftory coutains nothing that is vifionary or
romantic, but is made up of real or hiftorical perfons,
and of aftions either probable or pofiible. But thefe
writings fliould undoubtedly be diftinguiftied by fome
other name, becaufe the literal fenfe is confiftent with
right reafon, and may convey an ufeful moral, and fa-
tisfy the reader, without putting him under the necef-
fity of feeking for another.
Some of the ancient critics, as Mr Addifon obferves,
were fond of giving the works of their poets this fe-
cond or concealed meaning, though there was no ap¬
parent ncceffity for the attempt, and often but little
Ihow of reafon in the application. Thus the Iliad and
Odyffey of Homer are faid to be fables of this kind,
and that the gods and heroes introduced are only the
affe&ions of the mind reprefented in a vifible ftiape
and charafler. They tell us, fays he, that Achilles
in the firft Iliad reprefents anger, or the irrafcible part
of human nature : that upon drawing his fword againft
his fuperior, in a full affembly, Pallas (which, fay
they, is another name for reafon) checks and advifes
Part II. POE
liegorical. him on the occafion, and, at her firft appearance,
touches him upon the head; that part of the man be¬
ing looked upon as the feat of reafon. In this fenfe,
as Mr Hughes has well obferved, the whole jEneis of
Virgil may be faid to be an allegory, if you fuppofe
.Eneas to reprefent Auguftus Csefar, and that his con¬
cluding the remains of his countrymen from the ruins
of Troy, to a new fettlement in Italy, is an emblem
of Auguftus’s forming a new government out of the
ruins of the ariftocracy, and eftablifhing the Romans,
after the confufion of the civil war, in a peaceable and
flourilhing condition. However ingenious this coin¬
cidence may appear, and whatever defign Virgil had
in view, he has avoided a particular and dired appli¬
cation, and fo conduded his poem, that it is perfed
without any allegorical interpretation ; for whether we
conGder Eneas or Auguftus as the hero, the morals
contained are equally inftrudive. And indeed itfeems
abfurd to fuppofe, that becaufe the epic poets have
introduced fome allegories into their works, every
thing is to be underftood in a myllical manner, where
the fenfe is plain and evident without any fuch appli¬
cation. Nor is the attempt that Taffo made to turn
his Jerufalem into a myftery, any particular recom¬
mendation of the work: for notwithftanding he tells
us, in what is called the allegory, printed with it, that
the Chriftian army reprefents man, the city of Jeru¬
falem civil happinefs, Godfrey the underftanding, Ri-
naldo and Tancred the other powers of the foul, and
that the body is typified by the common foldiers, and
the like ; yet the reader will find himfelf as little de¬
lighted as edified by the explication : for the mind has
little pleafure in an allegory that cannot be opened
without a key made by the hand of the fame artift ;
and indeed every allegory that is fo dark, and, as it
were, inexplicable, lofes its very effence, and becomes
an enigma, or riddle, that is left to be interpreted by
every crude imagination.
This laft fpecies of writing, whether called an alle¬
gory, or by any other name, is not lefs eminent and
ufeful ; for the introducing of real or hiftorical perfons
may not abridge or leffen either our entertainment or
inftruftion. In thefe compofitions we often meet with
an uncommon moral conveyed by the fable in a new
and entertaining manner; or with a known truth fo
artfully decorated, and placed in fuch a new and beau¬
tiful light, that we are amazed how any thing fo
charming and ufeful Ihould fo long have efcaped our
obfervation. Such, for example, are many of John-
fon’s pieces publiflied in the Rambler under the title
of Eajlern Stories, and by Hawkefworth in the Ad¬
venturer.
The ancient parables are of this fpecies of writing r
and it is to be obferved, that thofe in the New Telta-
ment have a moft remarkable elegance and propriety ;
and are the more ftriking, and the more inftruAive,
for being drawn from objeds that are familiar.—The
more ftriking, becaufe, as the things are feen, the mo¬
ral conveyed becomes the object of our fenfes, and re¬
quires little or no refle&ion :—the more inftrudive,
becaufe every time they are feen, the memory is awa¬
kened, and the fame moral is again exhibited with
pleafure to the mind, and accuftoms it to reafon and
dwell on the fubjed. So that this method of inftruc-
tion improves nature, as it were; into a bool; of life;
TRY.
fince every thing before us may be fo managed, as to
give leffons for our advantage. Our Saviour’s para-"
bles of the fower and the feed, of the tares, of the
muftard feed, and of the leaven (Matthew xiii.), are
all of this kind, and tvere obvioufly taken from the
harveft juft ripening before him; for bis difciplesplucked
the ears of com and did eat, rubbing them in their hands.
See the articles Allegory, and Metaphor and Al-
legory, in the general alphabet.
Sect. VIII. Of Fables.
1. No method of inftrudion has been more ancient,
more univerfal, and probably none more effedual, than
that by apologue or fable. In the firft ages, amongft
a rude and fierce people, this perhaps was the only
method that would have been borne ; and even fince
the progrefs of learning has furnifhed other helps, the.
fable, which at firft was ufed through neceffity, is re¬
tained from choice, on account of the elegant happi¬
nefs of its manner, and the refined addrefs with which,
when well conduded, it infinnates its moral.
2. As to the adors in this little drama, the fabulift
has authority to prefs into his fervice every kind of
exiftence under heaven ; not onlybeafts, birds, infeds,
and all the animal creation ; buf flowers, fhrubs, trees,
and all the tribe of vegetables. Even mountains, fof-
fils, minerals, and the inanimate works of nature, dif-
courfe articulately at his command, and ad the part
which he affigns them. The virtues, vices, and every
property of beings, receive from him a local habita¬
tion and a name. In (hort, he may perfonify, beftow
life, fpeech, and adion, on whatever he thinks pro¬
per.
It is eafy to imagine what a fource of novelty and
variety this muft open to a genius capable of concei¬
ving and of employing thefe ideal perfons in a proper
manner : what an opportunity it affords him to diver-
fify his images, and to treat the fancy with changes
of objeds, while he ftrengthens the underftanding, or
regulates the paffions, by a fucceflion of truths. To
raife beings like thefe into a ftate of adion and intel¬
ligence, gives the fabulift an undoubted claim to that
firft charader of the poet, a creator.
When thefe perfons are once raifed, we muft care¬
fully enjoin them proper tafks, and affign them fenti-
ments and language fuitable to their feveral natures
and refpedive properties. A raven fhould not be ex¬
tolled for her voice, nor a bear be reprefented with an
elegant fhape. It were a very obvious inftance of ab-
furdity, to paint a hare cruel, or a wolf compaffion-
ate. An afs were but ill qualified to be general of
an army, though he may well enough ferve, perhaps,
for one of the trumpeters. But fo long as popular
opinion allows to the lion magnanimity, rage to the
tiger, ftrengtb to the mule, cunning to the fox, and
buffoonery to the monkey ; why may not they fupport
the charaders of an Agamemnon, Achilles, Ajax,
Ulyffes, and Therfites ? The truth is, when moral
adions are with judgment attributed to the brute crea¬
tion, we fcarce perceive that nature is at all violated
by the fabulift. He appears at moft to have only
tranflated their language. His lions, wolves, and
foxes, behave and argue as thofe creatures would, had
they originally been endowed with the human faculties
of fpeech and reafon.
6327
Of Fables.
6328 POE
Of Fables. But greater art is yet required whenever we perfo-
nify inanimate beings. Here the copy fo far deviates
from the great lines of nature, that, without the niceft
care, reafon will revolt againfl the fidtion. However,
beings of this fort, managed ingenioufly and with ad-
drefs, recommend the fabulift’s invention by the grace
of novelty and of variety. Indeed the analogy between
things natural and artificial, animate and inanimate, is
often fo very linking, that we can, with feeming pro¬
priety, give pafiions and fentiments to every individual
part of exiftence. Appearance favours the deception.
The vine may be enamoured of the dm; her embraces
tdlify her paffion. The fwelling mountain may, na¬
turally enough, be delivered of a moufe. The gourd
may reproach the pine, and the Iky-rocket iufult the
liars. The axe may folicit a new handle of the forell;
and the moon, in her female charadter, requeft a fa-
Ihionable garment. Here is nothing incongruous ;
nothing that Ihocks the reader with impropriety. On
the other hand, were the axe to defire a periwig, and
the moon petition for a new pair of boots, probability
would then be violated, and the abfurdity become too
glaring.
3. The moll beautiful fables that everVere invent¬
ed, may be disfigured by the language in which they
are cloathed. Of this poor iEfop, in fome of his Eng-
hfli drefles, affords a melancholy proof. The ordinary
ilyle of fable fhould be familiar, but alfo elegant.
The familiar, fays Mr La Motte, is the general
tone or accent of fable. It was thought fufficient, on
its firft appearance, to lend the animals our moil comr
nion language. Nor indeed have they any extraordi¬
nary pretenfions to the fublime ; it being requifite they
Ihould fpeak with the fame fimplicity that they be¬
have.
' The familiar alfo is more proper for infinuation than
the elevated; this being the language of refledlion,
as the former is the voice of fentiment. We guard
ourfelves againft the one, but lie open to the other ;
and inftrudlion will always the mod effe&ually fway
us, when it appears lead jealous of its rights and pri¬
vileges.
The familiar dyle, however, that is here required,
notwithdanding that appearance of cafe which is its
charafter, is perhaps more difficult to write than the
more elevated or fublime. A writer more readily per¬
ceives when he has rifen above the common language,
than he perceives, in fpeaking this language, whether
he has made the choice that is mod fuitable to the oc-
cafion : and it is, neverthelefs, upon this happy choice
depends all the charms of the familiar. Moreover,
the elevated dyle deceives and feduces, although it be
not the bed chofen ; whereas the familiar can procure
itfelf no fort of refpedl, if it be not eafy, natural, juil,
delicate, and unaffedled. A fabulid mud therefore
bedow great attention upon his dyle ; and even labour
it fo much the more, that it may appear to have cod
him no pains at all.
The authority of Fontaine judify thefe opinions in
regard to dyle. His fables are perhaps the bed ex¬
amples of the genteel familiar, as Sir Roger L’Edrange
affords the groffed of the indelicate and low. When
we read, that “ while the frog and the moufe were dif-
puting it at fwords-point, down comes a kite powder¬
ing upon them in the interim, and gobbets up both
T R Y. Part II.
together to part the fray.” And “ where the fox Of Fables,
reproaches a bevy of jolly goffipping wenches making
merry over a difh of pullets, that if he but peeped in¬
to a hen-rood, they always made a bawling with their
dogs and their badards; while you yourfelves (fays
he) can lie duffing your guts with your hens andcapons,
and not a word of the pudding.” This may be fa¬
miliar; but it is alfocoarfe and vulgar, and cannot fail
to difgud a reader that has the lead degree of tade
or delicacy.
The dyle of fable then mud be fimple and familiar ;
and it mud likewife be correct and elegant. By the
former, we mean, that it fliould not be loaded with
figure and metaphor; that the difpofition of words be
natural, the turn of fentences eafy, and their con-,
firu&ion unembarraffed. By elegance, we would ex¬
clude all coarfe and provincial terms ; all affedted and
peurile conceits ; all oblolete and pedantic phrafes.
To this we would adjoin, as the word perhaps im¬
plies, a certain finifhing polifli, which gives a grace
and fpirit to the whole ; and which, though it have
always the appearance of nature, is almod ever the ef-
fedl of art.
But notwithdanding all that has been faid, there
are fome occafions on which it is allowable, and even
expedient, to change the dyle. The language of a
fable mud rife or fall in conformity to the fubjedl. A
lion, when introduced in his regal capacity, mud hold
difcourfe in a drain fome what more elevated than a
coifntry-moufe. The lionefs then becomes his queen,
and the beads of the fored are called his fubjeds: a
method that offers at once to the imagination both the
animal and the perfon he is defigned to reprefent. A-
gain, the buffoon-monkey fiiould avoid that pomp of
phrafe, which the owl employs as her bed pretence to
wifdom. Unlefs the dyle be thus judreioufly varied,
it will be impoffible to preferve a jud didindion of
charader.
Defcriptions, ^at once concife and pertinent, add a
grace to fable; but are then mod happy when inclu¬
ded in the adion : whereof the fable of Boreas and
the Sun affords us an example. An epithet well cho¬
fen is often a defeription in itfelf; and fo much the
more agreeable, as it the lefs retards us in our pur-
fuit of the catadrophe.
Ladly, little drakes of humour when arifing natu¬
rally from the fubjed, and incidental refledions when
kept in due fubordination to the principal, add a value
to thefe compofitions. Thefe latter, however, fhould
be employed very fparingly, and with great addrefs;
be very few, and very fhort: it is fcarely enough that
they naturally fpring out of the fubjed ; they fhould
be fuch as to appear neceffary and effential parts of the
fable. And when thefe embellifhments, pleafing in
themfelves, tend to illudrate the main adion, they
then afford that namelefs grace remarkable in Fontaine
and fome few others, and which perfons of the bed
difeernment will more eafxly conceive than they can
explain.
, Sect. IX. Of Satire.
88. This kind of poem is of very ancient date,
and (if we,,believe Horace) was introduced, by way
of interlude, by the Greek dramatic poets in their
tragedies, to relieve the audience, and take off the
force
Part IT. POE
Satire, force .of thofe ftrokes wliich they thought too deep
   and afftfting. In thofe fatirical interludes, the fcene
was laid in the country ; and the perfons were rural
deities, fatyrs, country peafants, and other nifties.
The fir ft Tragedians found that ftrious ftyle
Too grave for their uncultivated age,
And fo brought wild and naked Satyrs in,
(Whofe motion, words, and ftiape, were all a farce)
As oft as decency wpu’d give them leave ;
Becaufe the mad, ungovernable rout,
Full of confufion and the fumes of wine,
Lov’d fuch variety and antic tricks.
Roscommon’j- Horace.
The fatire we now have is generally allowed to be of
Roman invention. It was firli introduced without the
decorations of feenes and aftion; but written in verfes of
different meafures by Ennius, and afterwards moulded
into the form we now have it by Lucilius, whom
Horace has imitated, and mentions with erteem. This
is the opinion of moft of the critics, and particularly
of Boileau, who fays,
Lucilius led the way, and, bravely bold,
To Roman vices did the mirror hold ;
Protefted humble goodnefs from reproach,
Show’d worth on foot, and rafeals in a coach.
Horace his pleafing wit to this did add,
That none, uncenfur’d, might be fools or mad :
And Juvenal, with rhetorician’s rage,
Scourg’d the rank vices of a wicked age ^
Tho’ horrid truths thro’ all his labours fhine,
In what he writes there’s fomething of divine.
89. Our fatire, therefore, may he diftinguifhed in¬
to two kinds ; the jocofe, or that which makes fport
with vice and folly, and fets them up to ridicule'; and
the ferious, or that which deals in afperity, and is
fevere and acrimonious. Horace is a perfeft mailer of
the firft, and Juvenal much admired for the laft. The
one is facetious, and fmiles: the other is angry, and
ftorms. The foibles of mankind are the object of one ;
but crimes of a deeper dye have engaged the other.
They both agree, however, in being pungent and
biting : and from a due cpniideration of the writings
of tbefe authors, who are our mafters in this art, we
may define fatire,10 be, A free, (and often jocofe), witty,
and fharp poem, wherein the follies and vices of men
are laftied and ridiculed in order to their reformation.
Its fubjeft is whatever deferves our contempt or ab¬
horrence, (including every thing that is ridiculous and
abfurd, or fcandalous and repugnant to the golden
precepts of religion and virtue.) Its manner is invec-
tive; and its eni,Jhame. So that fatire may be looked
upon as the phyfreian of a diftempered mind, which it
endeavours to cure by bitter and unfavoury, or by
pleafant and falutary applications.
90. A good fatirift ought to be a man of wit and
addrefs, fagacity and eloquence. He fhould alfo have
a great deal of good-nature, as all the fentiments
which are beautiful in this way of writing muft pro¬
ceed from that quality in the author. It is good¬
nature produces that difdain of all bafenefs, vice, and
folly, which prompts the poet to exprefs himfelf with
fuch fmartnefs againft the errors of men, but without
bitternefs to their perfons. It is this quality that keeps
Vol. VIII. 2
TRY. 6329
the mind even,- and never lets an offence utifeafonably Satire,
throw the fatirift out of his chara&er.
61. In writing fatire, care fhould be taken that it
be true and general; that is, levelled at abufes in
which numbers are concerned : for the perfonal kind
of fatire, or lampobn, which expofes particular cha¬
racters, and affeCts the reputation of thofe at whom it
is pointed, is fcarce to be diftinguifhed from fcandal
and defamation. The poet alfo, whilft he is endea¬
vouring to correft the guilty, muft take care not to
ufe fuch expreffions as may corrupt the innocent: he
muft therefore avoid all obfeene words, and images
that tend to debafe and miflead the. mind. Horace
and Juvenal, the chief fatirifts among the Romans,
are faulty in this refpeCt, and ought to be read with
caution.
92.. The ftyle proper for fatire is fometimes grave
and animated, inveighing againft vice with warmth
and earneftnefs.; but that which is pleafant, fportive,
and, with becoming raillery, banters men out of their
bad difpofuions, has generally the beft effeft, as it
feems only to play with their follies, though it omits
no opportunity of making them fee! the lafh. The
verfes flrould be fmooth and flowing, and the language
manly, juft, and decent.
Of well-chofe words feme take not care enough,
And think they fhould be as the fubjeCt rough :
But fatire muft be more exadly made,
And fharpeft thoughts in fmootheft words convey’d.
Duke of Bucks’s Essay.
93. Satires, either of the joCofe or ferrous kind, may
be written in the epiftolary manner, or by way of dia¬
logue. Horace, Juvenal, and Perfius, have given us
examples of both. Nay, feme of Horace’s fatires may,
without incongruity, be called epiflles, snA his epiftles
fatires. But this is obvious to every reader.
Of the facetious kind, the fecond fatire of the fe-
ccTnd book of Horace imitated by Mr Pope, and Swift’s
verfes on bis own death, may be referred to as ex¬
amples.
As to thofe fatires of the ferious kind, for which Ju¬
venal is fo much diftinguifhed, the chara&eriftic pro¬
perties of which are,-morality, dignity, and feverity ; a
better example cannot be mentioned than a poem en¬
titled London, written in imitation of the third fatire
of Juvenal, by Mr Samuel Johnfon, who has kept up
to the fpirit and force of the original.
Nor muft we omit to mention Dr Young’s Love of
Fame the Univerfal Pajfwn, in feven fatires ; which,
though charaCieriftical, abound with morality and good
fenfe. The characters are well feleCted, the ridicule
is high, and the fatire well pointed and to the pur-
pofe.
94. We have already obferved, that perfenal fatire
approaches too near defamation, to deferve any coun¬
tenance or encouragement. Dryden’s MackFlecknoe is
for this reafen exceptionable, but as a compofition it
is inimitable.
We have dwelt thus long on the prefent fubjeCt, be¬
caufe there is reafen to apprehend, that the benefits
arifing from well-conduCted fatire have not been fuffi-
ciently confidered. A fatire may often do more fer-
vice to the caufe. of religion and virtue, than a fermon;
fince it gives pleafure, at the fame time that it creates
35 P Tear
6330 r °.E
Satire, fear or {niJ’gnatioti, and conveys its fentiments in a
manner the moil likely to captivate the mind.
Of all the ways that wifeft men could find
To mend the age and mortify mankind,
Satire well writ has mod fuccefsful prov’d,
And cures, becaufe the remedy is lov’d.
Duke of Bucks's Essay.
But to produce the defired efTeft, it muft be jocofe,
free, and impartial, though fevere. The fatirill Ihould
always preferve good-humour; and, however keen he
cuts, fhduld cut with kindnefs. When he lofes temper,
his weapons will be inverted, and the ridicule he threw
at others will retort with contempt upon himfelf: for
the reader will perceive that he is angry and hurt, and
confider his fatire as the effe£ of malice, not t>f judg¬
ment ; and that it is intended rather to wound perfons,
than reform manners.
Rage you muft hide, and prejudice lay down:
A fatyr’s fmile is (harper than his frown.
The betl, and indeed the only method to expofe vice
and folly effeilually, is to turn them to ridicule, and
hold them np for public contempt; and as it mod of¬
fends thefe objeds of fatire, fo it lead hurts mirfelvts.
One paflion frequently drives out another ; and as we
cannot look with indifference on the bad a&lons of
men (for they mud excite either our wrath or con¬
tempt), it is prudent to give way to that which mod
offends vice and folly, and lead affefls ourfelves; and to
fneer and laugh, rather than be angry and fcold.
95. Burlefque poetry, which is chiefly ufed by way
of drollery and ridicule, falls properly to be fpoken of
under the head of fatire. An excellent example of
this kind is a poem in blank verfe, fntitled Tke Splen¬
did Shilling, written by Mr John Philips, which, in the
opinion of one of the bed judges of the age, is the fined
burlefque in the Englilh language. In this poem the
author has handled a low fubjeft in the lofty, ftyle and
numbers of Milton ; in which way of'writing Mr Phi¬
lips has been imitated by feveral, but none have come
tip to the humour and happy turn of the original.
When we read it, we are betrayed into a pleafure that
we could not expe£l; though,'at the fame time, the
fublimity of the ftyle, and gravity of the phrafe, feem
to chaftife that laughter which they provoke.
96. There is another fort of verfe and (iyle, which
is moft frequently made ufe of in treating any fubjeft
in a ludicrous manner, viz. that which is generally
called Hudibrajlic, from Butler’s admirable poem in*
titled Hudibras. Aimed every one knows, that this
poem is a fatire upon the authors of our civil diffen-
tions in the reign of king Charles I. wherein the poet
has, with abundance of wit and humour, expofed and
ridiculed the hypocrify or blind zeal of thofe unhappy
times, In (hort, it is a kind of burlefque epic poem,
which, for the oddity of the rhymes, the quaintnefs of
the fimilies, the novelty of the thoughts, and that'fine
raillery which runs through the whole performance, is
not to be parallelled.
Sect. X. Of the Epigram.
97. The epigram is a little poem, or compofition in
it?rfe, treating of one thing only, and 'ixibofe diflinguijhing
characters are brevity, beauty, and point.
TRY. Part II,
The word epigram figtiifies “ inferiptionfor epi* Epigram.
grams derive their origin from thofe inferiptions placed  
by the ancients on their ftatues, temples, pillars, tri¬
umphal arches, and the like; which, at firft, were very
(hort, being fometimes no more than a fingle word ;
but afterwards, increaiing tireir length, they made them
in verfe, to be the better retained by the memory. This
(hort way of writing came at lad to be uled upon any
occafion or fubjedt ; and hence the name of epigram
has been given to any little copy of verfes, without re¬
gard to the original application of fuch poems.
Its ufual limits are from 2 to 20 verfes, though
fometimes it extends to 50; but the fiiorter, the better
it is, and the more perfect, as it partakes more of the
nature and character of this kind of poem : befides,
the epigram, being only a fingle thought, ought to be
expreffed in a little compafs, or elfe it lofes its force
and (trength.
The? beauty required in an epigram is an harmony
and apt agreement of all its parts, a fweet fimplicity,
and polite language.
The point is a (harp, lively, unexpedled turn of wit,
with which an epigram ought to be concluded. There
are fome critics, indeed, who will not admit the point
in an epigram ; but require that the thought he equally
diffufed through the whole poem, which is ufually the
pradtice of Catullus, as the former is that of Martial.
It is allowed there is more delicacy in the manner of
Catullus; but the point is more agreeable to the gene¬
ral tade, and feems to be the chief charafieridic of the
epigram.
This fort of poem admits of all manner of fubjedls,
provided that brevity, beauty, and point are prefer-
ved ; but it is generally employed either in praife or
fatire.
Though the bed epigrams are faid to be fuch as are
comprifed in two or four verfes, we are not to under-
(land it as if none can be perfedt which exceed thofe
limits. Neither the ancients nor moderns have been fo
fcrupulous with refpedt to the length of their epigrams;
but however, brevity in general is always to be ftudiecj
in thefe compofitions.
For examples of good epigrams in the Englifh lan¬
guage, we fiiall make choice of feveral in the different
taftes we have mentioned ; fome remarkable for their
delicate turn and fimplicity of expreflion; and others
for their fait and fharpnefs, their equivocating pun, or
pleafant allufion. In the firft place, take that of Mr
Pope, faid to be written on a glafs with the earl of
Chefterfield-s diamond-pencil.
Accept a miracle, inftead of wit;
See two. dull lines by Stanhope’s pencil writ.
The beauty of this epigram is more eafily feen than,
deferibed ; and it is difficult to determine, whether it
does more honour to the poet who wrote it, or to the
nobleman for whom the compliment is defigned.—The
following epigram of Mr Prior is written in the fame
tafte, being a fine encomium on the peformance of an
excellent painter.
On a Flower, painted by Varels r.
When fam’d Vat;elft this little wonder drew.
Flora vouchfaf’d the growing work to view:
Finding
Part II.
Epigrtm.
POE
Finding the painter’s fcience at a ftand,
The Goddefs (hatch'd the pencil from his hand,
And, finifhing the piece, fhe fmiling faid,
Behold one ’work of mine ’which ne'er fall fade.
Another compliment of this delicate kind he has
made Mr Howard in the following epigram.
Venus Mifaken.
When Chloe’s pi&ure was to Venus fhown}
Surpriz’d, the Goddefs took it for her own.
And what, faid (he, does this bold painter mean?
When was I bathing thus, and naked feen ?
Pleas’d Cupid heard, and check’d his mother’s pride:
And who’s blind now, mamma? the urchin cry’d.
’Tis Chloe’s eye, and cheek, and lip, and bread:
Friend Howard’s genius fancy’d all the reft.
Mod; of Mr Prior’s epigrams are of this delicate cad,
and have the thought, like thofe of Catallus, diffuftd
through the whole. Of this kind is his addrefs
To Chloe tVeeping.
See, whilft thou weep’ft, fair Chloe, fee
The world in fympathy with thee.
The cheerful birds no longer fing,
Each drops his head, and hangs his wing.
The clouds have bent their bofom lower,
And died their forrow in a (how’r.
The brooks beyond their limits dow,
And louder murmurs (peak their wo:
The nymphs and fwains adopt thy tares ;
They heave thy fighs, and weep thy tears.
Fantadic nymph ! that grief (hould move
Thy heart obdurate againft love.
Strange tears! whofe pow’r can foften all,
But that dear bread on which they fallv
The epigram written on the leaves of a fan by Dr
Atterbury, late bidiop of Rochefter, contains a pretty
thought, exprefled with cafe and concifenefs, and do¬
led in a beautiful roaoner.'
On a Fan.
Flavia the lead and (lighted: toy
Can with refiftlefs art employ.
This fan in meaner hands would prove
An engine of fmall force in love:
Yet (he, with graceful air and mien,
Not to be told or fafely feen,
Direfts its wanton motion fo.
That it wounds more than Cupid’s bow,
'Gives coolnefs to the matchlefs dame,
To ev’ry other bread a flame*
We (hall now feled fome epigrams of the biting and
fatirical kind, and fuch as turn upon the pun or equi--
voque, as the French,call it: in which fort the point is
more confpicuous than in thofe of the former charac¬
ter.
The following diftich is an admirable epigram, ha¬
ving all the neceflary qualities of one, efpeciaily point
and brevity. - 1
On a Company of had Dancers to good Mufi.
How ill the motion with the mufic fuits!
So Orpheus fiddled, and fo danc’d the brutes.
TRY.
This brings to mind another epigram upon a bad
fiddler, which we (hall venture to infert merely for the
humour of it, and not for any real excellence it con¬
tains.
To a Bad Fiddler.
Old Orpheus play’d fo well, he mov’d Old Nick;
But thou mov’d nothing but thy fiddle-ftick.
One of Martial’s epigrams, wherein he agreeably ral¬
lies the foolifh vanity of a man who hired people to
make verfes for him, and publiflied them as his own,
has been thus tranflated into EnglilK:
Paul £b fond of the name of a poet is grown,
With gold he buys verfes, and calls them his own.
Go on, mailer Paul, nor mind what the world fays,
They are furely his own for which a man pays.
Some bad writer having taken the liberty to cenfure
Mr Prior, the poet very wittily laftted his impertinence
in this epigram:
While faller than his coftive brain indites,
Philo’s quick hand in flowing letters writes.
His cafe appears to me like honed Teague’s,
When he was run away with by his legs.
Phoebus, give Philo o’er himfelf command;
Quicken his fenfes, or reftrain his hand:
Let him be kept from paper, pen, and ink;
So he may ceafe to write, and learn to think.
Mr Wefley has given us a pretty epigram, alluding
to a well-known text of fcripture, on the fetting up a
monument in Weftminfter Abbey, to the memory of
the ingenious Mr Butler, author of Hudibras.
While Butler, needy wretch, was yet alive.
No generous patron would a dinner give.
See him when ftarv’d to death, and turn’d to dull,
Prefented with a monumental bull!
The poet’s fate is here in emblem (hown;
He afli’d for Bread, and he receiv’d a Stone.
We (hall clofe this feftion with an epigram written
on the well-known (lory of Apollo and Daphne, by
Mr Smart.
When Phoebus was am’rous and long’d to be rude,
Mifs Daphne cry’d Pi(h 1 and ran fwift to the wood;
And rather than do fuch a naughty affair,
She became a fine laurel to deck the god’s hair.
The nymph was, no dotibt, of a cold conllitution;
For, fure, to turn tree was an odd refolution!
Yet in this (he behav’d like a true modern fpoufe,
For (lie fled from his arms to diftinguifh his brows.
Sect. XI. Of the Epitaph.
102. These compofitions generally contain fome
elogium of the virtues and good qualities of the de¬
ceased, and have a turn of ferioufnefs and gravity ad¬
apted to the nature of the fubjefit. Their elegance
confifts in a nervous and expreffive brevity; and (ome-
times they are clofed with an epigrammatic point. In
thefe compofitions, no mere epithet (properly fo call¬
ed) (hould be admitted ; for here illullration would
impair the ftrength, and render the fentiraent too dif-
fufe and languid. Words that are fynonymous are alfo
to be rejedted.
35 P 2 Though
6331.
Epigram.
6332 POE
:EPllaPb- Though the true chara&eriftic of the epitaph is fe-
rioufnefs and gravity, yet we may find many that are
jocofe and ludicrous: fome likewife have true metre
and rhyme; while others are between profe and verfe,
without any certain meafure, though the words are
truly poetical; and the beauty of this laft fort is ge¬
nerally heightened by an apt and judicious antithcfis.
We fhall give examples of each.
The following epitaph on Sir Philip Sidney’s fifter,
the countefs of Pembroke, faid to be written by the fa¬
mous Ben Johnfon, is remarkable for the noble thought
with which it concludes.
On Mary countefs dowager ©/'Pembroke.
Underneath this noble marble hearfe,
Lies the fubjeft of all verfe,
Sidney’s filler, Pembroke’s mother:
Death, ere thou haft kill’d another
Fair, and learn’d, and good as Ihe,
Time lhall throw a dart at thee.
Take another epitaph of Ben Jbhnfon’s, on a beau¬
tiful and virtuous lady, which has been defervedly ad¬
mired by very good judges.
Underneath this ftone doth lie
As much virtue as could die;
Which when alive did vigour give
To as much beauty as couliliveV
Mr Pope has drawn the chara£ler of Mr Gay, in an
epitaph now to be feen on his monumentin Weftminfter-,
abbey, which he has clofed with a moft beautiful
turn, and is looked upon as a mafter-piece of its kind,
as indeed are moft of the productions of that furprifing
genius.
On Mr Gay.
Of manners gentle, of affeCtions mild;
In wit, a man; fimplicity, a child:
With native humour temp’ring virtuous rage.
Form’d to delight at once, and lalh the age;
Above temptation in a low eftate.
And uncorrupted ev’n among the great:
A fafe companion, and an eafy friend,
Unblam’d thro’ life, lamented in thy end.
Thefe are thy honours! not that here thy bull
Is mix’d with heroes, or with kings thy dull;
But that the worthy and the good (hall fay.
Striking their penfive bofoms—-Here lies Gay.
Amongft the epitaphs of a punning and ludicrous
caft, we know of none prettier than that which is faid
to have been written by Mr Prior on himfelf, wherein
he is pleafantly fatirical upon the folly of thofe*whp
value themfelves on account of the long feries of ance^
ftors through which they can trace their pedigree.
Nobles and heralds, by your leave,
Here lies the bones of Matthew Prior,
The fon of Adam and of Eve:
Let Bourbon or Naffau go higher.
The following epitaph on a mifer contains a good
caution and an agreeable raillery.
Reader, beware immod’rate love of pelf:
Here lies the worft of thieves, who robb’d himfelf.
TRY. Part II,
But Dr Swift’s epitaph on the fame fubjed is a ma- Epitaph,
fter-piece of the kind.
Beneath this verdant hillock lies
Demer, the wealthy and the wife.
His heirs, that he might fafely reft,
Have put his carcafe in a cheft:
The very cheft, in which, they fay,
His other Self, his money, lay.
And if his heirs continue kind
To that dear felf he left behind,
I dare belieye that four in five
Will think his better half alive.
We (hall give but one example more of this kind,
which is a merry epitaph on an old fiddler, who was
remarkable (we may fiippofe) for beating time to his
own mufic.
On Stephen the Fiddler.
Stephen and time are now both even;
Stephen beat time, now time’s beat Stephen.
We are come now to that fort of epitaph which re-
je&s rhyme, and has no certain and determinate mea¬
fure; but where the di&ion muft be pure and ftrong,
every word have weight, and the antithefis be prefer-
ved in a clear and direct oppofition. We cannot give
a better example of this fort of epitaph, than that on
the tomby>f Mr Pultney in the cloifters of Weftmin-
fter-abbey.
Reader,
If thou art a Briton,
Behold this Tomb with Reverence and Regret:
Here lies the Remains of
Daniel Pulteney,
The kindeft Relation, the trueft Friend,
The warmeft Patriot, the worthieft Man.
He exercifed Virtues in this Age,
Sufficient to have diftinguifh’d him even in the bell.
Sagacious by Nature,
Induftrious by Habit,
Inquifitive with Art;
He gain’d acompleteKnowledgeof the State of Britain,
Foreign and domeftic;
In moft the backward Fruit of tedious Experience,
In him the early acquifition of undiffipated Youth.
He ferv’d the Court feveral Years:
Abroad, in the aufpicious Reign of Queen Anne ;
At home, in the reign of that excellent prince K. George I.
He ferved his Country always,
At Court independent.
In the Senate unbiafs’d.
At every Age, and in every Station:
This was the bent of his generous Soul,
This the bufinefs of his laborious Life.
Public Men, and Public Things,
He judged by one conftant Standard,
The true Interejl of Britain:
He made no other Di(lin£lion of Party,
He abhorred all other.
Gentle, humane, difinterefted, beneficent,
He created no Enemies on his own Account:
Firm, determin’d, inflexible,
He feared none he could create in the Caufe of Britain.
Reader,.
POETRY.
Pan It.
Epitaph. ^ Reader,
In this Misfortune of thy Country lament thy own:
For know,
The Lofs of fo much private Virtue
Is a public Calamity.
That poignant fatire, as well as extravagant praife,
may be conveyed in this manner, will be feen by the
following epitaph written by Dr Arbuthnot on Fran¬
cis Chartres; which is too well known, and too much
admired, to need our commendation.
Here continueth to rot
The Body of FRANCIS CHARTRES,
Who with an Inflexible Constancy,
And Inimitable Uniformity of Life,
Persisted,
In fpite of Age and Infirmities,
In the Pradice of Every Human Vice,
Excepting Prodigality and Hypocrisy:
His infaiiable Avarice exempted him from the firft,
His matchlefs Impudence from the fecond.
Nor was he more Angular
In the undeviating Pravity of his Manners,
Than fuccefsful
In Accumulating Wealth :
For, without Trade or Profession,
Without Trust of Public Money,
And without Bribe-worthy Service,
He acquired, or more properly created,
A Ministerial Estate.
He was the only Perfon of his Time
Who could cheat without the Mafic of Honesty,
Retain his Primaeval Meanness
When pofllffed of Ten Thousand a-year;
And having daily dcferved the Gibbet for what he
Was at laft condemn’d to it for what he could not r/o*
Oh indignant reader!
Think not his Life ufelefs to Mankind;
Providence conniv’d at his execrable defigns,-
To give to After-ages
A confpicuous Proof and Example,
Of how fmall Eilimation is Exorbitant Wealth
In the Sight of GOD,
By His bellowing it on the mod Unworthy of all'
Mortals.
We fhall conclude this fpecies of poetry with a droll
and fatirical epitaph written by Mr Pope, which we
tranfcribed from a monument in Lord Cobham’s gar¬
dens at Stow in Buckinghamlhire.
To the Memory
of
SlGNIOR FlDO,
An Italian of good extradion ;
Who came into England,
Not to bite us, like moil of his Countrymen,
But to gain an honeft Livelyhood.
He hunted not after Fame,
Yet acquir’d it;
Regardlefs of the Praife of his Friends,
but moil fenfible of their Love.
Tho’ he liv’d among’ft the Great,
He neither learnt nor flatter’d any Vice.
He was no Bigot,
Tho’ he doubted of none of the 39 Articles.
And, if to follow Nature,
and to refped the Laws of Society,
be Philofophy,
he was a perfed Philofopher,
a faithful Friend,
an agreeable Comjianion, ,
a loving Hufband, .
diftinguilh’d by a numerous offspring,
all which he liv’d to fee take good Courfes.
In his old Age he retired
to the houfe of a clergyman in the country,
where he finifhed his earthly Race,
and died an Honour and an Exam pie to the whole Species.
Reader,
This Stone is guiltlefs of Flattery;
for he to whom it is infcrib’d
was not a Man,
but a
Gre-Hound..
Part HI. On VERSIFICATION.
ON this jubjed it is meant to confine our inquiry to
Latin or Greek hexameters, and to French and
Englifh heroic verfe ; as the obfervations we fhall have
occafion to make, may,, with proper variations, be
eafily transferred to the compofition of other forts of
verfe.
Before entering upon particulars, it irmft be pre*
mifed in general, that to verfe of every kind, five
things are of importance, i ft, The number of fyllables
that cotnpofe a line. 2d, The different lengths of
fyilables, i. e. the difference of time taken in pro¬
nouncing. 3d, The arrangement of thefe fyllables
combined in words. 4th, The paufes or flops in
pronouncing. 5th, Pronouncing fyllables in a high
or a low tone. The three firft mentioned are ob*
vioufly effential to verfe : if any of them he wanting,
there cannot be that higher degree of melody which
diftinguifheth verfe from profe. To give a juft notion
of the fourth, it muft be obferved, that paufes are
neceffary for three different purpofes : one, to fepa-
rate periods, and members of the fame period, accor¬
ding to the fenfe : another, to improve the melody of
verfe : and the laft, to afford opportunity for drawing
breath in reading. A.paufe of the firft kind is vari¬
able, being long or fhort, frequent or lefs frequent,
as the fenfe requires. A paufe of the fecond kind,
being determined by the melody, is in no degree ar¬
bitrary. The laft fort is in a meafure arbitrary, de¬
pending on the reader’s command of breath. But as
one cannot read with grace, unlefs, for drawing breath,
opportunity be taken of a paufe in the fenfe or in the
melody,- this paufe ought never to be diftinguifhed
from the others; and for that reafon fhall be laid afide.
With refpetfl then to the paufes of fenfe and of melody,
it may be affirmed without hefitation, that their coin¬
cidence in verfe is a capital beauty : but as it cannot
be expected, in a long work efpecially, that every
line fhould be fo perfed; we (ball afterward have
occafioa
6333
Epitaph,
6334 POE
Verfifica- occafion to fee, that the paiife neceflary for the fenfe
tlon‘ muft often, in fome degree, be facrificed to the
verfe-paufe, and the latter fometimesto the former.
The pronouncing fyllables in a high or low tone,
contributes alfo to melody. In reading, whether
verfe or profe, a certain tone is affumed, which may
be called the key-note; and in that tone the bulk of
the words are founded. Sometimes to humour the
fenfe, and fometimes the melody, a particular fyllable
is founded in a higher tone.; and this is termed ac¬
centing a fyllable, or gracing it with an accent. Op-
pofed to the accent, is the cadence, which, however,
being entirely regulated by the fenfe, hath no peculiar
relation to verfe. The cadence is a falling of"the
voice below the key-note at the clofe of every period ;
and fo little is it eifential to verfe, that in correct
reading the final fyllable of every line is accented,
that fyllable only excepted which clofes the period
where the fenfe requires a cadence.
Though the five requifites above mentioned enter
the compoficion of every fpCcies of verfe, they are
"however governed by different rules, peculiar to each
fpecies. Upon quantity only, one general obfetvation
may be premifed, becaufe it is applicable to every
fpecies of verfe, That fyllables, with refpedl to the
time taken in pronouncing, are long or fhort; two
fhort fyllables, with refpedl to time, being precifely
equal to a long one. Thefe two lengths are effential
to verfe of all kinds ; and to no verfe, it is believed,
is a greater variety of time neceffary in pronouncing
fyllables. The voice indeed is frequently made to
reft longer than ufual upon a word that bears an im¬
portant fignification; but this is done to humour the
fenfe, and is not neceffary for melody. A thing not
more neceffary for melody occurs with refpe£t to ac¬
centing, fimilar to that now mentioned: A word fig*
nifying any thing humble, low, or dcjeCted, is natu*
rally, in profe as well as in .verfe, pronounced in a
tone below the key-note.
We are now fnfficientiy prepared for particulars;
beginning with Latin or Greek hexameter, which are
the fame. The obfervations upon this fpecies of verfe,
will come under the four following heads, number,
arrangement, paufe, and accent; for as to quantity,
what is obferved above may fuffice.
I. Hexameter lines, as to time, are all of the fame
length ; being equivalent to the time taken in pro*
nouncing twelve Jong fyllables or twenty-four fhort.
An hexameter line may confift of feventeen fyllables:
and when regular and not Spondaic, it never has fewer
than thirteen : whence it follows, that where the fyl¬
lables are many, the plurality muft be fhort; where
few, the plurality muft be long.
This line is fufceptible of much variety as to the
fucceffion of long and fhort fyllables. It is however
fubjefted to laws that confine its variety within certain
limits: and for afcertainingthefe limits, grammarians
have invented a rule by daftyles and fpondees, which
they denominate feet. One at firft view is led to think,
that thefe feet are alfo intended to regulate the pro¬
nunciation : which is far from being the cafe ; for
were one to pronounce according to thefe feet, the
melody of a hexameter line would be deftroyed, or at
beft bemuch inferior to which it is when properly pro-
■pounced. Thefe feet muft be confined to regulate the
T R Y. Part III.
arrangement, for they ferve no other purpofe. They Vcrfifica-
are withal extremely artificial and complex ; for which hou.
reafon we are obliged to lord Karnes for fubftituting "
in their Head the following rules more fimple and of
more eafy application, ill, The line mufl always
commence with a long fyllable, and clofe with two long
preceded by two fhort. 2d, More than two fhort can
never be found together, nor fewer than two. And,
3d, Two long fyllables which have been preceded by
two fhort, cannot alfo be followed by two fhort. Theie
few rules fulfil all the conditions of a hexameter line
with relation to order or arrangement. To thefe again
a fingle rule may be fubftituted, which has alfo the
advantage of regulating more affirmatively the con0r
ftruftion of every part. To put this rule into words
with perfpicuity, a hint is taken from the twelve longch. xviii’
fyllables that compofe an hexameter line, to divide it4-
into twelve equal parts or portions, being each of them
one long fyllable or two fhort. The rule then is :
“ The ill, 3d, 5th, 7th, 9th, 1 nh, and 12th portions,
muft each of them be one long fyllable ; the 10th muft
always be two fhort fyllables.; the 2d, 4th, 6th, and
8th, may either be one long or two {hurt.” Or to
exprefs the thing dill more curtly, “ The 2d, 4th,
6th, and 8th portions may be one long fyllable or two
fhort; the 10th muft be two fhort fyllables; all the
reft muft confift each of one long fyllable.” This
fulfils all the conditions of an hexameter line, and
comprehends all the combinations of da&yles and
fpondees that this line admits.
Next in order comes the paufe. At the end of
every hexameter line, every one muft be fenfible of a
complete clofe or full paufe; the caufe of which fol¬
lows. The two long fyllables preceded by two fhort,
which always clofe an hexameter line, ate a fine per-
paradon for a paufe: for long fyllables, or fyllables
pronounced flow, refembling a flow and languid mo¬
tion tending to reft, naturally incline the mind to reft,
or, which is the fame, to paufe ; and to this inclination
the two preceding fhort fyllables -contribute, which,
by contratt, make ;the flow pronunciation of the final
fyllables the more confpicuous. Betide this complete
clofe or full paufe at the end, others are alfo requifite
for the fake of melody ;- of which, two are clearly
difcoverable ; and perhaps there may be more. The
longeft and moll remarkable, fucceeds the 5th por- *
tion: the other, which, being fhorter and more faint,
may be called thefemipaufe, Tucceeds the 8th portion.-
So ftriking is the paufe tirll mentioned, as to be di-
ftinguifhed even by the rudeft ear: the monkifh rhymes
are evidently built upon it ; in which, by an invariable
rule, the final word always chimes with that which
immediately precedes the panfe':
De plandlu cudo jj metrum cum carmine nudo
Mingere cum bumbis |J res eft faluberrima lumbis.
The difference of time in the paufe and femipaufe,
occafions another difference not lefs remarkable; that
it is lawful to divide a word by a femipaufe, but never
by a paufe, the bad effedt of which is fenfibly felt fol¬
lowing examples:
Effufus labor, at|!que inmitis rupta Tyranni
Again :
Obfervans nido im|!plumes detraxit; at ilia
Asrain:
Part III. P O E
Verfifica* Agaiili
tion-  Loricam quam De||moleo detraxerat ipfe
The dividing a word by a femipa.ufe has not the
fame bad effedt:
Jamque pedem referens [| cafus e I vaferat omnes.
Again:
Quails populea || moerfns Philo jmela fub umbra.
Again :
Ludere que vellem calamo per j mifit agrefli.
Lines, however, where words are left entire, without
being divided even by a femipaufe, run by that means
much the more fweetly.
Nec gemere aerea || ceffabit | turtur ab uhno.
Again :
Q£adrupedanteputr^m||fonituquathl ungulacampum.
Again :
Eurydicen toto jj referebant | flumine ripre.
The reafon of thefe obfervations will he evident updn
the flighted reflection. Between things fo intimately
connedted in reading aloud, as are fenfe and found,
every degree of difcurd is unpleafant: and for that
reafon, it is a matter of importance, to make the mii-
fical paufes coincide as much as pollible with thdfe of
fenfe; which is reqnifite, more efpecially, with refpeift
to the paufe, a deviation from the rule being lefs re¬
markable in a femipaufe. Cohfldering the matter as
to melody folcly, it is indifferent whether the paufes
be at the end of words or in the middle; but when we
carry the fenfe along, it is difagreeable to find a word
fplit into two by a paufe, as if there were really two
words: and though the difagreeablenefs here be connec¬
ted with the fenfe only, it is by an eafy tranfition of
perceptions transferred to the found ;,by which means
we conceive a line to be harfh and grating to the ear,
when in reality it is only fo to the underfianding.
To the rule that fixes the paufe after the jth por¬
tion, there is one exception, and no more. If the
fyllable fucceeding the yth portion be fhort, the paufe
is fometimes poflponed to it :
Pupillis quosdura |j premit cullodia matrum
Again :
In terras oppreffa || gravi fub religione
Again :
Et quorum pars magna || fui ; quis taha fando
This contributes to diverfify the melody; and, where
the words are fmooth and liquid, is not ungraceful; as
in the following examples :
Formofam refonare || doces Amaryllida fylvas
Again ;
Agricolas, quibus ipfa || procul difcordibus armis
If this paufe, placed as aforefaid after the fbort
fyllable, happen alfo to divide a word, the melody
by thefe circumftances is totally annihilated. Witnefs
the following line of Ennius, which is plain profe:
Romse moenia terru|lit impiger | Hannibal armis.
Hitherto the arrangement of the long and ftiort fyl-
lables of an hexameter line and its different paufes,
have been confidered with refpeft to melody: but to
have a juft notion of hexameter verfe, thefe particulars
tnuft alfo be confidered with refpeft to fenfe. There is
^ R Y* <>335
not, perhaps, in any other fort of verfe, fuch latitude Verfifica-
in the long and fliort fylables; a circumftance that tion-
contributes greatly to that richnefs of melody which
is remarkable in hexameter verfe, and which made A-
riftotle pronounce, that an epic poem in any other
verfe would not fucceed *. One defeft, however, * Poet.
muft not be diffembled, that the fame means which
contribute to the richnefs of the.melody, render it lefs
fit than feveral other forts for a narrative poem. There
cannot be a more artful contrivance, as above obfer-
ved, than to clofe an hexameter line with two long'
fyllables preceded by two ftiort: but unhappily this
conftrudlion proves a great.embarraffment to the fenfe ;
which will thus be evident. As, in general, there
ought to be a ftrift concordance between the thought
and the words in which it is dreffed; fo, in particular,
every clofe in the fenfe ought to be accompanied with
a clofe in the found. In profe, this law may be ftrid-
ly obfefved ; but in verfe, the fame ftriftnefs would
oecafion infiiperable difficulties. Willing to facrifice to
the melody of veri>, fome fhare of the concordance be¬
tween thought and exprefiion, we freely excufe the re¬
paration of the mufical paufe from that of the fenfe,
during the courfe of a line ; but the clofe of an hexa¬
meter line is too confpicuous to admit this liberty : for
which rtafon there ought always to be fome paufe in
the fenfe at the end of every hexameter line, were it
but fuch a paufe as is marked by a comma; and for the
fame reafon, there ought never to be a full clofe in
the fenfe but at the end of a line, becaufe there the,
melody is clofed. An hexameter line, to preferve its
melody, cannot well admit any greater relaxation,;
and yet, in a narrative poem, it is extremely difficult
to adhere itridfly to the rule even with thefe indulgen¬
ces. Virgil, the chief of poets for verfification, is
forced often to end a line without any clofe in the
fenfe, and'as often to clofe the fenfe during the run¬
ning of a line; though a clofe in the melody during
the movement of. the thought, or a clofe in the
thought during the movement of the melody, cannot
be agreeable.
The accent, to which we proceed, is not lefs ef-
fential than the other circumftances above handled.
By a good ear it will be difcerned, that in every line
there is one fyllable diltinguifhable from the reft by a
capital accent: that fyllable, being the feventh por¬
tion, is invariably long.
Nec bene promeritis |] capitur necj tangitur ira
Again :
Non fibi fed toto l| genitum fe | credere rcundo
Again :
Qnalis fpelunca || fubitd com 1 mota columba
In thefe examples, the accent is laid upon the laft
fyllable of a word; which is favourable to the melody
in the following refpe&, that the paufe, which for the
fake of reading diftinftly muft follow every word, gives
opportunity to prolong the accent. And for that
reafon, a line thus accented, has a more fpirited
air, than when the accent is placed on any other
fyllable. Compare the foregoing lines with the fol¬
lowing.
Alba neque Affyrto || fucatur | lana veneno
Again :
JPanditur interea j] domus omnipo | tentis Olympi
Again :
(>536
Verfifica-
POE
Again i
Olli fedato || refpondit | corde Latinus.
In lines where the paufe comes after the (hort fyl-
lable fucceeding the fifth portion, the accent is dif*
placed, and rendered lefsfenfible : it feefns to be fplit
into two, and to be laid partly on the fifth portion,
and partly on the feventh its ufual place ; as in
Nuda genu, nodoque || finus ool 1 le&a fluentes.
Again :
Formofam refonare || doc^s Amar | yllida fylvas.
Befide this capital accent, flighter accents are laid
upon other portions; particularly upon the fourth,
uniefs where it confifts of two ihort fyllables; upon
the ninth, which is always a long fyllable ; and upon
the eleventh, where the line concludes with a mono*
fyllable. Such conclufion, by the by, impairs the me- •
lody, and for that reafon is not to be indulged uniefs
where it is expreffive of the fenfe. The followitlg lines
are marked with all the accents.
Ludere quse vellem calamd permlfit agfefti
Again :
l Et durse quercus fudabunt rofcida mella
Again :
Parturiunt monies, nafcetur ridiculus mus.
. Reflefting upon the melody of hexameter verfe, we
find, that- order or arrangement doth not conftitute
the whole of it: for-when we compare different lines,
equally-regular as to the fncceffion of long.and (hort
fyllables, the melody is found in very different degrees
of perfe&ion ; which is not occafioned by any particu¬
lar combination of da&yles and fpondees, or of long
and (hort fyllables, becaufe we find lines where dac-
tyles prevail, and lines where fpondees prevail, equal¬
ly melodious. Of the former take the following in-
ftance:
iEneadum genitrix hominum divumque voluptas.
Of the latter :
Molli paulatim flavefcet campus an'fta.
What can be more different as to melody than the two
following lines, which, however, as to the fucceffion
of long and fhort fyllables, are conftrufted precifely
in the fame manner.
Spord. Daft. Spend. Spend. Daft. Spend.
Ad talos ftola dimiffa et circumdata palla. Hor.
Spend. Daft. Spend. Spend. Daft. Spend.
Placatumque nitet diffufo lumine cceium. Lucret.
In the former, the panfe falls in the middle of a word,
which is a great blemifh, and the accent is difturbed
by a harfh elifidn of the vowel ^ upon the particle et.
In the latter, the paufes and the accent are all of them
diftincl and full : there is no elifion : and the words
are more liquid and founding. In thefe particulars
confifts the beauty of an hexameter line with refpeft
to melody; and by neglecting thefe, many lines in
the fatires and epiflles of Horace are lefs agreeable
than plain profe ; for they are neither the one nor the
other in perfection. To draw melody from thefe lines,
, they muft be pronounced without relation, to thefenft :
it muft not be regarded, that ‘words are divided by
puufes, nor that harfh elifions are multiplied. To add
TRY. Part nr.
to the account, profaic low founding words are intro- Verfifka-
duced ; and, which is ftill worfe, accents are laid on tlon*
them. Of fuch faulty lines take the following in-' "
fiances.
Candida reCtaque fit, munda haCtenusfit neque longa.
Jupiter exclamat fimul atque audirit; at in fe
Cuftodes, leflica, cinifiones, parafitffi
Optimus eft modulator, ut Alfenus Vafer omni
Nunc illud tantum quseram, meritone tibi fit.
II. Next in order comes Englifh heroic verfc; which
{hall be examined under the whole five heads, of num¬
ber, quantity, arrangement, paufe, and accent. This
verfe is of two kinds; one named rhymd or vieire, and
one blank verfe. In the former, the lines are connec¬
ted two and two by fimilarity of found in the final fyl¬
lables; and two lines fo connected are termed a coil-
pie t: fimilarity of found being avoided in the latter,
couplets are banifhed. ‘Thefe two forts muft be han¬
dled feparatdy, becaufe there are many peculiarities in
each.
(i.) Beginning with rhyme or metre, the firft ar¬
ticle fhall be dlfcufied in a few words. Every line con¬
fifts of ten fyllables, five fhort and five long ; from
which there are but two exceptions, both of them
rare. The firft is, where each line of a couplet is
made eleven fyllables, by an additional ftsort fyllable
at the end:
There heros* wits are kept in pond’rous vafes,
And beaus’ in fnufF boxes and tweezer-cafes.
The piece, you think, is incorreft ? Why, take it,
I’m all fubmiffion ; what you’d have it, make it.
This licence is fufferable in a fingle couplet; but if fre¬
quent, would give difguft.
The other exception concerns the fecond line of a
couplet, which is fometimes ftretched out to 12 fyl¬
lables, termed an Alexandrine line :
A needlefs Alexandrine ends the fong, [along.
That, like a wounded fnake, drags its flow length
It doth extremely well when employed to clofe a pe
riod with a certain pomp and folemnity, where the
fubjed makes that tone proper.
With regard to quantity, it is unneceffary to men¬
tion a fecond time, that the quantities employed in
verfe are but two, the one double of the other ; that
every fyllable is reducible to one or other of thefe ftan-
dards; and that a fyllable of the larger quantity is
termedand of the lefler quantity Jhort. It be¬
longs more to the prefent article, to examine what pe¬
culiarities there may be in the Englifh language as to
long and fhort fyllables. Every language has fyllables
that may be pronounced long or fhort at pleafure; but
the Englifh above all abounds.in fyllables of that kind..
In words of three or more fyllables, the quantity for
the moft-part is invariable : the exceptions are more
frequent in diffyllables : but as to rnonofyllables, they
may, without many exceptions, be pronounced either
long or fhort; nor is the ear hurt by a liberty that is
rendered familiar by cuftom. This fhows, that the
melody of Englifh verfe muft depend lefs upon quan¬
tity than upon other circumftances: in which it differs
widely from Latin verfe, where every fyllable, having
PartlH. POE
Verfifica- but one found, ftrikes the ear uniformly with its ac-
tion. cuftomed impreffion ; and a reader muft be delighted
to find a number of fuch fyllables, difpofed fo artful¬
ly as to be highly melodious. Syllables variable in
quantity cannot poffefs this power: for though cu-
ftom may render familiar both a long and a fhort pro¬
nunciation of the fame word ; yet the mind, wavering
between the two founds, cannot be fo much affedted
as where every fyllable has one fixed found.
[1033,116. And with refpeA to arrangement, which
may be brought within a narrow compafs, the Englifh
heroic line is commonly iambic, the firft fyllable fhort,
tiie fecond long, and fo on alternately thro’ the whole
line. One exception there is, pretty frequent, of
lines commencing with a trochaeus, i. e. a long and a
Ihort fyllable : but this alfefts not the order of the fol¬
lowing fyllables, which go on alternately as ufual, one
fliort and one long. The following couplet affords an
example of each kind.
Some in the fields of pureft aether play,
And balk and whiten In the blaze of day.
117. It is a great imperfedlion in Englilh verfe, that it
excludes the bulk of polyfyllables, which are the moll
founding words in our language; for very few of
them have fuch alternation of long and Ihort fyllables
as to correfpond to either of the arrangements mention¬
ed. Englifh verfe accordingly is almoft totally redu¬
ced to diffyllables and monofyllables: magnanimity is
a founding word totally excluded: impetuojity is ftill a
finer word, by the refemblance of the found and fenfe ;
and yet a negative is put upon it, as well as upon
numberlefs words of the fame kind. Pohyfyllables
compofed of fyllables long and Ihort alternately, make
a good figure in verfe; for example, obfervance, oppo¬
nent, ojienjive, pindaric, productive, prolific, and fuch
others of three fyllables. Imitation, imperfection, mif-
demeanor, mitigation, moderation, obfervator, orna¬
mental, regulator, and others fimilar of four fyllables,
beginning with two fhort fyllables, the third long, and
the fourth fhort, may find a place in a line commen¬
cing with a trochseus.
One would not imagine, without trial, how un¬
couth falfe quantity appears in verfe ; not lefs than a
provincial tone or idiom. The article the is one of
the few monofyllables that is invariably fhort: obferve
how harfh it makes a line where it muff be pronounced
long:
This nymph, to the deftru&ion 5f mankind.
Again,
Th’ advent’rous baron the bright locks admir’d.
Let it be pronounced fhort, and it reduces the melody
almoft to nothing: better fo, however, than falfe quan¬
tity. In the followingsxamples we perceive the fame
defea.
And old impertinence || expel by new
With varying vanities || from ev’ry part
Love in thefe labyrinths || his flaves detains
New ftratagems || the radiant lock to gain
Vol. VIII.
TRY. 6337
Her eyes half languiflung || half drown’d in tears Verfifiea-
Roar’d for the handkerchief ]| that caus’d his pain tlon'
Paflions like elements |) though born to fight.
118. The great variety of melody confpicuous in Eog-
lifh verfe, arifes chiefly from the paufes and accents;
which are of greater importance than is commonly
thought. The paufe, which paves the way to the ac¬
cent, offers itfelf firft to our examination ; and from a
very fhort trial, the following fadts will be verified.
1 ft, A line admits but one capital paufe. 2d, In dif¬
ferent lines, we find this paufe after the fourth fyl¬
lable, after the fifth, after the fixth, and after the fe-
venth. Thefe four places of the paufe lay a folid
foundation for dividing Englifh heroic lines into four
kinds ; and unlefs the reader attend to this diftinc-
tion, he cannot have any juft notion of the richnefs
and variety of Englifh verfification. Each kind or or¬
der hath a melody peculiar to itfelf, readily diftin-
guifhable by a good ear ; the caufe of which will be
afterwards mad^ evident. It muft be obfe'rved, at the
fame time, that the paufe cannot be made indifferent¬
ly at any of the places mentioned : it is the fenfe that
regulates the paufe, as will be feen afterward; and
confequently, it is the fenfe that determines of what
order every line muft be: there can be but one capital
mufical paufe in a line ; and that paufe ought to coin¬
cide, if poffible, with a paufe in the fenfe, i» order
that the found may accord with the fenfe.
What is faid fhall be illuftrated by examples of each
fort or order. And firft of the paufe after the fourth
fyllable :
Back thro’ the paths J| of pleafing fenfe I ran
Again,
Profufe of blifs H and pregnant with delight
After the fifth;
So when an angel || by divine command.
With rifing tempefts || (hakes a guilty land.
After the fixth ;
Speed the foft intercourfe || from foul to foul
Again,
Then from his clofing eyes || thy form (hall part
After the feventh:
And taught the doubtful Battle || where to rage
Again,
And in the fmooth defcription |j murmur ftill
119. Befide the capital paufe now mentioned, inferior
paufes will be difcovered by a nice ear. Of thefe there
are commonly two in each line : one before the capi¬
tal paufe, and one after it, The former comes inva¬
riably after the firft long fyllable, whether the line be¬
gin with a Jong fyllable or a (hort. The other in its
variety imitates the capital paufe : in fome lines it
comes after the fixth fyllable, in fome after the feventh,
and in fome after the eighth. Of thefe femipaufes
take the following examples.
1 ft and 8th :
Led 1 through a fad || variety | of wo.
35 i lft
6338 POE
Verfifica- ift and 7th :
tloa' Still I on that breaft |] enamour’d | let me lie
2d and 8th :
From ftorms ! a flielter |.| and from heat I a (hade
2d and 6th:
Let wealth 1 let honour 11 wait | the wedded dame.
2d and 7th :
Above I all pain j all paflion | and all pride
Even from thefe few examples it appears, that the
place of the laft femipaufe, like that of the full paufe,
is dire&ed in a good meafure by the fenfe. Its pro¬
per place with refpeft to the melody is after the eighth
fyllable, fo as to finifh the line with an iambus diftinfl-
iy pronounced, which, by a long fyllable aftera fhort,
is a preparation for reft : but fometimcs it comes after
the fixth, and fometimes after the feventh fylfable, in
order to avoid a paufe in the middle of a word, or be¬
tween two words intimately connefted; and fo far me¬
lody is juftly facrificed to fenfe»-
120. In difcourfing of hexameter verfe, it was laid
down as a rule, That a full paufe ought never to divide
a word : fuch licence deviates too far from the coinci¬
dence that ought to be between the paufes of fenfe
and of melody. The fame rule mult obtain in an
Englifti line ; and we lhall fupport reafon by experi¬
ments :
A noble fuper||fluity it craves
Abhor, a perpe||tuity (hould ftand
Thefe lines feem fcarcely diftinguilhable from profe.
The fame rule is not applicable to a femipaufe,
which, being fhort and faint, is not fenfily difagree-
able when it divides a word.
Relent | lefs walls || whofe darkfome round | contains
For her 1 white virgins |( hyme j neals fing
In thefe | deep folitudes || and aw | ful cells
It muft however be acknowledged, that the melo¬
dy here fuffers in fame degree : a word ought to be
pronounced without any reft between its component
fyllables: a femipaufe that bends to this rule, is
fcarce perceived.
121. The capital paufe is fo effential to the melody,
that one cannot be too nice in the choice of its place, in
order to have it clear and diftindf. It cannot be in
better company than with .a paufe in the fenfe ; and
if the fenfe require but a comma after the fourth, fifth,
fixth, or feventh fyllable, it is fufficient for the mufical
paufe. But to make fuch coincidence effential, would
cramp verfification too much; and we have experience
for our authority, that there may be a paufe in the
melody where the fenfe requires none. We muft not
however imagine, that a mufical paufe may come after
any word indifferently : fome words, like fyllables of
the fame word, are fo intimately connedted, as not to
bear a reparation even by a paufe : the feparating, for
example, a fubftantive from its article would be harlh
and unpleafant; witnefs the following line, which can¬
not be pronounced with a paufe as marked,
T R Y. Part III.
If Delia fmile, the || flowr’s begin to fpring. Verfifica-
But ought to be pronounced in the following man-  
ner.
If Delia fmile, j| the flow’rs begin to fpring.
If then it be not a matter of indifference where to
make the paufe, there ought to be rules for determining
what words may be feparated by a paufe, and what
are incapable of fuch feparatian. We (hall endeavour ‘
to afcertain thefe rules; not chiefly for their utility,
but in order to unfold fome latent principles, that tend
to regulate our tafte even where we are fcarce fenfible
of them: and to that end, the method that appears
the moft promifing, is to run over the verbal relations,
beginning with the moft. intimate. The firll chat pre-
fents itfelf, is that of adjedtive and fubftantive, being
the relation of fubjedt and quality, the moft intimate
of all: and with refpedt to fuch intimate companions,
the queftion is, Whether they can bear to be fepara¬
ted by a paufe. What occurs is, that a quality can¬
not exift: independent of a fubjedt; nor are they fep^-
rable even in imagination, becaufe they make parts of
the fame idea : and for that reafon, with refpedt to
melody as well as fenfe, it muft be difagreeable to be¬
llow upon the adjedlive a fort of independent exiftence,
by interjedling a paufe between it and its fubftantive 1
as in the following examples.
Of thoufand bright [| inhabitants of air
The fprites of fiery [j termagants inflame
The reft, his many-colour’d || robe conceal’d
The fame, his ancient || perfonage to deck
Ev’n here, where frozen || Chaftity retires.
I fit, with fad || civility, I read
Back to my native |j moderation Aide
Or (hall we ev’ry H decency confound
Time was, a fober ij Englifhman would knock
And place, on good || fecurity, his gold
Tafte, that eternal || wanderer, which flies
But ere the tenth (I revolving day was run
Firftlet the juft |J equivalent be paid
Go, threat thy earth-born II myrmidons ; but here
Hafte to the fierce |j Achilles’ tent (he cries)
All but the ever-wakeful |j eyes of Jove
Your own refiftlefs || eloquence employ
122. Confidering this matter fiiperficially, one might
be apt to imagine, that it muft be the fame, whether
the adjedlive go firft, which is the natural order, or
the fubftantive, which is indulged by the laws of in-
verfion. But we foon difcover this to be a miftake :
colour, for example, cannot be conceived independent
of the furface coloured ; but a tree may be conceived,'
as growing in a certain fpot, as of a certain kind, and
as fpreading its extended branches all around, without
ever thinking of its colour. In a word, a fubjcdl may
be confidered with fome of its qualities independent of
others ; though we cannot form an image of any fingle
quality independent of the fubjedt. Thus then, tho’
an adjedlive named firft be infeparable from the fub-
ftantivej
Pan nr. POE
Verfifiea- ftantive, the propofition does not reciprocate: an
tl0r1, image'can be formed of the fubftantive independent of
the adje&ive; and for that reafon, they may be fepa-
rated by a paufe, when the fubftantive takes the lead.
For thee the fates || feverely kind ordain
And curs’d with hearts $ unknowing how to yield
123. The verb and adverb are precifely in the fame con¬
dition with the fubftantive and adjeftive. An adverb,
which modifies the aftion expreffed by the verb, is not
feparable from the verb even in imagination; and
therefore the following lines feem faulty.
And which it much || becomes you to forget
’Tis one thing madly l| to difperfe my ftore
But an a&ion may be conceived with fome of its mo¬
difications, leaving out others, precifely as a fobjeft
may be conceived with fome of its qualities, leaving
out others ; and therefore, when by inverfion the verb
is firft introduced, it has no bad effeft to interjeft a
paufe between it and the adverb that follows : this
may be done at the clofe of a line, where the paufe
is at leaft as full as that is which divides the line :
While yet he fpoke, the Prince advancing drew
Nigh to the lodge, &c.
124. The agent and its aftion come next, Cxpreffed in
grammar by the a&ive fubftantive and its verb. Be¬
tween thefe, placed in their natural order, there is no
difficulty of interjefting a paufe: an a&ive being is
not always in motion, and therefore it is eafily fepa*
tjable in idea from its adion : when in a fentence the
fubftantive takes the lead, we know not that adion is
to follow ; and as reft muft precede the commence¬
ment of motion, this interval is a proper opportunity
for a paufe.
Nor when by inverfion the verb is placed firft, is it
lawful to feparate it by a paufe from the adive fub-
ftantive; becaufe an adion is not in idea feparable
from the agent, more than a quality from the fubjed
to which it belongs.
125. The point of the greateft delicacy regards the
adive verb and the paffive fubftantive placed in their
natural order. On the one hand, it will be obferved,
that thefe words fignify things which are not feparable
in idea : killing cannot be conceived without a being
that is put to death, nor painting without a furface
upon which the colours are fpread. On the other
hand, an adion and the thing on which it is exerted
are not, like fubjed and quality, united in one indi¬
vidual objed : the adive fubftantive is perfedly diftind
from that which is paffive ; and they are conneded by
one circumftance only, that the adion exerted by the
former is exerted upon the latter. This makes it
poffible to take the adion to pieces, and to confider
it firft with relation to the agent, and next with rela¬
tion to the patient. But after all, fo iniimately con¬
neded are the parts of the thought, that it requires
an effort to make a reparation even for a moment : the
fubtilifing to fuch a degree is not agreeable, efpecially
in works of imagination. The beft poets, however,
taking advantage of tfyis -fubtilty, ferupk not to fepa- ■
TRY. 6339
rate by a paufe an adive verb from the thing upon Verfifica-
which it is exerted. Such paufes in a long work may tion-
be indulged ; but taken fingly, they certainly are not ”” ~
agreeable :
The peer now fpreads H the glitt’ring forfex wide
As ever fully’d [j the fair face of light
Repair’d to fearcb H the gloomy cave of Spleen
Nothing, to make W philofophy thy friend
Shou’d chance to make U the well-drefs’d rabble flare
Orcrofs, to plunder # provinces, the main
Thefe madmen ever hurt 11 the church or ftate
How ftiall we fill II a library with wit
What better teach || a foreigner the tongue
Sure, if I fpare H the minifter, no rules
Of honour bind me, not to maul his tools.
On the other hand, when the paffive fubftantive is by
inverfion firft named, there is no difficulty of interjec¬
ting a paufe between it and the verb, more than when
the adive fubftantive is firft named. The fame reafon
holds in both, that though a verb cannot be feparated
in idea from the fubftantive which governs it, and
fcarcely from the fubftantive it governs;, yet a fubftan¬
tive may always be conceived independent of the verb:
when the paffive fubftantive is introduced before the
verb, we know not that an adion is to be exerted up¬
on it; therefore we may reft till the adion commen¬
ces. For the fake of illuftration, take the following
examples :
Shrines! where their vigils ^ pale-ey’d virgins keep
Soon as.thy letters |j trembling I unclofe
No happier talk | thefe faded eyes purfue
What is faid about the paufe, leads to a general ob-
fervation, That the natural order of placing the ac¬
tive fubftantive and its verb, is more friendly to a paufe
than the inverted order ; but that in all the other con-
nedions, inverfion affords a far better opportunity for
a paufe. And hence one great advantage of blank
^erfe over rhyme ; its privilege of inverfion giving it a
much greater choice of paufes than can be had in the
natural order of arrangement.
126. We now proceed to the flighter xonnedions,
which ffiall be difeuffed in one general article. Words
conneded by conjundions and prepofuions admit free¬
ly a paufe between them, which will be clear from the
following inftances:
Affunae what fexes " and what fhape they pleafe
The light militia ^ of the lower fky
Conneding particles were invented to unite in a peried
two fubftantives fignifying things occafionally united
in the thought, but which have no natural union : and
between two things not only iepar^ble in idea, but
really diftind, the mind, for the fake of melody,
cheerfully admits by a paufe a momentary disjundion
of their occafional union.
127. One capital branch of the fubjed is ftill upon hand.
It concerns thofe parts of fpeech which fingly repre-
35 Q_2 knt
634°
Verlifica-
P O E
fent no Idea, and which become not fignificant till they
be joined to other words: thefe are, conjundlions,
prepofitions, articles, and fuch like acceffories, pafs-
ing under the name of particles. Upon thefe the que-
Ition occurs. Whether they can be feparated by a
paufe from the words that make them fignificant ?
whether, for example, in the following lines, the fe-
paration of the acceffory prepofition from the princi¬
pal fubftantive, be according to rule ?
The goddefs with || a difcontented air
And heighten’d by II the diamond’s circling rays
When vi&ims at II yon altar’s foot we lay
So take it in || the very words of Creech
An enfign of II the delegates of Jove
Two ages o’er || his native realm he reign’d
While angels, with II their filver wings o’erfliade
Or the reparation of the conjun&ion from the word
that is conne&ed by it with the antecedent word :
Talthybius and II Eurybates the good
It will be obvious at the firft glance, that the foregoing
reafoning upon obje&s naturally connected, is not ap¬
plicable to words which of themfelves are mere ci¬
phers : we muft therefore have recourfc to fome other
principle for folving the prefent queftion. Thefe par¬
ticles out of their place are totally infignificant: to
give them a meaning, they muft be joined to certain
words; and the neceffity of this junftion, together
with cuftom, forms an artificial conneftion that has a
ftrong influence upon the mind : it cannot bear even a
momentary feparation, which deftroys the fenfe, and
is at the fame time contradi&ory to pra&ice. Ano¬
ther circumftance tends ftill more to make this fepa¬
ration difagreeable in lines of the firft and third order,
that it bars the accent; which will be explained after¬
ward in treating of the accent.
128. Ijlitherto we have difcourfed upon that paufe
only which divides the line. We proceed to the paufe
that concludes the line ; and the queftion is, Whether
the fame rules be applicable to both? This muft be
anfwered by making a diftinflion. In the firft line of
a couplet, the concluding paufe differs little, if at all,
from the paufe which divides the line ; and for that
reafon, the rules are applicable to both equally. The
concluding paufe of the couplet is in a different condi¬
tion : it refembles greatly the concluding paufe in an
hexameter line : both of them indeed are fo remark¬
able, that they never can be graceful, unlefs where
they accompany a paufe in the fenfe. Hence it fol-
Ibws, that a couplet ought always to be finiftied with
fome clofe in the fenfe ; if npt a point, at leaft a com¬
ma. The truth is, that this rule is feldom tranfgreffed:
in Pope’s works we find very few deviations from the
rule : take the following inftances :
Nothing is foreign : parts relate to whole
One all-extending, all-preferving foul
Conne&s each being 
Another:
To draw frefh colours from the vernal flow’rs;
TRY. Partin.
To fteal from rainbows, ere they drop in fiiow’rs, Verfifka-
A brighter wafh  tl0n'
It may be added, with refpeft to paufes in general,
that fuppofing the connexion to be fo flender as to ad¬
mit a paufe, it follows not that a paufe may in every
fuch cafe be admitted. There is one rule to which
every other ought to bend, That the fenfe muft never
be wounded or obfcured by the mufic ; and upon that
account the following lines feem exceptionable :
Ulyffes, firft B in public cares, fhe found.
And,
Who rifing, high || th’imperial fceptre rais’d.
With refpeA to inyerfion, it appears, both from
reafon and experiments, that many words which can¬
not bear a feparation in their natural order, admit a
paufe when inverted. And it may be added, that
when two words, or two members of a fentence, in
their natural order, can be feparated by a paufe, fuch
feparation can never be amifs in an inverted order.
An inverted period, which deviates from the natural
train of ideas, requires to be marked in fome meafure
even by paufes in the fenfe, that the parts may be di-
ftin&ly known. Take the following examples.
As with cold lips H I kifs’d the facred veil
With other beauties || charm my partial eyes
Full in my view || fet all the bright abode
With words like thefe || the troops Ulyffes rul’d
Back to th’ affembly roll || the thronging train
Not for their grief || the Grecian hoft I blame
The fame where the feparation is made at the clofe of
the firft line of the couplet:
For fpirits, freed from mortal laws, with eafe,
Affume what fexes and what ftiapes they pleafe.
The paufe is tolerable even at the clofe of the coup"
let, for the reafon juft nowfuggefted, that inverted
members require fome flight paufe in the fenfe:
’Twas where the plane-tree fpreads its (hades around;.
The altars heav’d ; and from the crumbling ground
A mighty dragon, (hot.
129. Thus a train of reafoning hath infenfibly led us
to conclufions vtfith regard to the mufical paufes, very
different frpm thofe in the article ^/'Language
(feft. II.) concerning the feparating by a circumftance
words intimately connected. One wouldconje&ure, that
where-ever words are feparable by interje&ing a cir¬
cumftance, they (hould be equally feparable by interjec¬
ting a paufe : but, upon a more narrow infpection, the
appearance of analogy vanilheth. This will be evident
from confidering, that a paufe in the fenfe diftinguifhes
the different members of a period from each other;
whereas when two words of the fame member are fepa¬
rated by a circumflance, all the three make ftill but one
member; and therefore, that words may be feparated
by an interje&ed circumftance, though thefe words
are not feparated by a paufe in the fenfe. This fets
the matter in a clear light; for, as obferved above, a
mufical paufe is intimately connefted with a paufe' in
the fenfe, and ought, as far as poffible, to be govern¬
ed by it: particularly a muficah-paufe ought never to
PartHI. POE
Verfifica- be placed where a paufe is excluded by the fenfe, as,
timv. f0T example, between the adjeftive and following fub-
ftantive, which make parts of the fame idea ; and ftill
kfs between a particle and the word that makes it
fignilicant.
Abftradting at prefent from the peculiarity of me¬
lody arifing from the different paufes, it cannot fail to
be obferved in general, that they introduce into our
verfe no flight degree of variety. A number of uni¬
form lines having all the fame paufe, are extremely
fatiguing, which is remarkable in the French verfifica-
tion. This imperfe&ion will be difcerned by a fine
ear even in the fhortefl fucceffion, and becomes intole¬
rable in a long poem. Pope excels in the variety of
his melody, which, if different kinds can be compared,
is indeed not lefs perfeft than that of Virgil.
130. From what is lad faid, there ought to be one
exception : Uniformity in the members of a thought,
demands equal uniformity in the verbal members
which exprefs that thought. When therefore refem-
bling objeds or things are exprefied in a plurality of
verfe-lines, thefe lines in their ftrudure ought to be
as uniform as pofiible, and the paufes in particular
ought all of them to have the fame place. Take the
following evamples.
By foreign hands || thy dying eyes were clofs’d,
By foreign hands || thy decent limbs compos’d,
By foreign hands |j thy humble grave adorn’d.
Again :
Bright as the fun || her eyes the gazers ftrike ;
And, like the fun, || they fhine on all alike.
Speaking of Nature, or the God of Nature :
Warms in the fun || refreflies in the breeze,
Glows in the ftars || and bloflbms in the trees.
Lives through all life || extends through all extent,
Spreads undivided || operates unfpent.
131. Paufes will detain us longer than was expefted;
for the fubjed is not yet exhaufted. It is laid down
above, that Englifh heroic verfe admits no more but:
four capital paufes ; and that the capital paufe of every
line is determined by the fenfe to be after the 4th, the
5th, the 6th, or 7th fyllable. That this dodrine
holds true fo far as melody alone is concerned, will be.
teftified by every good ear. At the fame time it is to,
be admitted, that this rule may be varied where the
fenfe or expreffion requires a variation, and that fo far:
the melody may juftly be facrificed. Examples ac¬
cordingly are not unfrequent, in Milton efpecially, of
the eapital paufe being after the ift, the 2d, or the 3d
fyllable. And that this licence may be taken, even
gracefully, when it adds vigour to the expreflion, will
be clear from the following example. Pope, in his
tranflatipn of Homer, defcriSes a rock broken off from
a mountain, and hurling to the plain, in the following
words:
From fteep to deep the rolling ruin bounds ;
At every fhock the crackling wood refounds ;
Still gath’ring force, it fmokes; and urg’d amain,
Whirls, leaps, and thunders down, impetuous, to the
plain;
TRY. 6341
There flops || So Hc&or. Their whole force he prov’d, Verfifica-
Refiftlefs when he rag’d ; and when he ftopt, unmov’d. t10'1.
In the penult line the proper place of the mufidtl
paufe is at the end of the 5th fyllable ; but it enlivens
the expreflion by its coincidence with that of the fenfe
at the end of the 2d fyllable : the flopping fliort be¬
fore the ufual paufe in the melody, aids the impreffion
that is made by the defcription of the Hone’s flopping
fliort; and what is loft to the melody by this artifice,
is more than compenfated by the force that is added
to the defcription. Milton makes a happy ufe of this
licence : witnefs the following examples from his Pa-
radife Loft.
——— Thus with the year
Seafons return, but not to me returns
Day || or the fweet approach of even or morn.
Celeftial voices to the midnight-air
Sole || or refponfive each to others note.
And over them triumphant Death his dart
Shook || but delay’d to ftrike.
——— And wild uproar
Stood rul’d || flood vaft infinitude confin’d.
 And hard’ning in his ftrength
Glories || for never fince created man
Met fuch embodied force.
From his flack hand the garland wreath’d for Eve
Down drop’d ||.and all the faded rofes flied.
Of uneffential night, receives him next,
Wide gaping || and with utter lofs of being,
Threatens him, &c.
 For now the thought
Both of loft happinefs and lafting pain:
Torments him || round he throws his baleful eyes, &c.
If we confider the foregoing paflages with refpeft
to melody fingly, the paufes are undoubtedly out
of their proper place.; but being united with tbofe of
the fenfe, they enforce the expreffion, and enliven it
greatly ; for, as has been more than once obferved,
the beauty of expreffion is communicated to the found,
which, by a natural deception, makes even the melody
appear more perfect than if the mufical paufes were
regular.
132. To explain the rules of accenting, two general
obfervations mull be premifed. The firft is, That ac¬
cents have a. double effedl: they contribute to the me¬
lody, by giving it air and fpirit: they contribute no
lefs to the fenfe, by diflinguifliing important words
from others. Thefe two effedls can never be fepa-
rated, without impairing the concord that ought to
fubfift between the thought and the melody: an accent,
for example, placed on a low word, has the to
burlefque it, by giving it an unnatural elevation; and
the injury thus done to the fenfe does not reft there,
for it feems alfo to injure the melody. Let us only
refledl what a ridiculous figure a particle muft make
with an accent or emphafis put upon it, a particle
that of itfelf has no meaning, and that ferves only,
like cement, to unite words fignificant. The other
general obfervation is, That a word of whatever number
of fyllables, is not accented upon more than one of
them.
6342 P O E
Verfifica- them. The reafon is, that the obje& is fet in its beft
tion. light by a Angle accent, fo as to make more than one
unneceflary for the fenfe: and if another be added, it
mud be for the found merely ; which would be a
tranfgreflion of the foregoing rule, by feparating a
mufical accent from that which is requifite for the
fenfe.
133. Keeping in view the foregoing obfervations, the
dottrine of accenting Englifli heroic verfe is extreme¬
ly Ample. ’ In the Arft place, accenting is conAned to
the long fyllables ; for a fhort fyllable is not capable
of an accent. In the next place, as the melody is
enriched in proportion to the number of accents,
every word that has a long fyllable may be accented ;
unlefs the fenfe interpofe, which rejefts the accenting
a word that makes no Agure by its AgniAcation. Ac¬
cording to this rule, a line may admit Ave accents ; a
cafe by no means rare.
134. ButfuppoAngevery long fyllable to be accented,
there is, in every line, one accent that makes a
greater figure than the reft, being that which precedes
the capital paufe. It is diftyiguilhed into two kinds ;
one that is immediately before the paufe, and one
that is divided from the paufe by a (hort fyllable. The
former belongs to lines of the ftrft and third order:
the latter to thofe of the fecond and fourth. Examples
of the Arft kind :
Smooth flow the waves ]| the zephyrs gently play,
Belinda fmil’d J| and all the world was gay.
He rais’d his azure wand || and thus began.
Examples of the other kind :
There lays three garters || half a pair of gloves,
And all the trophies f| of his former loves.
Our humble province }] is to tend the fair,
Not a lefs pleafing || though lefs glorious care.
And hew triumphal arches || to the ground.
135. It is a capital defeft in the compofltion of verfe,
to put a low word, incapable of an accent, in the
place where this accent ftiould be: this bars the ac¬
cent altogether ; than which there feems no fault more
fubverflve of the melody, if it be not the barring a
paufe altogether. Neither does any Angle circumftance
contribute more to the energy of verfe, than to pu;
an important word where the accent fhould be, a word
that merits a peculiar emphaAs. To Ihow the bad
effeA of excluding the capital accent, the reader is
referred to fome inftances given above, where par¬
ticles are feparated by a paufe from the capital words
that make them AgniAcant; and which particles ought,
for the fake of melody, to be accented, were they ca¬
pable of an accent. Add to thefe the following in¬
ftances from the Eflay on Criticifm.
Of leaving what ;j| is natural and At
line 448.
Not yet purg’d off, [j of fpleen and four difdain
7.528.
No pardon vile j] obfeenity ihould And
TRY. PartllT.
When love was all || an eafy monarch’s care Verfifica-
/•537 
For ’tis but half jl a judge’s tafk, to know'
/. 562
’Tis not enough, [| tafte, judgment, learning,join
/. 563.
That only makes H fuperior fenfe belov’d
1.578.
Whofe right it is, ||| uncenfur’d, to be dull
/. 590.
’Tis beft fometimes ffl your cenfure to reftrain
/. 597.
When this fault is at the end of a line that clofes a
couplet, it leaves not the leaft trace of melody:
But of this frame the bearings, and the ties,
The ftrong connexions, nice dependencies.
In a line expreffive of what is humble or dejeXed’
it improves the refemblance between the found and
fenfe to exclude the capital accent. This, to our tafte,
is a beauty in the following lines.
In thefe deep f61itudes || and awful cells
The poor inhabitant |] beholds in vain
136. To conclude this article, the accents are not, like
the fyllables, conftned to a certain number: fome lines
have no fewer than Ave, and there are lines that admit
not above one. This variety, as we have feen, de¬
pends entirely on the different powers of the compo¬
nent words: particles, even where they are long by po-
Ation, cannot be accented; and polyfyllables, whatever
fpace they occupy, admit but one accent. Polyfyl¬
lables have another defeX, that they generally exclude
the full paufe. It is fhown above, that few polyfyllables
can And place in the conftruXion of Englifh verfe; and
here are reafons for excluding them, could they And
place.
137. It was mentioned above f, that the four forts ofj. N° nS.
lines which enter into Englifh heroic verfe, have, each
of them, a peculiar melody diftinguifhable by a good
ear. This it is now propofed to account for. But Arft,
it is proper to warn the candid reader not to expeX this
peculiarity of modulation in every inftance: for the
thought and expreflion have fo great an influence, as
often to make the pooreft melody pafs for rich and
fpirited. It is neceflary therefore, flrft. That the ex¬
periment be tried upon lines equal with refpeX to the
thought and expreflion ; for otherwife one may eaiily
be milled in judging of the melody: and next, That
thefe lines be regularly accented before the paufe ; for
upon a matter abundantly reflned in itfelf, it is wifhed
not to be embarrafled with faulty and irregular lines.
Thefe preliminaries adjufted, we begin with fome
general obfervations, that will fave repeating the fame
thing over and over upon each particular cafe. And,
Arft, an accent fucceeded by a paufe, as in lines of the
ftrft and third order, makes a much greater Agure than
where the voice goes on without a flop. The faX is
fo certain, that no perfon who has an ear can be at a
lofs to diftinguifh that accent from others. Nor have
we far to feek for the efficient caufe: the elevation of
an accenting tone produceth in the mind a Aaiilar ele¬
vation,
J- 531,
Part III. POE
Verfifica- vation, which continues during the paufe (a) : but
tion. where the paufe is feparated from the accent by a fhort
fyllablCj as in lines of the fecond and fourth order, the
impreffion made by the accent is more flight when there
is no flop, and the elevation of the accent is gone in a
moment by the falling of the voice in pronouncing the
fliort fyllable that follows. The paufe alfo is fenfibly
affe&ed by the pofition of the accent: in lines of the
firft and third order, the clofe conjun&ion of the ac¬
cent and paufe occafidns a fudden flop without prepa¬
ration, which roufes the mind, and beftows on the me¬
lody a fpirited air: when, on the other hand, the paufe
is feparated from the accent by a fliort fyllable, which
always happens in lines of the fecond and fourth or¬
der, the paufe is foft and gentle : for this Ihort unac¬
cented fyllable fucceeding one that is accented, muft of
courfe be pronounced with a falling voice, which na¬
turally prepares fora paufe; and the mind falls gently
from the accented fyllable, and Aides into reft as it were
infenfibly. Further, the lines themfelves derive differ¬
ent powers from the pofition of the paufe, which will
thus appear. A paufe after the fourth fyllable divides
the line into two unequal portions, of which the larger
comes laft: this circumftance refolving the line into an
afcending feries, makes an imprtffion in pronouncing
like that of afcendihg; and to this imprefiion contri¬
butes the redoubled effort in pronouncing the larger
portion, which is laft in order. The mind has a dif¬
ferent feeling when the paufe fucceeds the fifth fyllable,
which divides the line into two equal parts: thefe parts,
pronounced with equal effort, are agreeable by their
uniformity. A line divided by a paufe after the fixth
fyllable, makes an imprefiion oppofite to that firft men¬
tioned : being divided into two unequal portions, of
which the ftiorter is laft in order, it appears like a
flow defending feries; and the fecond portion being
pronounced with lefs effort than the firft, the diminifh-
ed effort prepares the mind for reft. And this prepa¬
ration for reft is ftill more fenfibly felt where the paufe
is after the feventh fyllable, as in lines of the fourth
order.
138. Toapplythefeobfervationsisaneafytaflc. Aline
of the firft order is of all the mod fpirited and lively:
the accent, being followed inftantly by a paufe, makes
an illuftrious figure: the elevated tone of the accent,
elevates the mind: the mind is fupported in its eleva¬
tion by the fudden unprepared paufe which roufes and
animates: and the line itfeif, reprefenting by its un¬
equal divifion an afcending feries, carries the mind flill
higher, making an impreffion fimilar to that of going
upward. The fecond order has a modulation fenfibly
fweet, foft, and flowing: the accent is not fo fprightly
as in the former, becaufe a Ihort fyllable intervenes be¬
tween it and the paufe; its elevation, by the fame
means, vanifheth inftantaneoufly; the mind, by a fall¬
ing voice, is gently prepared for a flop: and the plea-.
fure of uniformity from the divifion of the line into two
equal parts, is calm and fweet. The third order has a
TRY. 6343
modulation not fo eafily exprefled in words: it in part V«rfifica-
refembles the firft order, by the livelinefs of an accent Von'
fucceeded inftantly by a full paufe : but then the ele¬
vation occafioned by this circumftance, is balanced in
fome degree by the remitted effort in pronouncing the
fecond portion, which remitted effort has a tendency
to reft. Another circumftance diftinguifheth it re¬
markably: its capital accent comes late, being placed
on the fixth fyllable, and this circumftance bdtows on
it an air of gravity and folemnity. The laft order re-
fembles the fecond in the mildnefs of its accent, and
foftnefs of its paufe ; it is ftill more folemn than the
third, by the latenefs of its capital accent: it alfo pof-
feffes in a higher degree than the third, the tendency
to reft; and by that circumftance is of all the beft qua¬
lified for clofing a period in the completeft manner.
139. But thefe are not all the diftinguilhing charatfters
of the different orders. Each order alfo is diftinguifhed
by its final accent and paufe: the unequal divifion in
the firft order, makes an impreffion of afcending; and
the mind at the clofe is in the higheft elevation, which,
naturally prompts it to put a ftrong emphafis upon
the concluding fyllable, whether by railing the voice
to a (harper tone, or by expreffing the word in a fuller
toi;e. This order accordingly is of all the lead proper
for concluding a period, where a cadence is proper, and
not an accent. The fecond order, being deftitute of
the impreffion of afcent, cannot rival the firft order in
the elevation of its concluding accent, nor confequent-
ly in the dignity of its concluding paufe; for thefe
have a mutual influence. This order, however, with
refpeft to its clofe, maintains a fuperiority over the
third and fourth orders : in thefe the clofe is more
humble, being, brought down by the impreffion of de-
fcent, and by the remitted effort in pronouncing; con-
fiderably in the third order, and ftill more confiderably
in the laft. According to this defcription, the con¬
cluding accents and paufes of the four orders being re¬
duced toa fcale, will form a defcending feries probably
in an arithmetical progreffion.
140. After what is faid, it will fcarce be thought refi¬
ning too much to fuggeft, that the diflerent orders are
qualified for different purpofts, and that a poet of genius
will be naturally led to make a choice accordingly.
The firft order feems proper for a fentiment that is
bold, lively, or impetuous; the third order, for what
is grave, folemn, or lofty; the fecond, for what is ten¬
der, delicate, or melancholy, and in general for all the
fympatb.etic emotions; and the laft for i'ubjedts of the
fame kind, when tempered with any degree of folem¬
nity. It is not contended that any one order is fitted
for no other talk than that affigned it; for at that rate,
no fort of melody would be left for accompanying
thoughts that have nothing peculiar in them. It is
meant to fuggeft, that each of the orders is peculiarly
adapted to certain fubje&s, and better qualified tha-n
the others for expreffing them. The beft way to judge
is.
(a) Hence the livelinefs of the French language as to found, above the Englifh; the laft fyllable in the former be¬
ing generally long and accented, the long fyllable in the latter being generally as far back in the word as pofiible,and
often without an accent. For this difference there appears no caufe fo probable as temperament and difpofition; the
French being briik and lively, the Englilh fedate and referved: and this, if it hold, is a pregnant inftance of ard'em-
blanee between the character of a people and that of their language.
6344 . .P ° E
Verfifica- Is by experiment; and to avoid the imputation of a
tion. partial fearch,the inftances fhall be confined to a Angle
poem, beginning with the firft order.
On her white bread a fparkling crofs ihe wore,
Which Jews might kifs, and infidels adore.
Her lively looks a fprightly mind difclofe,
Quick as her eyes, and as unfix’d as thofe:
Favours to none, to all (he fmiles extends;
Oft (lie reje&s, but never once offends.
Bright as the fun, her eyes the gazers ftrike;
And, like the fun, they (hine on all alike.
Yet graceful eafe, and fweetnefs void of pride,
Might hide her faults, if belles had faults to hide;
If to her (hare fome female errors fall,
Look on her face, and you’ll forget ’em all.
Rape of the Loch.
In accounting for the remarkable livelinefs of this paf-
fage, it will be acknowledged by every one who has an
ear, that the melody muft come in for a (hare. The
lines, all of them, are of the firft order; a very unufual
circumftance in the author of this poem, fo eminent
for variety in his verfification. Who can doubt, that
he has been led by delicacy of tafte to employ the firft
order preferably to the others ?
Second order.
Our humble province ns to tend the fair,
Not a lefs pleafing, though lefs glorious care;
To fave the powder from too rude a gale,
Nor let th’ imprifon’d effences exhale;
To draw frefh colours from the vernal flow’rs;
To fteal from rainbows, ere they drop their fhow’rs,
&c.
Again:
Oh, thoughtlefs mortals! ever blind to fate,
Too foon dejefted, and too foon elate.
Sudden, thefe honours (hall be fnatch’d away,
And curs’d for ever this vidtoridus day.
Third order.
To fifty chofen fylphs, of fpecial note,
We truft th’ important charge, the petticoat.
Again:
Oh fay- what ftranger caufe, yet unexplor’d,
Could make a gentle belle rejedt a lord?
A plurality of lines of the fourth order, would not have
a good effedt in (ucceffion; becaufe, by a remarkable
tendency to reft, their proper office is to clofe a pe¬
riod. The reader, therefore, muft be fatisfie'd with in¬
ftances where this order is mixed with others.
Not louder (hrieks to pitying heav’n are caft,
When huffiands, or when lapdogs, breathe their laft.
Again:
Steel could the works of mortal pride confound,
And hew triumphal arches to the ground.
Again:
She fees, and trembles at th’ approaching ill,
Juft in the jaws of ruin, and codille.
Again:
With earned eyes, and round unthinking face,
Fie firft the fnuff-box open’d, then the cafe.
And this fuggefts another experiment, which is, to
fet the different orders more diredUy in oppofition, by
TRY. Part nr.
giving examples where they are mixed in the fame paf- Verfifica-
fage. lion.
Firft and fecond orders.
Sol through white curtains (hot a tim’rous ray,
And ope’d thofe eyes that muft eclipfe the day.
Again:
Not youthful kings in battle feiz’d alive,
Not fcornful virgins who their charms furvive*
Not ardent lovers robb’d of all their blifs,
Not ancient ladies when refus’d a kifs,
Not tyrants fierce that unrepenting die,
Not Cynthia when her mantua’s pin’d awry.
E’er felt fuch rage, refentment, and defpair,
As thou, fad virgin! for thy raviffi’d hair.
Firft and third.
Think what an equipage thou haft in air.
And view with fcorn two pages and a chair.
Again:
What guards the purity of melting maids,
In courtly balls, and midnight mafquerades,
Safe from the treach’rous friend, the daring fpark,
The glance by day, the whifper in the dark?
Again:
With tender billet-doux he lights the pyre,
And breathes three amr’ous fighs to raife the fire;
Then proftrate falls, and begs, with ardent eyes,
Soon to obtain, and long poffefs the prize.
Again:
Jove’s thunder roars, heav’n trembles all around,
Blue Neptune ftorms, the bellowing deeps refound.
Earth (hakeshernoddingtow'’rs,theground gives way,
And the pale ghofts dart at the flaffi of day!
Second and third.
Sunk in Thaleftris’ arms, the nymph he found,
Her eyes deje&ed, and her hair unbound.
Again:
On her heav’d bofom hung her drooping head.
Which with a figh (he rais’d; and thus (he faid.
iqi.Upon the whole, from whathasbeen obferved, we
may with affurance pronounce, that great is the merit
of Engliffi heroic verfe: for though uniformity pre¬
vails in the arrangement, in the equality of the
lines, and in the refemblance of the final founds; va¬
riety is ftill more confpicuous in the paufes and in the
accents, which are diverfified in a furprifing manner.
Of the beauty that refults from a due mixture of uni¬
formity and variety *, many inftances have already * See the
occurred, but none more illuftrious than Englifh ver-article
fification : however rude it may be in the fimplicity mity0^
its arrangement, it is highly melodious by its paufes '
and accents, fo as already to rival the mod perfect
fpecies known in Greece or Rome ; and it is no dif-
agreeable profpeft to find it fufceptible of Hill greater
refinement.
142. (2.) We proceed to blank verfe, which hath fo
many circumftances in common with rhyme, that its
peculiarities may be brought within a narrow com-
pafs. With refpeft to form, it differs from rhyme, in
reje&ing the jingle of fimilar founds, which purifies it
from a childifh ple-afure. But this improvement is a
trifle “
Part III. POE
Verfifica- trifle compared with what follow*. Our verfe is ex»
tion. tremely cramped by rhyme ; and the great advantage
of blank verfe is, that it is at liberty to attend the
imagination in its boldeft flights, Rhyme neceffarily
divides verfe into couplets: each couplet makes a com¬
plete mufical period, the parts of which are divided by
panfes, and the whole fummed up by a full clofe at
the end : the melody begins anew with the next cou¬
plet : and in this manner a compofition in rhyme pro¬
ceeds couplet after couplet. We have frequently had
occafion to mention the correfpondence and concord
that ought to fubfift between found and fenfe ; from
which it is a plain inference, that if a couplet be a
complete period with regard to melody, it ought re¬
gularly to be the fame with regard to fenfe. As it is
extremely difficult to fupport fuch ftri&nefs of com¬
pofition, licences are indulged,-as explained above;
which, however, mud be ufed with difcretion, fo as
to preferve fome degree of concord between the fenfe
and the mufic : There ought never to be a full clofe in
the fenfe but at the end of a couplet; and thera ought
always to be fome paufe in the fenfe at the end of
every couplet: the fame period as to fenfe may be
extended through feveral couplets; but each couplet
ought to contain a diftinft member, diftinguifhed by
a paufe in the fenfe as well as in the found ; and the
whole ought to be clofed with a complete cadence.
Rules fuch as thefe maft confine rhyme within very
narrow bounds; a thought of any extent cannot be
reduced within its compafs; the fenfe muft be curtailed
and broken into parts, to make it fquars with the
curtnefs of the melody; and bcfide, fhort periods af¬
ford no latitude for inverfion.
143. We have examined this point with the greater
accuracy, in order to give a juft notion of blank verfe ;
and to (how, that a flight difference in form may pro¬
duce a very great difference in fubftance. Blank verfe
has the fame paufes and accents with rhyme, and a
paufe at the end of every line, like what concludes the
firft line of a couplet. In a word, the rules of melo¬
dy in blank verfe, are the fame that obtain with re-
fpe& to the firft line of a couplet; but being difen-
gaged from rhyme, or from couplets, there is accefs
to make every line run into another, precifely as to
make the firft line of a couplet run into the fecond.
There muft be a mufical paufe at the end of every line;
But this paufe is fo flight as not to require a paufe in
the fenfe: and accordingly the fenfe may be carried
on with or without paufes, till a period of the utmoft
extent be completed by a full clofe both in the fenfe
and the found: there is no reftraint, other than that
this full clofe be at the end of a line ; and this re*
ftraint is neceffary, in order to preferve a coincidence
between fenfe and found, which ought to be aimed at
in general, and is indifpenfable in the cafe of a full
clofe, becaufe it has a ftriking effedB Hence the fit-
nefs of blank verfe for inverfion : and confequently the
luftre of its paufes and accents; for which, as obfer-
ved in the article lately referred to, there is greater
fcope in inverfion, than when words run in their natu¬
ral order.
144. Nothing contributes more than inverfion to the
force and elevation of language : the couplets of rhyme
Voi. VIII.
TRY. 6345"
confine inverfion within narrow limits; nor would the Verfifici-
elevation of inverfion, rvere there accefa for it in rhyme, no'1'
readily accord with the humbler tone of that fort of^ “”
verfe. It is univerfally agreed, that the loftinefs of
Milton’s ftyle fupports admirably the fublimity of his
fubjedi ; and it is not lefs certain, that the loftinefs of
his ftyle arifes chiefly from inverfion. ’ Shaktfpearc
deals little in inverfion; but his blank verfe being a
fort of meafured profe, is perfedfly weJ! adapted to
the ftage, where laboured inverfion is highly impro¬
per, becaufe in dialogue it never can be natural.
145’. Hitherto’we have confideredthat fuperior power
of expreffion which verfe acquires by laying alide
rhyme. But this is not the only ground for prefer¬
ring blank verfe : it has another preferable quality not
lefs fignal; and that is, a more extenfive and more
complete melody. Its mufic is not, like that of rhyme,
confined to a fingle couplet, but takes in a great com¬
pafs, fo as in fome meafure to rival mufic propsrly fo
called. The interval between its cadences may be
long or fliort at pleafure ; and by that means its me¬
lody, with refpedl both to richnefs and variety, is fu¬
perior far to that of rhyme, and fuperiar even to that
of the Greek and Latin hexameter. Of this obferva-
tion no perfon can doubt who is acquainted with the
Paradife Loft: in which work there-are indeed many
carelefs lines; but at every turn the ricbeft melody as
well as the fublimeft fentiments are confpieuous. Take
the following fpecimen.
Now Morn, her rofy fteps in th’eaftern clime
Advancing, fow’d the earth with orient pearl;
When Adam wak’d, fo cuftom’d, for his fleep
Was aery light from pure digeftion bred,
And temp’rate vapours bland, which th’ only found
Of leaves and fuming rills, Aurora’s fan,
Lightly difpers’d, and the (brill matin fong
Of birds on ev’ry bough ; fo much the more
His wonder was to find unwaken’d Eve
With treffes difcompos’d, and glowing cheek,
As through unquiet reft : he on his fide
Leaning half-rais’d, with looks of cordial love
Hung over her enamour’d, and beheld
Beauty, which, whether waking or afleep.
Shot forth peculier graces; then with voice
Mild, as when Zephyrus on Flora breathes,
Her hand foft touching, whifper’d thus. Awake,
My faireft, my efpous’d, my lateft found,
Heav’n’s laft bed gift, my ever-new delight,
Awake; the morning (hines, and thefrefti field
Calls us; we lofe the prime, to mark how fpring
Our tended plants, how blows the citron grove.
What drops the myrrh, and what the balmy reed,
How nature paints her colours, how the bee
Sits on t.he bloom extra&ing liquid fweet.
Book 5. /. i.
i46.ComparingLat!n Hexameter with Engiifliberoic
rhyme, the former has obvioufly the advantage in the
following particulars. It is greatly preferable as to
arrangement, by the latitude it admits in placing the
long and (hort fyllables. Secondly, the length of an
hexameter line hath a majeftic air: ours, by its fliort-
nefs, is indeed more brifle and lively, but much lefa
fitted for the fublime. And, thirdly, the long high-
35 R founding
6346 POE
Verfifica- founding words that hexamster admits, add greatly to
tion- its majetty. To compenfate thefe advantages, Eng-
li(h rhyme poffefles a greater number and greater va¬
riety both of paufes and of accents. Thefe two forts
of verfe ftand indeed pretty much in oppofttion : in
hexameter, great variety of arrangement, none in the
paufes nor accents: in Englilh rhyme, great variety
in the paufes and accents, very little in the arrange¬
ment.
147. In blank verfe are united, in a good meafure,
the feveral properties of Latin hexameter and Englifh
rhyme ; and it poffeffes belide many fignal properties
of its own. It is not confined, like hexameter, by a
full clofe at the end of every line; nor, like rhyme,
by a full clofe at the end of every couplet. Its con-
ftruftion, which admits the lines to run into each
other, gives it a ftill greater majefty than arifes from
the length of a hexametef line. By the fame means,
it admits inverfion even beyond the Latin or Greek
hexameter; for thefe fuffer fome confinement by the
regular clofes at the end of every line. In its mufic
it is illuftrious above all: the melody of hexameter
verfe, is circumfcribed to a line; and of Englilh rhyme,
to a couplet: the melody of blank verfe is under no
confinement, but enjoys the utmoft privilege of which
melody of verfe is fufceptible ; which is, to run hand
in hand with the fenfet In a word, blank verfe is fu-
pet-ior to hexameter in many articles ; and inferior to
it in none, fave in the freedom of arrangement, and in
the life of long words.
148. In French heroic verfe, there are found, on the
contrary, all the defe&s of Latin hexameter and Eng¬
lilh rhyme, without the beauties of either : fubje&ed
to the bondage of rhyme, and to the full clofe at the
end of every couplet, it is alfo extremely fatiguing by
uniformity in its paufes and accents: the line invaria¬
bly is divided by the paufe into two equal parts, and
the accent is invariably placed before the paufe :
Jeune et vaillant herds |] dont la haute fageffe
N’eft point la fruit tardif li d’une lente vicillelTe.
Here every circumftance contributes to a tirefome uni¬
formity : a conftant return of the fame paufe and of
the fame accent, as well as an equal divifion of every
line; which fatigue the ear without intermilfion or
change. This matter cannot be fet in a better light,
than by prefenting to the reader a French tranllation
of the following paffage of Milton :
• Two of far nobler lhape, ereft and tall,
Godlike ere&, with native honour clad,
In naked majefty, feem’d lords of all:
And worthy feem’d ; for in their looks divine
The image of their glorious Maker (hone,
Truth, wifdom, fan&itude fevere and pure;
Severe, but in true filial freedom plac’d ;
Whence true authority in men : though both
Not equal, as their fex not eijual feem’d ;
For contemplation he and valour form’d,
For foftnefs (he and fweet attradlive grace;
He for God only, Ihe for God in him.
Were the paufes of the fenfe and found in this paflage
but a little better afforted, nothing in vevfe could be
T R Y. PartHI.
more melodious. In general, the great defeft of Mil- Verfifici-
ton’s verfification, in other refpefts admirable, is the tlun-
want of coincidence between the paufes of the fenfe
and found.
The tranfiation is in the following words:
Ce lieux delieieux, ce paradis charmant,
Re9oit deux objets fon plus bel ornement;
Leur port majefteux, et leur demarche altiere,
Semble leur meriter fur la nature entiere,
Ce droit de commander que Dieu leor a donne,
Sur leur augufte front de gloire couronne.
Du Souverain du ciel drille la refemblance :
Dans leur fimples regards eclatte l innocence,
L’ adorable candeur, 1* aimable verite,
La raifon, la fageffe, et la severite,
Qu* adoucit la prudence, et cet air de droiture
Du vifage des rois refpe&able parure.
Ces deux objets divins n’ont pas les memes traits,
Ils paroilfent formees, quoique toux deux parfaits ;
L’un pour la majefte, la force, et la noblefle;
L’ autre pour la douceur, la grace, et la tendrefle;
Celui-ci pour Dieu feul, 1’autre pour 1’homme encor.
Here the fenfe is fairly tranflated, the words are o£
equal power, and yet how inferior the melody !
149. The prefent article fliall be concluded with
A Lift of the different Feet, and of their Names.
1. Pyrrhichius, confifts of two fliort fyllables. Ex¬
amples : Deust given, cannot, hillock, running.
2. Spondeus, confifts of two long fyllables: omnes,
pffefs, forewarn, mankind, fometime.
3. Iambus, compofed of a (hort and a long: pios, in¬
tent, degree, appear, confent, repent, demand, re¬
port, fufpett, affront, event.
4. TrochjEUS, or Choreus, a long and a (hort: fer-
vat, whereby, after, legal, meafure, burden, holy,
lofty.
5. Tribrachys, three (hort: melius, property.
6. Molossus, three long : delettant.
7. AnapjEstus, two fliort and a long : animos, con-
defend, apprehend, overheard, acquiefce, immature,
overcharge, frenade, opportune.
8. Dactylus, a long and two fliort : carmina, evi¬
dent, excellence, ejlimate, wonderful, altitude, bur¬
dened, minfter, tenement.
9. Bacchius, a fliort and two long : dolores.
10. Hyppobacchius, or Antibacchius, two long
and a ftiort: pelluntur.
j.j. Creticus, or Amphimacer, a fliort fyllable be¬
tween two long: inf to, afternoon.
12. Amphibrachys, a long fyllable between two
fliort: honore, confder, imprudent, procedure, attend¬
ed, propofd, refpondent, concurrence, apprentice, re-
fpettive, revenue.
13. Proceleusmaticvs* four fhort fyllables: homi-
nibus) ntceffary.
14. Djs-
Part III. POE
Verfifica- 14. Dispondeus, four long fyllables : infinitus.
    15. Diiambus, compofed of two iambi: feveritas.
16. Ditroch.eus, of two trochsci: permaneret pro¬
curator.
17. Ionicus, two fhort fyllables and two long : pro-
perabant.
j8. Another foot pafles under the fame name, com¬
pofed of two long fyllables and two fliort: calcari-
bus, pojfejfory.
19. Choriambus, two fliort fyllables between two
long : nobilitas.
20. Antispastus, two long fyllables between two
fliort: Alexander.
2t. Pjeon 1 ft, one long fyllable and three fliort: tern-
poribus, Ordinaryt inventory t temperament.
22. PiEON 2d, the fgcond fyllable long, and the other
three fliort: rapidity, folemnity, minority, confider-,
edy imprudently, extravagant, refpettfully, accord-
23. Padon 3d, the third fjrllable long and the other
three fliort: animatus, independent, condefcendence,
facerdotal, reimburfetnent, manufacture.
TRY. 6347
24. Pjeon 4th, the laft fyllable long and the other Verfifica-
three fliort: celeritas. tion.
25. Epitritus 1 ft, the firft fyllable fliort and the
other three long : voluptates.
26. Epitritus 2d, the fecond fyllable fliort and the
other three long : pxnitentes.
27. Epitritus 3d, the third fyllable fliort and the
other three long : difcordias.
28. Epitritus 4th, the laft fyllable fliort and the
other three long: fortunatus.
29. A word of five fyllables compofed of a pyrrhi"
chius and daftylus: minijlerial.
30. A word of five fyllables compofed of a trochseus
and daftylus : fmgularity.
3 x. A word of five fyllables compofed of a da&ylus and
trochseus: precipitation, examination.
32. A word of five fyllables, the fecond only long:
fignificancy.
33. A word of fix fyllables compofed of two da&yles:
impetuofity.
34. A word of fix fyllables compofed of a tribrachys
and da&yle: pufillanmity.
END OF THE EIGHTH VOLUME.
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binder will attend to this direction, as pages jjd? to
J574 have by miftake been twice numbered in the print*
ing.
N. B, Errata, Omissions, &c. noticed and fupplied in the APPENDIX at the end of the Work.